Concepts of Dhamma in Dhammapada by Bhikkhuni T.N.Tin Lien

The Dhammapada is the most
popular and best-known text of

the pali Suttapitaka. It is a collec¬
tion of chosen verses picked up
ijfrom various discourses of five
'Nik&yas. It is pregnant with great
significance of practical moral and
essential philosophy of Buddhism.
Carefully studying concepts of
Dhamma in the Dhammapada also
help in catching the most specific
concepts of the term Dhamma in
the entire system of doctrine of
the Buddha.
In the Dhammapada, the term
Dhamma appeared in 48 verses
I which aije summarized in follow- >

ing nine concepts. Just in the first
and second verses, Dhamma is
used in | the sense of cetasikas
(mental States). It is also used as
law in I verse 5; or as Bud-
dhavacanp (Buddha's teachings) in
various verses. Dhamma also as
means, \yay, state, practice and
nature. In some other cases,
Dhamma refered to phenomena,
Budhipakkhiya Dhammft (Factors
of Enlightenment) or as Samatha
and Vipaesanfi; or as Nine
Transcendental and also as the
Truth, Each concept Is comprehen¬
sively discussed in each section of
the present book.
I.IJ.N.I II•14539-40- X SU mOO

.’tfiL,-:.'
CONCEPTS OF DHAMMA
IN
DHAMMAPADA
Bhikkhuni T.N. Tin Lien

M.A., M.Phil
BOOK
I i
W
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DEDICATED
TO
MY UFAJJHAYINI
THERf T.N. HUYNH LIEN,
WHO PUT ME ON THE BUDDHA-TRUTH.
PREFACE
"Dhamma" is a technical term which seems
familiar, in fact, so much complicated in philosophical
field. It is held on the tongue of philosophers when
discussing about the world and the view of life.
RBpecially Buddhist people get used to the term
Dhamma throuth Tipitaka, the sacred scriptures con¬
taining what the Buddha taught during the course of
his life.
The Dhammapada is the most popular and best-
known text of the pali Suttapitaka. It is a collection of
chosen verses picked up from various discourses of five
Nikayas. It is pregnant with great significance of
practical moral and essential philosophy of Buddhism.
Carefully studying concepts of Dhamma in the Dham¬
mapada also help in catching the most specific concepts
of the term Dhamma in the entire system of doctrine
of the Buddha.
Besides its familiar meanings such as Dhamma as
Religion, Duty, or Law which are mentioned in Vedic
and Puranic texts and literatures, the concepts of
Dhamma in Buddhism are something attractive which
ceaselessly urge many researchers to study it under
various fields.
In the Dhammapada, the term Dhamma appeared
in 48 verses which are summarized in following nine
concepts. Just in the first and second verses, Dhamma
l» used in the sense of cetasikas (mental states). It is
also used as law in verse 5; or as Buddhavacana
(Huddha's teachings) in various verses. Dhamma also
( Vi )
as means, way, state, practice and nature. In some

other cases, Dhamma refered to phenomena, Budhipak-
khiya Dhamma (Factors of Enlightenment) or as Samatha
and Vipassana; or as Nine Transcendentals and also as
the Truth. Each concept is comprehensively discussed
in each section of the present book.
In a nutshell, the term Dhamma in the Dham-
mapada comprises almost the entire teaching of the
Buddha in Tipitaka. Readers are expected not only to
read for getting knowledge but also for practising it in
daily life. This is the only way we can get more benefit
which can be regarded as the true value of Buddha's
teaching.
Being earnestly encouraged by my supervisor, Dr.
Bhikkhu Satyapala, Reader in Buddhist Studies, D.U.,
as well as the great approval of my good friends, who
have gone through this work, I boldly let it published
to contribute a tender part in the research field of
Buddhism.
Sincerely received all good advices from my
superiors and readers.
Delhi, INDIA Bhikkhum T.N. TIN LIEN

08-6-1995 NGOC PHUONG VIHARA
498/1, LE QUANG DINH, GOVAP,
HO CHI MINH CITY-VIETNAM
CONTENTS
Page No
Preface v
CHAPTER I : Introduction 1
CHAPTER II : Classification of Buddhavacana 3
CHAPTER in Dhammapada: Its Place and
Importance 15
CHAPTER IV Concepts of Dhamma in the
Dhammapada 23
SECTION 1 : DHAMMA AS CETASIKA.
1.1 Citta 25
1.2 Cetasika 27
1.3 Dhamma as Kamma (Cetana) 33
SECTION 2 : DHAMMA AS LAW.
2.1 Order of Act and Result
(Kamma Niyama) 40
2.2 Physical inorganic order (Utu
Niyama) 51
2.3 Physical organic order (Bija
Niyama) 51
2.4 Order of the Norm (Dhamma
Niyama) 52
2.5 Order of mind or psychic Law.
(Citta Niyama) 52
SECTION 3 : DHAMMA AS BUDDHAVACANA.
3.1 Tipitaka Summarized in
Sila-Samadhi-Panna. 58
( via )
3.2 Buddhavacana, one of the Triple
Gem, 60
3.3 Buddhavacana, a factual Truth. 61
3.4 Characteristics of the
Buddhavacana. 62
SECTION 4 : DHAMMA AS JUST, RIGHTEOUS
MEANS/WAY/STATE/PRACTICE/NATURE
4.1 Kusalakamma and Akusalakamma 70
4.2 Akusalakamma should be won by
Kusala Kamma 74
4.3 Nature of Dhamma 75
4.4 Dhamma as Practice 76
4.5 Dhamma as Nature of Things 79
SECTION 5 : DHAMMA AS PHENOMENA.
5.1 Conditioned and Unconditioned
Things. 81
5.2 Realms of Conditioned Things 82
5.3 Cause of Formation of Realms :
Paticcasamuppada 86
SECTION 6 : DHAMMA AS BODHIPAKKHIYA
DHAMMA.
(37 Factors of Enlightenment).
6.1 Formation of the Concept 94
6.2 A study of Bodhipakkhiya
Dhamma 95
a. Four Satipatthana (Fields of
mindfulness) 95
b. Four Sammappadhana (Right
Efforts) 99
c. Four Iddhipada. (Bases of psychic
powers) 101
( ix )
d. Panca Indriyani and Panca Balani

(Faculties and Forces) 102
e. Seven Bojjhanga (Constituents of
Enlightenment) 106
f. Atthangika magga. (Eightfold Path)109
SECTION 7 : DHAMMA AS SAMATHA AND
VIPASSANA
7.1 Distinction : Mindfulness, Meditation,
Concentration and Contemplation 113
7.2 Samatha-Bhavana-Samadhi 114
7.3 Vipassana-BhavanadPanna. 116
SECTION 8 : DHAMMA AS NINE
TRANSCENDENTALS
(4 Maggas + 4 Phalas + Nirvana)
8.1 Process to Attain Rupajjhana
Stages. 122
8.2 Attainment of Arupajjhana Stages 127
8.3 Attainment of Abhihha 127
8.4 Attainment of eight Lokuttara
Stages and Nirvana 127
SECTION 9 : DHAMMA AS THE TRUTH.
9.1 Relative Truth. (Sammuti-sacca). 133
9.2 Ultimate Truth. (Paramattha-sacca)134
9.3 Way to the Ultimate Truth 137
CONCLUSION 139
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 141
INDEX 143
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
A. Anguttara Nikaya.
Com. Commentary.
D. Digha Nikaya.
Dhp. Dhammapada.
fn. Footnotes.
J- Jataka.
M. Majjhima Nikaya.
P.E.Dict. Pali English Dictionary
S. Samyutta Nikaya.
Skt. Sanskrit.
V. Verse.
Vin. Vinaya Pitaka,
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The Buddha due to a great cause appeared in this
world. It is to show human-beings their ultimate
wisdom, how to use it and how to live with it. It is
to show the only Holy Path through which men can
destroy their sufferings forever, cut off the circle of birth
and death forever and get ultimate peace forever. All
the Buddha's teachings during the course of 45 years
of his life sealed in Sangha's heart, is called Bud-
dhavacana.
Buddhavacana (Buddha + Vacana) means the
Teachings of the Buddha. Its technical word is Pitaka
which has been used in the sense of:
-Pariyatti,
-Patipatti and
-Bhdjana.
1
Pariyatti means the scriptures themselves as a body
which is handed down through oral tradition.
Patipatti2 from pati+pad, "the way", method, prac¬
tice, performance....And Bhdjana3 means a bowl, vessel,
dish, generally a container.
When mentioning the term "Pitaka" we at once
direct the mind to the third meaning. Originally, it
means "basket". This term appears in many Suttas as
1. , T.W. Rhys Davids and William, The Pali Text Society's Pali English
Dictionary, London, The Pali Text Society, 1972, p.432.
2. Ibid: 396
3. fbid:501
2 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhammapada
a compound word along with the term "Kudddla" (a

spade or a hoe) such as in Vin.III 47; D.I. 101; M.I.
127; S.H 88; S.V. 53; A.I. 204; A.D 199; J.I. 225, 336;
Kudddla-pitaka "hoe and basket". From this explanation,
the original meaning of the term Pitaka becomes very
dear. The purpose of this ''Pitaka” is to preserve and
to carry earth or any such types of items from one
place to another without losing anything. It is in this
sense scholars have adopted this technical term to refer
to a particular literature which preserves the words of
the Buddha in its original form through oral tradition
handed down to the student by their teachers sincerely.
And a person when pondering and practising over these
words even a sentence or a verse with a concentrated
and faithful mind, he is able to uproot the weeds of
ignorance and finally obtain the state of eternal peace
that is called Nirvana.
Among the ocean of Dhamma, the Dhammapada
stands out as a diamond-island and glitters as a
lighthouse which men cannot control the thirst of
adoration.
Before coming to have the analytical study of the
concepts of Dhamma in the Dhammapada Scripture, some
necessary searches we should get through:
-Classification of Buddhavacana, and
-Introduction of Dhammapada: its place and impor-
tance.
CHAPTER II
CLASSIFICATION OF
BUDDHA VACANA
The Buddha for 45 years preached the Dhamma in
various styles of discourses, to various persons of
various natures and under various conditions orally.
After Buddha's Parinibbdna, a great Council (1st) was
held to collect the words of the Buddha from various
sources, to recognize them as Buddhavacam and to
compile them in a systematic order. In this process, the
Buddhavacana was classified in seven ways as belows:
1. Rasavasena.
2. Dhammavinayavasena.
3. Pitakavasena.
4. Kalavasena.
5. Nilcayavasena.
6. Angavasena and
7. Dhammakhandhavasena.
1. Rasavasena:
The water of all four great oceans obtains only one
taste of saltiness. Similarly the entire Dhamma taught
by the Buddha, although preached to various persons
of various natures, possesses only one taste. That is
the taste of salvation (Vimuttirasa). 'Vimutti' means
freedom. Freedom from all evil forces, freedom from
sufferings, and freedom from the circle of repeated
births and deaths, that is Freedom from 'Samsdra'.
2. Dhammavinayavasena:
-The entire Buddhavacana in another way may be
classified into two following divisions: Dhamma and
Vinaya.
-
Dhamma, the teachings taught by the Buddha for
the benefit of all his disciples in particular and for all
beings in generally called Dhamma.
-Vinaya, the special teachings which the Buddha
taught only for his homeless disciples. These instructive
rules help them in attaining the goal of their monastic
lives directly, without any wastage of time and energy.
3. Pitakavasena:
In another way, the Buddhavacana can be classified
into three divisions. Each division is called Pitaka, thus
there are three Pitaka: Vinaya-Pitaka, Sutta-pitaka and
Abhidhamma-pitaka .
3.1.: Vinayapitaka has got two component parts,
Vinaya and Pitaka. The term Vinaya has further been
divided into 'Vi'+'naya'.
'Vi' means properly, correctly.
'Naya' means to lead.
Therefore that which leads one properly, correctly
is Vinaya. Vinaya-pitaka means the collection of the
Buddha's teachings leading one rightly in the direction
of threefold benefication namely physical, vocal and
mental while he is living in monastic life.
"Because it shows precepts and principles, and
governs both the body and the tongue, therefore men
call this scripture Vinaya".4 The Vinayapitaka consists of
the following texts.
3.1.1. Sutta-vibhanga.
3.1.2. Khandhaka and
3.1.3. Parivara.
4. Buddhaghosa's commentary on the Dhammasangam, the Expositor
(Atthasallni), London, The Pali Text Society, 1976, p.24.
Classification of Buddhavacarm 5
The Sutta-vibhanga is based on the Patimokkha, a
moral code of conducts of Buddhist monks, to be recited
in the assembly of whole company of monks in every
monastery on Uposatha days. It is the first part of Vinaya
text and occupied with laying down and explaining all
227 rules of Patimokkha. There are two kinds of Vibhanga:
Bhikkhu-vibhahga and Bhikkhuni-vibhanga.
Khandhaka represents the positive counterpart to the
Sutta- vibhanga. They contain the regulations leading the
monkhood life in the monastic Order like ordination
ceremony, monsoon restrict, dress, shoes, etc. including
the record of life of the Buddha from the time of his
Enlightenment upto the formation of the first Vihdra,
and the accounts of the first two councils.
Parivdra is the last book of the Vinaya pitaka and it
is the sort of resume of the preceding texts.
3.2. Suttapitaka is the second collection of the
teachings of the Buddha. The word Sutta has got two
component parts: 'Su'+'utta'.
'Su' means well.
'Utta1 means preaching (discourse).
Therefore it is the collection of the words of the
Buddha which has been preached well and nicely.
Buddhaghosa explained the meaning of Suttapitaka as
follows.
"This scripture shows, expresses, fructifies, yields, guards
the good and is unto the wise; a plumb-line; therefore sutta
is its name."
(For it shows what is good for the good of self and
others. It is well expressed to suit the wishes of the
audience. It has been said that it fructifies the good,
as crops fructify their fruit, that it yields the good as
a cow yields milk; and that it well protects and guards
the good. It is a measure to the wise as the plumbline
is to carpenters. And just as flowers strung together
are not scattered nor destroyed so the good strung
together by it does not perish).
Suttapitaka is divided into five collections or Nikayas
(Agamas). They are.
3.2.1. DIghanikaya.
3.2.2. Majjhimanikaya.
3.2.3. Samyuttanikaya.
3.2.4. Anguttaranikaya and,
3.2.5. Khuddakanikaya.
Dighanikaya is the first Nikdya of the Sutta- pitaka
and is a collection of long discourses consisting of 34
Suttas beginning with Brahmajdlasutta. It is divided into
three parts (vagga) namely:
Silakkhandhavagga 13 Suttas.
Mahavagga 11 Suttas and
Patikavagga 10 Suttas.
The second Nikdya of the Suttapitaka is _
Majjhimanikaya, being known as the middle collection
or the collection of the discourses of medium length,
consisting of 152 Suttas, begining with the Mulapariyayd
sutta, and it is divided into three groups called pannajba
namely:
Mulapannasa 50 Suttas.
Majjhimapanndsa 50 Suttas and,
Uparipannasa 52 Suttas.
Samyuttanikdya is the collection of joined or con¬
nected Suttas consisting of 56 groups with 7762 Suttas
beginning with the Oghataranasutta.
Anguttaranikaya is the fourth Nikdya of the
Suttapitaka, collection of Dhammas characterised by
numerical groupings and arranged serially in an
ascending order. It consists of 9557 Suttas beginning
with Cittapariyadana and is divided into 11 Nipatas.
Classification of Buddhavacana 7
Khuddakanikaya is the last Nikdya of the Suttapitaka,

collecting of the small suttas and divided into fifteen
texts.
3.3. The third collection of the teachings of the
Buddha is called Abhidhammapitaka. Here the word
Abhidhamma has got two component parts: Abhi+Dham-
ma.
'Abhi' is a prefix which means excellent, profound.
'Dhamma' here refers to the four reals of Abhidhamma
Philosophy namely Citta, Cetasika, Rupa and Nibbana.
Since is deals with the ultimate truth and , the
philosophical principles it is called a special type of
teaching.
Various meanings of the word "Abhi" were showed
by Budhaghosa in his definition of Abhidhamma in the
Atthasdlini:
"Because this book shows things that suffer growth, of
proper attributes, to be revered, well differentiated, and of
worth surpassing, Abhidhamma is its name." Abhidhamma
consists of seven books:
3.3.1. The Dhammasahgani deals with psychological
phenomena.
3.3.2. The Vibhahga, "differentiation", a suppliment
and continuation of the preceding books.
3.3.3. The Dhdtukatha, "discussion of the elements,"
deals with psychic phenomena and their relation to the
categories.
3.3.4. The Puggalapahhatti, "description of
Individuals", deals with the various personalities and
l he character in the form of questions and answers.
3.3.5. The Kathavatthu, it is perhaps historically the
most important book in the Abhidhamma. It deals with
metaphysical questions.
3.3.6. The Yamaka, book of pairs on applied logic.
3.3.7. The Patthanappakarana or Mahapattham is a
voluminous work on causality.
Threefold basket is collectively known under the
name Tipitaka (Skt. Tripitaka).
A chart will make it clear as belows.
TIPITAKA
f
ABHIDHAMMAPITAKA SUTTAPITAKA VINAYAPITAKA
1. Dhammasangani 1. Dlghanikaya 1. Sutta-vibhanga

