Updated AE Digital Notes PDF

Digital Notes
COURSE MATERIAL
IV Year B. Tech II- Semester
(2022-2023)
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
R18A0331
Prepared by:
Dr. K. Chandra Sekhar, Associate Professor
Dr. Hussain Valli, Associate Professor
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(Autonomous Institution-UGC, Govt. of India)
Secunderabad-500100,Telangana State, India.
www.mrcet.ac.in
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
CONTENTS
1. Vision, Mission & Quality Policy
2. Pos, PSOs & PEOs
3. Blooms Taxonomy
4. Course Syllabus
5. Lecture Notes (Unit wise)
a. Objectives and outcomes
b. Notes
c. Presentation Material (PPT Slides/ Videos)
d. Industry applications relevant to the concepts covered
e. Question Bank for Assignments
f. Tutorial Questions
6. Previous Question Papers
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VISION
 To establish a pedestal for the integral innovation, team spirit, originality and
competence in the students, expose them to face the global challenges and become
technology leaders of Indian vision of modern society.
MISSION
 To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and
Management.
 To impart holistic education to the students to render them as industry ready
engineers.
 To ensure synchronization of MRCET ideologies with challenging demands of
International Pioneering Organizations.
QUALITY POLICY
 To implement best practices in Teaching and Learning process for both UG and PG
courses meticulously.
 To provide state of art infrastructure and expertise to impart quality education.
 To groom the students to become intellectually creative and professionally

competitive.
 To channelize the activities and tune them in heights of commitment and sincerity,
the requisites to claim the never - ending ladder of SUCCESS year after year.
For more information: www.mrcet.ac.in

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Department of Mechanical Engineering
VISION
To become an innovative knowledge center in mechanical engineering through state-of-

the-art teaching-learning and research practices, promoting creative thinking
professionals.
MISSION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering is dedicated for transforming the students

into highly competent Mechanical engineers to meet the needs of the industry, in a
changing and challenging technical environment, by strongly focusing in the
fundamentals of engineering sciences for achieving excellent results in their professional
pursuits.
Quality Policy
 To pursuit global Standards of excellence in all our endeavors namely teaching,

research and continuing education and to remain accountable in our core and
support functions, through processes of self-evaluation and continuous
improvement.
 To create a midst of excellence for imparting state of art education, industry-

oriented training research in the field of technical education.
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PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11.Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
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12.Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
PSO1 Ability to analyze, design and develop Mechanical systems to solve the
Engineering problems by integrating thermal, design and manufacturing Domains.
PSO2 Ability to succeed in competitive examinations or to pursue higher studies or

research.
PSO3 Ability to apply the learned Mechanical Engineering knowledge for the
Development of society and self.
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
The Program Educational Objectives of the program offered by the department are broadly
listed below:
PEO1: PREPARATION
To provide sound foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering fundamentals

necessary to analyze, formulate and solve engineering problems.
PEO2: CORE COMPETANCE
To provide thorough knowledge in Mechanical Engineering subjects including theoretical

knowledge and practical training for preparing physical models pertaining to Thermodynamics,
Hydraulics, Heat and Mass Transfer, Dynamics of Machinery, Jet Propulsion, Automobile
Engineering, Element Analysis, Production Technology, Mechatronics etc.
PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY
To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the help of
other inter disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.
PEO4: CAREER DEVELOPMENT
To inculcate the habit of lifelong learning for career development through successful completion
of advanced degrees, professional development courses, industrial training etc.
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PEO5: PROFESSIONALISM
To impart technical knowledge, ethical values for professional development of the student to
solve complex problems and to work in multi-disciplinary ambience, whose solutions lead to
significant societal benefits.
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Blooms Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for
their students (learning objectives). The terminology has been updated to include the following
six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning objectives, lessons,
and assessments of a course.
1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐ term
memory.
2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing or implementing.
4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to
one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and
attributing.
5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standard through checking and
critiquing.
6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
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L T/P/D C
IV Year B. Tech, ME-II Sem 3 0 3
(R18A0331) AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
Objectives:
 The objective of this subject is to provide knowledge about various systems involved in
automobile engine.
 Able to learn about different components of IC Engines.
 Different automobile engine systems line diagrams.
UNIT –I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES

Types of automobiles vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and body,
Vehicle aerodynamics (various resistances and moments involved), IC engines components-
functions and materials, variable valve timing (VVT).
UNIT –II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, Electronically
controlled diesel injection system (Unit injector system, Rotary distributor type
and common rail direct injection system), Electronic ignition system (Transistorized coil ignition
system, capacitive discharge ignition system), Turbo chargers (WGT, VGT), Engine emission
control by three way catalytic converter system, Emission norms (Euro and BS).
UNIT –III TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift mechanisms, Over
drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel, torque converter, propeller shaft, slip joints, universal
joints, Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and Torque Tube Drive.
UNIT –IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-Power Steering, Types of Front Axle, Types
of Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems, Antilock Braking System
(ABS), electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and Traction Control.
UNIT –V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol
and Hydrogen in Automobiles- Engine modifications required Performance, Combustion
and Emission Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels - Electric and
Hybrid Vehicles, Fuel Cells.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Jain K.K. and Asthana .R.B, Automobile Engineeri Tata McGraw Hill Publishers, New
Delhi, 2002.
2. Kirpal Singh, Automobile Engineering, Vol 1 & 2, Seventh Edition, Standard Publishers, New
Delhi, 13th Edition 2014.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Ganesan V. Internal Combustion Engines, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2012.
2. Heinz Heisler, Advanced Engine Technology, SAE International Publications USA, 1998.
3. Joseph Heitner, Automotive Mechanics, Second Edition, East-West Press, 1999.
4. Martin W, Stockel and Martin T Stockle , Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals, The Good
heart - Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978.
5. Newton ,Steeds and Garet, Motor Vehicles, Butterworth Publishers,1989.
OUTCOMES:
 The Automotive Engineering program aims to provide practice-oriented education
based on the latest scientific results and methods.
 Which enable students to work independently as automotive engineers.
 Enables to face increasing challenges and standards of global markets.
UNIT I
VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND
ENGINES
Introduction of Automobile or Vehicle:
An Automobile is a self-propelled vehicle which contains the power source for its propulsion
and is used for carrying passengers and goods on the ground, such as car, bus, trucks, etc.,,
Types of Automobile:
The automobiles are classified by the following ways,
1. On the Basis of Load:
 Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV),
 Light transport vehicle (LTV), Light motor vehicle (LMV),
2. On the Basis of Wheels:
 Two wheeler vehicle, for example: Scooter, motorcycle, scooty, etc.
 Three wheeler vehicle, for example : Autorickshaw,
 Three wheeler scooter for handicaps and tempo, etc.
 Four wheeler vehicle, for example: Car, jeep, trucks, buses, etc.
 Six wheeler vehicle, for example: Big trucks with two gear axles.
3. On the basis of Fuel Used:
 Petrol vehicle, e.g. motorcycle, scooter, cars, etc.
 Diesel vehicle, e.g. trucks, buses, etc.
 Electric vehicle which use battery to drive.
 Steam vehicle, e.g. an engine which uses steam engine.
 Gas vehicle, e.g. LPG and CNG vehicles, where LPG is liquefied
4. On the basis of body style:
 Sedan Hatchback car.
 Coupe car Station wagon Convertible.
 Van Special purpose vehicle, e.g. ambulance, milk van, etc.
5. On the basis of Transmission:
 Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, e.g. car with 5 gears.

 Semi-automatic
 Automatic : In automatic transmission, gears are not required to be
changed manually.
6. On the basis of Drive:
 Left hand drive
 Right hand drive
7. On the basis of Driving Axle
 Front wheel drive
 Rear wheel drive
 All wheel drive
8. Position of Engine:
 Engine in Front - Most of the vehicles have engine in the front. Example : most
of the cars,
 Engine in the Rear Side Very few vehicles have engine located in the rear.
Example : Nano car.
Vehicle construction and Components;
The main components of an automobile refer to the following components;
 Frame,
 Chassis,
 Body,
 Power unit,
 Transmission system.
An automobile is made up of mainly two units, these are Chassis and Body.
―Frame‖ + ―Base components‖ = ―Chassis‖
―Chassis‖ + ―Body‖ = Vehicle
 Chassis include the following

Springs and Shock absorbers
Steering System
Brakes
Frame
Tyres and Wheels
 Transmission Units includes
Clutches
Gear box
Universal Joint
Final Drive
Axle and Differential
 Engine Units Includes  Electrical System Includes
Full System Battery
Ignition System Dynamometre
Lubricating System Alternators
Cooling system Iginition Starting and Lighting
Frame:
The frame is the skeleton of the vehicle. It serves as a main foundation and base for
alignment for the chassis.
Types;
 Conventional frame,
 Semi integral frame;
 Integral or untidiest frame.
Conventional Frame
Fig.1 Cross section of ladder chassis Fig. 1(a) Ladder Chassis
Intergal Frame
 In this type of construction, there is no frame. It is also called unitized frame-body construction.
 All the assembly units are attached to the body and all the functions of the frame carried out by the body
itself.
 Here the body shell and underbody are welded into single unit. The underbody is made of floor plates and
channel and box sections welded into single unit. This assembly replaces the frame.
 This frame is used now days in most of the cars. Due to elimination of long frame it is cheaper and due to
less weight most economical also.
 The main disadvantage is repairing

Fig.2 Integral Frame
Semi Integral Frame

• In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on which engine gear box and front suspension is
mounted.
• In this case the rubber mountings used in conventional frame between frame and suspension are replaced by
more stiff mountings.
• Because of this some of the vehicle load is shared by the frame also. This type of frame is heavier in
construction.
• It has the advantage when the vehicle is met with accident the front frame can be taken easily to replace the
damaged chassis frame.
• This type of frame is used in some of the European and American cars.
Fig.3 Semi Integral Frame

Chassis;
If the frame contains the base components its called as chassis. The components are
like Engine, radiator, clutch, gearbox, silencer, road wheels, fuel tank, wirings, differential
units, etc..,
FUNCTIONS OF A CHASSIS
1. Supports or bears the load of the vehicle body.
2. Provide the space and mounting location for various aggregates of vehicle.
3. Supports the weight of various systems of the vehicle such
as engine, transmission etc.
4. Supports a load of passengers as well as the luggage.
5. Withstands the stresses arising due to bad road conditions.
6. Withstands stresses during braking and acceleration of the vehicle.
Types of Chassis
i. Ladder Chassis
ii. Tubular Chassis
iii. Monocoque Chassis
Ladder Chassis
The ladder-frame chassis is one of the oldest chassis types. This chassis is characterised by
two long heavy beams that are supported by two smaller ones. Its quality of being easily
manufactured not only made it contemporarily popular but also eased the way for its mass
production. Since ladder frame chassis is significantly heavy it‘s usually used for vehicles that
transport heavy material.
Benefits
 Easy to manufacture and easy assembling of the car over it.·

 Heavy and strong tensile strength.
Drawbacks
 Poor cornering ability due to weak torsional rigidity

 Its heaviness doesn‘t make it suitable for performance cars and hatchbacks.
Fig.4 Ladder chassis frame layout
Tubular Chassis
• Tubular space frame chassis employs dozens of circular-section tubes (some may use
square-section tubes for easier connection to the body panels, though circular section
provides the maximum strength), position in different directions to provide mechanical
strength against forces from anywhere.
• This type of chassis is mostly used while manufacturing racing cars due to the enhanced
safety they offer.
Benefits
• Its crafting allows better contact between the half axle and ground making it preferable for
off-roading.
• A cylindrical tube covering the driveshaft saves it from any damage while off-roading.
• The structure‘s torsional toughness is relatively more supple than ladder chassis.
Drawbacks
• In case the driveshaft fails, the whole chassis needs to be dismantled as the driveshaft is
covered with the cylindrical tube of the chassis.
• The manufacture of backbone chassis is costly and increases the overall cost of the car.
Fig.5 Tubular Chassis

Monocoque Chassis
• The construction of a monocoque chassis is quite simple in the sense that the entire
structure is one big construction.
• All components or mechanical parts constitute the frame, foundation and body of the car.
• The engine, gearbox, suspension, seats and exterior body panels are simply attached to the
construction. This means that the overall construction is very lightweight and compact.
There is quite a lot of safety element to it.
• The applications include all sorts of everyday vehicles ranging from small and compact
hatchbacks to large and heavy SUVs. It must be noted that modern SUVs are using
monocoque construction quite a bit which was not always the case in the past
Benefits
• It‘s safer than both the other chassis due to its cage-like construction.
• The chassis is easy to repair as well.
• It has superior torsional rigidity.
Drawbacks
• The chassis is obviously heavy as it‘s both the frame and chassis as one single entity.
• Producing it in small quantities is not financially feasible and thus it cannot be used for cars that are
not mass-produced.
Body:
• Body is the super-structure for all vehicles. It may either be constructed separately and bolted to the
chassis or manufactured integral with the chassis (i.e. Frameless construction).
• The chassis and the body make the complete vehicle.
• A body consists of windows and doors, engine cover, roof, luggage cover etc. The electrical system in the
body is connected to the chassis electrical units so that the battery and the generator/alternator can furnish
the required electrical energy to the system.
Types;
 Car, Truck, Tractor, Delivery Van, Ambulance, jeep, Bus, etc..,
Fig.6. Body of various vechiles

Description of an Automobile
 Type: Motor Cycle, Car, Bus, truck, etc.,
 Capacity: Tonnage and no. of seats
 Make: Manufacturer of the vehicle and Engine Capacity
 Drive: Left hand Drive or Right hand Drive, 2, 4, 6 wheel drive
 Model: Year of Manufacturing
Layouts of an Automobile
The different layouts of an automobile are as follows
• Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive
• Front Engine Front Wheel Drive
• Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive
• Four Wheel Drive (All Wheel Drive)
1. Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive
Fig.7 layout of Front engine rear wheel drive

In this chassis layout, the engine is fitted at the front.
•The engine, clutch and gear box are fitted at front while drive to the rear axle is given with the help of propeller
shaft
•This chassis layout is one of the oldest and still remain popular for heavy commercial vehicle
Advantages
1. The weight distribution is reasonably balanced between the front and rear wheels, which gives good handling
characteristics.
2. Due to engine and radiator are at front , the forward facing radiator takes full benefit of the natural air stream ,
created by vehicle‘s movement .hence reduce the power losses for a large fan.
3. The weight of vehicle is shifted to rear driving wheels during acceleration and on steeps resulting in better
road grip, hence, there are less chances of wheel slipping .
4. Since the front wheel are used only to steer the vehicle, hence steering mechanism become simple in design
and easy to operate.
5. Accessibility to various components like engine , gear box and rear axle is better in comparison to outer
layout
6. Large luggage space is available at back of vehicle which providing increased carrying capacity as well as
space for easy body extension.
Dis Advantages
1. During the breaking ,weight of vehicle is fitted to front wheels and weight on rear wheels decreased , results
in decreased breaking effort developed
2. It required long propeller shaft and differential at rear, therefore height of floor area is increased .Also, due to
long propeller shaft transmission problems and weight are increased.
3. Due to less weight on driving rear wheels, there is less adhesion on road and result in less holding capacity
.therefore there is less chance of skidding on slippery surface.
2. Front Engine Front Wheel Drive
Fig.8 layout of Front engine Front wheel drive
1. In this type of chassis layout the engine is fitted at front and drive is also given to the front wheel .No
propeller shaft is used in this layout and differential are included in the same assembly.
2. This layout provides optimum body luggage space and flat floor line. However , due to all assemblies
at front ,it make very difficult to accommodate the steering mechanism.
Advantages
1. Due to more weight placed on driving front wheel, the vehicle has more adhesion on road. Hence
good road holding capacity even on the curves and slippery roads.
2. This layout provides low floor, since no propeller shaft and the differential placed at front instead of
rear.
3. The clutch, gearbox, and final drive usually made as one unit thereby coast of vehicle are reducing.
4. The wheel does not take to sharply turn into the curve due to tendency of understeering. The
understeer conditions generally preferred by many drivers are promoted by this type of chassis.
5. Either a transverse or longitudinal engine position can be used. In case of transverse mounted engine,
as the engine crankshaft and wheels already rotate in the parallel planes, therefore, they do not
require their drive to be turned through 90O as in case of conventional longitudinally mounted
engines.
Dis Advantages
1. The weight on the driving front wheels is reduced during acceleration and climbing of steep gradient
due to weight of the vehicle shifting to the rear wheels. Hence, result in decreased tractive effort
which makes slippery gradient
2. The steering mechanism become more complicated due to accommodation of engine, clutch, gearbox
& final drive all at front of vehicle.
3. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive
Fig.9 layout of Reart engine rear wheel drive
In this chassis layout engine is fitted at the back and drive is also given to rear wheel
•This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft because engine is mounted near the driven wheel.
•The passenger are kept away from inconveniences like noise, heat and fumes because engine at back of vehicle
Advantages
1. Because of high weight on driving axle, it provides excellent traction and grip on steep hills
2. The rear floor can be made flat because of absence of propeller shaft.
3. The clutch, gearbox, and final drive usually made as one unit thereby coast of vehicle are reducing.
4. The driver cabin is well isolated from noise
5. The front body can be designed with steam lining and stylish.
Dis Advantages
1. Natural air cooling of the engine is not possible, hence it requires powerful radiator fan at rear.
2. The clutch and gear system mechanism is long and complex
3. Because of high weight concentration at rear, the vehicle has a tendency to over steer while taking
harp turns
4. Four Wheel Drive (All wheel Drive)
Fig.10 layout of All wheel drive

o 4X2 = 4 Wheel vehicle and 2 Wheels can receive torque.
o 4X4 = 4 Wheel vehicle and all 4 Wheels can receive torque.
o E.g. are Jeeps, SUVs (Sports Utility Vehicle), etc.
o Games derived its name from 4WD only.
o Used mostly in defense services or where graveled or slick roads are present.
o To get enough “TRACTION” between wheels and road surfaces.
o To move vehicle on slick surfaces, dirt, slippery roads, sand roads and snowy,
muddy roads etc.
Advantages
 Increased Traction is obtained in slippery surfaces.
 More balanced axle load distribution.
 Even tire wear
Dis Advantages
 Weight of vehicle is increased.
 Cost of the vehicle is increased.
 Maximum speed of vehicle is reduced.
 Less fuel economy than 2WD
Vehicle Aero Dynamics

