Dr.

Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Fluid machinery
 Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Comparison pumps and compressors

1. Both pumps and compressors move a fluid from one energy
level to another.
2. A pump moves an incompressible fluid - a liquid. For our
purposes, the volume of a liquid does not change with
pressure and temperature.
3. A compressor moves a compressible fluid - a gas. The volume
of a gas changes with pressure, temperature and gas
composition.
4. The principles of dynamic machines apply both to pumps and
compressors.
5. However, since gases are compressible, the volume flow rate
and hence the gas velocity in a passage is affected.
 Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

How to choose compressor types and create configuration ?

•Proper design of process conditions,
•Proper design of piping and foundations,
•selection of other components (drivers, transmission devices
and auxiliaries) and
•proper specification of ambient conditions.

If any of these items are not taken into account, the end user of
the equipment will be faced with a history of an unreliable process
and will pay dearly in terms of lost product revenue.
The rotating equipment environment Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Proper design of process conditions, piping and foundations, selection of other components
(drivers, transmission devices and auxiliaries) and proper specification of ambient conditions
all must be considered. If any of these items are not taken into account, the end user of the
equipment will be faced with a history of an unreliable process and will pay dearly
in terms of lost product revenue.
 Maximization of profit Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
In order to maximize the profit, a piece of machinery must have:
1. Minimum capital and installation cost
2. Maximum reliability,
3. Maximum product throughput and
4. Minimum operating cost (maximum efficiency).

Reliability does not take into account planned down time. Availability considers planned
downtime (turnarounds, etc.). Availability directly affects the product revenue.
 Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Compressor
Definition Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

A compressor is a device used to increase the pressure of a

incompressible fluid, mainly gas. The inlet pressure level can be
any value from a deep vacuum to a high positive pressure. The
discharge pressure can range from sub-atmospheric levels to
high values in the tens of tenth of bar. The inlet and outlet
pressures are related, corresponding with the type of
compressor and its configuration. A few typical applications are
air separation, vapor extraction, refrigeration, steam
recompression, and process and plant air.
Compressor selection Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Proper selection of the compressor type and number of stages

can be accomplished only after considering a number of factors.
Basic information needed for the proper selection includes:
•Volume and mass flow of gas to be compressed
•Suction pressure
•Discharge pressure
•Suction temperature
•Gas specific gravity
•Available types of drivers
Taxonomy of compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Positive displacement - Dynamic pump comparison Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Symbol for pump and compressor used in Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

Exemplary PFD:
Taxonomy of compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Typical application ranges of compressor types.

 Taxonomy of compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

How to compare compressor efficiency?

•For small capacities, the positive displacement compressor is generally the best.
At higher capacities, valve and seal leakage, mechanical friction, and flow
discontinuities increase rapidly, limiting overall efficiency.
•In a centrifugal compressor the opposite is true. In small capacities, the sealing
surface is large in comparison to the compression element, the impeller. As the
compressor size increases, the seal leakage rate grows slowly relative to volume
through-put. Reduced mechanisms (bearings, valves, seals) and improved through-
flow contribute to improved efficiencies at the high capacities.
•Axial compressors have the best efficiency. Both mechanical and aerodynamic
losses for an axial compressor are very low, resulting in efficiencies approaching
90% or even better.
Taxonomy of compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Two principle compressor characteristics:
1. positive displacement, with following characteristics
a. Definition: Increase the pressure of a gas by operating on a fixed volume
in a confined space
b. The increase of pressure will increase the horsepower. Therefore the
motor horsepower is the limiting factor for the pressure increase
c. Types include; reciprocating, rotary liquid piston, rotary lobe and screw
compressors.
d. constant volume delivery
e. variable head capacity
f. Not self limiting, thus a pressure relief valve is always required in a
system incorporating any type of positive displacement compressor.
g. Insensitive to gas composition and system change.
h. Operate at approximately the same delivered volume flow regardless of
system resistance or gas composition.
 Taxonomy of compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Two principle compressor characteristics:

2. dynamic compression, with following characteristics
a. Increasing the pressure ratio will result in a lower compressor flow rate
b. Types include axial and centrifugal compressors
c. Constant head capacity (for a certain flow)
d. Variable volume delivery
e. Self-limiting, thus does not require a relief valve to protect the compressor
and driver.
f. Sensitive to gas composition since these changes will produce mass and
velocity changes within the compressor blades or impellers
g. Sensitive to system change since an increased system resistance
requirement will force the compressor to operate at a lower volume
throughput. This is because the only way this compressor can produce
higher delivered energy is at a lower velocity throughput.
Type of compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Type of compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Rotary lobe
Positive displacement vs. dynamic compression Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The compressor operating point can be defined as the equilibrium between the
required net process system energy (duct, flange, elbow, etc.) and the compressor
produced energy (i.e. head). A system is a set of connected things or parts that
work together. In our case, a set of components (vessels), exchangers, furnaces,
control valves, etc. and pipin work together to produce a resistance to flow at the
compressor flanges.
 Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Positive Displacement Compressor

Positive displacement compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The reciprocating and lobes blower discharges gas in discrete

pulse. These pulses may be transmitted to the downstream
equipment or process and must be treated accordingly. For
example, if the downstream piece of equipment is a
reciprocating compressor, the scrubber and suction pulsation
bottle will dampen the pulses from the blower. Some blower
designs incorporate pulsation chambers in the body of the
blower casing to help minimize pulses.
Reciprocating compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The reciprocating, or piston compressor, is a positive

displacement compressor that uses the movement of a piston
within a cylinder to move gas from one pressure level to
another (higher) pressure level. The simplest example of this is
the bicycle pump used to inflate a bicycle tire. Reciprocating
compressors are generally used for the following applications:
1. Low flow
2. High pressure
3. Low molecular weight
4. Varying molecular weight

Depending on the fluid being pumped, low flow operation can result in a
high temperature rise through the pump because the amount of energy
absorbed by the liquid is low compared to that absorbed by friction losses.
Reciprocating compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

How it works?
1. As the piston moves to compress, a constant volume of gas
will be displaced.
2. The discharge pressure developed will be the pressure at the
discharge flange caused by the process pressure and system
resistance.
3. The gas in the cylinder will exit only when the pressure
developed in the cylinder is greater than the pressure at the
compressor discharge flange.
Reciprocating compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
The compression cycle

Efficiency vs. pressure ratio (head)

Reciprocating compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Reciprocating compressors – pulsation chamber Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
While strictly speaking pulsations chambers are not an integral part of the
reciprocating compressor, they are a necessary part of the reciprocating compressor
package. Pulsation chambers are placed at the inlet to the compressor and at the
discharge from each compression stage. The pulsation chambers ’s stated purpose is to
dampen pressure waves created by each compression pulse. The suction pulsation
chamber dampens the pressure pulse to the suction piping. Similarly the discharge
pulsation chamber dampen the pressure pulses to the discharge piping. These pulses,
if transmitted to either the suction piping or discharge piping could be very
detrimental to the operation and safety of the compressor.

Check valves keep the fluid flow from reversing. As with all positive displacement
pumps, piston pumps generate a pulsating flow. To minimize the pulsation, multiple
pistons or pulsation-dampening reservoirs are installed. Piston pumps are sized on
the basis of the displacement of the piston and the required flow rate and discharge
pressure. Check valves (or, on critical applications, double check valves) are selected
to protect against backflow.
Screw compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The single-stage design consists of a pair of rotors that mesh in

a one-piece, dual-bore cylinder. The male rotor is usually the
driven rotor, and the female rotor is usually driven by the male
rotor.
How it works?
1. Compression begins as the rotors enmesh at the inlet port.
Gas is drawn into the cavity between the male rotor threads
and female rotor grooves.
2. As rotation continues, the rotor threads pass the edges of the
inlet ports and trap the gas in a cell that is formed by the
rotor cavities and the cylinder wall. Further rotation causes
the male rotor thread to roll into the female rotor groove and
to decrease the volume of the cell.
3. The decrease in the volume increases the cell pressure.
 Screw compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

o improve compressor efficiency, oil is injected into the inlet cavity to aid sealing and to
provide cooling
Lobes Compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The rotary compressor is lighter in weight than the reciprocating

compressor and does not exhibit the shaking forces of the
reciprocating type, making the foundation requirements less
rigorous.