2. Vibhanga
3. Dhatukatha
2. Majjahimanikaya
3. Samyuttanikaya
J
Bhikkhu-vibhanga
4. Puggalapannatti 4. AnguttaranikSya (Maha-vibhanga)
5. Kathavatthu Bhikkhuni-vibhahga
| 5. Khuddakamkiya~|
6. Yamaka and,
7. Patthana 2. Khandhaka
Mahavagga
Cullavagga
3. Parivara
1. Khuddakapatha. 2. Dhammapada 3. Udana

4. Itivuttaka 5. Suttanipata 6. Vimanavatthu
7. Petavatthu 8. Theragatha 9. Therigatha
10. Jataka 11. Niddesa 12. Patisambhidamagga
13. Apadana 14. Buddhavamsa and 15. Cariyapitaka
It is the canon of the Theravada school which itself

belongs to the Vibhajjavadins, middle of the third century
after the Buddha's demise. According to tradition, its
compilation immediately carried on at the First Council
of Rajagaha under the leadership of Mahakassapa Jhera,<:
The Tipitaka along with its commentaries was ifixech
In writing only under king Vattagamani Abhaya ! (29-
17-BC) in Sri Lanka., i.e. a few decades before the
beginning of the Christian era.5
Pali is the language in which Tipitaka is compiled.
4. Kalavasena:
This classificatibn regards the time of utterance of
the words of the Buddha. The entire Buddhavacana has
been divided into three classes, namely:
4.1. Pathama Buddhavacana.
4.1. Majjhima Buddhavacana and,
4.1. Pacchima Buddhavacana.
Pathama Buddhavacana (Pathama- the first,
foremost) is dealt with the words uttered by the Buddha
Immediately after attaining his supreme enlightenment
under the Bodhi tree at Buddhagaya.
According to one tradition, Buddhaghosa, in the
Atthasdlini, mentioning the following verses, is regarded
as the Pathama Buddhavacana:
"Yada have patubhavanti dhamma dtdpino jhdyato
brdhmanassa, athassa kahkha vapayanti sabba yato
pajanatisahetudhammam,
Yada have patubhavanti dhamma dtdpino jhdyato ,
brdhmanassa, athassa kankha vapayanti sabba yato khayam
yaccaydnam avedi,
Yada have patubhavanti dhamma dtdpino jhdyato
brdhmanassa,
'i. DIpavamsa XX.21; Mahavarasa XXXIII. 100,101.
Vidhupayam titthati Marasenam suram va

obhasayamantalikkham ti (Vinaya I : 3-5-7)
.......
[Lo! when appear true doctrines to the saint, zealous
and thoughtful, all his doubts dissolve; He knows that
all becoming is through cause.
Lo! When appear
Lo! When appear

unto the world,
.......
demolition of all cause.
dissolve; He knows the
dissolve; And he is as a light
Having annihilated Mara's hosts,

even as the sun illuminates the sky,
Having dispelled the darkness of the night]
X X X X X
However according to another tradition, the stu¬

dents of Dhammapada say that the following were the
first words spoken by the Buddha:
"Anekaydti samsdram sandhavissam anibbisam,
Gahakdrakam gavesanto dukkhd jdti punappunam.
Gahakdraka dittho'si puna geham na kahasi.
Sabba te phasuka bhaggd gahakutam visahkhatam.
Visahkhdragatam cittam tanhanam khayamajjhagdti".
(Dhp.v. 153,154)
[Long I endure the circles of rebirth, seeking but
finding not the architect, Rebirth continual is continual
pain. But now have I espied the architect! Behold, you
shall not build the house again.
Broken are thy beams, thy pinnacle destroyed. Now
to Nibbana has my mind attained. And now in me all
craving is destroyed.]
Pacchima Buddhavacana-(pacchima: the latest,
hindmost). Before entering the Mahaparinibbana, the
Buddha uttered the following last utterance:
"Handa dani bhikkhave amantayami vo, Vayadhammd

mhkhara, appamadena sampadetha”
[Hearken now, bhikkhu, tell you: conditioned
things are subject to decay; work out your salvation
with diligence!]
This is called Pacchima Buddhavacana.
Majjhima Buddhavacana-(majjhima means the mid¬
dle). In between the before two periods, whatever
discourse the Buddha has delivered is collectively called
Majjhima Buddhavacana.
Altogether three periods they form Tipitaka.
5. Nikayavasena:
The term Nikaya (Ni+Kaya) means the collection
("body"), assemblage, class, group.6 The entire Bud¬
dhavacana has also been classified with regard to the
sides, language, styles of the discourses. In this way
of classification it has been classified into the following \
five Nikayas: DJghanikaya, Majjhimanikdya, Samyuttanikaya,
Anguttaranikdya and Khuddaka Nikaya.
Here Khuddakanikaya refers to all the remaining
words of the Buddha, excluding the four Nikayas. That
means the whole five works of Vinaya, the seven works
of Abhidhammapitaka and the fifteen divisions of
Khuddakanikaya, beginning with Khuddakapatha, Dham-
mapada....belong to the Khuddakanikaya in this classifica¬
tion.
6. Angavasena:
[Vedic Anga anc. Latin “angulus”- angle, corner,
etc. ungulus, finger-ring=Skt. anguliya.]. Literally it
means a constituent part of the body. Figuratively it
refers to a constituent part of a whole or system or
collection.7
ft. Pali-English Dictionary, p.352
7. Ibid:6
12 Concepts of Dhamma in- Dhammctpada
Navangabuddhasasana, "the ninefold teaching of the

Buddha", i.e. the 9 divisions of the Buddhist scriptures
according to their form or style namely: Sutta, Geyya,
Veyydkarana, Gdtha, Udana, Itivuttaka, Jataka, Abbhutad-
hamma and Vedalla. 8
Sutta:
The term Sutta (Su+utta) generally means well-ex-
plained, but here it stands for a particular literature
consisting of all discourses bearing the name of Sutta,
instructions, orders or rules-made by the Buddha.
Geyya:9
According to the Atthasdlim, all the chapters with
verses in the Samyutta-Nikaya form Geyya.
Veyyakarana:
It refers to the entire Abh idha mmapitaka , Suttas
without verses and any other words of the Buddha not
included in the eight parts is understood as Veyydkarana
or exposition.
We should make clear that Geyya means Sutta with
verses and Veyydkarana means Sutta without verses. So
the latter is the same with Sutta. In point of fact,
8. Har Dayal metioned twelve in his book "The Bodhisattva doctrine in
Buddhist Sanskrit literature" They are Sutra (discourses), geyya (mixed
verse and prose), vyakarana (expository answers), gatha (poems), adana
(solemn or trisumphant utterances), ityukta (quotations), avadana
(edifying stories), jataka (birth- stories), vaipulya (extended treatises or
longer texts), adbhuta- dharma (tabs of wonder, miraclass) and upadesa
(treatises on esoteric ritual) (and vedalla, should be added). These twelve
categories of scripture are collectively described as dharma- pravacana
(exposition of the doctrine). An earlier list mentions only nine items
and omits udana, avadana, and ityukta (p. 151)
9. Pali English Dictionary, geyya p. 254; Veyyakarana p.649; udana p. 134;
Navanga p. 348; Abbhutadhamma p.60; vedalla p.648.
Veyyakarana is applied to those Suttas containing

questions and answers.10
Gatha :
It means verse. Here, it stands for the special class
of Buddhavacana which are composed purely in verse-
form, namely Dhammapada, Theragathd, Thengdthd, and
pieces in the Sutta-Nipata.
Udana:
The special utterances which, has been uttered by
the Buddha while he has full of joy. There are 82 Suttas
in this category.
Itivuttaka:
Means "Thus have been said". According to
Ruddhaghosa, 112 suttas taught in this way; "Thus was
it said by the Blessed- One" etc. is understood as
Itiputtaka.
Jataka:
Composes of 550 birth-stories of the Buddha
beginning with the Apannaka.
Abbhutadhamma:
It means "something wonderful, super-normal".
Here, it stands for the class of Buddhavacana whereby
the Buddha has mentioned certain special, excellent or
marvellous qualities of some pexsons-Bhikkhu, Bhikkhuni,
etc.
Vedalla:
The term Vedalla is derived from the word "Veda"
which means knowledge. The Buddhavacana which gives
a helpful increasing knowledge and satisfaction to the
learners is called Vedalla. It includes such Suttas as the
Cullavedalla, Mahdvedalla, Sammaditthi, Sakkapahha,
Mnhdpannana, Sahkhdruppatisuttam.11
10, The expositor (atthasilinl) p.33 fn2.
7. Dhammakhandhavasena:
Finally, from quite a mechanical point of view, the
canon is divided into 84.000 Dhammas, i.e. individual
pieces or lectures.
11. Majjhimanikaya I Sutta No 44,43; Dighanikaya II Sutta No. 21;

Majjhimanikaya III Sutta No. 9, No. 20.
CHAPTER III
DHAMMAPADA :
ITS PLACE AND IMPORTANCE.
Dhammapada is the second work out of fifteen works
of the Khud.dakanikd.ya which belongs to the Suttapitaka
in the Tipitaka.
It is one of the most best known works both in
literary and ethical aspects. Running into verses with
short and clear and convincing explanations, symboliz¬
ing with easily understandable similes, each verse of
the book is pregnant with great significance which
directly penetrates to heart of listeners. Reading Dham¬
mapada, we have the feeling of confronting the Buddha
himself, drinking the taste of his teachings directly from
his lips, without interference of compilators. Besides,
carefully studying the Dhammapada is essential for the
correct understanding of the doctrine of the Buddha.
Because of these characteristics, some scholars include
this text in the list of classics of the world.
The word Dhammapada (Skt. Dharmapada) is com¬
posed of two components, Dhamma and Pada. The term
Dhamma, Skt. Dharma, ordinarily translated as "religion"
or "virtue", is used in very different senses in the
different schools of religious traditions of Indian
thought. To Indian mind, from the very dawn of Indian
civilization, Dharma as the essential core which distin¬
guishes men from beasts.
The word Dharma which may be compared to the
earlier term, rta, and is derived from the root dhr,
literally means "what supports or upholds". As the

Mahdbharata puts it. "The word dharma comes from
"upholding" and human beings are held together by
Dharma”. It is "the final governing moral principle or
ethical law of the universe". It is rooted ultimately in
God. It is eternal and eternal is soul. For clearer, it is
the basic principle underlying all our moral actions, the
divine moral law, moral duty, the law of righteousness.
To Surendranath Dasgupta, in his "A History of
Indian Philosophy" Vol. II (p.2-11) we have four stages
in the development of the concept of Dhamma in Indian
thought, i.e. Dhamma as the duty of following the Vedic
injunctions, Dhamma as moral virtues of non-injury,
truthfulness, self-control, etc. Dhamma as self-knowledge
through Yoga. And finally, according to Bhdgavatd,
Dhamma consists in the worship of God without any
ulterior motive-a worship performed with a perfect
sincerity of heart by men who are kindly disposed
towards all, and who have freed themselves from all
feelings of jealousy.
To Buddhism, K.N. Upadhyaya shows that S.N.
Dasgupta has enumerated four different uses of it in
the Buddhist scriptures such as:
1. Scriptural texts
2. Quality (guna)
3. Cause (hetu) and,
4. Unsubstantial and soulless (nissatta nijjiva) entity.
Jadunath Sinla had added one more to it is "the
Law or Norm". Some scholars such as Mrs. M. Geiger
and Prof. W.Geiger and Th. Stcherbatsky have tried to
solve the uncertainty about the meaning of this term
in their work "Pali Dhamma" and "The Central Conception
of Buddhism and the meaning of the word "Dharma"
respectively.
To Rhys Davids in his "Buddhist India”, (p.292)
etymologically it is identical with the Latin word "for
Dhammapada : Its Place and Importance 17
ma”; and the way in which it came to be used in India