The term ―Aero‖ means air, ―Dynamic‖ means motion. Therefore, aerodynamic is the study of effects of the wind on
the vehicle in motion.
When the vehicle is moving the air flow is dependent on the two factors.
• Vehicle speed.
• Ambient wind.
Advantages of Aerodynamics
• More Fuel Efficiency
• Higher Speeds
• Good Aesthetic and Stylish Appearance
• More Stability of car at high Speed
• Reduce Noise Level
Resistance of an Automobile
 A moving vehicle is opposed by various forces, known as resistance
 For moving the vehicle, the driving force (F) should be equal to the sum of all resistance forces applied
on it. F= Ra+Rr+Rg
 When ‗F‘ exceeds the sum of all resistance forces, vechile accelarate
 When ‗F‘ less than the sum of all resistance forces, vechile deaccelarate
Air Resistance (Ra): This is the resistance offered by air to the movement of a vehicle. The air resistance has
an influence on the performance, ride and stability of the vehicle and depends upon the size and shape of the
body of the vehicle, its speed and the wind velocity. The last term should be taken into account when
indicated, otherwise it can be neglected. Hence in general, air resistance,
Rolling Resistance (Rr): The magnitude of rolling resistance depends mainly on

• the nature of road surface,
• the types of tyre viz. pneumatic or solid rubber type,
• the weight of the vehicle, and
• the speed of the vehicle
Gradient Resistance (Rg): The resistance due to steepness of the road gradient. It depends upon the weight of the vehicle
and road gradient. It does not depend upon vehicle speed.
MOMENTS DUE TO FORCES: Moments created by forces acting on the vehicle

Rolling Moment – Created by cross wind about x-axis
Pitching moment – Created by drag or lift force about y-axis and reduces the traction in the wheels
Yawing moment- Created by cross wind about z-axis
Fig.11 Moments of Forces acting on the Body
Components of an Engine:
Even though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, t here are hundreds of
components that have to perform their functions satisfactorily to produce output power. There are two
types of engines, viz., spark ignition (S1) and compression-ignition (CI) engine. Let us now go through
the important engine components and the nomenclature associated with an engine.
Terms connected with I.C. engines;
Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore
Stroke: The linear distance along the cylinder axis between two limiting position s is called
stroke.
Top Dead Center ( T.D.C.) : the top most position of the piston towards cover end side of
the cylinder is called T.D.C.
Bottom dead Center (B.D.C.) : The lowest position of the piston towards the crank end side
of the cylinder is called B.D.C.
Clearance Volume: The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston , when
the piston is at top dead center , is called the clearance volume.
Swept Volume: The volume swept through by the piston in moving between T.D.C. and B.D.C, is called
swept volume or piston displacement.
Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of Total cylinder volume to clearance volume.

Definition of ‘Engine’
An engine is a device, which transforms one form of energy into another form. Normally,
most of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are
called ‗heat engines‘.
Fig.12 parts of an I.C. Engine
Engine Components
The major components of the engine and their functions are briefly described below.
Cylinder Block:
The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various components. The cylinder of a
multi cylinder engine is cast as a single unit, called cylinder block. The cylinder head is mounted
on the cylinder block.
The cylinder head and cylinder block are provided with water jackets in the case of water- cooling
with cooling fins in the case of air-cooling. Cylinder head gasket is incorporated between the
cylinder block and cylinder head. The cylinder head is held tight to the cylinder block by number
of bolts or studs. The bottom portion of the cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called
crankcase, which becomes a sump for lubricating oil is fastened to the bottom of the crankcase.
The inner surface of the cylinder block, which is machined and finished accurately to cylindrical
shape, is called bore or face.

Cylinder
As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating
motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation of the engine is filled
with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic processes. The cylinder is
supported in the cylinder block.
Piston
It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of the
combustion system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas-tight space with the
piston rings and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the output
shaft.
Combustion Chamber
The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the cylinder head and the piston top during
the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and the
consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part of the
cylinder.
Inlet Manifold
The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which air
or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet manifold.
Gudgeon Pin
It forms the link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.
Exhaust Manifold
The pipe that connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and through which
the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.
Inlet and Exhaust Valves
Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on the cylinder
head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the cylinder (inlet valve)
and for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve) from the cylinder.
Connecting Rod
It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from the piston to the
crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod are called as small end and the big end. Small end
is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the crankshaft by
crankpin.
Crankshaft
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output shaft. In
the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there is pair of crank arms and balance weights. The
balance weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system. The
crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase.
Piston Rings
Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between the piston and the
cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases
Camshaft
The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of the two valves. The
associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the
drive to the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears.
Cams
These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open the
valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.
Fly Wheel
The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the engine
fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform
torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the output shaft and this wheel is called
the flywheel.
Basic Parts of the Gasoline Engine:
Basic Parts of the Gasoline Engine are listed below;

 Cylinder block
 Piston
 Piston rings
 Piston pin
 Connecting rod
 Crankshaft
 Cylinder head
 Intake valve
 Exhaust valve
 Camshaft
 Timing gears
 Spark plug
Cylinder Block:
Cylinder Block Basic frame of gasoline engine. Contains the cylinder.
Piston:
Piston A sliding plug that harnesses the force of the burning gases in the cylinder.
Piston Rings:
Piston rings seal the compression gases above the piston keep the oil below the piston rings.
Piston Pins:
Piston Pins Also known as the wrist pin, it connects the piston to the small end of the connecting
rod. It transfers the force and allows the rod to swing back and forth.
Connecting Rod:
Connecting Rod Connects the piston and piston pin to the crankshaft.
Crankshaft:
Crankshaft Along the the piston pin and connecting rod it converts the up and down motion
(reciprocating) of the engine to spinning (rotary) motion.
Flywheel:
Flywheel Carries the inertia when there is no power stroke.
Cylinder Head:
Cylinder Head Forms the top of the combustion chamber. Contains the valves, the passageways
for the fuel mixture to move in and out of the engine.
Intake and Exhaust Valves:
Intake and Exhaust Valves Doorway that lets the gases in and out of the engine.
Camshaft:
Camshaft Through the use of an eccentric the cam lobes push the valves open. The valve springs
close them.
Timing Gears:
Timing Gears These gears drive the camshaft from the crankshaft.
Variable Valve Timing

It is inherent to the operation of internal combustion engines to possess inlet and exhaust valves
(4-stroke) or ports (2-stroke) for proper functioning. The idea here is to entrap the incoming
fresh charge in a well-designed combustion chamber and then initiate ignition in order to
release and convert the stored fuel chemical energy into the thermal energy. Subsequent to this
release of energy, a mechanical system, such as piston-connecting-rod-crankshaft, is needed for
conversion of the thermal energy into the mechanical energy of the crankshaft. The incoming
fresh charge usually consists of fuel, air, and possibly exhaust gas recalculated (EGR) chemical
species. EGR is used for nitric oxide (NOX) emission control purposes. In this scenario, the
roles that valves, particularly the intake valves, play are critical for the engine‘s efficient
operation, optimum performance, and minimization of pollutants emission. In this tutorial,
these aspects are addressed in a concise manner.
Historically speaking, many different types of valves and valve actuation mechanisms have
been tried in the past. Most have disappeared to the point that at present time nearly all 4-stroke
engines use poppet valves opened by a cam and closed by a spring. A typical valve timing for a
4-stroke engine is shown in Fig. 1. At wide open throttle operation of an SI engine, the exhaust
gases rushing out of the exhaust valve can assist pulling fresh charge into the cylinder (moving
the intake manifold fresh charge even before the piston has moved appreciably), therefore
justifying opening of the intake valve (IVO) even before TDC, see Fig. 1. At part load
operation, however, situation is a bit more complex and the below-atmospheric pressure created
by the partially open throttle valve can become less than the chamber pressure at the time when
intake valve is opened. This causes backflow of burned gases from the cylinder into the intake
system during the valve overlap period. The overlap period is the time during which both intake
and exhaust valves are open (intake is being opened and exhaust being closed). Too early IVO
will also cause fresh charge to be lost out of the exhaust, for example, NASCAR engines.
At the closing, it is customary to delay the IVC beyond the BDC to take advantage of the
inertia of the fresh charge rushing into the engine, see Fig. 1. This will increase what is referred
to as the ―volumetric efficiency‖ of the engine. The volumetric efficiency indicates the
breathing ability of the engine and is defined as the actual mass of the fresh air trapped in the
cylinder (after valves are closed) divided by the theoretical mass of air calculated based on the
piston displacement volume. The higher the volumetric efficiency, the higher the engine ability
to trap fresh air, providing opportunity for combustion of a more mass of fuel on account of a
more entrapped oxygen, thereby producing higher power for the same piston displacement.
Furthermore, the engine brake power rises and then falls off with speed for a number of
reasons: mainly the fall in volumetric efficiency, and the fall in mechanical efficiency. The
delayed closure of the intake valve for achieving higher volumetric efficiency usually works
best at higher engine speeds due to sufficiently high inertia of the incoming fresh charge. Note
that the IVO does also affect the volumetric efficiency through the magnitude of the backflow
into the intake system mentioned earlier.
In engines, even though attempts are made to thoroughly scavenge the chamber from burned
gases, there is always a certain amount of burned gases left to be mixed with the incoming fresh
charge. As far as the combustion (really, flame burning rate) is concerned, the amount of this
residual burned gases left from the previous cycle combustion is not desirable. The higher the
quantity of residual burned gases, the slower the flame mass burning rate. It is known that
increases in the valve overlap period will elevate the fraction of the residual gases in the
entrapped charge. Also, past research indicates that the amount of the residual gases correlates
inversely with the engine load (i.e. throttle valve position in SI engines), being maximum at
idle condition. This is the primary reason for engine stability problems at idle condition. It
should therefore be clear that the valve overlap period can affect engine stability and hence
efficiency. On the positive side, this residual gases is useful to lower the burned gases
temperature after combustion is complete, reducing the NOX emissions. Figure 2 shows effects
of the valve overlap period on emissions of NOX and hydrocarbon (HC) at two different engine
loads.
In summary, adjustments in valve timing (usually achieved by camshaft phasing) affect the
raw emissions, engine torque/power, and idle stability. However, researchers have shown
benefits in tailoring valve lift profile, primarily to achieve higher efficiency and power,
although emission benefits were also seen. Combination of adjustments in valve timing and
changes in valve lift are being used to influence both emission levels and engine efficiency
and, hence, fuel economy. Finally, potential of SI engine load control is being considered
through variable lift designs. Research has shown that improvements in fuel economy and
emission can be achieved through an optimized combination of variable valve timing and lift,
see Fig. 3. To conclude, the adjustment of the valve timing in spark-ignited (SI) engines is
dictated by a set of conflicting targets and goals. These goals cannot be achieved with fixed
valve timing. Systems that provide variable timing and lift have recently found widespread use
in engine design.
Figure 13. Indicates positions of intake and exhaust valves openings and closures
with respect to the top-dead and bottom-dead centers, TDC and BDC
respectively. TDC and BDC indicate the uppermost and lowermost positions of
the piston top on the diagram. The angles shown are crankshaft angles. EVO and
EVC are exhaust valve opening and closures angles.
Figure 1 4 . Effects of valve overlap on emission of pollutants at 2000 rpm and

two different engine loads. HC and NOX are hydrocarbon and nitric oxides
emissions.
UNIT II
ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
UNIT -II
ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
Electronic Controlled Gasoline (Petrol) Injection System (ECGIS)

The electronic Fuel injector system is consists of three different systems for the basic
operation of ECGIS
1. Fuel Delivery System
2. Air Induction system
3. Electronic Control System
Fuel delivery system:
• The Fuel delivery system consists of Fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, Fuel
delivery pipe, fuel injector, fuel pressure regulator and fuel return pipe
• Fuel is delivered from the tank to the injector by means of an electric fuel pump.
The pump is typically located in or near to the tank. Contaminants are filtered out
by a high capacity in line fuel filter.
• Fuel is maintained at a constant pressure by means of a fuel pressure regulator.
Any fuel which is not delivered to the intake manifold by the injector is returned
to the tank through a fuel return pipe.
Air induction system:
• The air induction system consists of the air cleaner, air flow metre, throttle valve,
air intake chamber, intake manifold runner and intake valve.
• When the throttle valve is opened, air flows through the air cleaner, through the
air flow meter (on L type system), pas the throttle valve and through a well-tuned
intake manifold runner to the intake valve.
• Air delivered to the engine is a function of driver demand. As the throttle valve is
opened firther, more air is allowed to enter the engine cylinders.
Electronic control System (ECS):
• The ECS consists of various engine sensors, Electronic control unit, Fuel injector
assemblies and related wiring.
• The ECS determines precisely how much fuel needs to be delivered by the
injector by monitoring the engine sensors.
• The ECS turns the injector for a precise amount of time, referred to as injection
pulse width or injection duration, to deliver fuel so that proper air/fuel ratio is
delivered to the engine.
Basic Operation of ECGIS
• Air enters the engine through the air induction system where it is measured by the air
flow meter. As the air flows into the cylinder, fuel is mixed into the air by the fuel
injector.
• Fuel injector is arranged in the intake manifold behind each intake valve. The injector
is electrical solenoids which are operated by the ECU.
• The ECU pulses the injector by switching the injector ground circuit on and off.
• When the injector is turned on, it opens, spraying atomized fuel at the back side of the
intake valve.
• As the Fuel is sprayed into the intake air stream, it mixes with the incoming air and
vaporizes due to the low pressures in the intake manifold. The ECU signals the
injector to deliver just enough fuel to achieve an ideal air/fuel ratio of 14.7:1, often
referred to as stoichiometric ratio.
• The precise amount of fuel delivered to the engine is a function of ECU control. The
ECU determines the basic injection quantity based upon measured intake air volume
and engine rpm.
• Depending on engine operating conditions, injection quantity will vary. The ECU
monitors variables such as coolant temperature, engine speed, throttle angle and
exhaust oxygen content and makes injection corrections which determine final
injection quantity.
Fig.1 Electronic control gasoline injection system- L-Jetronic with air flow meter
Advantages of Electronic Controlled Gasoline (Petrol) Injection System
• Uniform Fuel/Air mixture distribution
• High Accurate Fuel/Air Ration Control
• Superior Throttle Response and Control
• Excellent Fuel Economy
• Improved Cold engine Start ability
• Simple Mechanics and Reduced Adjustment Sensitivity.
Single Point Injector System

• It has only one injector that injects the fuel before entering into the intake manifold.
• In this system, the fuel is mixed with fuel before the throttle valve. The single-point fuel
injection system is also known as throttle body injection.
• The amount of fuel to be injected is decided by the engine control unit. The engine control
unit takes the input from different sensors and decides the amount of fuel to be supplied for
the injection.
• The fuel injector sprays the fuel for mixing with the flow of air and this air-fuel mixture
enters the intake manifold.
The intake manifold further distributes the mixture to all cylinders.
Advantages
• Simple construction.
• Accurate fuel supply (in comparison with carburetor).
• Easy maintenance.
• It uses only a single injector.
• Reliable operation
Dis Advantages
• Ununiform fuel supply to all cylinders.
• Less efficient.
• It wets the intake manifold by forming a layer of fuel on the intake manifold.
• Lower fuel economy.
Multi Point Fuel Injection System