The application range of the helical-lobe compressor is unique in

that it bridges the application gap between the centrifugal
compressor and the reciprocating compressor.
Lobes Compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The blower design consists of two figure-eight elements or lobes. These lobes are
geared to drive in opposite directions. Characteristics of lobes blower:
1. Since the rotary lobes need to maintain clearance between each of the lobes a
single stage blower can achieve only limited pressure ratio differential—typically
2.0.
2. However, it is capable of compressing large volumes of gas at efficiencies up to
70%. Therefore, lobes blower is frequently used as boosters to boost low
pressure gas (at or near atmospheric pressure) to the inlet of larger compressors.
3. The blower discharges gas in discrete pulses, similar to the reciprocating
compressor
 Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Dynamic Compressor
Dynamic compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Two types of dynamic compressors are
1. axial compressor and
used primarily for medium and high horsepower applications
2. the centrifugal compressor.
utilized in low horsepower applications.

Both the axial and centrifugal compressors are limited in their range of operation by
what is commonly called:
1. Stall (or surge) and
The stall phenomena occurs at certain conditions of flow, pressure ratio, and speed
(rpm), which result in the individual compressor airfoils going into stall similar to that
experienced by an airplane wing at a high angle of attack. The stall margin is the area
between the steady state operating line and the compressor stall line.
2. Stone wall.
Stone wall does not have the dynamic impact that is prevalent with stall, but it is
a very inefficient region. Furthermore, operation at or near stonewall will result in over
temperature conditions in the downstream process.
 Axial vs. centrifugal compressor Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Comparing the characteristics curve of axial vs. centrifugal compressor:

1. For the same compressor radius and rotational speed the pressure rise per stage is
less in an axial compressor than in a centrifugal compressor.
2. But, when operating within their normal design range, the efficiency of an axial
compressor is greater than a centrifugal compressor.
3. When the flow volume is decreased (from the design point) in a centrifugal
compressor, a greater reduction in flow is possible before the surge line is reached.
4. the centrifugal compressor is stable over a greater flow range than the axial
compressor, and compressor efficiency changes are smaller at off design points.
 Axial compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Axial compressors are used for:

1. high flow,
2. low pressure-rise (called as head) applications
Simply stated, the characteristic shape of any dynamic
performance curve (rising head vs decreasing flow rate) is a direct
result of the relative velocity through the impeller or blades. The
higher the relative velocity, the less energy input from the
impeller blades and vice versa.
Axial compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
From the aerodynamic point of view there are two limiting factors to the successful
operation of the compressor:
1. the angle of attack of the airfoil and
a. If the angle of attack is too steep, the flow will
not follow the concave surface of the airfoil.
This will reduce lift and increase drag.
b. If the angle of attack is too shallow, the flow will
separate from the concave surface of the airfoil.
This also results in increased drag.

2. the speed of the airfoil relative to the approaching

gas.
If the speed of the airfoil relative to the gas is too
high, a shock will develop as the gas exceeds the
speed of sound trying to accelerate as it passes
around the airfoil. This shock will cause turbulent
flow and result in an increase in drag. Depending on
the length of the airfoil, this excessive speed could
apply only to the tip of the compressor blade.
Axial compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

System curve of axial compressors

The axial compressor, because of a low-pressure rise per stage, is exclusively
manufactured as a multistage machine. However, the a single axial compressor can
produce high volume flow rate
Centrifugal compressors Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

How it works?
The centrifugal compressor, like the axial compressor, is a
dynamic machine that achieves compression by applying inertial
forces to the gas (acceleration, deceleration, turning) by means
of rotating impellers.
 Operating point of dynamic compression Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Surging line

Compressor curve

System resistance (duct, valve, etc.)

The operating point is defined as the equilibrium condition that exists between the head
produced by the compressor and the head required by the system.