in Asoka's time is "good form". Dhamma has been
rendered "Law" in his Pali-English Dictionary (p.335)
we may interpret Dhamma by the fourfold connection:
doctrine, right or righteousness, condition and
phenomenon.
The first meaning of Pada (P.E. Diet, p.408) is: (m)
foot, (nt) step. Here it means a word (or a quarter of
a verse), verse, stanza, line and sentence.
According to Narada Thera, Pada implies section,
portions, parts or way. So Dhammapada may be rendered,
"Sections or portions of the Dhamma", "The way of the
Dhamma".
Sdmana "Wei-chi-lan" explained it in the preface of
the Fa-Kheu-King that it is so called because all the
verses, without exception are taken from some one or
other of the accepted scriptures, and therefore they are
called Dhammapada, Law verses (verses from the Law),
because they are found in the canon.
Dhammapada is translated by Fausboll "collection of
verses on religion"; B.M. Barua and S. Mitra approve
of Beal's "Law- verses" translation; by Rockhill " The
Law"; and by Max Muller "Footstep of religion", "the
path of virtue" (or the Norm of virtue); by Childers
"the footstep or footpath of virtue", i.e. the path that
leads to virtue; while Spence Hardy still more freely
called it "the paths of Religion"; by some others "the
way of Truth", "The way of Righteousness".
The work Dhammapada is a collection of chosy verses
taken from different texts of the Tipitaka, some traceable
and some not. According to B.C. Law and also B.M.
Barua and S. Mitra, Strictly we can speak only of four
Indian recensions, viz, the Pali, the Prakrit, the mixed
Sanskrit and the Sanskrit. The fifth being added is the
Pa-Kheu-King, a Chinese Recension in translation. Of
these, the Pali Dhammapada is the best known and most
18 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhamtmpada
complete. It composes of 423 verses arranging into 26
chapters according to the subject related. The Prakrit
Dhamntapada is not complete. It is the only text of which
a fragment has been preserved in Kharosthi manuscript,
found among the ruins of the Gosringa Vihdra, 13 miles
from Khotan in 1892. The Chinese Fa-Kheu-King original
and the Dhammapada quoted in the Mahdvastu are
regarded as ones in mixed Sanskrit. The original of the
Chinese version of the Dhammapada incorporated in the
Chuh-Yau-King and the Uddnavarga some original por¬
tions of which have been found at Turfan, are works
in Sanskrit.
[According to Samuel Beal in his preface to the
Chinese version of Dhammapada translation, there are
four principal copies of Dhammapada in Chinese namely:
1. Fa-Kheu-King.
2. Fa Kheu Pi-ii.
3. Chuh-Yau-King. and,
4. Fa-tsi-yaosin,
All of them refer their first arrangement to the Ven.
Dharmatrata (Arya-Dharmatrata). He was one of the
great leaders of the Vaishasikas and lived about 70 B.C.
and is said being the uncle of Po-su-meh, i.e., Vasumitra.
The original of Fa-Kheu-King was compiled by
Dharmatrata, brought to China by a Shaman Wei-chi-lan
in 223 A.D. Samuel Beal supposed that Dharmatrata
while revising Dhammapada, added some additional
stanzas to them, so the work became 26 chapters with
502 verses (it is not available now), and that this work
was accepted by the fourth Council held under the
presidency of his nephew Vasumitra, during the reign
of Kanishka, and thus acquired the reputation of a
canonical portion of the Tripitaka. When the work
brought to China, Chinese editors (themselves Indians)
when translating it into Chinese, added a number of
stanzas in the different chapters. So the Fa-Kheu-King
Dhammapada : Its Place and Importance 19
with Indian original book of 502 verses in 26 chapters
is neither a faithful translation nor entirely a new
compilation, but bears the character of both. It composes
of 760 verses in 39 chapters.
The "Fa Kheu pi-ii i.e. parables connected with
the Dhammapada was translated into Chinese by two
Shamans-Fa Kheu and Fa-Lih of the western Tsin Dynasty
(A.D. 265-313). It composes of 39 chapters identical with
the Fa-Kheu-King but the verses (gatha) are fewer. No
agreement between the stories of this text and those
given by Buddhaghosa.
The third Chinese version is called "Chuh-Yau-King”,
i.e., the Sutra of the Dawn, or "birth of Light",
consisting of seven volumes in twenty books, divided
in thirty-three chapters. It is still refered to Arya
Dharmatrata as its author. It was brought to China by
\>haman Sanghbhadnga (about- 345 A.D.) and translated
by Indian Chu-Fo-nien with the assistance' of others
(about 410 A.D.). As its title implies, it is a Dhammapada
commentary rather than a Dhammapada text.
The fourth last Chinese version of a Sanskrit
Dhamapada, known as the Fd-tsi-yao-sin. (Dharmasahgraha-
maharthagathd), compliled by Dharmatrata, and translated
by Thien-si-tsdi (A.D. 986-1001) of the later Sun dynasty
(AD 960-1127). According to Dr. Nanjio, it is a
compilation of the verses of the Chuh-Yau King.
X X X X X
The Uddnavarga is a pure classical Sanskrit Dham¬
mapada text, translated into English by Rockhill who is
inclined to identify the Dhammapada text in the third
Chinese version Chuh-Yau-King with the Uddnavarga.
According to him, "the contents of the two works, as
far as has been ascertained, are identical".12 It also
12. B.M. Barua and S. Mitra (Prakrit Dhammapada) p.xv (Introduction).

contains 33 chapters, and more than 1000 verses, of
which about one-fourth only can be traced in the Pali
text. The same collection is also found in the Tanjur,
vol. 71 of the Sutras, followed by a commentary, the
Uddnavargavivarana by the Acarya Prajnavarman, who
lived in Kasmir in the 9th century A.D.
However, B.M. Barua and S.Mitra in their Prakrit-
Dhammapada book show doubts about the authorization
of Arya Dharmatrata to Fa-Kheu-King as well as to other
Dhammapada works].
Pali Dhammapada is composed of 423 verses divided
into 26 chapters (vagga) as follows:
No. of No. of
CHAPTER TITLE OF CHAPTER Verses Stories
I Yamakavagga (Pairs) 20 14
n Appamadvagga (Mindfulness) 12 9
m Cittavagga (Mind) 11 9
IV Pupphavagga (Flowers) 16 i£
V Balavagga (Fool) 16 15
VI Panditavagga (Wise) 14 11
VII Arahantavagga (Arahat) 10 10
vm Sahassavagga (Thousand) 16 14
IX Papavagga (Evil) 13 12
X Dandavagga (Punishment) 17 11
XI Jaravagga (Ageing) 11 9
xn Attavagga (Self) 10 10
xm Lokavagga (World) 12 11
XIV Buddhavagga (Buddha) 18 9
XV Sukhavagga (Happiness) 12 8
XVI Piyavagga (Affection) 12 9
xvn Kodhavagga (Anger) 14 8
xvm Malavagga (Impurities) 21 21
XIX Dhammatthavagga Oust or
Righteous) 17 10
XX Maggavagga (Path) 17 12
Dhamrnapada : Its Place and Importance 21
XXI Pakinnakavagga (Miscellaneous) 16 9
XXII Nirayavagge(Chapter on Niraya) 14 9
xxm Nagavagga (Elephant) 14 8
xxiv Tanhavagga f
(Craving) 26 12
XXV Bhikkhuvagga (Bhikkhu) 23 12
XXVI (Brahmanavagga) 41 40
TOTAL 423 305
Regarding the time of collection, the date of

Dhamrnapada must depend on the date of the Tipitaka
of which it forms a part. The Mahavamsa (Chapter v,
68) confirms its existence of a few years earlier than
the Third Council, the time of the Emperor's conversion
to the Buddhist faith, for on that occasion, his teacher,
Nigrodha, is said had explained to him the
Appamddavagga, the second chapter of Pali Dhamrnapada.
It was, therefore, known in the middle or early part of
third century B.C. To Narada Thera and some others,
Pali Dhamrnapada might be orally compiled earlier at
the First Council, it means immediately one month after
the decease of the Master.
The Dhamrnapada is accompanied by the Atthakathd,
in which details relating to the circumstances Buddha
uttering the verses are given. There are 305 stories
related to 423 verses. It is generally believed that the
Atthakathd came into existence sometime in 4th and 5th
centuries A.D., written by Buddhaghosa basing on
Sinhala Atthakathd (Commentaries in Sinhalese) already
in Ceylon. However, scholars after judging the style of
writing, show doubts if Budhaghosa was its real author.
How far these tales are genuine may be difficult to
determine. Max Muller has already observed that such
stories "may have been invented to suit the text of the
Dhamrnapada rather than vice versa".13
13. Max Muller, Dhamrnapada (Introduction).

The Dhammapada has been translated in many

languages of the world. It seems that every Buddhist
country has its own Dhammapada translation with
varying number of stories. The first edition was
published in Copenhagen by V. Fausboll along with
Latin translation in 1855. It also was the first printed
edition of the Pali text. But it is Max Muller, the first
one to translate it (Pali recension) into English in 1870.
It was followed by A.L. Admunds (Hyms of the Faith)
in 1902, by Wagismara and Saunders in 1920 and by
F,L. Woodward in 1921 (Buddha's Path of Virtue), by
Narada Thera (The Dhammapada) in 1959; by Radhak-
rishnan in 1966 and by Thomas Byrom (Dhammapada )
in 1976. The Chinese version of the Dhammapada Fa-
Kheu-pi-ii was translated into English by Samuel Beal
under title "Texts from the Buddhist Canon known as
Dhammapada" in 1878.
CHAPTER IV
CONCEPTS OF DHAMMÿ IN THE

DHAMMAPADA.
In the Dhammapada, the term Dhamma appeared in

48 verses and are summarily used in the nine concepts
as showed belows:
Dhamma is used in the sense of:
-Mental states (Cetasikas)
-The Law.
-The Buddha's teachings (Tipitaka ).
-Just, righteous means/way/state/practice.
-Things, phenomena.
-Path of virtue,i.e., Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma, 37 Factors
of Enlightenment.
-Dhamma in "Dvayesu Dhamma The practice of
Tranquillity (Samatha) and Insight meditation (Vipassand
-Dhamma : nine Transcendentals-and,
-Dhamma means the Truth.
SECTION 1.
DHAMMA AS MENTAL STATES

(CETASIKAS)
The first concept of Dhamma in the Dhammapada is
Mental State. In the verses 1 and 2, Dhamma refers to
this sense. A man is a composition of Ndma and Rupa
in which the former is formed with Citta and Cetasikas.
"Manopubbahgama dhamma
Manosetthd, manomaya
Manasa ce padutthena
Bhdsati vd karoti vd
Tato nam dukkhamanveti
Cakkam va vahato padam," (Dhp. v.l)
[All mental phenomena have mind as their fore
runner, they have mind as their chief, they are mind
made. If one speaks or acts with an evil mind, suffering
follows him just as the wheel follows the hoofprint of
the ox that draws the cart.]
"Manopubbahgama dhamma
Manosetthd manomaya
Manasa ce pasannena
Bhdsati vd karoti vd
Tato nam sukhamanveti
Chayaya anapayini" (Dhp. v.2)
[All mental phenomena have mind as their fore¬
runner; they have mind as their chief; they are
mind-made. If one speaks or acts with a pure mind,
happiness follows him like a shadow that never leaves
him.]
Ohamma as Mental States 25
Mind is leader of men's actions and is performed

by actions. Men are directly responsible for their actions.
If one speaks or acts with a pure or evil mind, happiness
or misery will follow him unavoidably.
Before coming to discuss about Cetasikas, it would
be better of having a general look of Citta.
l.l.Citta.
The term Citta originated from the root Cit, to think.
According to Atthakathd, Citta is the knowledge of the
existence of objects. "Arammanacintetiti: cittam" (Cin-
tetiÿVijanati).
"Cinteti samapayuttadhammam etendti: Citta" that
which mental states (Cetasikas) often relie on knowing
objects is named Citta.
—
"Cintanamattam : Cittam" Knowing is Citta.
—
"Citti karetiti : Cittam" that which makes beings'
nctivities different is named Citta.
When being divided into two, Citta and Cetasikas
are included into Ndrna, while into five aggregates,
Vihhnna is used. And the word Citta is always prefered
when mentioning the different kinds of consciousness
such as Kamavacaracitta, Rupdvacaracitta, Kusalacita,
Akusalacitta,
It is not fow people taking Citta (Consciousness) as
n soul-a permanent unchangeable entity wanders from
existence to existence, feeling results of Kamma like the
wrong view of Bhikkhu Sati, who declared in
Mahatanhasahkhayasuttam (M.Ixxx viii): "According to my
understanding of Buddha's teachings, this consciousness
wanders and turns but has no change." The Buddha scolded
(he erring Bhikkhu and reiterated monks that conscious¬
ness is due to conditions. Without conditions, there is
no arising of consciousness. When six sense organs get
contact with six worldly objects, there arise six
consciousnesses: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and
mental-consciousness. Later, Yogacdra or Vifhdhavdda
26 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhatnmapada
school of Mahdyana of Asanga and Vasubandhu added

two more = Martas consciousness (the 7th consc.) and
Alayavinndna (the 8th consc.) So the total number is
eight consciousnesses. It is known Vijndnavada on
account of the fact that it holds Vijnaptimatra (nothing
but consciousness) to be the Ulimate reality.
Vasubandhu's Vijnaptimatra-siddhi is the basic work of this
system. It maintains that Citta (Cittamatra or
Vinmnamatra)\s the only reality while the Alayavijndna
contains the seeds of phenomena, both subjective and
objective. Like the flow of water Alayavijndna is a
constantly changing stream of consciousness. With the
realization of Buddhahood, its course stops at once.
Abhidhamma analyses Citta into 89 or 1211. If divided
into Bhumi (stage), it is of four kinds:
a) <n>
-Kdmdvacara-citta: 54 54
-Rupavacara-citta: 15 15
-Arupdvacara-citta 12 12
-Lokuttara-citta 8 40
Total 89 121
Kamavacara-citta (Kama is desire and avacara, move)
is a consciousness which moves in the world of desires.
Eye loves beautiful forms, ear likes sweet sound, nose
prefers nice smell, tongue wishes dellicious food, body
likes smooth touch and mind attaches pleasant objects.
Like a monkey remains on moving from one branch to
another, similary, Kamdvacara citta fickle, restless,
unsteady and always roams in the world of desire.
Rupavacara-citta is the name of a consciousness
which gets concentration on an object associated with
one form and colour. This is citta got through meditation,
exactly have to say Rupajjhdna.
1. Bliikkhu J.Kashyap, Abhidhamma philosophy, Delhi, A.K. Distributors,
1982, Citta(P.l-43); Cetasika (p.44-86).
Dhamma as Mental States 27
When the Yogdvacara practises Arupajjhdna he will

get Arupavacara-citta, a type of consciousness which
develops concentration on an object having no form at
oil.
And Lokuttara-citta is consciousness of person who
have gradually cut off one by one ten fetters (Samyojana)
which steadily ties men in the circle of existences.
If analysing Citta according to moral, immoral, there
ore:
(I) (?)
-Kusala-citta (Moral consc.) 21 37
-Akusala-citta (Immoral consc.) 12 12
-Vipaka-citta (Resultant consc.) 36 52
-Kiriya-dtta (Inoperative consc.) 20 1
20
Total 89 121
Moral consciousness, a consciousness is associated
with moral states. "Kusala-mula-sampayuttam cittam
kusalacittam nama". On the contrary it is immoral
consciousness, "Akusala-mula sampayuttam cittam
Akusalacittam nama".
Vipaka Citta (or Resultant consciousness) is the fruit
of an active consciousness. The consciousness arises
and sinks down. While sinking down it leaves impres¬
sion on the surface of mind. Such impression is called
Vipaka Citta. And, Kiriya Citta or inoperative conscious¬
ness. It is the consciousness of an Arahat who has
destroyed all worldly desires. Therefore his conscious¬
ness will not produce any Vipaka or resultance.
In the Dhammapada there is no verse related with
"Dhamma" taken Citta as its conception.
1.2. Cetasikas:
The Cetasikas are such Dhammas which belong to
consciousness. They constitute as the part and parcel
of the consciousness. As the word Sarisika speaks of
the Dhammas which belong to our body and the word
Manasika speaks the sense which belongs to mind.