• In multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) technology, every cylinder in the combustion chamber of the
engine is given an injector at the front of their inlet valves (outside the intake port), which is why
it‘s also called ‗Port Injection‘.
• Every injector sprays fuel at the same time and each cylinder gets a more precise volume of fuel,
with less possibility of fuel condensation outside the intake manifold. While MPFI has the
advantage of lower fuel wastage as compared to TBI, since the fuel is sprayed at the same time in
all the cylinders, it doesn‘t get properly synced with the rotation of all the pistons. This results in
the fuel idling in the engine and port for as long as 150 milliseconds. All the same, from the
performance point of view, the MPFIs function much better as compared to TBIs.
Advantages
• The system is reliable
• It reduces the difference in power that each cylinder creates.
• It increases the fuel efficiency of an engine
• Better atomization of fuel
• MPFI system have fewer emissions
• Better utilization and distribution of fuel within an engine.
• Better acceleration and deacceleration of engine
• It improves the cold start properties of the engine
• Vibrations in reduce in the engine
• Improves durability and functionality of an engine
Dis Advantages
• Misfiring might occur sometimes
• It requires regular inspection of fuel injectors
• The system is expensive compared to conventional systems.
• Repairing fuel injector can be tedious compared to carburetors
• The system usually has a shorter life.
• ECU failure could occur suddenly.
• A hot engine might be difficult to start due to possible vapor lock in the steel fuel lines above the
engine.
Electronically Controlled Diesel Injection System
The function of the diesel fuel system is to inject a precise amount of atomized and pressurized fuel
into each engine cylinder at the proper time. Combustion in a diesel engine occurs when this rush of
fuel is mixed with hot compressed air.
Parts of Diesel Injection System
• Fuel Tank: There are many different types and shapes of fuel tanks. Each size and shape is
designed for a specific purpose. The fuel tank must be capable of storing enough fuel to operate
the engine for a reasonable length of time. The tank must be closed to prevent contamination by
foreign objects. It must also be vented to allow air to enter, replacing any fuel demanded by the
engine. Three other tank openings are required--one to fill, one to discharge, and one to drain.
• Fuel Lines: There are three types of diesel fuel lines. These include heavyweight lines for the
high pressures found between the injection pump and the injectors, medium weight lines for the
light or medium fuel pressures found between the fuel tank and injection pump, and lightweight
lines where there is little or no pressure.
• Fuel Filters: Diesel fuel must be filtered not once, but several times in most systems. A typical
system might have three stages of progressive filters--a filter screen at the tank or transfer pump, a
primary fuel filter, and a secondary fuel filter. In series filters, all the fuel goes through one filter
and then through the other. In parallel filters, part of the fuel goes through each filter.
• Fuel Transfer Pump: Simple fuel systems use gravity or air pressure to get fuel from the tank to
the injection pump. On modern high-speed diesel engines, a fuel transfer pump is normally used.
This pump, driven by the engine, supplies fuel automatically to the diesel injection system. The
pump often has a hand primer lever for bleeding air from the system. Modern injection pumps are
almost all jerk pumps that use the plunger and cam method of fuel injection.
• Fuel Injection Systems: There are four primary systems for injecting fuel:
1. Individual pump and injector for each cylinder
2. Combined pump and injector for each cylinder (unit injector type)
3. One pump serving injectors for several cylinders (distributor type)
4. Pumps in a common housing with injectors for each cylinder (common rail system)
• The common rail system is rapidly gaining popularity for on-road applications. The in-line and
distributor types are used on off-road vehicles and industrial machines.
• Fuel Injector: Diesel fuel injectors are arguably the most important fuel system component. The
job of the injectors is to deliver a precise amount of atomized and pressurized fuel into each
cylinder. Highly atomized, pressurized fuel distributed evenly throughout the cylinder results in
increased power and fuel economy, decreased engine noise, and smoother operation.
Classification of Diesel Injector System
Air Injection system

Figure: Air Injection system
Advantages:
1. It provides good atomization and distribution of fuel
2. Fuel pump needs to develop less pressure.
Dis Advantages:
1. It requires high multi stage compressor.
2. Air Compressor needs extra maintenance.
Solid or Airless Injection System
Unit Injector System

• Fill phase: The constant stroke pump element on the way up draws fuel from the supply duct in to
the chamber, and as long as electric solenoid valve remains de-energized fuel line is open.
• Spill phase: The pump element is on the way down, and as long as solenoid valve remains de-
energized the fuel line is open and fuel flows in through into the return duct.
• Injection phase: The pump element is still on the way down, the solenoid is now energized and
fuel line is now closed. The fuel cannot pass back into return duct, and is now compressed by the
plunger until pressure exceeds specific "opening" pressure, and the injector nozzle needle lifts,
allowing fuel to be injected into the combustion chamber.
• Pressure reduction phase: The plunger is still on its way down, the engine ECU de-energizes the
solenoid when required quantity of fuel is delivered, the fuel valve opens, fuel can flow back into
return duct, causing pressure drop, which in turn causes the injector nozzle needle to shut, hence
no more fuel is injected.
Figure: Unit Injector system

Individual Pump and injector (or) Jerk Pump System
• In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector.
• Separate metering and compression pump is provided for each cylinder.
• In high pressure pump , plunger is actuated by a cam & produces the fuel pressure necessary to
open the injector valve at the correct time .
• The amount of fuel injected depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.
Figure: Individual pump and injector or Jerk Pump System
Distributor System
• In this system the pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters and times it.
• The fuel pump after metering the required amount of fuel supplies it to a rotating distributor at the
correct time for supply to each cylinder.
• The number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump is equal to the number of cylinders used in
this system.
• Since there is only one metering element, a uniform distribution is automatically ensured.
Figure: Distributor system

Common Rail Injector System
Figure: Common rail injector system

• In this system HP pumps supplies fuel, under high pressure, to a header. High pressure in the
header forces the fuel to each nozzles located in the cylinders of this system.
• At that time, a mechanically operated valve allows the fuel to enter the proper cylinder through
the nozzle.
• By varying the length of the push rod stroke the amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated.
Advantages
(i) It delivers 25 % more power and torque than the normal direct injection engine.
(ii) Initial cost is low.
(iii) Superior pick up is possible.
(iv) It maintains lower levels of noise and vibration.
(v) Higher mileage is obtained.
(vi) Emissions are low.
(vii) Fuel consumption is less.
(viii) Improved performance is obtained.
Dis Advantages
(i)Many parts involve the complicated design.
(ii) Production cost is high.
(iii) High degree of engine maintenance is required.
Electronic Ignition System

• An electronic ignition system is a type of ignition system that works electronic circuits, usually by
transistors. The transistors are controlled by sensors to generate electric pulses which then
generate a high voltage spark that can burn the lean mixture and provide a better economy and
lower emission.
• The electronic ignition system is vastly used in aircraft engines, bikes, motorcycles, and cars as it
performs the same purpose as other types of ignition systems on them.
• The function of an electronic ignition system is remaining the same as it produces a high voltage
spark to the spark plug so that the fuel-air mixture can be burn or ignite. Because sensors are used
in the system, it improves reliability and mileage and decreases emission.
Components of Electronic Ignition System
• Battery
• Ignition Switch
• Electronic Control Module
• Armature
• Ignition Coil
• Distributor
• Spark Plug
Working Principle of Electronic Ignition system
• When switching on the ignition switch, just after that battery starts and it supplies current to the
system.
• Current passes through the ignition switch and move toward the ignition coil on the system then,
start passing through the primary winding of the coil.
• As the current passes through the primary coil, the pick-up coil got activated which is in the
armature. It receives current as a voltage on the pick-up. Just after receiving voltage, the reluctor
starts rotating which consists of the tooth.
• When the tooth comes in front of the pick-up coil exactly at the same time the pick-up coil starts
sending a signal to the electronic control module.
• After receiving a voltage signal, it stops the current supply from the battery up to the primary coil.
When the tooth deviates from the point, it senses the change in voltage, and then again it sends a
signal of change in voltage to the electronic control module.
• We all know that the electronic control system is already a programmed system, so exactly after
sending a signal of change in voltage it again starts supplying the current in the primary winding.
• Because of this continuous make and break of the current circuit, it creates a magnetic field inside
the ignition coil because of that; the secondary winding emf is induced.
• This emf increases voltage up to 50000 V. The voltage is supplied to the distributor.
• It consists of a rotating rotor and distributor points, which is programmed as per the ignition.
When there is a jump of voltage between the air gap of the rotator and the distributor of high
voltage, after that it reaches to spark plug through high tension wire.
• Spark is generated because of the voltage difference between the central electrode and the ground
electrode because the combustion is possible in air-fuel.
Application of Electronic Ignition System:
• The electronic ignition system has a lot of applications in the 21st century.
• It is mostly used in modern and hyper cars.
• It is mostly used in Audi, Mahindra XUV, KTM bikes, Ducati, and many more.
• It is also used in aircraft engines.
Advantages
• These are low maintenance systems as compared to others like Battery Ignition System, Glow
plug ignition system, and Magneto Ignition System.
• It has no moving parts because it is controlled by the electronic control unit(ECV).
• Emission is less as compared to other means because this system is environmentally friendly.
• It increases the efficiency of the engine and also it is fuel-efficient.
• It is more accurate as compared to the magneto system.
• The vehicles having this system have a long life and also reliable.
Dis Advantages
 The cost of the system is very expensive
Transistorised Coil Ignition System
Figure: Transistorised Coil Ignition System

Components of Transistorised Coil Ignition System
• Battery
• Ignition Switch
• Ignition Coil
• Transistor
• Collector
• Emitter
• Blast resister
• Contact breaker
• Distributor
• Spark Plug
Working Principle of Transistorised Coil Ignition System
• The cam in the distributor is rotated by the engine. It opens and closes the contact breaker points.
When the contact breaker points are closed:
1.A small current flows in the base circuit of the transistor.
2.A large current flows in the emitter or collector circuit of the transistor and the primary winding of the
Ignition coil due to the normal transistor action.
3. A magnetic field is set up in the primary winding of the coil.
When the contact breaker points are Open :
1. The current flow in the base circuit is stopped.
2. The primary current and the magnetic field in the coil collapse suddenly due to immediate reverting of
the transistor to the non-conductive state.
3. It produces a high voltage in the secondary circuit.
4. This high voltage is directed to the respective spark plugs through tho rotor of the distributor.
5. This high voltage produces a spark when it is tried to jump the spark plug gap. It ignites air-fuel
mixture in the cylinder.
Advantages
• It increases the life of contact breaker points.
• It gives high ignition voltages.
• It gives longer duration of spark .
• It has very accurate control of timing.
• It needs less maintenance.
Dis Advantages
 More mechanical points are needed similar to a conventional system.
 It has a tendency to side tracking.
Capacitive Discharge Ignition System
Figure: Capacitive Discharge Ignition System
Working principle
• The CDI system consists of two coils that are trigged by the magnets in the flywheel/rotor, the
larger coil is called as charging or Exciter coil and the smaller coil is called as Trigger coil.
• As the flywheel rotates past the exciter coil, the AC produced by the exciter coil is changed to DC
by the diode in the CDI unit.
• The capacitor in CDI unit stores the energy until its needed to fire the spark plug.
• As the flywheel/rotor magnet rotates past the trigger coil, a low voltage in the trigger coil, which
activates the electronic switch in CDI unit.
• The electronic switch acts as power source to the primary side of the circuit, this completed
primary circuit which allows the energy stored by the capacitor to pass through the primary
winding of the ignition coil.
• The transformer action of the ignition coil causes high voltage to be induced in the secondary
winding of the ignition coil, which fires the spark plug.
Advantages of the CDI system:
• Insensitive to electrical shunts resulting from spark plug fouling.
• This system is suited to an application where insufficient dwell time is available because the
capacitor can be fully charged in a very short time.
• Short transient response.
• A fast voltage rise and shorter spark duration.
Disadvantages of the CDI system:
• The spark is strong but short in order to 0.1 to 0.3 ms which leads to ignition failure during lean
mixture operating conditions because of fast capacitive discharge.
• This system generates a huge electro-magnetic noise so CDI is rarely used by automobile
manufacturers.
Turbo Chargers
Figure: Working and Line diagram of turbo charger

• The turbo charger utilizes the wasted heat energy in the exhaust system, to run a compressor
which compresses the intake air. Compressed intake air has more density and hence more fuel can
be injected increasing the power of the engine. Turbo charging is an ideal way to increase the
engine power without increasing the engine size.
• It is a turbine-driven forced induction device that increases an engine's efficiency and power by
forcing extra air into the combustion chamber. This improvement over a naturally aspirated
engine's output results because the turbine can force more air, and proportionately more fuel, into
the combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure alone.
• Turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment
engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines.
They have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells.
Waste Gate Turbo Charger (WGT)
Figure: Waste Gate Turbo Charger

The waste-gate regulates the pressure of the relief valve. It, in turn, limits the boost pressure in the
turbocharger system. This is helpful in preventing the engine from potential mechanical damages caused
by the high pressure. Furthermore, the system automatically opens the waste-gate valve when the
pressure reaches the pre-set levels. Then, it allows all the high-pressure exhaust gases to escape the
turbine wheel and enter into the downstream/outlet. Thus, it prevents the exhaust gas pressure from rising
more than required.
Advantages
• Needs a smaller space to fit.
• Reduces turbo lag to some extent.
• Installation of compact and simple external exhaust pipe system. Thus, reducing the
engine weight.
• Delivers optimum engine performance at all times.
• Avoids mechanical damage to engine parts
Variable Geometry Turbo charger (VGT)
Figure: Variable Gate Turbocharger (VGT)
• VGTs refers to as those types of turbochargers which include a ring of aerodynamically-shaped

vanes inside the turbine housing at the turbine inlet. The turbos used in the passenger cars and
light commercial vehicles, can rotate in order to vary the gas swirl angle and the cross-sectional
area simultaneously. The internal vanes which are present alter the turbos area-to-radius ratio
(A/R) in order to match the RPM of the engines, and to also give a peak performance.
• Considering a case of low RPM, a low A/R ratio occurs which helps the turbo to spool up quickly
by increasing the velocity of the exhaust gas. At higher revs the A/R ratio increases which is
responsible for the increased airflow. These results in a low boost threshold which is responsible
for reducing the turbo lag, and also provides a wide and smooth torque band.
• While the VGTs are quite typically used in the diesel engines where the exhaust gases lower the
temperature and by then the VGTs were just limited in the petrol engine applications due to their
cost and the requirement for components was made from an exotic material.
Types of nozzles:
(a) Depends on the type of combustion chamber,
Open combustion chamber:
-fuel seeks air
-air swirl is created due to inclined induction port
-multi-hole nozzle injects fuel at a pressure of about 200 to 300 bar to slow moving air
-provide good cold starting performance and improved thermal efficiency
Pre-combustion chamber:
-air velocity is very much high
-single hole nozzle with 65 to 100 bar injection pressure is used
-used in high speed engine due to rapid combustion
-external heating device for easy starting of the engine
(b) Open and closed type of nozzle,

Open type:
-consists of fuel orifices and open to burner
-cheap and less efficient
ex- opposed piston two-stroke Junkers diesel engine
Closed type: pressure drop is minimised compared to open type
(c) Different types of nozzle for different combustion chamber

(i) Single hole nozzle:
-used in open combustion chamber
-size of hole larger than 0.2 mm
-very high injection pressure required
(ii) Multi-hole nozzle:

-no. of hole varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 1.5 to 0.35 mm
-injection rate is not uniform
(iii) Pintle nozzle:

-a projection or pintle is provided in the nozzle to avoid weak injection and dribbling
-pintle may be cylindrical or conical shape

-cone angle varied from 0 to 60ᵒ
-provide good atomisation and reduced penetration
-fuel pressures are lower than single and multi-hole nozzle
(iv) Pintaux nozzle:

-injected fuel in upstream of air
-development of pintle nozzle with auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body
-reduced delay period and increased thermal efficiency
CATALYTIC CONVERTER
As indicated by the meaning of chemistry, a catalyst is a substance that causes or quickens a compound
response without itself being influenced. Catalysts take an interest in the responses, however are neither
reactants nor results of the response they catalyze. An exhaust system is a vehicle discharges control
gadget which changes over lethal by-results of burning in the fumes of an interior ignition motor to less
poisonous substances by method for catalyzed compound responses . It lessens temperature at which
CO and HC change over into CO2 and H2O. Big and large exhaust systems utilize platinum gathering
of respectable metals.
The contaminations have negative effect on air quality, environment and human wellbeing that
leads instringent standards of poison outflow. Quantities of option innovations like change in motor plan,
fuelpretreatment, utilization of option energizes, fuel added substances, fumes treatment or better tuning of
the ignition procedure and so forth, are being considered to lower the release levels of the engine. Out of
various progressions available for auto vapor radiation control a fumes framework is found to best choice to
control CO, HC and NOx discharges from petrol driven vehicles while diesel particulate channel and
oxidation forces converter or diesel oxidation impulse have so far been the most potential other option to
control particulates outpourings from diesel driven vehicle [5]. An exhaust system (CC) is put inside
the tailpipe through which destructive fumes gasses containing unburnt fuel, CO, NOx are transmitted .
Three-way Catalytic Converter

Similar to the oxidation converter, the reduction catalytic converter helps to eliminate hydrocarbons
and carbon-monoxide emanations, in addition to oxides of nitrogen discharges, or NOx. NOx outflows are
created in the motor burning chamber when it reaches extremely high temperatures more than 2,500 degrees
Fahrenheit, approximately. In this type of converter, a reduction reaction also occurs in addition to two
oxidation reactions same as two-way converter. The reduction reaction occurs during the conversion of

oxides of nitrogen to nitrogen and oxygen. So this type of converter is also known as reduction type
catalytic converter.
Conversion Reactions in Three Way Catalytic Converter
CxH4x + 2xO2 → xCO2 + 2xH2O (conversion of hydrocarbons)

2xCO + O2 → 2xCO2 (conversion of carbon mono-oxides)
2NOx → N2 + xO2 [O2 + 2H2 → 2H2O] (Decomposition of oxides of nitrogen).
Emissions

History of Emission Standards in India
 It was in the early nineties that the first emission standards were introduced in the country.
 Other regulatory norms followed in the form of making the catalytic converters mandatory for petrol vehicles
and then, by the introduction of unleaded petrol.
 In 1999, the apex court of the country made it mandatory for all vehicles to meet the India 2000 norms by
June 2000, in a ruling.
 In 2002, the Mashelkar Committee report was accepted by the Indian Government.
 The committee had recommended a roadmap for the implementation of the Euro norms based
emission standards for India.
 It also recommended that the roll-out of the norms be implemented in major cities first to be followed
by the rest of the country in a phased manner.
 Based on the committee‘s recommendations, in 2003, the government released the National Auto Fuel
Policy.
Bharat Stage Emission Standards

• Bharat Stage or BS Emission Standards are government-instituted emission standards that all motor
vehicles have to comply with if they are to be sold and driven in India.
• Currently, all new vehicles sold and registered in India should be compliant with the BS-VI
iteration of emission standards.
• The standards and timelines for their implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) under the Minister of Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
• The BS norms are based on the European Emission Standards (Euro norms) and were first set in
2000. Equivalent to the Euro-1, the first iteration was known as ‗India 2000‘, and not BS-I.
• Subsequent emission standards were called BS-II, BS-III, and BS-IV.
• The government decided to jump directly from BS-IV to BS-VI skipping BS-V in view of the long
time it took to move from BS-III to IV.

