This document discusses morality and ethics. It begins by outlining two fundamental questions about morality - "What is morality?" and "What is the meaning of life?". It then defines the norms of morality as following either human nature (proximate norm) or divine nature (ultimate norm). The document goes on to describe several defective moral philosophies, including hedonism, utilitarianism, moral rationalism, moral positivism, moral evolutionism, moral sensism, and communism. It concludes by listing references on ethics and the Philippines.
This document discusses morality and ethics. It begins by outlining two fundamental questions about morality - "What is morality?" and "What is the meaning of life?". It then defines the norms of morality as following either human nature (proximate norm) or divine nature (ultimate norm). The document goes on to describe several defective moral philosophies, including hedonism, utilitarianism, moral rationalism, moral positivism, moral evolutionism, moral sensism, and communism. It concludes by listing references on ethics and the Philippines.
This document discusses morality and ethics. It begins by outlining two fundamental questions about morality - "What is morality?" and "What is the meaning of life?". It then defines the norms of morality as following either human nature (proximate norm) or divine nature (ultimate norm). The document goes on to describe several defective moral philosophies, including hedonism, utilitarianism, moral rationalism, moral positivism, moral evolutionism, moral sensism, and communism. It concludes by listing references on ethics and the Philippines.
This document discusses morality and ethics. It begins by outlining two fundamental questions about morality - "What is morality?" and "What is the meaning of life?". It then defines the norms of morality as following either human nature (proximate norm) or divine nature (ultimate norm). The document goes on to describe several defective moral philosophies, including hedonism, utilitarianism, moral rationalism, moral positivism, moral evolutionism, moral sensism, and communism. It concludes by listing references on ethics and the Philippines.
1. Compare and contrast the two fundamental questions 2. Explain the norms of morality 3. Identify defective moralities
The Two Fundamental Questions
Two important questions are raised: "What is Morality" and "What is the meaning of life?". The first question pertains to the rightness or wrongfulness of an act and what is the basis of the judge concerned. The second is about human existence's summum bonum (ultimate good). What is the very reason why man exists in this world? These are ethical questions that, up to this time, baffled sages and peons alike and remain unanswered. In a nutshell, those two questions are related – Ethics is about morality which is the basis of good, every time we decide on dilemmas using morality, men experience happiness, and that is "good." The more we attain happiness by being good – the closer we are to the Ultimate Good. To sum it up, both questions boil down to two words, "goodness" and "purpose," a thing that is of use is good for it has served its purpose. For example, a politician is good if he has fulfilled his promise to the people after serving his term of office. In doing so by being useful to his constituent, he felt that he lived a worthy life. This will then be a step to reaching his ultimate goal – the ultimate good. A good life will ultimately lead to ultimate happiness.
The Norms of Morality
Rationally speaking, man acts according to his nature, which human nature quantifies as justification as to why an act, good or bad, is performed. In doing so, it conflicts with the higher intelligence endowed to men. Is man basically good? We can say yes but in what context of goodness is a man supposed to follow? Man's morality follows a proximate and ultimate norm, so where does human nature come in? The proximate norm there is to follow human nature, which is the low end of a human being. As mentioned earlier, man has baser tendencies that are human nature equivalent to brutes that may come in the form of stimuli. On the other hand, the ultimate norm is to follow divine nature, making decisions based on morality. For example, the stimulus of hunger based on proximate norm means to eat the food regardless of whether it is for somebody else, spoilt or poisonous. Human nature dictates that man has to satiate his hunger no matter what and may be considered moral if we are to consider human nature. If the man decides to study the situation by not initially grabbing the "opportunity," then he acts in relation to the ultimate norm. However, we are not discarding human nature as a basis of human existence. Man is a social animal which is the nature of man's need for the association. In truth, we can never reach divine status, but we must remember that there is no conflict between the Natural and Eternal Course Module laws (the Law of God). The Natural is patterned after the Eternal Law. Man must adhere to his nature of man, which is using his intellect, unlike human nature, which is only to follow his passions. Defective Norms of Morality Human Nature is a simple foundation of man, but there are philosophies, and they are: 1. Hedonism – this is also known as the Philosophy of Pleasure that pleasure alone is the primary purpose of man's existence. Man indeed desires happiness, but a happy life need not be composed of pleasure alone. True happiness is seeking good, but wallowing in pleasure made man’s life baser than brutes. 2. Utilitarianism – is simply the end of action must be good. If it is not, then the action is unjustified. The word "utility" means that anything that is of use to the agent is moral. There are two types of utilitarianism, and they are individual utilitarianism and social utilitarianism – the first is known as egoism which is the definition given – the agent is the one who will gain. Altruism is the other term for social utilitarianism, but the receiving factor is the society where the agent belongs. 3. Moral Rationalism – states that human reason is the only foundation of morality as postulated by German Philosopher Immanuel Kant which he dubbed as "Categorical Imperative." However, as Kant further explained, we must do good because we ought to be good. He is implying blind obedience. In his philosophy, "autonomy of reason," since reason creates the law, it is "reasonable" for men to obey it without question or ambiguity. The general rule is that everyone thinks the same, for men, are reasonable, so conflict is a remote possibility. 4. Moral Positivism – states that morality is adherence to State Laws as philosophized by the English sage Thomas Hobbes. The State is the foundation of morality since laws are geared toward the common good. An act is moral if he obeys the law and evil if he disobeys it. Compared to Moral Rationalism, where reason is the law, Moral Positivism only has the State Law as its source of morality. 5. Moral Evolutionism – In relation to Sociologist Herbert Spencer, morality, just like evolution, is ever-changing until it reaches its perfect form. Friedrich Nietsche added that man was born with hardly any basis for right and wrong, and their collective lives are a never-ending struggle for change until they reach perfection. 6. Moral Sensism – Contrary to Moral Evolutionism, men are born with a special moral sense (not reason) that is comparable to the five senses. For example, man can easily differentiate noise from music, salty from sweat, and pleasant and unpleasant, which may also serve as a means to moral judgment. 7. Communism - Although this is more of an economic theory, its social implication cannot be denied and is geared toward a classless society. They believed in the philosophy of material dialectics, which means two material things are the only ingredients necessary for change. They deny the existence of God, free will, and immortality, for they do not matter is immaterial. Ergo, anything that will lead to a classless society is good and moral, and anything otherwise is evil and immoral. Ethics 3 Morality
References and Supplementary Materials
Books and Journals 1. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the Filipinos; Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National Book Store Inc. 2. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book Store 3. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book Store