Similarly the word Cetasika is the Dhamma which belongs
to the consciousness. This can be understood with apt
example.
Suppose we are coming to the university. On the
way we hear the sentence that I am hungry, give me
something. Hearing this, first of all each sound touches
the ear. It means there arises Phassa or touch.
Simultaneously there arises the ear-consciousness (Sota-
vihhdna) due to the coincidence of the two: sense-organ
(ear) and worldly objects (sound). Following Phassa there
comes Vedana. It means there is the arising of feeling
(agreeable, disagreeable or neutral). Again, the mind
turns to know what type of sound it is. This is the
arising of Sahha (perception, knowing). When it is
understood that this is the sound of a poor man, there
appears compassion towards him. It is the rise of Karuna.
Then there appears whether helping him is good or
bad. It is the rise of Cetand. In the meanwhile, the
consciousness is passing a process of 17 thought-mo¬
ments to complete the course of cognition. After
investigating the object with the assistance of psychic
factors, then there appears the attitude of giving him
something. Prior to this, Phassa, Vedana, Sahha, Karuna,
Cetand are the psychic factors or Cetasikas. In this way
Cetasikas are such Dhammas which constitute the
consciousnesss. They are the factors of a consciousness.
When there are Cetasikas, there is a consciousness or
where there is a consciousness there are psychic factors.
In this way, psychic factors are the part and parcel of
the consciousness. They are 52 in number.
Generally divided, we can say there are three
divisions namely:
-Ahhasamana Cetasika 13
-Akusala Cetasika 14 and,
-Sobhana Cestasika 25
The Anhasamana cetasikas are psychic factors

which are present in both moral and immoral types of
consciousness. They are sub-divided into two:
Sabbacitta sadharana are 7. They are so named
because they are present with all the 89 or 121 types
of consciousness. Vedana, Safina and Cetana (feeling,
perception and volition respectively) belong to this
group. The other four are: Phassa (Contact), Ekaggatd
(one-pointedness), jlvitindriya (life-force) and Manasikdra
(attention). Here we should give some notices about
Cetana, the most important cetasika in creating Kamma.
Cetana is volition. It is the "motiveless inclination"
of the subject towards the object when contact has taken
place. According to Atthasdlini and Vibhavini Tikd, Cetana
is that which co-ordinates the menal states associated
with itself on the object of consciousness. "Cetana acts
oh its concomitants, acts in getting the objects and acts
on accomplishing the task,i.e., determines action.2
Hence, when there is Cetana, there is Kamma.
Pakinnaka Cetasikas are 6.
Pakinnaka means scattered. They are available with
the consciousness in a scattered way. They are available
with all the four bhumis of consciousness but not all
the consciousness of each bhumi. They are: Vitakka (initial
thought), Vicara (discursive thought); Adhimokkha (stay¬
ing without trembling), Viriya (Energy), Piti (rapturous)
and Chanda (strong desire).
Akusala cetasikas are the immoral psychic factors.
They are 14 in number and available with all the 12
types of immoral consciousness.
They are : Moha (Ignorance); Ahirikam (Absence of
individual shame); Anottappam (Absence of social sense),
Uddhaccam (Distraction of mind), Lobha (Greed), Ditthi
(False view), Mana (Conceit), Dosa (111 will), Issd
2. Narada Thera, A manual of Abhidhamma, Srilanka, the Colombo
Apothecaries, 1980, p.86.
(jealousy), Macchariyam (miserness), Kukkuccam (brooding

over), Thtnam (Laziness of consciousness), Middham
(Laziness of psychic factors) and Vicikicchd (Doubt).
Sobhana cetasika which means good types of
psychic factors are available with all the sobhana types
of consciousness. These psychic factors are 25 in
number. They are sub-divided into four divisions
namely:
(1) Sobhanasadharana: 19. They are available with
all the Sobhana types of consciousness. They are : Saddha
(Faith), Sati (Mindfulness), Hiri (Individual shame),
Ottappam (Social shame), Alobho (Sacrifice), Adosa
(Friendliness), Tatramajjhattata (Balance), Kayapassaddhi
(Serenity in psychic factors), Citta-passaddhi (Serenity in
Consciousness), Kdya-Lahutd and Citta-Lahutd (Lightness
of psychic factor and of consciousness), Kdyakammahhatd
and Citta- kammahhata (Adaptability in psychic factors
and in Concsiousness) Kaya-pdguhhatd and Citta-
Pdguhhatd (Healthiness in the psychic factors and in the
consciousness). Kdya Ujjukatd and CittaUjjukatd (Straight
forwardness of the psychic factor and of the conscious¬
ness), Kaya-mudutd and Cita-muduta (Mildness in psychic
factors and in consciousness).
(2) Viratiyo : 3. Due to these psychic factors
abstaining from Immoral Consciousness is possible.
They are sammdvdca (Right speech), Sammd kammanta
(Right action), and Sammd- ajiva (Right livelihood).
(3) Appamarina : 2. They mean boundless, limited¬
less. They represent the psychic factors like Karund
(Compassion) and Mwd/ffl(Universal joy).
(4) Pannindriya : 1. It is the faculty of knowing,
Pahha. It is due to this the knowing of different Dhammas
is possible.
All 52 Cetasikas have mind (Citta=vihhdna) as their
forerunner, because, though they arise simultaneously
with mind, they cannot arise if mind does not arise.
Dharnma as Mental States 32
Questions might be arised such as from where these

Cittas and Cetasikas are originated.
Practically we can say they are originated from
Bhavanga, the stream of accumulated consciousness of
past existences. The literal meaning of the word
Bhavanga is the part of existence. "Bhavassa ahgam iti
Bhavahgam." A man has done moral and immoral deeds
in his past lives. He accumulated the impressions or
resultance of these actions. The resultance of these
actions which is carried from the last state of existence
to the present one flows on like a stream not remaining
the same for two consecutive moments. This stream of
consciousness is called Bhavanga, the sub-conscious
activity of the mind in one life. This to a greater extent
determines the life-process in the present state of
existence. Here we should not regard this stream of
consciousness as a visible stream like a stream of water.
It is not like that. It has no real form. It is an energy.
Training the mind is the accumulation of good
habits: using Pahhd-Cetasika to prevent and weaken the
arising of immoral mental states such as greed, hatred,
ignorance, wrong- view, conceit..., to encourage and
make habit the appearance of moral mental states such
as universal love, compassion, kindness,sympathy,
purefaith, energy, greedlessness... until our stream of
consciousness contains all moral mental states and
becomes pure and serene.
If we go further to doubt that from where the
ultermost first Cittas and Cetasikas took root, the matter
becomes too much subtle and complicated! We should
await the answer from Abhidhammic scholars.
"The mind is very difficult to see, very delicate and
subtle; it moves and lands wherever, it pleases. The wise one
should guard his mind, for a guarded mind brings happiness."
(Dhp.v.36).
We've just had a general view of Citta and Cetasika
and the relationship between them. Now coming back
to verses 1 and 2, the word Dhamma here according to
Commentary refers to three mental states, namely,
feeling (Vedana), perception (Sahhd) and volitional ac¬
tivities (Sankhdra)3.
However, according to Narada Thera, Dhamma in
this case is used in the sense of Kamma or Karma, action
accompanied with Volition (Cetand). It gererally states
all mental states (Cetasikas) in which Cetand is the most
important.4
So is there something unaccorded between these
two explanations?
After the first sermon of turning the wheel of
Dhamma, the Buddha preached the "Non-self” sermon
in which man is simply composed of these five
aggregates:
Rupakhandha (Form aggregate). RUPA
f Vedana Khandha (Feeling-aggregate) ‘
CETASIKA < Sahhdkhandha(Perception-aggregate)
(Volitional activities)
V Sankhdrakhandha NAMA
CITTA (Consciousness
Vihanakhandha
aggregate)
Analysing Phenomena according to Abhidhamma,
there are four Dhammas covering conditioned and
unconditioned things:
-Citta
-Cetasika
-Rupa and,
-Nibbana.
To Buddhaghosa, the term Dhamma refers to Vedana,
sahhd and Sankhdra, but these three are 52 Cetasikas.
3. Daw Mya Tin, the Dhammapada, Delhi, Offest Printer, 1990, p.l, fn.l
4. Narada Thera, Dhammapada, p.3, fn.2
Dhamrrn as Mental States 33
(Vedana is one, Banna is another. The remaining fifty

mental states are collectively called Sankharas or voli¬
tional activities). Moral and immoral Cetasikas accom¬
panied with Cetana are performed by actions, beings
creating Kamma. Due to Kamma-cause, Kamma-result
follows, next comes Samsara. Therefore, Cetasikas in
which the most important is Cetana, decide existences
of human beings. That is the reason why Buddhaghosa
here took Vedana, Sannd and Sankhara (= these three are
52 Cetasikas) as the meaning of Dhamma; while to Narada
Thera, the term refers to Kamma or Cetana itself.
1.3. Dhamma as kamma (Cetana)
An action (Kamma) will follow the rise of conscious¬
ness (Citta) and psychic factors (Cetasikas).
In Majjhimanikdya, the Buddha often confirms the
existence of Kamma when saying that "with clairvoyant
vision, purified and super normal, I perceived beings
disappearing from one state of existence and re-appear-
ing in another. I beheld the base and the noble, the
beautiful and the ugly, the happy and the miserable,
passing according to their deeds."
So the Buddha often warned his Bhikkhus and their
disciples that : "Kamma are one's own, beings are heirs
to Kamma, Kamma are matrix, Kamma are keen, Kamma
are arbiters. One cannot escape from the result of his
Kamma."
There is no Buddha's other doctrine having raised
so much controversy as Kamma theory. The Buddha
declared no-soul, no-caste in one hand and in another
impressed in rebirth along with one's result of Kamma.
Is there something without harmony here? We will
consider it in the course.
What is Kamma?
A Kamma (Skt.-Karma) literally means action or deed.
In technical use, it means an action accompanied with
— —
volition (Cetand) intentional, conscious, deliberate, will¬
ful action through body, speech and mind. An action
without Cetarn is not named kamma, it is a mere action.
In order to impress the major role of Cetand in creating
Kamma, the Buddha himself addressed: Oh bhikkhus; I
declare that Cetand is Kamma.
Every volitional action, except that of a Buddha or
of an Arahat, is called Kamma. The Buddha and the
Arahat do not accumulate fresh Kamma as they have
destroyed all their passions.
There are two types of Kamma (in the sense of
mere action).
-Kusala Kamma (moral actions)
-Akusala Kamma (immoral actions).
Kusala Kamma and Akusala kamma may produce then-
due effects with the interference of Cetand.
We have four kinds of classification of Kamma (in
the sense of volitional action).
(a) There are four kinds of Kamma according to the
functions5 they perform namely:
-Janaka Kamma (Reproductive kamma) -One ac¬
cumulated good and bad Kamma during one's life which
condition Vinndnakkhandha and Rupakkhandha of his next
life.
-Upatthambhakakamma (Supportive Kamma),
Kamma which exist or maintain the action of this
Reproductive Kamma.
-Upapilakakamma (Counteractive Kamma) Kamma
which weaken, interrupt the fruition of Reproductive
Kamma.
-Upaghatakakamma (Destructive Kamma) According
to the Law of Kamma, the potential energy of Reproduc¬
tive Kamma could be suddenly stopped by a more
powerful opposing Kamma of the past, just as a powerful
5. Bhikkhu J.Kashyap, op.tit., p.254
Dhamtrn as Mental States 35
opposing force can check the path of the flying arrow

and bring it down to the ground. Such an action is
called "destructive Kamma".
(b) In another way there are four kinds of Kamma
according to the strength of their effect, namely:
-Garukakamma means weighty or serious Kamma.
This Kamma, which is either good or bad, produces
results in this life or in the next for certain. If good,
it is purely mental as in case of jhanas (absorptions).
Otherwise it is verbal or bodily. The five kinds of bad
weigh tly Kamma are:
- Matricide.
- Parricide.
- Breaking pure conduct of Bhikkhuru.
- Wounding a Buddha and>
- Creation of a schism in the Sangha.
This is also called Anantariyakamma (unpreventable
Kamma) because it definitely brings fruits in this life
or in the next. If in case a Yogdvacara (who is training
the mind with meditation) does a serious Kamma later,
his meritorious Kamma and his life will certainly be
affected. As Devadatta lost his supernatural powers and
was born in the hell because of his plotting injury
against the Buddha and creating a schism in the Sangha.
As in case of king Ajatasattu who could not obtain
Sotdpattiphala (Stream Entry fruit) due to the sin of killing
his father Bimbisdra.
-Asannakamma (a death-proximate Kamma)
This is the Kamma one does immediately before the
dying moment. This Kamma is very important because
it takes major part in the state of coming rebirth. As
in the case of Matthakundali (Commentary of Dhp.y.2),
a young brahmin of a very stingy father, he passed
away with his heart in devotion to the Buddha, so he
was born in the Tdvatimsa celestial world.
36 Concepts of Dhamtm in Dhamtnapada
It is also in the case of Pukkusdti, a young rtÿonk

who did not know the Buddha before, he met the
Buddha one night in the house of a potter. After
listening His preaching, he recognised the Buddha at
the end of the discourse. With mind filled with joy he
went out to search a begging bowl and a robe for an
Upasavtpadd ordination, being gored to death by a mad
cow, he was born in the realm of Anagami stage (Never-
return stage) because in the last minute of his life, he
died with the mind full of joy of enlightenment.
It is also with Mallika6 chief queen of Pasenadi, king
of Kosala. She led a righteous whole life. Nevertheless,
it is said that the moment of her death she recollected
her telling lie to husband, and as a result, was born
in Hell Avici for seven days.
Because of the importance of Asannakamma some
necessary ceremonies such as inviting monks coming
to pray at the death moment of relative have been done.
The purpose of this is to remind his/her good Kamma
he or she has done during life and to lead the mind
remembering the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
-Acinnakamma (Habitual Kamma). It is the Kamma
that one habitually performs and recollects and for which
one has a great liking. As in case of Cu.ida,7 a
pork-butcher for over fifty- five years. Before he died,
he was in such great pain and agony that he was
grunting and squealling and kept on moving about on
his hands and knees like a pig for seven whole days.
-Katattakamma (Cumulative Kamma) embraces all
that cannot be included in the above three and actions
have been immediately forgotten after doing.
(c) There are also four kinds of Kamma according
to the time they take in giving their effect, namely:
6. Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Vol.I p.154.
7. Dhammapada Commentary, Cundasukarikavatthu, verse 15
Dkamtrn as Mental States 37
-Ditthiddhammavedamya kamma (Immediately Ef¬