• With the implementation of the new norms, pollution levels are expected to reduce to a large extent
as the particulate matter (PM) concentration should decrease. About one-third of the air pollution is
caused by motor vehicles and cars.
• At present, BS-IV auto fuels are being supplied in over 30 cities, and the rest of the country has BS-
III fuels.
• Earlier, the government planned the implementation of BS V and BS VI emission norms
nationwide by 2020 and 2024 respectively. However, the government decided to advance the dates.
The following table gives the timeline of the BS norms being implemented in India
starting from the India 2000 till the latest BS-VI norms.
Standard (Reference) Year/Region
India 2000 (Euro 1) 2000 – Nationwide
BS II (Euro 2) 2001 – Metro cities

2003 – 10 more major cities
2005 – Nationwide
BS III (Euro 3) 2005 – Metros and major cities

2010 – Nationwide
BS V (Euro 5) Skipped
BS VI (Euro 6) 2018 – Delhi

2019 – NCR
2020 – Nationwide

UNIT III
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

UNIT-III
TRANSMISSION SYSYTEMS
Introduction to the Transmission Systems in Automobile:
It is a system by means of which power developed by the engine is transmitted to the road wheels to propel
the vehicle.
Chief function of the device is to receive power at one torque and angular velocity and to deliver it at
another torque and the corresponding angular velocity.
REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
1. To provide for disconnecting the engine from the driving wheels.
2. When the engine is running, to enable the connection to the driving wheels to be made smoothly and
without shock.
3. To enable the leverage between the engine and driving wheels to be varied.
4. It must reduce the drive-line speed from that of the engine to that of the driving wheels in a ratio of
somewhere between about 3:1 and 10:1 or more, according to the relative size of engine and weight of
vehicle.
5. Turn the drive, if necessary, through 90° or perhaps otherwise re-align it.
6. Enable the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds.
7. Provide for relative movement between the engine and driving wheels.
The most common transmission systems that have been used for the automotive industry are:
 Manual transmission,
 Automatic transmission,
 Semi-automatic transmission,

 Continuously-variable transmission (C.V.T.).
Manual Transmission:
The first transmission invented was the manual transmission system. The driver needs to disengage
the clutch to disconnect the power from the engine first, select the target gear, and engage the clutch
again to perform the gear change. This will challenge a new driver. It always takes time for a new
driver to get used to this skill.
Automatic Transmission:
An automatic transmission uses a fluid-coupling torque converter to replace the clutch to avoid
engaging/disengaging clutch during gear change. A completed gear set, called planetary gears, is used
to perform gear ratio change instead of selecting gear manually. A driver no longer needs to worry
about gear selection during driving. It makes driving a car much easier, especially for a disabled or
new driver. However, the indirect gear contact of the torque converter causes power loss during
power transmission, and the complicated planetary gear structure makes the transmission heavy and
easily broken.
Semi-Automatic Transmission:
A semi-automatic transmission tries to combine the advantages of the manual and automatic
transmission systems, but avoid their disadvantages. However, the complicated design of the semi-
automatic transmission is still under development, and the price is not cheap. It is only used for some
luxury or sports cars currently.
Continuously Variable Transmission (C.V.T.):-
The Continuously Variable Transmission (C.V.T.) is a transmission in which the ratio of the
rotational speeds of two shafts, as the input shaft and output shaft of a vehicle or other machine, can
be varied continuously within a given range, providing an infinite number of possible ratios. The
other mechanical transmissions described above only allow a few different gear ratios to be selected,

but this type of transmission essentially has an infinite number of ratios available within a finite
range.
It provides even better fuel economy if the engine is constantly made run at a single speed. This
transmission is capable of a better user experience, without the rise and fall in speed of an engine, and
the jerk felt when changing gears.
MANUAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
Manual transmissions also referred as stick shift transmission or just ‗stick', 'straight drive', or
standard transmission because you need to use the transmission stick every time you change the gears.
To perform the gear shift, the transmission system must first be disengaged from the engine. After the
target gear is selected, the transmission and engine are engaged with each other again to perform the
power transmission. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by
locking selected gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission.
Fig:The transmission system delivers the engine power to wheels.

Fig: Layout of Automobile Power Transmission System
Components of manual transmission
The main components of manual transmission are:
• Clutch
• Gear box
• Slip joint
• Universal joint
• Propeller shaft
• Final drive
• Differential unit
• Rear axle
Clutch:
Clutch is a device which is used in the transmission system of automobile to engage and disengage the
engine to the transmission or gear box. It is located between the transmission and the engine. When
the clutch is engaged, the power flows from the engine to the rear wheels in a rear- wheel-drive
transmission and the vehicle moves. When the clutch is disengaged, the power is not transmitted from
the engine to the rear wheels and vehicle stops even if engine is running.

It works on the principle of friction. When two friction surfaces are brought in contact with each other
and they are united due to the friction between them. If one is revolved the other will also revolve.
The friction depends upon the surface area contact. The friction surfaces are so designed that the
driven member initially slips on driving member when initially pressure is applied. As pressure
increases the driven member is brought gradually to speed the driving member.
The three main parts of clutch are:
 Driving member
 Driven member
 Operating member
The driving member consists of a flywheel mounted on the engine crank shaft. The flywheel is bolted to
cover which carries a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure springs and releasing levers. Thus the entire
assembly of flywheel and cover rotates all the times. The clutch housing and the cover provided with
openings dissipate the heat generated by friction during the clutch operation.
The driving member consists of a disc or plate called clutch plate. It is free to slide length wise on the
splines of the clutch shaft. It carries friction materials on both of its surfaces when it is gripped

between the flywheel and the pressure plate; it rotates the clutch shaft through splines.
The operating members consists of a foot pedal, linkage, release or throw-out bearing, release levers
and springs necessary to ensure the proper operation of the clutch.
Now the driving member in an automobile is flywheel mounted on crank shaft, the driven member is
the pressure plate mounted on transmission or gear box input shaft. Friction surfaces or clutch plates
is placed between two members.
Properties of Good Clutching:

 Good Wearing Properties
 High Resistance to heat
 High coefficient of friction
 Good Binders in it
Functions of Clutch
1. It permits smooth engagement and disengagement to select gear when the vehicle is stationary and the engine is
running.
2. It transmits engine power to driving wheels without jerk while the vehicle is in motion.
3. It permits the change of gear when vehicle is in motion.
Operation of Clutch:
When the clutch pedal is pressed through pedal movement, the clutch release bearing presses on
the clutch release lever plate which being connected to clutch release levers, forces these levers
forward. This causes the pressure plate to compress pressure springs, thus allowing it to move away
from the clutch driven plate. This action releases the pressure on the driven plate and flywheel, the
flywheel is now free to turn independently, without turning the transmission.
When the clutch pedal is released, reverse action takes place i.e. the driven plate is again forced

against the flywheel by the pressure plate- because of the force exerted by pressure springs. The
pressure plate will keep on pressing the facings of driven plate until friction created becomes equal to
the resistance of the vehicle. Any further increase in pressure will cause the clutch plate and the
transmission shaft to turn along with flywheel, thus achieving vehicle movement.
Single Clutch Plate:
It is the most common type of clutch plate used in motor vehicles. Basically it consists of only one
clutch plate, mounted on the splines of the clutch plate. The flywheel is mounted on engine crankshaft
and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel through clutch springs, and is free to
slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated. When the clutch is engaged the clutch plate
is gripped between the flywheel and pressure plate. The friction linings are on both the sides of the
clutch plate. Due to the friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and the pressure plate the clutch
plate revolves the flywheel. As the clutch plate revolves the clutch shaft also revolves. Clutch shaft is
connected to the transmission gear box. Thus the engine power is transmitted to the crankshaft and
then to the clutch shaft.
When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force of the springs, and
the clutch plate becomes free between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Thus the flywheel remains
rotating as long as the engine is running and the clutch shaft speed reduces slowly and finally it stops
rotating. As soon as the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be engaged, otherwise it remains
engaged due to the spring forces.

Multi-plate Clutch:
Multi-plate clutch consists of a number of clutch plates instead of only one clutch plate as in case of
single plate clutch. As The number of clutch plates are increased, the friction surfaces also increases.
The increased number of friction surfaces obliviously increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit
torque.
The plates are alternately fitted to engine and gear box shaft. They are firmly pressed by strong coil
springs and assembled in a drum. Each of the alternate plate slides on the grooves on the flywheel and
the other slides on splines on the pressure plate. Thus, each alternate plate has inner and outer splines.
The multi-plate clutch works in the same way as a single plate clutch by operating the clutch pedal.
The multi-plate clutches are used in heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars and motor cycles for
transmitting high torque. The multi-plate clutch may be dry or wet. When the clutch is operated in an
oil bath, it is called a wet clutch. When the clutch is operated dry it is called dry clutch. The wet
clutch is used in conjunction with or part of the automatic transmission.

Advantages:
• The multi plate clutch has the following advantages:-
• Less effort requires to operate this clutch.
• It is compact in size and hence requires less space.
• It has a high power transmission capacity.
Disadvantages:
• The multi plate clutch has the following disadvantages:-
• It uses many numbers of plates hence more heat generates in this type of clutch.
• It is heavier in weight.
• It is costlier.
Cone Clutch:
Cone clutch consists of friction surfaces in the form of cone. The engine shaft consists of female cone.
The male cone is mounted on the splined clutch shaft. It has friction surfaces on the conical portion.
The male cone can slide on the clutch shaft. Hence the clutch is engaged the friction surfaces of the
male cone are in contact with that of the female cone due to force of the spring. When the clutch pedal
is pressed, the male cone slides against the spring force and the clutch is disengaged.
The only advantage of the cone clutch is that the normal force acting on the friction surfaces is
greater than the axial force, as compare to the single plate clutch in which the normal force acting
on the friction surfaces is equal to the axial force. The disadvantage in cone clutch is that if the angle
of the cone is made smaller than 200 the male cone tends to bind in the female cone and it becomes
difficult to disengage the clutch. Cone clutches are generally now only used in low peripheral speed

applications although they were once common in automobiles and other combustion engine
transmissions. They are usually now confined to very specialist transmissions in racing, rallying, or in
extreme off-road vehicles, although they are common in power boats. Small cone clutches are used in
synchronizer mechanisms in manual transmissions.
Cone clutch advantages:
• It has advantage of higher power transmission capacity as compared to other plate types
clutches since more surface area.
• Simple in construction.
Cone clutch disadvantages:
• Cone clutch has the disadvantage that if cones have less cone angle then there becomes a
difficulty in disengagement.
Dog & Spline Clutch:
This type of clutch is used to lock two shafts together or to lock a gear to shaft. It consists of a sleeve
having two sets of internal splines. It slides on a splined shaft with smallest diameter splines. The
bigger diameter splines match with the external dog clutch teeth on driving shaft. When the sleeve is
made to slide on the splined shaft, its teeth match with the dog clutch teeth of the driving shaft. Thus
the sleeve turns the splined shaft with the driving shaft.
The clutch is said to be engaged. To disengage the clutch, the sleeve is moved back on the splined
shaft to have no contact with the driving shaft. This type of clutch has no tendency to slip. The driven
shaft revolves exactly at the same speed of the driving shaft, as soon as the clutch is engaged. This is
also known as positive clutch.

Centrifugal Clutch:
The centrifugal clutch uses centrifugal forces, instead of spring force for keeping it in engaged
position. Also, it does not require clutch pedal for operating the clutch. The clutch is operated
automatically depending on engine speed. The vehicle can be stopped in gear without stalling the
engine. Similarly the gear can be started in any gear by pressing the accelerator pedal.
A centrifugal clutch works through centrifugal force. The input of the clutch is connected to the
engine crankshaft while the output drives gear box shaft, chain, or belt. As engine
R.P.M. increases, weighted arms in the clutch swing outward and force the clutch to engage. The
most common types have friction pads or shoes radially mounted that engage the inside of the rim of
housing.
On the center shaft there are an assorted amount of extension springs, which connect to a clutch shoe.
When the center shaft spins fast enough, the springs extend causing the clutch shoes to engage the
friction face. It can be compared to a drum brake in reverse. The weighted arms force these disks
together and engage the clutch.
When the engine reaches a certain RPM, the clutch activates, working almost like a
continuously variable transmission. As the load increases the R.P.M. drops thereby disengaging the
clutch and letting the rpm rise again and reengaging the clutch. If tuned properly, the clutch will tend
to keep the engine at or near the torque peak of the engine.
These results in a fair bit of waste heat, but over a broad range of speeds it is much more useful then a
direct drive in many applications. Weaker spring/heavier shoes will cause the clutch to engage at a
lower R.P.M. while a stronger spring/lighter shoes will cause the clutch to engage at a higher R.P.M.

Semi-centrifugal Clutch:-
A semi centrifugal clutch is used to transmit power from high powered engines and racing car engines
where clutch disengagements requires appreciable and tiresome drivers effort. The transmission of
power in such clutches is partly by clutch springs and rest by centrifugal action of an extra weight
provided in system. The clutch springs serve to transmit the torque up to normal speeds, while the
centrifugal force assists at speeds higher than normal.
Besides clutch, pressure plate and splines shaft it mainly consists of: Compression
spring (3 numbers)
Weighted levers (3 numbers)
At normal speeds when the power transmission is low the spring keeps the clutch engaged, the
weighted levers do not have any pressure on the pressure plate. At high speed, when the power
transmission is high the weights fly off and levers exert pressure on the plate which keeps the clutch
firmly engaged. Thus instead of having more stiff springs for keeping the clutch engaged firmly at
high speeds, they are less stiff, so that the driver may not get any strain in operating the clutch.
when the speed decreases, the weights fall and the levers do not exert any pressure on the pressure
plate. Only the spring pressure is exerted on the pressure plate which is sufficient to keep the clutch
engaged.
Electromagnetic Clutch:
An electromagnetic clutch is a clutch (a mechanism for transmitting rotation) that is engaged and
disengaged by an electromagnetic actuator. In this type of clutch, the flywheel consists of winding.
The current is supplied to the winding from battery or dynamo.
When the current passes through the winding it produces an electromagnetic field which attracts the
pressure plate, thereby engaging the clutch. When supply is cutoff, the clutch is disengaged. The gear
lever consists of a clutch release switch. When then the driver holds the gear lever to change the gear
the witch is operated cutting off the current to the winding which causes the clutch disengaged. At
low speeds when the dynamo output is low, the clutch is not firmly engaged.
Therefore three springs are also provided on the pressure plate which helps the clutch engaged firmly at low
speed also. Cycling is achieved by turning the voltage/current to the electromagnet on and off. Slippage
normally occurs only during acceleration. When the clutch is fully engaged, there is no relative slip,
assuming the clutch is sized properly, and thus torque transfer is 100% efficient.