A system is a set of connected things or parts that work together. In our case, a set of
components (vessels), exchangers, furnaces, control valves, piping work, etc. together to
produce a resistance to flow at the compressor flanges.
Operating point of dynamic compression Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Ideally, the head loss for a cycle loop is zero

Operating point of dynamic compression Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Compressor combination Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
When the head or flow rate of a single compressor is not sufficient for a application,
compressors are combined. There are two basic combinations:
1. Series combincation
a. Will increase the total head of compressor (assume in an ideal case)
P total = P1 + P2 + P3 +.......
b. All compressors must have the similar volume flow rate, e.g. in m3/minute
V1 = V2 = V3 = ......
2. Paralel combination
a. Will increase the total compressor flow rate (assume in an ideal case)
V total = V1 + V2 + V3 +.......
b. All compressors must have the similar head, e.g. in m3/minute
P1 = P2 = P3 = ......

Important notes:
1. When it is not necessary and in an emergency situation, compressor combination
either in series or in parallel MUST be avoided since it will increase the
investment cost and electrical energy consumption.
2. The aboves rule for compressor combination apply also for othe machines moving
the fluid, i.e. Fan, blower, and pump
Compressor and pump combination Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Series combination Parallel combination
Compressor and pump combination Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Due to limitation in pressure increase, many compressors are

combined in series. This is called as “Multistage Compressor”

In multistage compressor, the output of first comrpessor will be

the input of the second compressor and this principal works for
the next stage as well.

Multistage reciprocating Multistage axial

compressor compressor
Compressor and pump combination Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Multistage centrifugal compressor

 Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Surging
Surging Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Definition: The phenomenon of surge, is an unstable condition

resulting in flow reversals and pressure fluctuations in the system.
This condition occurs when there is sufficient aerodynamic
instability within the compressor that the compressor is unable to
produce adequate pressure to deliver continuous flow to the
downstream system.
Surging Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

What happen if surge occurs?

If the flow is reduced to below the surge point:
1. the compressor operation becomes unstable, resulting in periodic
pressure and flow oscillations throughout the overall system of
compressor, coolers, pipes, reservoirs and valves.
2. The flow may change its magnitude in the forward direction alone or
change its direction between forward and backward with a complete
momentary halt in between.
3. The oscillations affect the power and axial rotor thrust as well and, in
the case of an un-cooled compressor, will steadily increase the
temperature level, unless stopped by an automatic trip.
Surging Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The underlying cause of surge

is aerodynamic stall which is
caused by:
a. low flow turbulence
b. an increase in the
rotational speed of the
impeller
The stall may occur in either
the impeller or the diffuser.
Surge is often indicated by excessive vibration and an audible sound; however,
there have been cases in which surge problems that were not audible have
caused failures.
Surging Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The following are some of the usual causes of surge that are not related to
machine design:
1. Restriction in suction or discharge of system
2. Sudden change in resistance of pipe/ducting network
3. Process changes in pressure, temperatures, or gas composition
4. Internal plugging of flow passages of compressor (fouling)
5. Inadvertent loss of speed
6. Instrument or control valve malfunction
7. Malfunction of hardware such as variable inlet guide vanes
8. Operator error
9. Mal-distribution of load in parallel operation of two or more
compressors
10. Improper assembly of compressor, such as a miss-positioned rotor
11. Excess extraction of gases between sections

These will cause low flow turbulence and/or increase in the rotational speed of
the impeller (see the previous page)
Surging Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Characteristics of surge:
1. Surge is defined as the lower limit of stable operation in a compressor, and it
involves the reversal of flow.
2. The intensity of surge varies from application to application and is proportional to
the density of the fluid. Higher pressure and higher molecular weight applications
can result in greater mechanical damage.
3. Surge is a high speed phenomenon.
4. Pressure rapidly fluctuates.
5. Noise is generated.
6. Mechanical damage can occur.
7. Unit may trip.
8. the gas will move back and forth in the compressor frequently, e.g. up to six (6)
times per second and not be cooled, therefore temperature increases can be
rapid and thermal expansion can cause major damage during surge.
9. for a low-pressure-ratio compressor, the surge usually initiates in the diffuser
section. For units with single-stage pressure ratios above 3:1, surge is probably
initiated in the inducer.
10. Of all the effects listed, by far the most damaging is rapid temperature increase
for this can cause internal rubs of the compressor at operating speed resulting in
impeller breakage, diaphragm breakage, extreme labyrinth seal wear and possible
case breakage.
Anti-surge control system Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

A surge control system consists of:

1. a set of detection devices (located around the compressor) that anticipate the
surge. It entails measuring the distance between this surge limit and the
operating point and then maintaining an adequate margin of safety without
sacrificing efficiency or stability.
2. control devices, which act to prevent surge from occurring.