fective Kamma) kamma which gives its effect in this
very life.(l)
-Upapajjavedanlya kamma (Subsequently Effective
Kamma )-Kamma which gives its effect in the next life.(2)
-Aparapariyavedanlya kamma (Indefinitely Effective
Kamma)-Kamma may produce their effects in any life in
the course of one's wandering in Samsara.(3)
-Ahosi kamma (Ineffective Kamma)-Kamma which
is ineffective (4)
According to Abhidhamma, we do good or bad
Kamma during Javana- citta lasting 7 shana (Ksana) period.
The result of the first shana-citta may be received in this
life (1). The result of the last seventh shana-citta may
. be got in the next life (2). If results of these should
have not been appeared, we name (4). The result of
Citta between the first and seventh shana (i.e., 2-6) may
be given anytime in course of Samsara, that means its
fruits may produce in this life or the next or futher (3).
It is even Buddha himself and Arahats could not aviod
from this Kamma as in case of Cakkhaupalathera who
suffered blind although he was an Arahat (Dhp. com.
v.l)
(d) The last classification with reference to the place
where Kamma produce their effect also has four kinds
namely:
-Immoral Kamma which produces its effects to the
plane of misery of kdmavacara (world of desire).
-Moral Kamma which produces its effect in the
better world of Kdmavacara.
-Moral Kamma which produces its effect in
Rupavacara (world of the form).
-Moral Kamma which produces its effect in
Arupdvacara (world of the formless).
, Now I think we are getting puzzled and tired with
the jungle of Kamma and its complicated results. Men

feel embrassed with their accumulated past existences
38 Concepts
of Dhamma in Dhammapada
and remote coming future. Jainsts hold the view of
practising extreme austere to burn past Katnmas,
making moral Kamma in present which prevents the
bad result of Kamma in future. The Buddha, instead
choosing the extreme ascetic way, took the Middle Way.
"Not to do evil, to cultivate merit” to prevent bad
Kamma in present and future. "Purify one's mind" to
train mind, exchange immoral mental states to moral
mental states till the extinction of defilements, attaining
the liberation-goal.
But what is the motive to urge men creating past
and present kamma?
-Avijjd(Ignorance) and Tanha (Craving).
Due to ignorance, men grasp the notion of self, my
building, my car, my wife, my children, my fame, my
position, my beauty, etc.,., do not recognize all these
"my" being temporary, impermanent, destroyable, men
can do anything to protect these "my".
Due to "Craving" men tend to act depending on
their own love or hatred, their mind cannot be judge
and clear, not seeing objects with right view and right
thought, from TariM conditions Upaddna (grasping),
therefore bad kamma is created.
Hindu Law of Kamma holds the view that Kamma,
men create, produces twofold results. One affects the
doer, another produces an impress upon his soul. Each
act he does produces an impress upon his soul. When
a man dies and when his soul escapes/ the soul is full
of such impressions. It is these impressions which
determine his birth and statues in his future life. The
Buddha maintained "No-soul", so where is the store
of Kamma ? What creates acts and what will receive the
results of these acts?
In the course of cognition at five doors of senses
(Pancadvdravithi) and the course of cognition at mind-
door (manodvdravithi) there is Taddlambana stage lasting
two thought-moments (sham). The function which is

the recording the experiences of the object for memory.
The merits, demerits, colours and shape etc. of the
object is thoroughly preserved in the mind. So a certain
writer on psycho-analysis says "Kamma is stored within
the psyche (nerve-system)". We definitely do not regard
Citta (consciousness) as identified with the nerve-system
because of one simple reason is the material nerve-
system being totally destroyed after death. In another
side, consciousness is arisen due to conditions. Due to
eyes and due to forms, there arises eye-consciousness
(Cakkhu- vihhdna) and so on. So then, where is Kamfta?
"O Maharaja", says the Ven. Nagasem, "Kamma is
not said to be stored somewhere in this fleeting consciousness
or in any other part of the body. But dependent on mind
and matter it rests manifesting itself at opportune moment,
just as mangoes are not said to be stored somewhere in the
mango tree, but dependent on the mango tree they lie springing
up in due season.”
Just as wind or fire is not stored in any particular
place, even so Kamma is not stored any where within
or without this body. Kamma is an individual force, and
is transmitted from one existence to another.8
Who is the doer of Kamma? who reaps the fruit of
Kamma?
Says the Venerable Buddhaghosa in the Visuddhimagga,
"No doer is there who does the deed
Nor is there one who feels the fruit;
Constituent parts alone roll on..."
Volition or will (Cetand) is itself the doer. Feeling
(Vedand) is itself the reaper of the fruits of Kamma. Apart
from these mental states there is none to sow and none
to reap.
8. Narada Thera, A Manual of Buddhism, Singapore, Singapore, Buddhist
Meditation Centre, 1990, p.81
SECTION 2
DHAMMA AS "LAW"
The second concept of Dhamma in the Dhammapada
is the Law- “a natural moral order" instead of “the divine
moral law" of Hinduism.
According to Buddhism there are five orders or
processes (Niyamas)9 which operate in the physical and
mental realms, namely:
-Utu niyama
-Bija niyama.
-Dhamma niyama
-Citta niyama and,
-Kamma niyama
Dhamma in verses number 5, 24 and 144 take the
meaning of Kamma- niyama while that of verses number
256 and 257 embrace the concept of five Niydmas.
2.1 Order of Act and Rerult (Kamma-niyama)
'Order of Act and Result' means desirable and
undersirable acts produced corresponding good and bad
results.
In life, the law of act and result can be divided
into two: one applies to communities or societies in
which Law is made by legislature for the proper
regulation and another for self- responsibility of men
in this life and in the next.
The term Dhamma in verse 24 has taken the first
meaning.
9. Ibid: 84
Dhamma os Law 41
"Utthanavato satimato
Sucikammassa nisammakdrino.
Saniiatassa dhammajivino.
Appamattassa yaso bhivaddhati”
[If a person is energetic, mindful, pure in his
thought, word and deed, and if he does everything
with care and consideration, restrains his senses, earns
his living according to the Law (Dhamma) and is not
unheedful, then the fame and fortune of-, that mindful
person steadily increase.]
The verse related to Kumbhaghosaka, a banker's son,
whose parents was dead, leaving a treasure for him.
Because he left home as a minor child, no one
recognized him, he could not take it out to use openly,
so he kept patient and laboured under the society- rules.
Finally king Bimbtsara made him out of his secret.
The second meaning of the law of act and result
is regarding men's moral self-responsibility. Act is the
cause and result-its effect. Everything in the world is
formed according to the process of act and result. As
cloud is cause and rain is its result. As seed is cause
and plant is its result. As love is cause, and grasping
is its results. As hatred-cause and enemy-its result. So
the Buddha has taught:
"Na hi verena verdni
sammantldha kudacanam
averena cas ammanti
esa dhammo sanantano." (Dhp. v.5)
[ Hatred is, indeed, never appeased by hatred in
this world. It is appeased only by loving kindness. This
is an Ancient Law.]
The Buddha uttered the verse with reference to a
certain women who was barren and her rival. Their
past feuds as rival wives of a common husband; as a
hen and a cat; as a leopardess and a doe; and finally
a lady with her baby and an ogress. They were made
to see that hatred could only cause more hatred, and
that it could only cease through friendship, under¬
standing and goodwill.
The Law of Kamma is as natural and necessary as
others. As surely as water seeks its own level, so does
kamma, given opportunity, produce its inevitable result-
not in the form of reward or punishment but as an
innate sequence.
When the time is ripe "Not in the sky, nor in the
middle of the ocean, nor in the cave of a mountain, nor
anywhere else, is there a place, where one may escape from
the consequences of an evil deed.” (Dhp. v. 127)
Arhant Moggallana, the Buddha's most supernatural
magical power disciple, have to suffer terrible death by
gangsters due to the sin of killing parents in a remote
past life.
Arhant Cakkhupalatthera suffers blind because in a
certain past existence, he as a physician, out of anger
made blind a trust-breaking woman.
Buddha himself and Arhants have to take barley
instead of rice during the twelth year rainy season
(vassavdsa) at Verahjd due to a past remote sin.
However it does not mean that all causes will bear
fruit. We have examined Kamma with its classification.
Among sixteen kinds of Kamma, there are four kinds
with regard to the time they take in giving their effect,
they are:
-Ditthadhammavedaniya-kamma: Kamma which
gives its effect in this very life.
-Upapajjavedanlya-kamma: Kamma which gives its
effect in the next life.
-Aparapariyavedanlya-kamma: Kamma may
produce their effects in any life.
-Ahosikamma: Kamma which is ineffective.
Dhamtna as Law 43
Why is there difference about the time Kamma giving

fruit? Sometimes even no fruit? It is because there is
minor cause or assistant besides major cause. As the
rice-seed is the major cause to arise rice-plant. It is
certain that there is no rice- plant without rice-seed.
But the rice-plant which grows fast or slowly, or
sometimes died under the earth depends on earth-
qualities, fertilizer, water-supply, human's care, harming
insects, weather and sunlight.
In the same way, two persons in the same time
sowing a good or bad Kamma but their result of which
differs. Why it is so? It's because between cause and
effect, there are many elements affecting the progress
of giving fruit. That depends on-
-The merits of the causer.
-The affect of Asannakamma (a death-proximate
Kamma)
-Objects Kamma related.
-Citta (consciousness) of the causer whether pure
or not
-The psychology of the man who receives the result,
and finally,
-It also depends on whether there is the appearance
of Upapilakakamma (counteractive action) and
Upaghatakakamma (Destructive action) or not.
-Firstly the fruit depends on the merits of the
causer. Anguttara I chapter "Salt" told that just as a
handful of salt was put into a bowl of water, the taste
would be very salted. But if the same that handful of
salt was put into a river, its effect is as nothing. In the
same way, the same bad kamma was done but its result
differs between the more meritorious person and the
less one.
-The affect of Asannakamma (a death-proximate
action). Through the stories of Pakkusati, the weaver's
daughter, Mallikd, chief queen of king Pasenadi,

Matthakundali- a young brahmin of a very stingy father,
we are recognised how important this Kamma is in
deciding the coming realm of beings.
Majjhima-nikaya III, Mahdkammavibhahgasuttam No
XXXVI, said: "The men, done ten bad Kammas were
born into Deva realms, while anothers done ten good
Kammas were suffered hell". That is because of the
interference of Asannakamma (men's death- time have
.wrong view or right view).
-Objects Kamma related.
The person committed killing parents, Arhants....,
it means one of five heavy sins, has to suffer infinite
punishment in Avici hell. This sin is much more than
killing an ordinary one. The sin of killing an ordinary
one is much more than that of killing an animal. Killing
a president of a country is pronounced death-penalty,
while the highest sentence of killing a civilian is life-
imprisonment.
About the different quantity of merits one got, in
Majjh. I, Dakkhinavibhahgasuttam No. XLII, the Buddha
has taught: There are fourteen different kinds of
donation according to the kinds of receiver. Giving alms
to Tathagata-Sambuddha is the highest from which one
got unfathomable merits. Next is Pacceka Buddha, then
comes Arhanta, Arahattaphala, Arahattamagga,
Anagamiphala, Anagamimagga....donation to keeping Slla
persons, to non-keeping Slla ones, and finally to all
kinds of bird, fish, animal generally.
-The result of Kamma depends on Citta of the
causer. Citta is regarded as important in judgement to
Buddhism. Depending on volition whether strong or
light the result of Kamma differs.
'
"If is not just the quantity or quality of gifts but actually
the manner of the giver. An affectionated heart is better than
a good gift." The result of a charity Kamma is very much
Dhamma as Law 45
depending on the donor's Citta whether pure and

faithful or not. As example of the begger donating oil
lamp to the Buddha, the light has continuously been
brightened while hundreds of king's lamps were
extinguished when oil exhorted.
We must have known the famous historical conver¬
sation between Bodhidharma-the 28th Indian patriarch-
and Liang ww-Ti-Chinese Emperor in A.D. 526. The latter
put the question that he built thousands of monasteries
all over China country, so how about his merits? "There
is no merit at all", there came the reply that was not
satisfied the Emperor. Bodhidharma then settled in Loyang
where he engaged in silent meditation for, nine years,
whence he received the title of ''wall-gazing Brahman"
What is the reason as the Emperor had done such
a worthy work and got no merit in return?
The patriarch stood on view of emptiness, mind
has no attachment to any forms of Prajhdpdramitd to
answer the emperor. Because the "real" charity is no
charity at all. "Giving" without grasping will gain
immeasurable merits. Because one who has any attach¬
ment will fall back to cherishing the idea of an ego
entity, a personality, a being, or a separated in¬
dividuality. Because having attachment that means there
hold the idea of the donor and the receiver, there exists
the distinction between "self' and "others'. Besides, if
the fact that the Emperor built thousands of monasteries
with the idea to satisfy himself with fame, it must be
naturally less merit in return. The Sutta also said: Saving
all the mankind, it indeed is no one is saved that is
Paramita-conduct of Bodhisattvas.
We have discussed the case of doing good actions.
In case due to the universal love for the majority,
a Bodhisattva have to "kill one cat to save hundred mice”,
kill one cruel person to save hundred others, it is sure
46 Concepts of Dhamtm in Dhammapada
that his sin cannot be counted equal to that of the

robber's killing to rob a valuable property.
-The result of Kamma is also depending on the
receiver's psychology.
There are three kinds of Vedand or feelings: happy,
unhappy and indifferent. To an enlightened one, with
wisdom he knows the five aggregates being empty, he
ignores with the arrival of any feeling, he always keeps
his mind pure and joyful in meditating states under
any situation: facing disease as well as healthy, in the
jail as well as outside. The Buddha suffered pained
when Devadatta pushed stone down on his feet and
caused to bleed out, although physicall pain, his mind
was kept calm and serene.
There is a Japanese story of a virtuous high-ranking
bonze. One day, there is a Setthi's daughter illegally
being pregnant in his village. Because of fright, she
accused the bonze of the sin and when giving birth,
the child was handed to him. The bonze kept calm to
nurse the child under all the insults of villagers. Later,
after years marriaged without child, the girl told the
truth with her parents, then all of them went to the
hermit to show repentance to him and asking to get
back the child. The bonze serenely satisfied their desire!
-Finally the time to appear the result of Kamma
also depends on whether there is the existence of
Upapilakakamma (counteractive action) and
Upaghataka-kamma (destructive action) or not.
As in case of Devadatta due to past accumulated
merits born in the royal relatives, enjoyed all kinds of
worldly pleasures. When becoming monk, due to
Upatthambhakakamma (supportive action) he attained
supernormal powers which raised him a high-ranking
disciple of the Buddha. Everyone gave much respect to
him for some years. Because of the press of
Upapilakakamma, he developed greedy in mind, request-
Dhantma as Law 47
ing the Buddha to hand over the authority of the Sangha

to him. So as a result, he lost his powers and was
expelled from the Sangha. After all he did Garukakamma
(serious action) which turned into destructive Kamma.
He fell into hell in front of Veluvana vihara although his
duration of life was yet to finish.
Due to accumulated Kamma from existences to
existences, beings go round in the circle of six spheres.
Janaka-kamma (reproductive action) becomes habits,
beings are sometimes urged resistlessly committing
newly moral and immoral Kamma at the present which
condition the future's ones. Therefore the Buddha said:
"one's eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind are due to
past Kamma. The actions of body, speech and mind in this
life is new Kamma" S.V, 1982 trans of Most Ven TMC,
P-141)
All these past and present Kammas are due to our
own making. There is neither independent soul inside
the body to lead nor the desire of a supernatural power
outside to force us. "Kamma are one's own, beings are
heirs to Kamma”. So the Buddha taught "We have to
purify our mind”, that is the departure point and basic
step to enter liberation-door. That also is the only Path
of Sila, Samddhi and Pahhd which every Buddha's
disciples as well as Buddhist people must follow. That
also is the reason why the Buddha praised Thera
Pilotikatissa, when the latter did what should be done
and avoided what should not and finally atteined
Arahattaphala.
"Asso yathd bhadro kasdnivittho
atdpino samvegino bhavatha.
saddhdya silena cli vlriyena ca
samadhind dhammavinicchavena ca
sampannavijjdcarand patissata
jahissatha dukkhamidam anappakam."
(Dhp. v. 144)
48 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhatntmpada
Dhammavinicchayena = (dhamma + vinicchaya) dis¬