The electromagnetic clutch is most suitable for remote operation since no linkages are required to
control its engagement. It has fast, smooth operation. However, because energy dissipates as heat in
the electromagnetic actuator every time the clutch is engaged, there is a risk of overheating.
Consequently the maximum operating temperature of the clutch is limited by the temperature rating of
the insulation of the electromagnet. This is a major limitation. Another disadvantage is higher initial
cost.
Gear Box;
A gearbox is a mechanical method of transferring energy from one device to another and is used to
increase torque while reducing speed. Torque is the power generated through the bending or twisting
of a solid material. This term is often used interchangeably with transmission located at the junction
point of a power shaft, the gearbox is often used to create a right angle change in direction, as is seen
in a rotary mower or a helicopter. Each unit is made with a specific purpose in mind, and the gear
ratio used is designed to provide the level of force required. This ratio is fixed and cannot be changed
once the box is constructed. The only possible modification after the fact is an adjustment that allows
the shaft speed to increase, along with a corresponding reduction in torque. In a situation where
multiple speeds are needed, a transmission with multiple gears can be used to increase torque while
slowing down the output speed. This design is commonly found in automobile transmissions. The

same principle can be used to create an overdrive gear that increases output speed while decreasing
torque.
Principle of Gearing
Consider a simple 4-gear train. It consists of a driving gear A on input shaft and a driven gear D on
the output shaft. In between the two gears there are two intermediate gears B, C. Each of these gears
are mounted on separate shaft.We notice that:
Gear A drives Gear B
Gear B drives Gear C
Gear C drives Gear D
Therefore, the over all speed ratios are:

Types of Gear Boxes:
The following types of gear box are used in automobiles:
 Sliding Mesh
 Constant Mesh
 Synchromesh 
Sliding Mesh Gear Box
It is the simplest gear box. The following figure shows 4-speed gear box in neutral position. 4 gears
are connected to the lay shaft/counter shaft. A reverse idler gear is mounted on another shaft and
always remains connected to the reverse gear of countershaft. This ―H‖ shift pattern enables the driver
to select four different gear ratios and a reverse gear.
Gears in Neutral:
When the engine is running and clutch is engaged the clutch shaft gear drives the countershaft gear.
The countershaft rotates opposite in direction of the clutch shaft. In neutral position only the clutch
shaft gear is connected to the countershaft gear. Other gears are free and hence the transmission main

shaft is not turning. The vehicle is stationary.
First or low shaft gear:
By operating the gear shift lever the larger gear on the main shaft is moved along the shaft to mesh
with the first gear of the counter shaft. The main shaft turns in the same direction as that of the clutch
shaft. Since the smaller countershaft is engaged with larger shaft gear a gear reduction of
approximately 4:1 is obtained i.e. the clutch shaft turns 4 times for each revolution of main shaft.

Second speed gear:
By operating the gear shift lever the third gear on the main shaft is moved along the shaft to mesh
with the third gear of the counter shaft. The main shaft turns in same direction as clutch shaft. A gear
reduction of approximately 3:1is obtained.

Third speed gear:
By operating the gear shift lever, the second gear of the main shaft and countershaft are demeshed and
then the third gear of the main shaft are forced axially against the clutch shaft gear. External Teeth on
the clutch shaft gear mesh with the internal teeth in the third and top gear. The main shaft turns in
same direction as clutch shaft. A gear reduction of approximately 2:1is obtained i.e. the clutch shaft
turns 2 times for each revolution of main shaft.

Fourth speed gear/ Top or High-Speed Gear:
By operating the gear shaft lever the third gears of the main and countershaft is demeshed and the gears present on the
main shaft along with the shaft is forced axially against the clutch shaft gear. External teeth present on the main shaft
engage with the internal teeth present on the main shaft. The main shaft turns along with the clutch shaft and a gear
ratio of approximately 1:1 is obtained.

Reverse gear:
By operating the gear shift lever, the last gear present on the main shaft is engaged with the reverse
idler gear. The reverse idler gear is always in mesh with the counters haft gear. Interposing the idler
gear between the counter-shaft reverse gear and main shaft gear, the main shaft turns in the direction
opposite to the clutch shaft. This reverses the rotation of the wheels so that the wheel backs.

Constant Mesh Gear Box:
In this type of gear box, all gears of the main shaft are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears
of the countershaft (Lay shaft). Two dog clutches are provided on the main shaft- one between the
clutch gear and the second gear, and the other between the first gear and reverse gear. The main shaft
is splined and all the gears are free on it. Dog clutch can slide on the shaft and rotates with it. All the
gears on the countershaft are rigidly fixed with it.
When the left hand dog clutch is made to slide to the left by means of the gear shift lever, it meshes
with the clutch gear and the top speed gear is obtained. When the left hand dog clutch meshes with the
second gear, the second speed gear is obtained. Similarly by sliding the right hand dog clutch to the
left and right, the first speed gear and reverse gear are obtained respectively. In this gear box because

all the gears are in constant mesh they are safe from being damaged and an unpleasant
grinding sound does not occur while engaging and disengaging them.
Syncromesh Gear Box:
In sliding Mesh Gear box the two meshing gears need to be revolve at equal peripheral
speeds to achieve a jerk less engagement and it is true for constant mesh gear box in which
the peripheral speeds of sliding dog and the corresponding gear on the output shaft must be
equal. The peripheral speed is given byWhere d1 and N1 are pitch circle diameter and r.p.m.
of gear and d2 andN2 diameter and r.p.m. of attached dog respectively. Now N1 ≠ N2 since
d1 ≠ d2 . Thus there is a difference in gear and dog which necessitates double declutching.
The driver has to disengage the clutch twice in quick succession therefore it is referred as
double declutching. There are two steps involved in this process:
The clutch is disengaged i.e. first declutching and the gear system is placed in its neutral
position. Now the clutch is reengaged and acceleration pedal is pressed to adjust the engine
speed according to driver‘s judgment.The clutch is disengaged(i.e. second declutching) again
the appropriate gear is engaged and then the clutch is reengaged
It is that gear box in which sliding synchronizing units are provided in place of sliding dog
clutches as in case of constant mesh gear box. With the help of synchronizing unit, the speed
of both the driving and driven shafts is synchronized before they are clutched together
through train of gears. The arrangement of power flow for the various gears remains the same
as in constant mesh gear box. The synchronizer is made of frictional materials. When the
collar tries to mesh with the gear, the synchronizer will touch the gear first and use friction
force to drive the gear to spin at the same speed as the collar. This will ensure that the collar
is meshed into the gear very smoothly without grinding. Synchromesh gear devices work on
the principle that two gears to be engaged are first bought into frictional contact which
equalizes their speed after which they are engaged readily and smoothly.

A transmission in which various speeds are obtained automatically is known as automatic transmission. In
this type of gear box driver merely selects the general car condition such as forward or reverse. The
selection, timing and engagement of gear for the required gear speed are accomplished automatically when
the accelerator is pressed or depressed. Automatic transmission needs no gear change lever and clutch
pedal since clutch and transmission is a combined unit and works automatically.
• Automatic transmission is generally subdivided into two types:
(A.) Epicyclic gear box:
(B.) Hydraulic torque converter:
Epicyclic gear box

This type of gear box uses no sliding dogs or gears to engage but different gear speeds are
obtained by merely tightening brake bands on gear drum. It consists of a ring gear annular wheel,
sun gear and planet gears with carrier. In order to obtain different speeds any one of these units
can be held from rotation by means of brake band. The ring gear contains teeth on it inner
circumference and it surrounded by a brake band. The brake band is operated by a gear stick or
lever to grip the ring gear and hold its movement. The sun gear is attached to the clutch shaft thus
moves along with the movement of engine crankshaft. The planet gears are in constant mesh with
both the sun gear and ring gear and are free to rotate on their axes carried by the carrier frame
which in turn is connected to the driver shaft.
When the ring gear is locked by the brake band, the rotating sun gear causes the planet gears
to rotate. Since the ring gear cannot move. The planet gears are forced to climb over it. During this
position, the ring gear acts as track for the planet gears to move over. The driven shaft which is
connected to the planet gear carrier is thus rotate. When the ring gear is released, it is free to move
in consequence to the rotation of planet gears which rotate around their axis. During this position,
there is no movement of planet carries and hence the driven shaft remains stationary. A planetary
gear box contains a numbers of such units to obtain various speed reductions
Hydraulic torque converter:

• Hydraulic torque converter is same as the electric transformer. The main purpose of the
torque converter is to engage the driving member to driven member and increase the torque
of driven member. In the torque converter, an impeller is bolted on the driving member, a
turbine is bolted on the driven member and stationary guide vanes are placed between these
two members. This all parts are enclosed into single housing filled with hydraulic liquid.
The impeller rotates with the driven member and it through the liquid outward by
centrifugal action. This liquid flowing from the impeller to turbine runner exerts a torque on
the stationary guide vanes which change the direction of liquid, thereby making possible the
transformation of torque and speed. The difference of torque between impeller and turbine
depends upon these stationary guide vanes. This serves as the function of both gear box and
clutch.
Over Drive Mechanism

• The overdrive is to be placed in between the Gearbox and the Propeller shaft.
• The function of overdrive is to increase more amount of power than the power delivered from the
gearbox.
• On the input shaft, the Sun gear is connected through Spline.
• The freewheel has an internal spline and the Input shaft has an external Spline and these two will
mesh together.
• Whenever there is a spline joint, the Freewheel does not undergo any rotary relative motion but it has
only horizontal relative motion.
• In the sense, the Freewheel can move only in the horizontal direction but cannot rotate at the center
of the input shaft.
• Whereas the sun gear is freely mounted on the input shaft. It means that, whenever the shaft is
rotating, the Sun Gear may or may not rotate but the Freewheel has to move w.r.t. the input shaft
only.
• The Sun Gear meshes with the planet gears and this planet gears are in contact with the Planet
Carrier.
• The Planet Gear is also in contact with the ring gear and from the ring gear, the power is sent to the
output shaft.

U- Joint:
A universal joint, U-joint, Cardan joint, Hardy-Spicer joint, or Hooke's joint is a linkage that
transmits rotation between two non parallel shafts whose axes are coplanar but not
coinciding., and is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It is used in
automobiles where it is used to transmit power from the gear box of the engine to the rear
axle. The driving shaft rotates at a uniform angular speed, where as the driven shaft rotates at
a continuously varying angular speed.
A complete revolution of either shaft will cause the other to rotate through a complete
revolution at the same time. Each shaft has fork at its end. The four ends of the two fork are
connected by a centre piece, the arms of which rest in bearings, provided in fork ends. The
centre piece can be of any shape of a cross, square or sphere having four pins or arms. The
four arms are at right angle to each other.
When the two shafts are at an angle other than 180° (straight), the driven shaft does not rotate
with constant angular speed in relation to the drive shaft; the more the angle goes toward 90°
the jerkier the movement gets (clearly, when the angle β = 90° the shafts would even lock).
However, the overall average speed of the driven shaft remains the same as that of driving
shaft, and so speed ratio of the driven to the driving shaft on average is 1:1 over multiple
rotations.
The angular speed ω2 of the driven shaft, as a function of the angular speed of the driving shaft

ω1 and theangle of the driving shaft φ1, is found using:
ω2 = ω1 cosα / (1-sin2α.cos2θ)
For a given and set angle between the two shafts it can be seen that there is a cyclical variation in
the input to output velocity ratio. Maximum values occur when sin θ = 1, i.e. when θ = 900 and
2700. The denominator is greatest when θ = 0or 1800 and this condition gives the minimum ratio
of the velocities.

Slip Joint in the Propeller Shaft;
• Slip joint is attached to the driven yoke in order the increase or decrease the length of
propeller shaft. It has outside splines on the shaft and matching internal splines in a mating
hollow shaft or yoke. When assembled the splines cause the shafts to rotate together while
they can move back and forth. This changes the length of propeller shaft.
Propeller Shaft
• The propeller shaft is a driving shaft which connects the transmission main shaft to the differential of the
real axle. It transmits the power from gear box to rear axle with the help of universal joints. The propeller
shaft is also known as drive shaft. It performs the following function:
• To receive the power from the gear box output shaft and without any change in speed transmit it to the
input pinion of the differential for onward transmission to the rear axle and rear wheels. To cope with the
difference in line with the level of the gear box output shaft and the differential input pinion shaft. The
propeller shaft has to operate at varied lengths and varied angles. The engine of the automobile is
somewhat rigidly attached to the frame by springs. As the vehicle moves on the road there are jerks and
bumps due to which the springs expand and contract. This changes the angle of drive between the
propeller shaft and the transmission shaft. The distance between the gear box and differential also
changes due to the movement of the springs. So the propeller shaft has to meet both the angular change
coming between the gear box and differential and change in length of the distance between the gear box
and differential. The propeller shaft is also not on the same line as the gear box output shaft but it runs to
the rear axle at an angle because the level of the rear axle is lower than the gear box. So to adjust angular
motion universal joints are provided and to adjust for the change in length of the propeller shaft , a slip
joint is provided. The propeller shaft has to withstand the torsional stresses of the transmitting torque, and
yet it must be light and well balanced so that vibrations will not occur at high speed. So it is usually made
of a strong steel tube.

The Drive Shaft
The drive shaft, or propeller shaft, connects the transmission output shaft to the differential pinion
shaft. Since all roads are not perfectly smooth, and the transmission is fixed, the drive shaft has to be
flexible to absorb the shock of bumps in the road. Universal, or "U-joints" allow the drive shaft to flex
(and stop it from breaking) when the drive angle changes.
Drive shafts are usually hollow in order to weigh less, but of a large diameter so that they are strong.
High quality steel, and sometimes aluminum are used in the manufacture of the drive shaft. The shaft
must be quite straight and balanced to avoid vibrating. Since it usually turns at engine speeds, a lot of
damage can be caused if the shaft is unbalanced, or bent. Damage can also be caused if the U-joints
are worn out.
There are two types of drive shafts, the Hotchkiss drive and the Torque Tube Drive. The Hotchkiss
drive is made up of a drive shaft connected to the transmission output shaft and the differential pinion
gear shaft. U-joints are used in the front and rear. The Hotchkiss drive transfers the torque of the
output shaft to the differential. No wheel drive thrust is sent to the drive shaft. Sometimes this drive
comes in two pieces to reduce vibration and make it easier to install (in this case, three U-joints are
needed).The two-piece types need ball bearings in a dustproof housing as center support for the shafts.
Rubber is added into this arrangement for noise and vibration reduction.
The torque tube drive shaft is used if the drive shaft has to carry the wheel drive thrust. It is a hollow
steel tube that extends from the transmission to the rear axle housing. One end is fastened to the axle housing
by bolts. The transmission end is fastened with a torque ball. The drive shaft fits into the torque tube. A U-
joint is located in the torque ball, and the axle housing end is splined to the pinion gear shaft. Drive thrust is
sent through the torque tube to the torque ball, to transmission, to engine and finally, to the frame through
the engine mounts. That is, the car is pushed forward by the torque tube pressing on the engine.