Surge detection devices may be broken into two groups:

1. static
Static surge detection devices are those devices that attempt to avoid stall and
surge by the measurement of certain compressor parameters and thereby ensure
that a predefined value is not exceeded. When a parameter meets or exceeds the
limit, some control action is taken. To this date, static surge detection devices are
the most widely used.
2. dynamic.
Still in further development

Surge can be quite damaging to a compressor and should be avoided . If we do not

provide adequate protection against surge, we risk prohibitive
repair and downtime costs.
 Anti-surge control system Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

The quickest way to eliminate surge is to rapidly reduce the discharge pressure by opening
a blow-off or recycle valve in the discharge process system whenever the operating point
moves too close to the surge limit line.. This decreases network resistance.

On discharge, a check valve shall be installed to prevent reverse flow and minimize surge.
The check valve shall be located as close as possible downstream of the compressor to
minimize mass inventory. A check valve at the compressor outlet will limit the downstream
volume and increase the required system response time of the surge control system.
 Anti-surge control system Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

For example, the anti-surge control maintains 80% flow through the compressor, even
though the process flow requirement is less than 80%. if the process requires only 60% flow
(Point A), the antisurge control maintains 20% flow through the recycle line. Flow through
the compressor is equal to the process flow (60%) plus the recycle flow (20%), or 80%.

Recycle flow would, of course, be zero whenever the process was using 80% flow or more.
The high energy cost for compression would justify minimizing recycling, when operating at
reduced throughput, by using a variable speed drive which, in turn, complicates the anti-
surge control system.
 Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Choke/Stonewall
Choke Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

Choke is sometimes also called as stonewall. The cause of this phenomena is

excessive relative gas velocity through the impeller. As the head (energy) required by
the process system is reduced, the volume flow through the impeller will increase.

Characteristics of choke:
1. The high flow limit of the dynamic curve
is known as choke, or stonewall and is
defined as the maximum flow a given
impeller can handle.
2. Choke flow is caused by high velocity
friction.
3. Unlike surge, stonewall is not a
destructive phenomena
Operational data (Gathered from experience) Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

1. Fans are used to raise the pressure about 3% (12 in. water), blowers raise to less
than 40 psig, and compressors to higher pressures, although the blower range
commonly is included in the compressor range.
2. For Vacuum application: reciprocating piston type decrease the pressure to 1 Torr;
rotary piston down to 0.001 Torr, two-lobe rotary down to 0.0001 Torr; steam jet
ejectors, one stage down to 100 Torr, three stage down to 1 Torr, five stage down
to 0.05 Torr.
3. A three-stage ejector needs 100 lb steam/lb air to maintain a pressure of 1 Torr.
4. In-leakage of air to evacuated equipment depends on the absolute pressure, Torr,
and the volume of the equipment, V cuft, according to w = kV2/3 lb/hr, with k =
0.2 when P is more than 90 Torr, 0.08 between 3 and 20 Torr, and 0.025 at less
than 1 Torr.
5. Outlet temperature of compressor : T2 = T1(P2/P1)a
6. To compress air from 100°F, k = 1.4, compression ratio = 3, theoretical power
required = 62 HP/million cuft/day, outlet temperature 306°F.
7. Exit temperature should not exceed 350–400°F; for diatomic gases (Cp/Cv = 1.4)
this corresponds to a compression ratio of about 4.
8. Compression ratio should be about the same in each stage of a multistage unit,
ratio = (Pn/P1)1/n, with n is number of stages.
9. Efficiencies of fans vary from 60–80% and efficiencies of blowers are in the range
of 70–85%.
Operational data (Gathered from experience) Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta

11. Efficiencies of reciprocating compressors:

•65–70% at compression ratio of 1.5,
•75–80% at 2.0, and
•80–85% at 3–6.
12. Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors, 6000–100,000 ACFM at suction, are
76–78%.
13. Rotary compressors have efficiencies of 70–78%, except liquid liner type which
have 50%.
14. Axial flow compressor efficiencies are in the range of 81–83%.
Choke Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta
Choke Dr. Victor Yuardi Risonarta