cernment of the Dhamma or law. It is explained by the
commentary as Karanakarand jananam i.e., knowing right
and wrong causes of things.
So the verse is translated as follows:
"Like a good horse stirred at a touch of whip, be diligent
and get alarmend by endless rounds of rebirths (i.e., samsara).
By faith, morality effort, concentration, and discernment of
the Dhamma, be endowed with knowledge and practice of
morality and with mindfulness leave this immeasurable
Dukkha (of samsara) behind."
Therefore we ourselves build our heaven, it also is
ourselves who make the hell. We are the builder of our
own happiness. It is we who make what people name
"destiny”. So heighten the sense of self-responsibility,
to raise the role of man to the most important extent
in the field of enlightenment, and to praise the
human-world being the best among six spheres of
Samsara is a distinguished characteristic of the entire
system of Buddha's doctrine. Without self-respon¬
sibility, the law of Kamma is not mentioned. Without
self resposibility, the law of society is also not
constructed because there is no base to execute. A
society without law would be in great trouble when
people's sense is not high enough, not strong enough
to resist their bad instincts. Laotzi maintained that an
ideal society is one without law. "The best type of ruler
is the one whose very existence is unknown to the
people. By his wise non-intervention he so influences
them that they believe that it is by their own efforts
that all results are being achieved". This can be achieved
only when each one in the social community has a high
sense of self- responsibility.
The Law of Kamma is very useful for men and
society. Because it makes one be fear of wrong acts,
encouraging one's good deeds, hightening the sense of
Dhamma as Law 49
self-responsibility, educating people to believe in them¬

selves, in their own capability- capability of enlighten¬
ment, freedom from all defilements, they won't have
the expecting help-attitude, relying passively or begging.
No expect for help because there is no one else but
ourselves.
"By oneself indeed is evil done and by oneself is one
defiled; by oneself is evil not done and by oneself is one
purified. Purity and impurity depend entirely on oneself; no
one can purify another" (Dhp. v. 165).
The law of Kamma also open a hopeful sky for ones
who are suffering bad results of past Kamma. Because
there is no Kamma named "fixed kamma”. Kamma can
be changed or lightened if one's mind keeps practising
thp purification.
The Law of Kamma gives a clear explanation about
the variation of beings: the noble and the poor, the
beauty and the ugly, the lucky and the unlucky, the
mystery of so-called fate and predestination.
Now the question could be raised: Why the Buddha
obtained the existence of the Law of Kamma, in the
same time He objected the Caste-system?
No caste is the special characteristic of the Sahgha.
Just as all the rivers lost their separate name and
separate existence in the ocean, it becomes one with
the rest. "Same is the case with the Sahgha, when a Bhikkhu
entered the Sahgha he became one with the rest like the water
of the ocean. He lost his caste. He lost his status: so said
the Lord."
While Yasa bhikkhu belonging to a noble family,
Ahgulimala was a robber. While Mahapdjapati Gotami, a
noble Sakya also a queen, Bhikkhuni Addhakdsi, a
courtesan. And while Nandd, Ananda, Rahula belong to
royal farmily, then Upali, a shaver and Chanda, a chario
teer-their servants. In order to show their willingness
to lose their superior caste, the royal young group
desired Upali getting Updsampada ordination prior to
their own.
Once the Sahgha stayed at a place suffering
drought. Everyone felt thirsty. At that time someone
offered a little water. The problem arose among the
Sahgha: To whom the water should be served first? A
certain Bhikkhu suggested that the superior caste
deserved that favour. The Buddha felt very bad with
that suggestion!
Why it is so?
-Because the Buddha with his supernormal eye he
knows there are Bodhisatta incarnations due to their
desire to practise Paramitas to help people among
society.
-Beings, accumulated past Kamma from long exist¬
ences with the assistance of Asannakamma (death-
proximate kamma) make the performance of the Law
of Kamma more complicated. One's life-time is only a
twinkle in Samsara-series of the infinite past behind and
uncountable future a head. Beings are candidates of a
long course examination. Should not bring marks and
position to class five to settle for class six. Because
there is the fact of one's own effort. He stood position
50th in class five but could get the first position in class
six. Life is full of sufferings. Human's life is temporary
and in permanent and infinitely burned in cravings,
hatred, sickness, death, grief, lamentation. Why we do
not give one anothers love instead of torture?
-Keeping superior caste in mind means thinking
oneself higher than others. The technical term for this
is Mdna (conceit), one of the ten fetters (Samyojana)
which will tie the monk with the permanent cob-web
of worldly attachment. It must be cut off if the Liberation
is his highest goal to achieve.
Dhamma as Law 51
It's right time to drop the subject of Kamma and

the Law of Kamma. Besides this process, four other
Niyamas should be considered.
2.2. Physical inorganic order (Utu-niyama)
This is the seasonal phenomena of winds and rains,
the unerring order of season, characteristic seasonal
changes and events, etc.
Everything in the world seems freely existing and
moving. In fact it is working in an orderly system
named Law. It will not be let down in any script but
it is the factual statement of what always happens in
certain circumstances. That is the principle of life. Water
from rivers and oceans is changed into vapour under
heat. Vapour is accumulated to form clouds. Cold air
makes clouds form rains. Rains form rivers and oceans.
The circle keeps going on. The earth on which people
live, hangs among the immense space. It turns around
itself to form days and nights and moves harmoniously
with eight planets aroundJhe Sun to form seasons and
years. What will happen if it stucks for some times?
Mountains and forests and oceans on the earth also
change in every Ksarn. Secret law of life is formed lively
there. The procedure of oil, coal, diamond, gold mines
have vividly been formed day by day.
All these seeming unmoving and non-under-
standable are according to their own law-that is
Utu-niyama.
2.3. Physical organic order (Bija-niyama)

That means order of gems and seeds. Rice is
produced from rice- seed; bean with various kinds being
formed by its distinguished seed. A hen produces hen
egg, not duck-egg, etc. If we have a look at man, we
recognize that blood-O-children must inherit from
blood-O-father. The inside bodily system is a wonderful
machine! Every organ has its own function but
interacting to each others.
2.4. Order of the norm (Dhamma-niyama)
To Narada Thera, the natural phenomena occur at
the advent of a Bodhisattva in his last birth. To K.N.
Upadhyaya, it is a Universal Law of righteousness.
2.5. Order of mind or psychic law (Citta-niyama)
Citta-niyama is an order of mind or psychic law.
For example, actions of the consciousness (Citta-kiccani),
processes of consciousness at five doors and at
mind-door, arising and perishing of consciousness,
constituents of consciousness, power of mind, etc.
Telepathy, telesthesia, retrocogniton, premonition, clair¬
voyance, clairaudience, thought reading-all psychic
phenomena which are inexplicable to modern science
are included in this class.
Now we will discuss some aspects of this order of
mind.
There are two kinds of objects (Alambana)
-External objects: visible object (Riipa alambana),
audible object (Sadda-Slambana), odourous object
(gandhalambana), flavour object (rasdlambana) and tangible
object (photabba alambana)
-Internal objects: Dhammdlambana, ideational objects.
It composes of six kinds, namely: Citta, Cetasikas,
Sukhumarupa, Pannattivasena, Pasdda and Nibbdna.
Citta- 89 types or 121 types of consciousness.
Cetasikas 52 types of psychic factors.
Sukhumarupa-subtle material qualities,
Pasflda-Sensitive parts of the organs.
Pannattivasena-terms and concepts and
Nibbdna.10
10. Bhikkhu J. Kashyap, Abhidhamma philosophy, p.110
Dhatntm as Law 53
Eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, these are called

Pahcadvdra or the "five doors" through which we receive
information about the outside world and the process of
cognition that takes place through these is called
Pancadvaravithi or the course of cognition at five doors.
There is also a sixth door, called Manodvdra or the mind
door. It is nerve-system through which we receive the
internal objects. The process of this cognition is called
Manodvdravithi or "the course of cognition at mind
door."
Of these two, the first (i.e., pancadvaravithi) may
be roughly explained with a simile.11
A man, lost in deep sleep, is lying at the foot of
a mango tree. A fruit drops down and rolls by his side.
He is suddenly aroused from his slumber and strives
tp find out what was disturbed him. He sees the mango
fruit nearby; picks it up; and smells and examine it.
Having ascertained that it is quite ripe and good, he
eats it. Here:
(1) The '‘deep sleep” is compared to the passive state
of consciousness, flowing undisturbed by anything,
either external or internal objects. This state of con¬
sciousness is called Bhavanga.
(2) "Getting up and trying to find out what has disturbed
him" is like that hazy state of consciousness which is
striving t0 make out whether the stimulus external
objects belonging to eye, or ear, or nose, or tongue or
body. This state of consciousness is called
Pahcadvardvajjana (a state of awareness at five doors).
(3) "Seeing the mango fruit” is like the arising of the
particular consciousness, either of the eye or of any
other four doors of senses. This consciousness i§'
completely pure and simple, free from any reflection
over it. If consciousness of the eye is called Cakkhu-
11. Ibid: 1
vinnana, of the ear (Sofa- vihhdna), of the nose (Ghana-
vihhdna), of the tongue (Jivha- vinnana). and of the body
(Kaya- vihhdna).
Rupa-alambana Cakhuvinnana Cakkhudvaravithi.
Sadda alambana Sotavinnana Sotadvaravithi
Gandha alambana Ghana vinnana Ghanadvaravithi.
Rasa alambana Jivhavinnana Jivharavithi
Fhotabba alambana Kayavinnana Kayadvaravithi.
Dhamma alambana Manovinnana
Manodvaravithi.
Pancad’ aravithi
_
(4) "Picking up the mango fruit" is like the arising
of a consciousness which marks that there is something
existing in the world of reality. It only knows that there
is something. It does not know what it is. This state
of consciousness is called Sampaticchana (the marking
consciousness).
(5) "Smelling and examining the mango fruit" is like
the arising of consciousness which investigates and
trying to understand it in the light of its previous
experiences. This state of consiousness is called Santirana
(the investigating consciousness).
(6) "Ascertaining that the mango is quite ripe and good",
is like the arising of consciousness which determines
the object to be as such and such. This act of
consciousness is called "Votthapana” (the determining
consciousness).
(7) "Eating the mango" is like the arising of
consciousness which tends to adjust the object according
to its own suitability. This is the most lovely state of
consciousness of itself and determines its own attitude
towards the object. If the object is agreeable, it is
accepted and utilized. If the object is disagreeable it is
rejected. The act performed through body, speech and
mind resulted Kamma. So this act of consciousness is
very important and is called Javana-citta. (the active
consciousness).
Dhamma as Laxv 5$
After Javana, the consciousness functions as
Tadalambana which is the recording of the experiences
of the object. The merits, demerits, flavours, colours,
shapes etc. of the object are thoroughly preserved for
memory.
After functioning as the Tadalambana, the conscious¬
ness again sinks down and begins to flow as the
Bhavanga, till it is disturbed by another objects.
Bhabahga is the under-current of our mind which
is constantly exerting its influence upon our personality.
It is the accumulated experiences of many past
existences. It is the continuation of this flow, at the
time of death, we get the Cuti-citta or the dying
consciousness, on an object presenting itself as Kamma,
Kamma-nimitta or Gati-nimitta.12 The cuti-citta arises and
sinks down, which is the last phase of one's present
life. Just after that, the Patisandhi- citta rises up in the
next life.
Thus, this life being connected with the other, and
the Patisandhi-citta having sunk down, the stream of
consciousness flows on in Bhavanga state, like the
current of a river, continuously, being interrupted at
intervals only by the courses of cognition, till his death.
For clearly we can summarize the process of
cognition at five doors as follows:
Bhavanga Bhavahgacalana Bhavangaviccheda
(1) (2) (3)
Pancadvaravajjana (Cakkhu)vixmana Sampaticchana
(4) (5) (6)
Santirana Votthapana Javana Tadalambana
(7) (8) (9) (10)
12. Ibid 162.
(1) Kamma : For example, killing in the case of a robber.
(2) Kammanimitta : an article that had been generally associated with
the performance of that Kamma. For ex., sounds or cries of criminal.
(3) Gatinimitta: the sign of destiny that awaits him in this next life.
When the object appears in the range of senses, it
creates a vibration in the smooth flow. The vibrated
state of mind is technically known as Bhavangacalana.
After the arrival of a new object, this smooth flow of
mind is disturbed. There is no flow at all. It is shaken
and the mind turns to the new object. It is called
Bhavangaviccheda ,
From state (1) to (8) each state takes one thought-
moment (Ksana). Javana state takes seven thought-mo¬
ments and Taddlambana, two thought-moments. In this
way there are altogether 17 thought-moments to
complete the course of cognition at (Eye)-door [cakkhu
dvdravlthi].
The process of Cognition at mind door
(Manodvaravlthi) can be summarized as follows:
Bhavanga Bhavangacalana Bhavangaviccheda
(1) (2) (3)
Manodvaravajjana Javana Tadalambana
(4) (5) (6)
So this process is very simple. Bhavanga,
Bhavangacalana, and Bhavangaviccheda are the three
preliminary. They do not form the part of the vithi, but
they are essential for understanding it. The Citta or
consciousness which forms in Manodvaravlthi are three
in numbers namely : Manodraravajjana, Javana and
Taddlambana. The Manodvaravajjana takes one thought-
moment, Javana seven and Taddlambana two. Thus there
are ten thought-moments in Manodvaravlthi.
And there are altogether fourteen functions of
consciousness (Citta-kiccani) in one's life-time from the
moment of entering into the womb of mother till he
departs from this state of life. They are:
1. Patisandhi ; Consciousness connecting one
life with the other.
2. Bhavanga : the current of the passive mind.
Dhamma as Law 57
3. Avajjana : turning to impressions at the

five doors or at the mind-door.
4. Dassana : seeing.
5. Savana : hearing.
6. Ghayana : smelling.
7. Sayana : tasting.
8. Phusana : touching.
9. Sampaticchana : receiving the impression.
10. Santirana : investigating.
11. Votthapana : determining.
12. Javana : the activities of the subject.
13. Taddlambana : registering the experience.
14. Cuti : consciousness disconnecting the
present life.
We have discussed about five orders of conditional
phenomena. Here we can pick out verse 257 in which
the term Dhamma is used in the sense of the Law.
"Asahasena dhammena
Samena nayati pare
dhammassa gutto medhavi
dhammattho ti pavuccati". (Dhp. v. 257)
[The wise man who decides not arbitrarily, but in
accordance with the law is one who safeguards the law
he is called "one who abides by the law" (dhammattho)].
When deciding cases, one is often influenced by
his own view (Ditthi) or sentiments or fames or
profits-generally, ignorance, so he is often partial in one
side or another. If one weights the evidence intelligently
and decides a case impartially, in accordance with the
law, i.e., considering matter under the whole and as it
is, then he is to be called "the Just" or "the Righteous"
or "one who abides by the Law".
Here "Dhamma" adopted the general meaning of
the whole five progresses of Law.
SECTION 3
DHAMMA AS BUDDHA VACANA-