Automatic Transmission:
An automatic transmission (commonly "AT" or "Auto") is an automobile gearbox that can change
gear ratios automatically as the vehicle moves, freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually.
Automatic Transmission Modes:
In order to select the mode, the driver would have to move a gear shift lever located on the steering
column or on the floor next to him/her. In order to select gears/modes the driver must push a button in
(called the shift lock button) or pull the handle (only on column mounted shifters) out. In some
vehicles position selector buttons for each mode on the cockpit instead, freeing up space on the central
console. Vehicles conforming to U.S. Government standards must have the modes ordered P- R-N-D-
L (left to right, top to bottom, or clockwise). Prior to this, quadrant-selected automatic transmissions
often utilized a P-N-D-L-R layout, or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of deaths and injuries
owing to un-intentional gear miss-selection, as well the danger of having a selector (when worn) jump
into Reverse from Low gear during engine braking maneuvers.
Automatic Transmissions have various modes depending on the model and make of the transmission.
Some of the common modes are:
Park Mode (P):-
This selection mechanically locks the transmission, restricting the car from moving in any direction.
A parking pawl prevents the transmission—and therefore the vehicle—from moving, although the
vehicle's non-drive wheels may still spin freely. For this reason, it is recommended to use the hand
brake (or parking brake) because this actually locks the (in most cases, rear) wheels and prevents them
from moving. This also increases the life of the transmission and the park pin mechanism, because
parking on an incline with the transmission in park without the parking brake engaged will cause
undue stress on the parking pin. An efficiently-adjusted hand brake should also prevent the car from

moving if a worn selector accidentally drops into reverse gear during early morning fast-idle engine
warm ups.
Reverse (R):-
This puts the car into the reverse gear, giving the ability for the car to drive backwards. In order for
the driver to select reverse they must come to a complete stop, push the shift lock button in (or pull
the shift lever forward in the case of a column shifter) and select reverse. Not coming to a complete
stop can cause severe damage to the transmission. Many modern automatic gearboxes have a safety
mechanism in place, which does to some extent prevent (but doesn't completely avoid) inadvertently
putting the car in reverse when the vehicle is moving.
This mechanism usually consists of a solenoid-controlled physical barrier on either side of the
Reverse position, which is electronically engaged by a switch on the brake pedal. Therefore, the brake
pedal needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of reverse. Some electronic transmissions
prevent or delay engagement of reverse gear altogether while the car is moving.
Neutral/No gear (N):-
This disconnects the transmission from the wheels so the car can move freely under its own weight.
This is the only other selection in which the car can be started.
Drive (D):-
This allows the car to move forward and accelerate through its range of gears. The number of gears a
transmission has depends on the model, but they can commonly range from 3, 4 (the most common),
5, 6 (found in VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox), 7 (found in Mercedes 7G gearboxes, BMW M5 and
VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox) and 8 in the newer models of Lexus cars. Some cars when put into D
will automatically lock the doors or turn on the Daytime Running Lamps.
Overdrive ([D], Od, Or A Boxed D):-
This mode is used in some transmissions to allow early Computer Controlled Transmissions to engage

the Automatic Overdrive. In these transmissions, Drive (D) locks the Automatic Overdrive off, but is
identical otherwise. OD (Overdrive) in these cars is engaged under steady speeds or low acceleration
at approximately 35-45 mph (approx. 72 km/h). Under hard acceleration or below 35-45 mph, the
transmission will automatically downshift. Vehicles with this option should be driven in this mode
unless circumstances require a lower gear.
Second (2 or S):-
This mode limits the transmission to the first two gears, or more commonly locks the transmission in
second gear. This can be used to drive in adverse conditions such as snow and ice, as well as climbing
or going down hills in the winter time. Some vehicles will automatically up-shift out of second gear in
this mode if a certain rpm range is reached, to prevent engine damage.
First (1 or L):-
This mode locks the transmission in first gear only. It will not accelerate through any gear range. This,
like second, can be used during the winter season, or for towing.
As well as the above modes there are also other modes, dependent on the manufacturer and model.
Some examples include:
D5:- In Hondas and Acuras equipped with 5-speed automatic transmissions, this mode is used
commonly for highway use (as stated in the manual), and uses all five forward gears.
D4:- This mode is also found in Honda and Acura 4 or 5-speed automatics and only uses the first 4
gears. According to the manual, it is used for "stop and go traffic", such as city driving.
D3:- This mode is found in Honda and Acura 4-speed automatics and only uses the first 3 gears.
According to the manual, it is used for stop & go traffic, such as city driving. This mode is also found
in Honda and Acura 5-speed automatics.
This is the manual selection of gears for automatics, such as Porsche's Tiptronic. This feature can also
be found in Chrysler and General Motors products such as the Dodge Magnum and Pontiac G6. The
driver can shift up and down at will, by toggling the shift lever (console mounted) like a semi-

automatic transmission. This mode may be engaged either through a selector/position or by actually
changing gear (e.g. tipping the gear-down paddles mounted near the driver's fingers on the steering
wheel).
The predominant form of automatic transmission is hydraulically operated, using a fluid coupling/
torque converter and a set of planetary gear-sets to provide a range of torque multiplication.
Parts and Operation:-

A hydraulic automatic transmission consists of the following parts:
 Torque Converter/Fluid Coupling
 Planetary Gear Set
 Clutch packs & Bands
 Valve Body
 Hydraulic or Lubricating Oil
Torque Converter/Fluid Coupling: -Unlike a manual transmission system, automatic transmission
does not use a clutch to disconnect power from the engine temporarily when shifting gears. Instead, a
device called a torque converter was invented to prevent power from being temporarily disconnected
from the engine and also to pre-vent the vehicle from stalling when the transmission is in gear.

A fluid coupling/torque converter consists of a sealed chamber containing two toroidal- shaped, vaned
components, the pump and turbine, immersed in fluid (usually oil). The pump or driving torus (the
latter a General Motors automotive term) is rotated by the prime mover, which is typically an internal
combustion engine or electric motor. The pump's motion imparts a relatively complex centripetal
motion to the fluid. Simplified, this is a centrifugal force that throws the oil outwards against the
coupling's housing, whose shape forces the flow in the direction of the turbine or driven torus (the
latter also a General Motors term).
Here, Corolis force reaction transfers the angular fluid momentum outward and across, applying
torque to the turbine, thus causing it to rotate in the same direction as the pump. The fluid leaving the
center of the turbine returns to the pump, where the cycle endlessly repeats. The pump typically is
connected to the flywheel of the engine—in fact, the coupling's enclosure may be part of the flywheel
proper, and thus is turned by the engine's crankshaft. The turbine is connected to the input shaft of the
transmission. As engine speed increases while the transmission is in gear, torque is transferred from
the engine to the input shaft by the motion of the fluid, propelling the vehicle. In this regard, the
behavior of the fluid coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical clutch driving a manual
transmission.
A torque converter differs from a fluid coupling in that it provides a variable amount of torque
multiplication at low engine speeds, increasing "breakaway" acceleration. This is accomplished with a
third member in the "coupling assembly" known as the stator, and by altering the shapes of the vanes
inside the coupling in such a way as to curve the fluid's path into the stator. The stator captures the
kinetic energy of the transmission fluid in effect using the left-over force of it to enhance torque
multiplication.

Tiptronic transmission is a special type of automatic transmission with a computer controlled
automatic shift. The driver can switch the transmission to manual mode, which lets her shift the gear
at her wish sequentially up (+) or down (-) without disengaging the clutch. This works just like a
manual transmission; however, it still uses a torque converter to transfer power from the engine.
Unfortunately, this is less efficient than a manual transmission.
Planetary Gear-Set: - The automatic system for current automobiles uses a planetary gear set instead
of the traditional manual transmission gear set. The planetary gear set contains four parts: sun gear,
planet gears, planet carrier, and ring gear. Based on this planetary set design, sun gear, planet carrier,
and ring gear spin centrifugally. By locking one of them, the planetary set can generate three different
gear ratios, including one reverse gear, without engaging and disengaging the gear set. The gear set is
actuated by hydraulic servos controlled by the valve body, providing two or more gear ratios.
Clutch Packs And Bands: - A clutch pack consists of alternating disks that fit inside a clutch drum.
Half of the disks are steel and have splines that fit into groves on the inside of the drum.

`The other half have a friction material bonded to their surface and have splines on the inside edge
that fit groves on the outer surface of the adjoining hub. There is a piston inside the drum that is
activated by oil pressure at the appropriate time to squeeze the clutch pack together so that the two
components become locked and turn as one.
A band is a steel strap with friction material bonded to the inside surface. One end of the band is
anchored against the transmission case while the other end is connected to a servo. At the appropriate
time hydraulic oil is sent to the servo under pressure to tighten the band around the drum to stop the
drum from turning.
The bands come into play for manually selected gears, such as low range or reverse, and operate on
the planetary drum's circumference. Bands are not applied when drive/overdrive range is selected, the
torque being transmitted by the sprag clutches instead.
The sun gear is connected to a drum, which can be locked by a band. The ring gear is directly
connected to the input shaft, which transfers power from the engine. The planet carrier is connected to
the output shaft, which transfers power into the wheels.
Based on this design, when in neutral, both band and clutch sets are released. Turning the ring gear
can only drive planet gears but not the planet carrier, which stays static if the car is not moving. The
planet gears drive the sun gear to spin freely. In this situation, the input shaft is not able to transfer
power to the output shaft. When shifting to 1st gear, the band locks the sun gear by locking the drum.

The ring gear drives the planet carrier to spin. In this situation, the ring gear (input shaft) spins faster
than the planet carrier (output shaft).
To shift to higher gear, the band is released and the clutch is engaged to force the sun gear and planet
carrier (output shaft) to spin at the same speed. The input shaft will also spin at the same speed as the
output shaft, which makes the car run faster than in 1st gear. Using a compound planetary gear set
generates more gear ratios with a special gear ratio, over-drive gear whose gear ratio is small than 1.
This will make the gear shift smoother. Both the band and clutch piston are pressurized by the
hydraulic system. The part connecting the band or clutches to the hydraulic system is called the shift
valve, while the one connecting the hydraulic system to the output shaft is called the governor.
The governor is a centrifugal sensor with a spring loaded valve. The faster the governor spins, the
more the valve opens. The more the valve opens, the more the fluid goes through and the higher the
pressure applied on the shift valve. Therefore, each band and clutch can be pushed to lock the gear
based on a specific spin speed detected by the governor from the output shaft. To make the hydraulic
system work efficiently, a complex maze of passages was designed to replace a large number of tubes.
For modern cars, an electronic con-trolled (computer controlled) solenoid pack is used to detect
throttle position, vehicle speed, engine speed, engine load, brake pedal position, etc., and to
automatically choose the best gear for a moving vehicle.
Principally, a type of device known as a sprag or roller clutch is used for routine upshifts/downshifts.
Operating much as a ratchet, it transmits torque only in one direction, freewheeling or "overrunning"
in the other. The advantage of this type of clutch is that it eliminates the sensitivity of timing a
simultaneous clutch release/apply on two planetaries, simply "taking up" the drivetrain load when
actuated,and releasing automatically when the next gear's sprag clutch assumes the torq

Valve Body: - Hydraulic control center that receives pressurized fluid from a main pump operated by
the fluid coupling/torque converter. The pressure coming from this pump is regulated and used to run
a network of spring-loaded valves, check balls and servo pistons.
The valves use the pump pressure and the pressure from a centrifugal governor on the output side (as
well as hydraulic signals from the range selector valves and the throttle valve or modulator) to control
which ratio is selected on the gearset; as the car and engine change speed, the difference between the
pressures changes, causing different sets of valves to open and close.
Each of the many valves in the valve body has a specific purpose and is named for that function. For
example the 2-3 shift valves activate the 2nd gear to 3rd gear up-shift or the 3-2 shift timing valve
which determines when a downshift should occur.
The hydraulic pressure controlled by these valves drives the various clutch and brake band actuators,
thereby controlling the operation of the planetary gearset to select the optimum gear ratio for the

current operating conditions. However, in many modern automatic transmissions, the valves are
controlled by electro-mechanical servos which are controlled by the Engine Management System or a
separate transmission controller.
The most important valve and the one that you have direct control over is the manual valve. The
manual valve is directly connected to the gear shift handle and covers and uncovers various passages
depending on what position the gear shift is placed in. When you place the gear shift in Drive, for
instance, the manual valve directs fluid to the clutch pack(s) that activates 1st gear.
It also sets up to monitor vehicle speed and throttle position so that it can determine the optimal time
and the force for the 1 - 2 shifts. On computer controlled transmissions, you will also have electrical
solenoids that are mounted in the valve body to direct fluid to the appropriate clutch packs or bands
under computer control to more precisely control shift points.
Hydraulic & Lubricating Oil: - A component called Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) which is
part of the transmission mechanism provides lubrication, corrosion prevention, and a hydraulic
medium to convey mechanical power.
Primarily it is made of refined petroleum and processed to provide properties that promote smooth
power transmission and increase service life. ATF is one of the parts of the automatic transmission
that needs routine service as the vehicle ages.
Differential Unit:
Differentials are a variety of gearbox, almost always used in one of two ways. In one of these, it
receives one input and provides two outputs; this is found in every automobile. In
automobile and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows each of the driving wheels to rotate at
different speeds, while supplying equal torque to each of them. In the other, less commonly
encountered, it combines two inputs to create an output that is the sum (or difference) of the inputs. In
automotive applications, the differential and its housing are sometimes collectively called a
"pumpkin" (because the housing resembles a pumpkin).

Purpose:-
The differential gear box has following functions:
 Avoid skidding of the rear wheels on a road turning.
 Reduces the speed of inner wheels and increases the speed of outer wheels, while drawing a curve.
 Keeps equal speeds of all the wheels while moving on a straight road.
 Eliminates a single rigid rear axle, and provides a coupling between two rear axles.
The following description of a differential applies to a "traditional" rear- or front-wheel-drive car or
truck:
Power is supplied from the engine, via the transmission or gearbox, to a drive shaft termed as
propeller shaft, which runs to the differential. A spiral bevel pinion gear at the end of the propeller
shaft is encased within the differential itself, and it meshes with the large spiral bevel ring gear termed
as crown wheel. The ring and pinion may mesh in hypoid orientation.
The ring gear is attached to a carrier, which holds what is sometimes called a spider, a cluster of four
bevel gears in a rectangle, so each bevel gear meshes with two neighbors and rotates counter to the
third that it faces and does not mesh with. Two of these spider gears are aligned on the same axis as
the ring gear and drive the half shafts connected to the vehicle's driven wheels.
These are called the side gears. The other two spider gears are aligned on a perpendicular axis which
changes orientation with the ring gear's rotation. These two gears are just called pinion gears, not to
be confused with the main pinion gear.
As the carrier rotates, the changing axis orientation of the pinion gears imparts the motion of the ring gear to
the motion of the side gears by pushing on them rather than turning against them (that is, the same teeth stay
in contact), but because the spider gears are not restricted from turning against each other, within that motion
the side gears can counter-rotate relative to the ring gear and to each other under the same force (in which
case the same teeth do not stay in contact).
Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main ring gear may make 10 full
rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more rotations because it has further to travel,
and the right wheel will make fewer rotations as it has less distance to travel. The side gears will
rotate in opposite directions relative to the ring gear by, say, 2 full turns each (4 full turns relative to
each other), resulting in the left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.
The rotation of the ring gear is always the average of the rotations of the side gears. This is why if the
wheels are lifted off the ground with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (preventing the ring
gear from turning inside the differential), manually rotating one wheel causes the other to rotate in the
opposite direction by the same amount.
When the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, there will be no differential movement of the planetary
system of gears other than the minute movements necessary to compensate for slight differences in
wheel diameter, undulations in the road (which make for a longer or shorter wheel path), etc.
Hotchkiss drive;
The Hotchkiss drive is a system of power transmission. It was the dominant form of power
transmission for front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout cars in the 20th century. The name comes from
the French automobile firm of Hotchkiss, although it is clear that other makers (such as
Peerless) used similar systems before Hotchkiss.
During the early part of the 20th century the two major competing systems of power transmission
were the shaft-drive and chain-drive configurations. The Hotchkiss drive is a shaft- drive system
(another type of direct-drive transmission system is the torque tube, which was also popular until the

1950s).
All shaft-drive systems consist of a driveshaft (also called a "propeller shaft" or Cardan
shaft) extending from the transmission in front to the differential in the rear. The differentiating
characteristic of the Hotchkiss drive is the fact that it uses universal joints at both ends of
the driveshaft, which is not enclosed. The use of two universal joints, properly phased and with
parallel alignment of the drive and driven shafts, allows the use of simple cross- type universals. (In a
torque-tube arrangement only a single universal is used at the end of the transmission tail shaft, and
this universal should be a constant velocity joint.)
In the Hotchkiss drive, slip-splines or a plunge-type (ball and trunnion u-joint) eliminate thrust
transmitted back up the driveshaft from the axle, allowing simple rear-axle positioning using parallel
leaf springs. (In the torque-tube type this thrust is taken by the torque tube to the transmission and
thence to the transmission and motor mounts to the frame. While the torque-tube type requires
additional locating elements, such as a Panhard rod, this allows the use of coil springs.)
Some Hotchkiss drive shafts are made in two pieces with another universal joint in the center for
greater flexibility, typically in trucks and specialty vehicles built on truck frames. Some installations
use rubber mounts to isolate noise and vibration. The 1984–1987 RWD Toyota Corolla (i.e., Corolla
SR5 and GT-S) coupe is another example of a car that uses a 2-part Hotchkiss driveshaft with a
rubber-mounted center bearing.
This design was the main form of power transmission for most cars from the 1920s through
the 1970s. Presently (circa 2012), it remains common in pick-up trucks, and sport utility vehicles

Torque tube Drive
A torque tube system is a driveshaft technology, often used in automobiles with a front engine and
rear drive. It is not as widespread as the Hotchkiss drive, but is still occasionally used to this day.
Drive shafts are sometimes also used for other vehicles and machinery.
The "torque" that is referred to in the name is not that of the driveshaft, along the axis of the car, but
that applied by the wheels. The design problem that the torque tube solves is how to get the traction
forces generated by the wheels to the car frame. The "torque tube" transmits this force by directly
coupling the axle differential to the transmission and therefore propels the car forward by pushing on
the engine/transmission and then through the engine mounts to the car frame[citation needed].
In contrast, the Hotchkiss drive has the traction forces transmitted to the car frame by using other
suspension components such as leaf springs or trailing arms. A ball and socket type of joint called a
"torque ball" is used at one end of the torque tube to allow relative motion between the axle and
transmission due to suspension travel. Since the torque tube does not constrain the axle in the lateral
(side-to-side) direction a pan hard rod is often used for this purpose. The combination of the pan hard
rod and the torque tube allows the easy implementation of soft coil springs in the rear to give good
ride quality.
In addition to transmitting the traction forces, the torque tube is hollow and contains the rotating
driveshaft. Inside the hollow torque ball is the universal joint of the driveshaft that allows relative
motion between the two ends of the driveshaft. In most applications the drive shaft uses a single
universal joint which has the disadvantage that it causes speed fluctuations in the driveshaft when the
shaft is not straight. The Hotchkiss drive uses two universal joints which has the effect of canceling
the speed fluctuations and gives a constant speed even when the shaft is no longer straight.

UNIT IV
STEERING, BRAKES AND
SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

Steering System
• Steering provides the directional change for the movement of the automobile and it
maintain in a position as per the direction of the driver‘s decision with out strain on
him.
• Steering is done by the movement of the axis of rotation of the front wheel with
respect to chassis frame
Requirement of a Steering System
• It multiplies the turning effort applied on the steering wheel by the driver
• The shock of the road surface absorb by the wheels should not be transmitted to
driver‘s hand.
• This system should be light and stable
• It should be easily operated with less maintenance
Functions of a Steering Wheel
• It should provide wheel swing either left or right
• It provides vehicle turning as per the will of the driver
• It should provide direction stability
• It helps to control the wear and tear of the tyres.
• Allows for suspension action.
•
Layout of Steering system

Steering Geometry
• Steering Geometry means it is the angular relationship among the front wheels, front
wheel attaching parts and vehicle frame and road surface.
• The method of describing the measurement alignment of angles that affect steering
is called steering geometry or wheel alignment.
• Various Angles that affect the Steering geometry are as follows
1. Camber
2. Caster
3. King-Pin
4. Toe-in and Toe out

CASTER ANGLE
Caster angle is the tilt of the kingpin or ball joint centre line from the vertical towards either the front
(negative caster) or rear (positive caster) of the vehicle.
The caster angle produces a trailing effect and hence gives the directional stability. In correct caster can
produce difficulties like hard steering, pulling to one side when brakes are applied.
The caster angle ranges from 2-8° negative.
CAMBER ANGLE
Camber angle is the inclination between the centre line of the tire and the vertical line. The outward
inclination is called positive camber and the inward inclination is the negative camber. The purpose of
the camber is to prevent the top of wheels from tilting inward much due to excessive load or play in the
king-pin and wheel bearing. Unequal camber in the wheels causes the vehicles to roll in the direction of
wheel having the greater camber which upsets directional stability and tends to scuff the tread on the
opposite tire, excessive camber prevents the tire from having correct contact with the road which causes
it to wear only on the side directly beneath the load.
• Camber angle is less than 1 degree
KING-PIN INCLINATION
Kingpin inclination is the inward tilt of the kingpin or ball joint centerline from the vertical.
Kingpin tilt in combination with curvature provides directional stability. whereas kingpin inclination and
camber combine to give direction from the tire‘s centre point on the road and bring upthrust at the stub
axle closest to the centre of the kingpin. The bending angle combined with the kingpin inclination is
called the included angle.
The inclination of the kingpin varies from 4-8°.
TOE-IN and TOE-OUT

The front wheels are usually designed a little forward so that the distance between the rear ends
(y) is slightly greater than the distance between the front ends (x). The difference between these

distances is called convergence. The wheels are turned inwards to compensate for the tendency to roll
outwards due to the curvature and play in the steering linkage. Convergence is usually 2 to 4 mm.
When a vehicle turns, the inner wheel of the vehicle moves faster as compared to the outer wheel
because the former has to go around an area with a smaller radius than the latter. This action causes the
wheels to turn due to differences in their turning angles.
Importance of Steering Geometry

1. Improve Handling: - This helps in controlling the vehicle. Improper handling can be due to vehicle
pulling on one side, vibration of the steering wheel.
2. Improves tyre life and performance: - Proper rolling tyre contact on road and prevention of slipping of
the tyres due to improper alignment results in better tyre life.
3. Helps in identifying problems: - Improper alignment could be a symptom of something wrong in the
vehicle. A check on this can lead to correction in the fault in the vehicle.
4. Ensures Safety: - By keeping the system in order by removing the defective parts, enhances the vehicle
systems, especially the suspension system, leading to better safety.
5. Improves fuel efficiency: - By enhancing the performance of various systems, leads to better fuel
efficiency from the vehicle.
Function of Steering Gear Box

The rotary motion of steering wheel is converted to straight liner motion of a linkage by a steering gear
The type of a gear used to convert the motion is worm gear
Types of Steering Gear box
1. Cam and Roller
2. Recirculating Ball
3. Rack and Pinion
4. Power-Steering

Cam and Roller Steering Gear Box
Recirculating Steering Gear Box

Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The linkage that turns the wheels is
slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion system.
The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the gear in two parts. The first
part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has gear teeth cut into the outside of it,
which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm (see diagram above). The steering wheel connects to a
threaded rod, similar to a bolt, that sticks into the hole in the block. When the steering wheel turns, it
turns the bolt. Instead of twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is held
fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which moves the gear that turns the wheels
Rack and Pinion Steering Gear Box
• Rack & pinion is on the vast majority of today's vehicles, and has been for the last few
decades. It's simple, compact, direct, and provides great steering feel. On this type of
system, a toothed pinion gear mounted on the bottom of your steering column turns with the
steering wheel. As that pinion gear rotates, it comes in contact with the ―rack‖ (a long bar
with teeth cut into it) – causing the rack to slide left or right. As the rack bar moves, your
front wheels turn accordingly. Tie rod ends at each side of the vehicle provide the final
connection between the steering rack and front wheels. They‘re designed to flex in many
directions to allow for up-and-down movement over bumps, and they can be adjusted in
order to reset front wheels straight during an alignment.

Hydraulic power steering
• Hydraulic power steering is a closed system composed of several elements: A motor-driven

power steering pump creates hydraulic pressure using a compressed oil - power steering
fluid. A power steering belt connected to the crankshaft drives the pump.
• The power steering pump leads the compressed fluid from its small reservoir in the engine
via closed pipes down to the steering rack that connects the car's two front wheels. It is
inside the steering rack that the power steering fluid creates the hydraulic mechanism: A
piston pushes the fluid back and forth, depending on the movement of the steering wheel.
The piston is assisted by the small pinion gear, which reacts when the steering wheel is
turned.
• The whole mechanism is designed to amplify smaller levels of force applied by the driver
when turning the steering wheel, so that it becomes much easier to turn with less effort.
Electric power steering

• Electric power steering is a more recent design compared to the hydraulic system. However,
it has exactly the same function - to support the movement of the steering wheel, so that the
driver can more easily manoeuvre the car without having to use a lot of force. The system is
connected to the car's battery.
• In an electric power steering system, it is the car's computer (ECU) that signals the
mechanism to turn the steering wheel. The force is generated by an electric motor that often
sits by the steering rack and helps move the pinion gear back and forth inside the rack. In a
car with electric power steering, the type of rack is a little different, as it is not connected to
a closed, hydraulic system with pipes.
• There are several auxiliary mechanisms in this system. The ECU receives a signal from the
car regarding speed, and a torque sensor tells the system how much force is applied to turn
the steering wheel. Together, the many sensors adjust the electric power steering.
Suspension system;
Suspension system is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects
a vehicle to its wheels. It is basically cushioned for passengers protects the luggage or any cargo and
also itself from damage and wear.
Sir William Brush is the father of suspension system in automobiles.
The main role of suspension system is as follows:

 It supports the weight of vehicle.
 Provides smoother ride for the driver and passengers i.e. acts as cushion.
 Protects your vehicle from damage and wear.
 It also plays a critical role in maintaining self driving conditions.
 It also keeps the wheels pressed firmly to the ground for traction.
 It isolates the body from road shocks and vibrations which would otherwise be
transferred to the passengers and load.
Principle:
When a tire hits an obstruction, there is a reaction force. The size of this reaction force
depends on theunsprung mass at each wheel assembly.
In general, the larger the ratio of sprung weight to unsprung weight, the less the body and
vehicle occupants are affected by bumps, dips, and other surface imperfections such as
small bridges. A large sprung weight to unsprung weight ratio can also impact vehicle
control.
No road is perfectly flat i.e. without irregularities. Even freshly paved highways have

subtle imperfections that can be interact with vehicle‘s wheels. These are the
imperfections that apply forces on wheels.
Components of Suspension system;
There are three fundamental components of any suspension system.
 Springs
 Coil spring
 Leaf springs
 Air springs
 Dampers
 Shock Absorbers
 Struts
 Anti sway bars.
Types of Suspension system;

Advantages;
 Comfort to passengers
 Good handling
 Shields the vehicle from damage
 Increases life of vehicle
 Keeps the tires pressed firmly to ground.
FRONT AXLE
• The major unit on front part of the motor vehicle is front axle. It takes the weight of the front
portion of the automobile. It gives steering facility and absorbs shocks. The weight of the front
part of the vehicle is transmitted to the road surface through front wheels by the front axle of a
vehicle. It also houses the mechanism for steering the vehicle to absorb shocks due to road surface
variations.
• Axle beam is a major part of the front axle. It is used to transmit the vehicle weight to the front
wheel through the spring. A typical front axle shown in Figure 4.31 elaborates the front axle
components with steering linkage.
• The components of the front axle are axle beam, stub axle, swivel pin and track load
• The ends of the axle beam are shaped in such way to assemble the stub axle. The ends of the axle
beam are shaped either as a yoke or plain surface with drilled hole to hold a swivel pin connecting

the stub axle portion of the assembly. The wheels are connected on stub axles. The inclined
steering arms are located to track rod ends. The third steering arm is connected to the drag link.
The steering linkage is connected by the drag link to the drop arm of the steering box. The main
axle beam is attached to stub axles by kingpins. The front road wheels are connected on these stub
axles.
Types of Rear Suspension System

Suspension systems vary by vehicle body type and, in certain cases, even by brand. Here are the eight
most common car suspensions you‘ll come across.
• Independent Suspension
• Rigid Suspension or Leaf Spring
• Multi-Link Suspension
• Rigid Axle Suspension
• Air Suspension System
Independent Suspension
• Independent suspension refers to a suspension system that is installed on each wheel separately.
This means that bumps encountered by one wheel are unaffected by those experienced by the
others. As a result, the ride and control are extremely comfortable. The Macpherson Strut, Double
Wishbone Suspension, and Multi-link Suspension are some of the suspensions that use this
technique.
Rigid Suspension or Leaf Spring:

• The leaf spring rigid suspension, like the beam axle suspension in construction, uses leaf springs
instead of coil springs to act as dampers. Leaf springs are large bundles of spring material, mostly
steel, that flex as the vehicle‘s axle is pressed on them. Leaf springs are perfect for use in
commercial vehicles since they can support a lot of weight without breaking a sweat. However,
they are not designed for comfort, high speed, or fast turning, and if used under those conditions,
the suspension will alter vehicle handling.
Multi-Link Suspension:
This form of suspension features several links connecting to the automobile chassis and wheel assembly,
as the name implies. Because these many links can respond to any force applied to them, they‘re also
employed in off-road vehicles. On the rear tires, multi-Link suspension systems are used to provide a
highly comfortable ride and good grip. This suspension will keep your wheels attached to the ground in
the event of a rapid turn. Due to their intricate construction, these suspensions are only found on high-end
vehicles, and any damage necessitates a time-consuming and costly repair.
Rigid Axle Suspension:
The rigid axle suspension, also known as beam axle suspension, has a perpendicular axle that is attached
to the wheels by a wheel spindle and can be used with leaf springs or coiled springs. A stiff axle is
extremely sturdy and capable of carrying a significant amount of weight. The rigid axle suspension,
unlike most current suspensions, has a very simple configuration that makes it straightforward to fix and
replace. Because of its load-carrying capability and improved articulation, this suspension and its
modified versions are employed in heavy-duty vehicles and off-roaders. However, these suspensions are
not designed for fast speeds or sharp turns, and if subjected to heavy cornering, the cars will rollover.

Air Suspension System:
• Air suspension, often known as air springs, is a type of suspension that uses air bellows instead of coils
and dampers. These air bellows can be inflated and deflated with the help of an air compressor to alter
the vehicle‘s ride height. Air suspension is one of the most comfortable and load-bearing suspensions
available, which is why it is found in the majority of high-end luxury and sports automobiles. Many
vehicles and buses utilize them because of their weight carrying capabilities. Air suspensions are
extremely adaptable, and when combined with an onboard computer, they can adjust to any height,
load, or passenger.
Braking System;
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping a moving object
or preventing its motion. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular
brakes. Most commonly brakes use friction between two surfaces pressed together to
convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy
conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the
energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert
kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized
oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energyinto electric current in
the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even
transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a
rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms
such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use
a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes
and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air

during landing.
Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (k=mv2/2) an object moving
at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and
consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100
times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to
air drag rises quickly with speed. Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some
sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp.
Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft
also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight.
Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some
fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a
safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair
fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake. Friction brakes on automobiles
store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air
gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.
When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a
piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the
brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also
slows the wheel down. Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or
electromagnetic. One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass
fluid through an orifice to create friction: Frictional brakes are most common and can be
divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and
hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not
explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and
excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes usefriction.
Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear

surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum,
such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly
called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating
disc, commonly called a "disc brake".
Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat
shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum,
and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with
shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally. Pumping brakes are often used where a
pump is already part of the machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have
the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some
engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes
can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a
hydraulic accumulator.
Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the
machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator
to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives
use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat.
Types of Braking system in Automobile;
 By applications –
1. Foot Brake,
2. Hand brake.
 By Method of power –
1. Mechanical brake,
2. Hydraulic brake.
3. Vacuum brake,

4. Electrical brake and
5. Air brake.
 By method of operations –
1. Manual brake,
2. Servo brake.
3. Power operation.
 By construction –
1. Drum type brake,
2. Disc type brake
Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor
vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while braking,
preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding. It is an
automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking which were
practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It does this at a much faster

rate and with better control than a driver could manage.
ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery
surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement, ABS
can significantly increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.
Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved considerably.
Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically control the front-
to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and implementation, is known
as electronic brake force distribution (EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist, or
electronic stability control(ESC).
Operation
The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake). Typically ABS
includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors,
and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors
the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others, a
condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to
the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns
faster.
Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic
pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This
process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some
anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second.[17] Because of this,
the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in
extreme conditions.
The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical threshold,

because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the
outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all roadgoing vehicles. If a fault
develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument
panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified.
Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-
mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road
vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems, which are
rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years.
Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of
two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor,
and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that
the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC
software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated
systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in
the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside
of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much.
ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on acceleration of the
vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation and
take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control
throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.
Components of ABS
There are four main components of ABS:
 Speed sensors,
 Valves,

 Pump, and
 Controller.
Speed sensors
A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel. These sensors use a
magnet and a coil of wire to generate a signal. The rotation of the wheel or differential induces a
magnetic field around the sensor. The fluctuations of this magnetic field generate a voltage in the
sensor. Since the voltage induced in the sensor is a result of the rotating wheel, this sensor can
become inaccurate at slow speeds. The slower rotation of the wheel can cause inaccurate fluctuations
in the magnetic field and thus cause inaccurate readings to the controller.
Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve has
three positions:
In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to the
brake.
In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This prevents the
pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.
In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.
The majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a valve is clogged
it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the system from
modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.
Pump

The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valves have released it.
A signal from the controller will release the valve at the detection of wheel slip. After a valve release the
pressure supplied from the user, the pump is used to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking
system. The controller will modulate the pumps status in order to provide the desired amount of pressure and
reduce slipping.
Controller
The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual wheel
speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the controller will
then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves
on and off.
Use
There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in ABS. One of the simpler
systems works as follows,
The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel that
are out of the ordinary. Right before wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration.
If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five
seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop
spinning in less than a second.
The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the pressure to
that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration
again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is
that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires very near the
point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power.
This replaces the need to manually pump the brakes while driving on a slippery or a low traction

surface, allowing steering even in the most emergency braking conditions.
When the ABS is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the
rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been
triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.
Hydraulic braking system
The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel while it is in
motion. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be
made of composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon or ceramic-matrix composites.
This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of
brake pads (mounted on a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically,
pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and
attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes (both disc and drum) convert motion to heat, but if the brakes
get too hot, they will become less effective because they cannot dissipate enough heat. This condition
of failure is known as brake fade.
Construction of Braking system;
The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, scooters, and
mopeds, consists of the following:
 Brake pedal or lever
 A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)
 A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly
 Reinforced hydraulic lines
Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-plated steel
pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor (also called a

brake disc) or drum attached to an axle.The system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake
fluid (other fluids may also be used).
At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four wheels. Later, disc
brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear. However disc brakes have shown better
heat dissipation and greater resistance to 'fading' and are therefore generally safer than drum brakes.
So four-wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but the most
basic vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicle designs, however, continue to employ a drum brake for the
rear wheel.The following description uses the terminology for and configuration of a simple
In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the piston(s)
in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber
through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic system,
forcing fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it acts upon one or two
caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings (which prevent leakage of the fluid).
The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing them against the spinning rotor,
and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a brakingtorque to be generated, slowing the
vehicle. Heat generated by this friction is either dissipated through vents and channels in the rotor or
is conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat-tolerant materials such as kevlar
orsintered glass.
Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the spring(s) in my master cylinder assembly to
return the master piston(s) back into position. This action first relieves the hydraulic pressure on the
caliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in the caliper assembly, moving it back into its
housing and allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the system,
none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through use.