THE TIPITAKA
Dhamma in verses 20,38,60,64,82,102,182,190,194,
259,297,363,373 and 392 take the third concept of
Buddhavacana, Buddha's teaching or the Tipitaka.
How lucky we are human-beings and having a
chance to listen to the Dhammal Although the Buddha
passed away more than 2500 years, his teachings have
been preserved in the Tipitaka.
Through Tipitaka what the Buddha taught?
3.1 Tipitaka summarized in Sila, Samadhi and Pairha
To Mahdpajapati Gotami, who had asked the Buddha
to give her a precept, hearing it she might dwell alone,
solitary, ardent and resolved. "The Buddha replies," Oh
whatsoever teachings, Gotami, you can assure yourself thus:
“These doctrines conduce to dispassion, not to passions; to
detachment, not to bondage; to decrease of worldly gains, not
to increase of them; to frugality, not to covetousness; to
content, and not discontent; to solitude, no company; to
energy, not sluggishness; to delight in good, not delight in
evil": of such teachings you may with certaintly affirm.
Gotami, “This is the Dhamma. This is the Vinaya. This is
the' Master's message. "13
The same question put by Malunkya's son and the
Buddha asked him "Cut of cravings and conceit".14
13. P.V. Bapat, 2500 years of Buddhism, New Delhi, Publication Division,
1964, p.388.
14. Anguttara-nikaya II, trans. p. 253.
Dhatnma as Buddhavacana 59
But to Punnathera in the Majjhimanikdya III,

Punnovadasuttam No. cxlv, the Buddha taught two things:
"Due to the contact of six sense organs with six pleasant
worldly objects, if someone arises the pleasant, compliment,
attachment, grasping in it, there is the arising of sufferings.
On the contrary there is the cessation of sufferings."
Through Majjhimanikdya, the Buddha often said "One
thing only does the Buddha teach, that is Suffering and the
Cessation of suffering."
To prepare some basic knowledge for Bhikkhus who
were going to go to some foreign places to preach the
doctrine, in the Samyutta-nikaya III, Sdriputta Thera briefly
said: "If someone asks what the Lord have taught, the answer
is: My teacher have taught about the control of desire and
greed to the five aggregates, i.e., form, feeling, perception,
volitional activities and consciousness".
And to Ananda Thera, who was in more than twenty
years as the Buddha's shadow, answered to the same
above question that "what the Buddha taught is Sila,
Samadhi and Pahhd."15 According to Mahaparinibbana-
sutta, these three groups had, in fact, formed the
substance of the farewell discourse delivered by the
Buddha at the various places through which he passed
in the course of his last Journey. And unitedly Sila,
Samadhi and Pahhd was adopted by Buddhist people as
the unique path by which beings definitely get free
from misery of existences.
SUa is "Buddhist morality", "virtue", which
Buddha's disciples, Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni, as well as
Buddhist lay people voluntarily keep to lead the
righteous way of life.
Samadhi, "concentration", is the fixing the mind on
a single object. And, Pahhd, generally rendered as
wisdom, includes all the doctrines of Buddhism, that
15. Dighar.'kaya I, 10
60 Concepts of Dhamma in Dharmmpada
is to say, the Four Noble Truths (Ariyasacca), the

Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangikamagga), the Law of
Dependent Origination (Pratitya-samutpada), The Law of
Kamma, the Three characteristics (Tilakkhand), the
concept of Five Aggregates (Pahca-khandhas), mind-only
(Citta-matrata), Concepts of Bodhicitta, Brahmavihdra, >
Tathdgata and Trikdya.

[SJla will be carefully discussed in section 4, while '
Samddhi and Pahna in section 7 due to subject related.] ,
3.2. Buddhavacana, one of the Triple-Gem.

The whole SUa, Samddhi and Pahhd is collectively
called the Dhammaratana, one of the Triple-Gem: The
Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.
"Buddham saranam gacchami."
"Dhammam saranam gacchami." !
"Sahgham saranam gacchami."
[I take refuge in the Buddha. I take refuge in the
Dhamma. I take refuge in the Sangha]
Dhammapada verse 296, 297 and 298;
"Suppabuddham pabujjhanti
Sada gotamasavaka
yesam diva ca ratto ca
niccam
buddhagata/dhammagata/sanghagata
sati."
Rockhill's translation quoted below: "They who day ,
and night are reflecting on the Buddha/Dhamma/Sangha,
and who go the Buddha/Dhamma/Sangha for refuges, .;
these men have the profits of mankind." :
It is said by B.M. Barua and S. Mitra in their ;
"Asoka's Dhamma" that the conception of the Three
1
Refuges (Tisaranas) in the Dhammaddsa (D. II p. 93)

changed into the later poetical ideas of the Three Jewels,
(Tiratanas) in the Ratanasutta (Sutta Nipata ncG
Khuddakapatha) in a century.
Dhamma as Buddhavacana 61
We take refuge in the Buddha because the Buddha
was a self- enlightened One who found out the way
of enlightenment and taught it to people. We take refuge
\n the Dhamma because Buddha's teachings or Sila-
Samadhi-Pahm is the only path as a raft with which
lyings are crossing Samsara- ocean. We take refuge in
tl Sahgha because Sahgha is an assembly of persons
who desire to lead an awaking life, who are practising,
preaching and maintaining the teachings of the Buddha
forever alive. It is by these reasons that Buddhist people
willingly take refuge in the Triple-Gem.
3.3 [Buddhavacana, a factual Truth.
'This Dhamma is the Truth. It is the Doctrine of
Reality. It is a means of deliverance, and deliverance
itself* ..whether the Buddha arise or not the Dhamma
still exists. However human beings due to delusion have
not seen the Dhamma. The Buddha with his own struggle
for the whole six years of practising severe ascetic oire
day sitting under Bodhi-tree, he engaged in meditation,
finding out the Dhamma and became known as "The
Enlightened One”.
"Whether the Tathdgata appears or not, O Bhikkhus, it
remains a fact, an established principle, a natural law that
all conditioned things are transient (Aniccd), sorrowful
(Dukkha), and everything is soulless (Anatta). This fact the
Tathdgata realizes, understands, and when he has realized
and understood it, he announces, teaches, proclaims, estab¬
lishes, discloses, analyses, and makes it clear, that all
conditioned things are transient, sorrowful, and everything is
soulless. /46
This Dhamma is a Reality, everlasting, being the
Truth. So before entering the Nirvana, the Buddha taught
Dhamma should be regarded as one's Teacher, as safe
island, "Abide with oneself as an island, with oneself
16. Anguttara-nikaya I, part I, p.286
as a refuge, abide with the Dhamma as an island, with

the Dhamma as a refuge. Seek not for external refuge/'17
Sukho buddhdnamuppado )
Sukha saddhamtttadesand j
Sukha sanghassa sdmaggt /
Sapiagganam tapo sukho (dhp. v. 194)
lHappy is the" arising of a Buddha. Happy is the
exposition of the Ariya Dhamma. Happy is the harmony
amongst the Sangha. Happy is the practice of those in
harmony].
3.4 The characteristics of Buddhavacana:
The Vinayapitaka is known having been prescribed
by the Buddha with three attributes, namely:
Anadesana : Order-preaching.
Yathaparddha-sasanam : According to fault, punish¬
ment.
Samvarasamvarakatha : Restraint-not restraint dis- \
course.
(1) Anadesana: It means the Buddha had presu ibed
it by pointing out these are not to be followed and
those are not to be followed.
(2) Yathaparadha-sasanam; The Buddha gave the
rules according to the wrong action. Rules was made
gradually depending on case for the better.
In the beginning, there was no rule for the Sangha.
When the organisation increased in number, rules were
made as the occasion occured. For instance, the first
Pdrajika was promugated regarding to sexual intercourse,
concerning Sudinna, the son of Kalanda. The second
Pdrajika was laid down regarding to the taking of that
which had not been given, concerning Dhaniya, the
potter's son and so on. The four Restrains (Nissayas)
were laid down in the case of a certain Brdhmana who
17. Parinibbana sutta.
Dhamma as Buddhavacam 63
thought he should lead a religious life among the

Bhikkhus to get advantages such as excellent meals and
necessities for life.
The formation of monastic rules took place in the
same way. Sometimes some necessary change was made
for the better. For example, the first Upasampada
ordination is the so-called "Ehi-Bhikkhu-upasampadd"-\he
Upasampada ordination by the formula “Ehi-Bhikkhu”
(Come, oh Bhikkhu), said by the Blessed One. Later,
the ordination by the "three sarandgamanas”- the person
seeking the Upasampada ordination have to repeat
declaration of their taking refuge in the Buddha, the
Dhamma and the Sangha three times. Later, some newly
ordained Bhikkhu have done mistakes, rules were made
for the candidate that he has to get for himself an
Upajjhdya (preceptor) to instruct him to lead the
righteous life in monastery. In case his upajjhdya was
gone away or returned to the world, or died, the young
Bhikkhus should choose an Acdriya and live ten years
in dependence on him, and so on.
(3) Samvarasamvarakatha : There are the descrip¬
tions of restraining and non restraining. We find a
number of cases in which one is requested to put
restraint, there are also cases of transgression.
Budhaghosa has explained Abhidhamma by giving
three attributes, namely:
-Paramattha-desand: Ultimate truth preaching.
-Yathd-dhammasdsanam: as the things really are.
-Namarupa-paricchedakathd: Mind-matter analysis dis-
courses.
The Abhidhamma pitaka is known as Paramattha-desand
because it contains teachings or Desand which deals
with the Paramattha or the four ultimate reals namely
Citta, Cetasika, Riipa and Nibbana.
It is called Yathd-dhammasasanatn because it speaks
about the nature of Dhamma as it really is.
Again it is called Ndmarupa-pariccheda-katha, it means

it is a discourse on the analysis of mind and matter.
Here it can easily be said that mind first has been put
into two divisions, Citta and Cetasika.
Now we come to the Suttapitaka.
The Buddha has preached Suttas well and nicely.
He didnot start his teachings all of a sudden, but he
took into consideration three important things, namely:
-Ajjhasaya (intention, desire, wish).
*Anusaya (defilements, ignorance, hatred and Ab-
himutti (liberation).
It means he considers the right time when the
listener is ready to obtain discourse; to the defilements
of his mind, i.e., he has either more greed or hatred
or delusion; and to the purpose of liberation.
So he gave the sermon with the help of similes,
illustrations, parables suiting to the mind of person. For
that Sutta is called Vohdradesana. His preachings aim at
to get rid of the wrong view of the people, so it is
called Ditthi vinivethanakathd, and the third attribute of
the teaching of the Buddha is called Yathdnulomasdsanam.
It is so called because it has been prescribed with the
co-operation of the temperament and belief of people
concerned.
The Buddha used to use simple and clear similies
to suit each kind of persons. Such as to Sona, a skill
in playing lute, he takes the example how to use the
lute to convey the Dhamma. To the elephant-trainer, he
talks about of training an elephant. When seeing a piece
of wood floating about on the Ganga-river he shows it
to compare with the lax attitude in practising Dhamma
of some Bhikkhus.
Buddha's illustrations are easily understandable
even to a child. As in Dhammapada verses 1 and 2, in
order to show the fast connection between kamma and
its results, the Buddha used the picture of wheels of a
Dhamma as Buddhavacam 65
chariot following the hoof print of the ox that draws

the cart and a shadow never leaving a person. To child
Rahula, the Buddha turned upside down the basin of
water which Rahula brought for his washing feet to
teach him not to tell a lie in any case.
Buddha's teaching is suitable to the temperament
and belief of person concerned. To Bodhisattvas, Arahats,
devas he taught HUA- YEN, and Lotus Sutras; to ordinary
people he explained the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold
Path, the Law of Kamma. To people tend to attachment
of beautiful forms, the suitable antidote is the practice
of contemplation of the impermanence of Pahcakhandhas,
of the impurity of the body, of watching the decay of
a corpse. To person with much hatred, he should
practise his mind with Mettd, loving-kindness to others.
To a dullard like Culapanthaka he requested to keep in
mind just a single word "rajoharanam" which means
"taking out impurity". To a girl going to marriage, to
a king of a state, to a robber like Ahgulimala, to Nandd,
etc. the Buddha gave suitable advice and used different
means to get them on the righteous way of liberation.
And one who is taught by the Buddha or has a chance
to listen to the teachings even a single word, if faithfully
keeping in mind and diligently practising it, will get
much advantage in his life. Why it is so? Because the
Buddha's teaching has the characteristic of making the
mind calm.
"Yo ca gatha satam bhase
anatthapadasamhitd
ekam Dhammapadam seyyo
yam sutvd upasammati”. (Dhp. v. 102)
[Better than the recitation of a hundred verses that
are senseless and unconnected with the realization of
Nibbdna, is the recitation of a single word of the
Teaching, if on hearing it one is calmed].
"Like a lake which is deep, clear and calm, the wise