Pneumatic braking system
An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for vehicles
in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the brake pad needed
to stop the vehicle.
Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those having multiple trailers which must be
linked into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers in addition to their use in
railroad trains.
George Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air brake on March 5,
1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake invention, which led to various
forms of the automatic brake. In the early 20th century, after its advantages were proven in railway use, it was adopted
by manufacturers of trucks and heavy road vehicles

Construction of Braking system;
Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system consists of service
brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air storage tank. For the parking brake, there is a disc
or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure.
Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes
(the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing
the air under pressure (approx 100–120 psi or 690–830 kPa) to the brake chamber, causing the brake
to be engaged. Most types of truck air brakes are drum brakes, though there is an increasing trend
towards the use of disc brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the
atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa).
Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure
for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. Setting of the parking/emergency
brake releases the pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes,
thus allowing the spring actuated parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result
in full spring brake pressure immediately.
A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system. The supply
system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as to additional
air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance servo,
etc.).

Highly simplified air brake diagram on a commercial road vehicle (does not show all air reservoirs
and all applicable air valves). The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft
pulley via a beltor directly from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine
lubrication and cooling systems.
Compressed air is first routed through a cooling coil and into an air dryer which removes moisture and
oil impurities and also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and smaller purge reservoir. As
an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti-freeze device and oil
separator. The compressed air is then stored in a reservoir (also called a wet tank) from which it is
then distributed via a four way protection valve into the front and rear brake circuit air reservoir, a
parking brake reservoir and an auxiliary air supply distribution point. The system also includes
various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety valves.Air brake systems may include a wig wag
device which deploys to warn the driver if the system air pressure drops too low.
Control system
The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking brake circuit and the
trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel circuits which
receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The

service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates both circuits.
The parking brake is the air operated spring brake type where its applied by spring force in the spring
brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control valve. The trailer brake consists of a
direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the separate control or service line (marked
blue). The supply line receives air from the prime mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay
valve and the control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The operating signals for the
relay are provided by the prime mover brake pedal air valve, trailer service brake hand control
(subject to a country's relevant heavy vehicle legislation) and the prime mover park brake hand
control.
Advantages of Air Brakes;

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles such
as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from the brake
pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes have several advantages for large multitrailer
vehicles:
 The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its operating fluid, as
hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake failures.
 Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; there is no danger of
letting air into hydraulic fluid. So air brake circuits of trailers can be attached and removed
easily by operators with little training.
 Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential energy. So it
can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that stores
sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.
 Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system can be
designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.

UNIT V
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

UNIT V
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
5.1.Natural Gas as a Fuel in Automobile;
A natural gas vehicle (NGV) is an alternative fuel vehicle that uses compressed natural gas
(CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a cleaner alternative to other fossil fuels. Natural gas
vehicles should not be confused with vehicles powered by propane(LPG), which is a fuel with a
fundamentally different composition. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles
by 2011, led by Iran with 2.86 million, Pakistan (2.85 million), Argentina (2.07 million), Brazil
(1.70 million), and India (1.10 million).
The Asia-Pacific region leads the world with 6.8 million NGVs, followed by Latin America
with 4.2 million vehicles. In the Latin American region almost 90% of NGVs have bi-fuel
engines, allowing these vehicles to run on either gasoline or CNG. In Pakistan, almost every
vehicle converted to (or manufactured for) alternative fuel use typically retains the capability to
run on ordinary gasoline.
As of 2009, the U.S. had a fleet of 114,270 compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles, mostly
buses; 147,030 vehicles running on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); and 3,176 vehicles liquefied
natural gas (LNG). Other countries where natural gas-powered buses are popular include India,
Australia, Argentina, and Germany. In OECD countries there are around 500,000 CNG vehicles.
Pakistan's market share of NGVs was 61.1% in 2010, follow by Armenia with 32%, and Bolivia
with 20%.The number of NGV refueling stations has also increased, to 18,202 worldwide as of
2010, up 10.2% from the previous year.
Existing gasoline-powered vehicles may be converted to run on CNG or LNG, and can be
dedicated (running only on natural gas) or bi-fuel (running on either gasoline or natural gas.
Diesel engines for heavy trucks and busses can also be converted and can be dedicated with the
addition of new heads containing spark ignition systems, or can be run on a blend of diesel and
natural gas, with the primary fuel being natural gas and a small amount of diesel fuel being used

as an ignition source.
An increasing number of vehicles worldwide are being manufactured to run on CNG. Until
recently, theHonda Civic GX was the only NGV commercially available in the US market.,
however now Ford, GM and Ram have bi-fuel offerings in their vehicle lineup. Fords approach
is to offer a bi-fuel prep kit as a factory option, and then have the customer choose an authorized
partner to install the natural gas equipment.
In 2006 the Brazilian subsidiary of FIAT introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car
developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run on natural gas (CNG);
100% ethanol (E100); E20 to E25 gasoline blend, Brazil's mandatory gasoline; and pure
gasoline, though no longer available in Brazil it is used in neighboring countries.
NGV filling stations can be located anywhere that natural gas lines exist. Compressors (CNG) or
liquifaction plants (LNG) are usually built on large scale but with CNG small home refueling
stations are possible. A company called FuelMaker pioneered such a system called Phill Home
Refueling Appliance (known as "Phill"), which they developed in partnership with Honda for
the American GX model. Phill is now manufactured and sold by BRC FuelMaker, a division of
Fuel Systems Solutions, Inc.
CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or wastewater, which doesn't
increase the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere. Despite its advantages, the use of natural
gas vehicles faces several limitations, including fuel storage and infrastructure available for
delivery and distribution at fueling stations. CNG must be stored in high pressure cylinders
(3000psi to 3600psi operation pressure), and LNG must be stored in cryogenic cylinders (-260F
to -200F).
These cylinders take up more space than gasoline or diesel tanks that can be molded in intricate
shapes to store more fuel and use less on-vehicle space. CNG tanks are usually located in the
vehicle's trunk or pickup bed, reducing the space available for other cargo. This problem can be
solved by installing the tanks under the body of the vehicle, or on the roof (typical for busses),
leaving cargo areas free.

As with other alternative fuels, other barriers for widespread use of NGVs are natural gas
distribution to and at fueling stations as well as the low number of CNG and LNG stations.
CNG- powered vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles
5.2.Liquefied petroleum gas as a Fuel in Automobile;
Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), also referred to as simply
propane or butane, is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating
appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles. It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and
a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer.
When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as auto gas.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane (C 3H8),primarily
butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane andbutane. In winter, the
mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane. In the United States,
primarily two grades of LPG are sold: commercial propane and HD-5. These specifications are
published by the Gas Processors Association (GPA) and the American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM). Propane/butane blends are also listed in these specifications.
Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small
concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG to 5%, and is
utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can
be detected easily. The international standard is EN 589. In the United States,
tetrahydrothiophene (thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants,[5] although
neither is currently being utilized.
LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from
fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted
from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in
1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently
provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very
few sulfur emissions.

As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution.
LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil
and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline).[6] However, its energy density per volume
unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower
(about 0.5–0.58, compared to 0.71–0.77 for gasoline).
As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at normal
temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. They are
typically filled to 80–85% of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained
liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas and the liquefied gas varies
depending on composition, pressure, and temperature, but is typically around 250:1.
The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour pressure, likewise varies
depending on composition and temperature; for example, it is approximately 220 kilopascals (32
psi) for pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and approximately 2,200 kilopascals (320 psi) for pure
propane at 55 °C (131 °F). LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow along
floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. There are two main dangers from this.
The first is a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive limits and
there is an ignition source. The second is suffocation due to LPG displacing air, causing a
decrease in oxygen concentration.
Large amounts of LPG can be stored in bulk cylinders and can be buried underground.
Bio diesel as a Fuel in Automobile;
Biodiesel and conventional diesel vehicles are one in the same. Although light-, medium-, and
heavy-duty diesel vehicles are not technically "alternative fuel" vehicles, many are capable of
running on biodiesel. Biodiesel, which is most often used as a blend with regular diesel fuel, can
be used in many diesel vehicles without any engine modification. The most common biodiesel
blend is B20, which is 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel. B5 (5% biodiesel, 95%
diesel) is also commonly used in fleets.
Before using biodiesel, be sure to check your engine warranty to ensure that higher-level blends

(all OEMs accept the use of B5 and many accept the use of B20) of this alternative fuel don't
void or affect it. High-level biodiesel blends (blends over B20) can have a solvency effect in
engines and fuel systems that previously used petroleum diesel which may result in degraded
seals and clogged fuel filters.
Biodiesel improves fuel lubricity and raises the cetane number of the fuel. Diesel engines
depend on the lubricity of the fuel to keep moving parts from wearing prematurely. Federal
regulations have gradually reduced allowable fuel sulfur to only 15 parts per million, which has
often resulted in lowered aromatics content in diesel fuel. One advantage of biodiesel is that it
can impart adequate lubricity to diesel fuels at blend levels as low as 1%.
Hybrid electric vehicle:
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehiclewhich
combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric
propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better
fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There are a variety of HEV
types, and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of
HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) and buses
also exist.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative braking,
which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into electric energy to charge the battery, rather than
wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal
combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination
is known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric
drive motors
Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when
needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its
ICE than a comparably sized gasoline car, since an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller
than a comparably sized pure gasoline-burning vehicle (natural gas and propane fuels produce

lower emissions) and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum

efficiency, further improving fuel economy.
In 1901 Ferdinand Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first
gasoline- electric hybrid automobile in the world. The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become
widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda
Insight in 1999. While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost of gasoline,
worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused many automakers to release hybrids in the
late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core segment of the automotive market of the future.
About 9 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide by October 2014, led
by Toyota Motor Company (TMC) with more than 7 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold as
of September 2014, followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more
than
1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014, Ford Motor Corporation with over 375 thousand hybrids
sold in the United States through September 2014, and the Hyundai Group with cumulative
global sales of 200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014, including both Hyundai Motors and Kia
Motors hybrid models.
Worldwide sales of hybrid vehicles produced by TMC reached 1 million units in May
2007; 2 million in August 2009; and passed the 5 million mark in March 2013. As of December
2013, worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius lift back, with cumulative sales of 3.17
million units, and available in almost 80 countries and regions.
The Prius nameplate has sold 4.2 million hybrids and plug-in hybrids up to December
2013. The United States is the world's largest hybrid market with over 3 million hybrid
automobiles and SUVs sold through October 2013, followed by Japan with more than 2.6
million hybrids sold through September 2013. The Prius is the top selling hybrid car in the U.S.
market, passing the 1 million milestones in April 2011. Cumulative sales of the Prius in Japan
reached the 1 million mark in August 2011.
Fuel Cell:
A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce

electricity, with water and heat as its by-product. Since conversion of the fuel to energy takes

place via an electrochemical process, not combustion. It is a clean, quiet and highly efficient
process- two to three times more efficient than fuel burning.
It operates similarly to a battery, but it does not run down nor does it require recharging As long
as fuel is supplied, a Fuel Cell will produce both energy and heat A Fuel Cell consists of two
catalyst coated electrodes surrounding an electrolyte. One electrode is an anode and the other is
a cathode The process begins when Hydrogen molecules enter the anode The catalyst coating
separates hydrogen‘s negatively charged electrons from the positively charged protons The
electrolyte allows the protons to pass through to the cathode, but not the electrons.
Instead the electrons are directed through an external circuit which creates electrical current.
While the electrons pass through the external circuit, oxygen molecules pass through the
cathode. There the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons after they have passed
through the external circuit. When the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons it
produces water and heat. Individual fuel cells can then be placed in a series to form a fuel cell
stack. The stack can be used in a system to power a vehicle or to provide stationary power to a
building

Hydrogen:
❑ Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, but it does not exist by itself
In nature.
❑ Instead, it is found bonded to other elements in compounds such as water, natural gas,
coal, or biological material.
❑ Hydrogen can be produced from a number of different sources, including natural gas,
water, methanol etc. Two methods are generally used to produce hydrogen:
(1) Electrolysis
(2) Synthesis gas production from steam reforming or partial oxidation.
❑ Hydrogen and oxygen from air fed into a proton exchange membrane fuel cell
produce enough electricity to power an electric automobile, without producing
harmful emissions. The only byproduct of a hydrogen fuel cell is water.
❑ When burned in an internal combustion engine, small amounts of nitrogen oxides and
small amounts of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide are produced, due to
the use of engine lubricants.
Advantages
• Hydrogen is the perfect fuel to run fuel cells cause pure hydrogen reacts only with
oxygen releasing water thus no emissions.
• Hydrogen burns more efficiently and creates energy more efficiently than gasoline.
• Hydrogen has high self-ignition temperature but requires very little energy to ignite it.
• As a fuel it is very efficient as there are no losses associated with throttling.

AE QUESTION BANK
UNIT-I
1. Explain how a four wheel drive mechanism offers better power transmission in a
Automobile.
2. Explain how the power can be transmitted in front wheel drive by using a neat diagram.
3. Explain with neat sketches the various types of chassis & discuss their advantages and
disadvantages
4. Briefly discuss the working principle of a simple Carburetor system with neat sketch
UNIT-II
1. What are catalytic convertors and explain how they help in containing emissions from a
automobile.
2. Explain briefly the methods available to control emissions from a automobile.
3. Write about thermal and catalytic converters?
4. Explain common rail diesel injection system with necessary diagram.
UNIT-III
1. Explain with a simple sketch, working of differential in a automobile
2. Explain the construction working and performance of a fluid flywheel. Enumerate the
advantages of fluid flywheel over the other types of clutches
3. Draw and explain with a simple sketch, working of a constant mesh gear box.
4. Draw a schematic diagram and explain the working of a torque convertor.
5. Explain with a simple sketch, construction and working of differential in a automobile
6. Explain with a simple sketch, construction and working of epicyclic gear box in a
automobile.
UNIT-IV
1. Define camber, castor, king pin rake angles and their significance in steering geometry.
2. With the help of a schematic diagram, explain Ackerman steering mechanism.
3. Explain the functioning of independent front wheel suspension system with torsion bar
in a automobile.
4. Explain with a suitable schematic diagram, working of hydraulic braking system in a
vehicle.
5. What is ABS and how does ABS helps in improving uncontrolled skidding?
6. Explain the functioning of rigid axle suspension system with a neat sketch.
7. Briefly discuss the functional requirements of braking fluids.
UNIT-V
1. Explain the electric and hybrid vehicle with neat sketch?
2. Explain different fuel cells with a neat sketch .Give their advantages and disadvantages?
3. Explain the operation of liquefied petroleum gas system with a neat sketch?
4. Explain engine modification required to use the alternate fuel in automobiles?

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MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1. Vision, Mission & Quality Policy

2. Pos, PSOs & PEOs

5. Lecture Notes (Unit wise)

a. Objectives and outcomes

c. Presentation Material (PPT Slides/ Videos)

d. Industry applications relevant to the concepts covered

e. Question Bank for Assignments

6. Previous Question Papers

 To groom the students to become intellectually creative and professionally

For more information: www.mrcet.ac.in

To become an innovative knowledge center in mechanical engineering through state-of-

The Department of Mechanical Engineering is dedicated for transforming the students

 To pursuit global Standards of excellence in all our endeavors namely teaching,

 To create a midst of excellence for imparting state of art education, industry-

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO2 Ability to succeed in competitive examinations or to pursue higher studies or

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

To provide sound foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering fundamentals

PEO2: CORE COMPETANCE

To provide thorough knowledge in Mechanical Engineering subjects including theoretical

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

PEO4: CAREER DEVELOPMENT

(R18A0331) AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT –I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES

UNIT –II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

UNIT –III TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

UNIT –IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

UNIT –V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

The automobiles are classified by the following ways,

1. On the Basis of Load:

 Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV),

 Light transport vehicle (LTV), Light motor vehicle (LMV),

2. On the Basis of Wheels:

 Two wheeler vehicle, for example: Scooter, motorcycle, scooty, etc.

 Three wheeler vehicle, for example : Autorickshaw,

 Three wheeler scooter for handicaps and tempo, etc.

3. On the basis of Fuel Used:

 Petrol vehicle, e.g. motorcycle, scooter, cars, etc.

 Diesel vehicle, e.g. trucks, buses, etc.

 Electric vehicle which use battery to drive.

 Steam vehicle, e.g. an engine which uses steam engine.

4. On the basis of body style:

 Sedan Hatchback car.

 Coupe car Station wagon Convertible.

 Van Special purpose vehicle, e.g. ambulance, milk van, etc.

5. On the basis of Transmission:

 Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, e.g. car with 5 gears.

 Automatic : In automatic transmission, gears are not required to be

6. On the basis of Drive:

 Left hand drive

 Right hand drive

7. On the basis of Driving Axle

 Front wheel drive

 Rear wheel drive

 All wheel drive

Example : Nano car.

Vehicle construction and Components;