after listening to the Teaching become serene". (Dhp. v. 82)
The Buddha's preachings always aim at to get rid
of the wrong view of the people. "Just as, O Bhikkhus,
the mighty ocean is of one flavour, the flavour of salt; even
so, O Bhikkhus, this Dhamma is of one flavour, the flavour
of Deliverance (vimutti)1S Buddha's Dhamma is likened
rain-water. Depending on the kinds of plant-big, small
ones or creeds-which the sum of water is taken.
Similarly how much one gets advantage from Dhamma
depending on the level of the listener's character.
To serve for that purpose, although there are
voluminous volumes of Suttas, Vinaya and Abhidhamma,
the Buddha shows only one goal: the sufferings and
the cessation of sufferings. And the only way to get
that goal is the Noble Eightfold path, exactly we should
mention to be SilaSamddhi and pahha.
The way of Sila-Samadhi-Pahm is trully performed
through diligently and strenously bringing the Buddha's
teachings in practice. Dhamma is just useful to someone.
when he deeply ponders over it, understands it and
brings it into practice in every Ksana of life.
"Appampi ce samhita bhdsamano
Dhammassa hoti anudhammacan
Rdgah ca dosah ca pahaya moham
Samfhappafdno suvimuttacitto
Anupddiyano idha va huram vd
Sa bhdgavd sdmahhassa hoti". (Dhp.v.20)
[Though he recites only a little of the Sacred Texts
(Tipitaka) but practises according to the Dhamma,
eradicating passion, ill will and ignorance, clearly
comprehending the Dhamma, with his mind freed from
moral defilements and no longer clinging to this world
18. Udana. p.67
Dkamma as Buddhavacana 67
or to the next, he shares the benefits of the life of a
Bhikkhu (i.e., magga- phala)].
"Though he recites much the sacred texts (Tipitaka), but
is negligent and does not practise according to the Dhamma,
like a cowherd who counts the cattle of others, he has no
share in the benefits of the life of a Bhikkhu.'’ (Dhp.'v. 19)
The preacher who is well-learnt and preached the
Dhamma but does not practise in accordance with the
Dhamma is like a cowherd, who looks after the cows
for wages, while the one who practises according to
the Dhamma is like the owner who enjoys all the benefits
being got from his cows. In the same way, the good
pracher enjoys only fame and respect and worldly
benefits from his pupils but not the benefits of magga
phala, while the other Bhikkhu, though he knows little
and recites only a little of the sacred texts, having a
true faith in what he had learnt, devoted himself in
pondering over it and practising it through meditation.
Finally he eradicates all his defilements, greed-hatred-
delusion, and attains all the fruits of Saints.
In another place the Buddha likened the well-prac¬
tising Dhamma with a tongue which can enjoy the taste
of soup, while a fool although living next to a wise all
his life, his mind grasps in worldly pleasures, does not
strive for Dhamma-knowledge, this fool just like "a
ladle" which is in the big bowl of soup but cannot
enjoy a single taste of the soup.
"Yavajivampi ce balo
panditam payirupdsati
na so dhammam vijanati
dabbi suparasam yatha". (Dhp. v. 64)
[A fool even though he is associated with a wise
man all his life, does not understand the Dhamma, just
as a ladle does not know the taste of soup].
Therefore in order to make clear his own view of
how one "versed in the Dhamma” the Buddha explained:
"Na tdvatd dhammadharo
ydvatd bahu bhasati
yo ca appampi sutvana
dhammatp kdyena passati
sa ve dhammadho hoti
yo dhammam nappamajjati." (Dhp. v. 259)
[He is not "one versed in the Dhamma" (Dhammad-
hara) just because he talk much. He who hears only a
little but comprehends the Dhamma, and is not
unmindful is, indeed, "one versed in the Dhamma".]
Following this advice-paying more attention in
practice than in theory-Buddha's disciple take meditation
(Dhyana), Calm and Insight, as the major means to get
the Truth. This inclination gave rise the Ch'an of China
and the Zen of Japan.
SECTION 4
DHAMMA AS JUST, RIGHTEOUS

MEANS/WAY/STATE/PRACTICE/
NATURE.
Dhamma in verses 46,84,87,167,168,169,242 and 248
has got these meanings.
In verse 84, the term Dhamma is used in the sense
of Just means. In opposite meaning is Adhamma, unjust,
unfair means.
"Na attahetu na parassa hetu
na puttamiche na dhanam na raitham.
na iccheyya adhammena samiddhimattano
sa silavd pahhavd dhammiko siya."
[For his own sake or for the sake of others he does
no evil; nor does he wish for sons and daughters or
for wealth or for a kingdom by doing evil; nor does he
wish for success by unfair means: such a one is indeed
virtuous, wise and just.]
In verses 256 and 257 the word dammattho means
“One who abides by the law" or in one word, “the
Just" or “the righteous". And the Buddha have
expressed how “Just" and “unjust''are.
“He is not just if he decides a case arbitrarily; the wise
man should decide after considering both what is right and
what is wrong."
"The wise man who decides not arbitrarily; but in
accordance with the law is one who safeguards the law; he
is called "one who abides by the law."
70 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhatnmapada
The term Dhamma is also accompained by some
attributive adjectives such a kanham, hinam, papakd... to
give a clear meaning of dark, evil wfey, evil state as
opposite to pure, good one in verses 87, 167 and 242.
They are altogether technically called kusalakamma and
akusalakamma. (kamma here in the sense of mere action).
4. 1 Kusalakamma and Akuslakamma:
Akusalakamma is so-called because it is associated
with the three Akusala roots namely Lobha, Dosa and
Moha (Greed, Hatred and Delusion respectively).
On the contrary, there are three roots of good kamma
namely Alobha (sacrifice), Adosa (friendliness) and Amoha
(Right understanding). The actions associated with them
is called kusalakamma.
''Kanham dhammam vippahaya
sukkam bhdvetha pandito
oka anokamagamma
viveke yattha duramam” (Dhp.v.87).
[The man of wisdom, leaving the home of craving
and having Nibbana as his goal, should give up dark,
evil ways and cultivate pure, good ones....]
The dark states (kanham Dhammam) are the ten kinds
of evil deeds, and the bright states (sukkam) are the
ten kinds of good deeds caused by body, speech and
mind. That is, the mind directed towards the ten kinds
of evil19 (Akusala kamma) namely.
PHYSICAL ACTIONS
1. Killing (pdna)
2. Stealing (Adinmddna)
3. Sexual misconduct (kdmesu micchacdra)
VOCAL ACTIONS
4. Lying (musdvada)
19. Narada Thera, A Manual of Buddhism, p.77-78
Dhamtna as Just, Righteous Means 71
5. Slandering (pisunavdca)
6. Harsh speech (pharusavdcd)
7. Vain talk (samphappalapa)
MENTAL ACTIONS
8. Coveteousness (abhijjha)
9. Ill-will (vyapado) and,
10. False belief (micchaditthi).
On the opposite, there are ten kinds of meritorious
deeds (kusalakamma) namely.
1. Generosity (Dana)
2. Morality (Sila)
3. Meditation (Bhavand)
4. Reverence (Apacdyana)
5. Service (Veyyaccaca)
6.Transference of merit (Pattidana)
7. Rejoicing in others merit (Pattdnumodana)
8. Hearing the doctrine (Dhammasavana)
9. Expounding the doctrine (Dhammadesana) and,
10. Straightening one's right views.
We have known man is the owner of kamma, being
kamma's heir. Therefore it is not only avoiding bad
deeds but good deeds should also be advanced actively.
The Buddha have taught: whatever deed brings harm for
oneself, for anothers, for the both, being criticized by the
learners, if one accepts it and carries it out, suffering and
grief will immediately be created, such a deed is called bad
one (akusalakamma) and it should be abandoned. On the
contrary, whatever deed does not bring harm for oneself, for
anothers and for the both, being approved by the learners, if
one accepts it and carries it out, happiness and joy will
immediately be created, such a deed is called good deed
(kusalakamma) and it should be practised." Confucius also
had a famous sentence: "What you do not like should not
do to anothers. "Buddhist people have to know how to
react with suitable behaviour in case of facing the conflict
72 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhamrmpada
between "selfishless" and "selfish". In the correlative

life, one's happiness is closely connected with that of
anothers in the community of society.
"Hlnam dhammam na seveyya.
pamadena na samvase
micchdditthim na seveyya
na siyd lokavaddhano.” (Dhp. v.167).
[Do not follow ignoble ways; do not live in
negligence; do not embrace wrong views; do not be the
one to prolong samsara.]
Out of ten kinds of Akusalakamma (evil deeds), the
four belonging to man's speech is the most difficult to
avoid. So it is said that "The person who can control his
mouth can keep his mind" and if mind can be checked,
wrong physical acts can naturally be warded off. In
M.II Ambalatthikd Rahulovada sutta No. XII, the Buddha
used four simple and vivid illustrations to the novice
Rahula "Should not tell a lie even for a joke." In M.I,
Ariyapariyesana Sutta No. XXVII, the Buddha has taught
his Bhikkhus that "whenever assembling there are two things
you ought to do, that is, either discussing the Dhamma or
keeping the silence of the Saints."
In the ten Kusalakdmma, each thing will certainly
bring benefits, which should be daily practised by the
Buddhists. However some appear more suitable to
monks such as practising medition, expounding the
doctrine, but darn (charity), veyyavacca (service) are more
easier to laymen. Two urgent duties that Bhikkhus as
well as laymen should diligently practise are Dham-
—
madesana and keeping Stla in life.
Through section 3 Dhamma as Budhavacana, we
have clearly known the benefits being brought from
listening the Dhamma.
- Sila or Morality is the foundation of the holy life.
As the tree exists on the earth, the earth is their support.
Dhamma as fust,. Righteous Means 73
Similarly, Stla stands as the moral support of the moral

activities. Why is it? Because Sila has as its characteristic
that it is the basis of all good qualities.20 The practice
of thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment is on the
basement of Sila. As the architect of a city, when he
wants to build one, first he has to prepare the
foundation freed from all the stumps and thorny brakes,
and then makes it level. And only then on that base,
he builds the city. Similarly, the recluse develop in
himself all good qualities by means of virtue, on the
basis of virtue.
Morality of the Eightfold path, namely right speech,
right action and right livelihood, is called "Genuine or
Natural morality" (Pakatisila ), as distinguished from the
external rules for monks or laymen the so-called
"prescribed morality"(Pannaftisila).
If expressed in details, Stla manifests itself in the
form of practice of Pancastla, Atthasila, Dasasila and
Catu-parisuddhislla.
Pancastla, refers to the five types of basic moral
principles which are invariably observed by the
householders and monks inspring for a virtuous life.
They are the refraining from killing, refraining from
stealing, refraining from committing adulting, refraining
from telling lie, and refraining from taking intoxicating
drinks.
These five principles are for all the devotees,
upasakas, upasikas follow Eight moral principles (Atthasila)
in Uposatha days. A monk specially a novice follows
ten moral principles technically known as Dasasila.
The four kinds of morality consisting of purification
(Catu- parisuddhi-sUa) are special for monkhood namely;
Pdtimokkha-samvara sila; indriyasamvaraslla;
djivaparisuddhislla and paccayasannissita sila.21
20. T.W. Rhys Davids, The Questions of King Millnda,-Book I,p.52
21. Bhikkhu Nyanamoli, The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), vol. 1
para No 42,p.l6.
Patimokkhasamvara means Restraint with regard to

the monks' discipline code. There are 227 precepts for
monks and 311 precepts for puns. The monk trains
himself in the rules he has taken upon him, perceiving
danger even in the least offences.
Indriyasamvaraslla, restraint of the senses, when¬
ever the monk perceives a form with the eye, a sound
with the tongue...he neither adheres to the appearance
as a whole, nor to its parts. He strives to ward off the
attachment towards them. He watches over his senses,
restrains the senses.
Ajiva-parisuddhisila, Purification of Livelihood. It
consists therein that the monk doesnot acquire his
livelihood in a way unbefitting to a monk.
Paccaya-sannissita-sila, morality with regards to the
four Requisites. It consists therein that the monk is
guided by the right mental attitude when making use
of the four requisites, robes, almsfood, dwelling and
medicine.
As the border of a piece of rice-field, SUa prevents
water from overflowing. As a rampart at a country's
frontier is carefully protected both inside and outside.
Similar is the protection to body, speech and mind from
the attack of its enemy, akusalakamma (evil deeds).
4.2 Akusalakamma should be won by Kusalakamma.
"Conquer the angry one by loving-kindness; conquer the
wicked by goodness; conquer the stingly by generosity, and
the liar by speaking the truth."
(Dhp. v.223)
And in verse 5 the Buddha also delivered: "Hatred
is indeed, never appeased by hatred in this world. It is
appeased only by loving-kindness. This is an Ancient Law
This idea has been realized by Asoka-the Emperor

of great India in ancient time. After a long period of
Dhamtm as Just, Righteous Means 75
conquest Asoka Emperor found out that insteads of

swords, Dhamma should be spread and overcome
everywhere. Because to him, "religious conquest (Dham-
mavijaya) is the best conquest. So he condemned the
slaughter of animals; he wanted people to cultivate
moral virtues, such as the observance of truth, restraint,
kindness, charity, purity, gentleness, generous to ser¬
vants and slaves, respect, obedience to one's elders and
teachers, liberality to friends, kinsmen, acquaintances.
He also set free prinsoners from his prisons from time
to time. He went on religious tours insteads of going
on hunting for fun. He performed pious acts such as
planting trees, digging wells, opening hospitals for men
and beasts, in his own land and in the lands of his
neighbours, too.
He had his Dhamma carved on rocks and stone
pillars and delivered to different far places with intention
to make it known by the large and to bring benefits
for all.
The concept of Dhamma to Asoka king is identical
with SUa, morality, virtue,ethics. As T.W. Rhys Davids
said "Good form" for laymen to do and to be.
"A man may conquer a million men in battle but one
who conquers himself is, indeed, the greatest of conquerors”
(Dhp.v.103)
4.3 The Nature of Dhamma:

Terms "Dhamma" and "Adhamma" remind us of the
nature of Dhamma of the Buddha. In the Alagaddupama
sutta, M.I No XXII, the Buddha have likened his Dhamma
as a raft. After using it to safety cross over to the other
side of a river, the raft should be left behind. "Even
so, monks, is the parable of the Raft Dhamma taught by me
fori crossing over, not for retaining. You, monks, by
understanding the Parable of the Raft, should get rid even
of right Dhammas, all the more of wrong ones" (Kullupamam
76 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhamtnapada
vo bhikkhave ajanantehi dhamma pivo pahatabba
pag-eva-adhamma).
In relative respects, there are right and wrong,
good and bad, dhamma and adhamma, but in the ultimate
sense, both right and wrong, good and bad, dhamma
and adhamma is conditioned by causes. Its true nature
is unreal, sunya or empty.
It is the same case of Sila. When the society being
disturbed by crimes, such as thefts, robberies, policemen
are needed. But supposing that all the people are
completely good, there is no need of such men. So stla
as policemen is used to guard our mind from evil deeds.
When a man cultivated with all qualities as his
characteristics, at that time his every gestures are in
harmony with Sila.
In brief, for the topic of Kusala and Akusalakamma
we should remember words of the Buddha in verse
281.
"One should be careful in speech, be well-restrained\ in
mind, and physically, too, one should do no evil, one should
purify these three courses of action and accomplish the practice,
of the path of Eight Constituents made known by the Buddha
4.4. Dhamma as Practice.
In verses 168 and 169 Dhamma is understood as
"practice."
"Uttitthe nappamajjeyya
Dhammam sucaritam care
dhammacan sukham seti
asmim loke paramhi ca”. (Dhp.v. 168)
[ Do not neglect the duty of going on alms-round;
observe proper practice (in going on alms round). One
who observes proper practice lives happily both in this
world and in the next.]
"Dhammam care sucaritam
na natn duccaritam care
Dhamma as Just, Righteous Means 77
dhammacari sukham seti

asmim loke parammhi ca.” (Dhp.v. 169)
[Observe proper practice (in going on alms round),
do not observe improper practice. One who observes
proper practice lives happlily both in this world and in
the next.]
"Dhammam sucaritm" means proper practice, in
opposite of "Dhammam duccaritam”, improper pratice.
The commentary says that here proper practice means
stopping for alms food at one house after another in
the course of the alms-round except where it is not
proper to go such as courtesan's house.22
Go round for alms is a pre-Buddhistic tradition. It
is evident that after leaving Kapilavatthu, Bodhisattva
Gotama has daily gone round for alms for living. And
king Bimbisara the first time, through his palace's
window, being attracted by Gotama's serene posture
when the latter was going round for alms in Rdjagaha.
After enlightenment one year, the Buddha and his
disciples went home to visit his father-king Suddhodana.
The king innocently thought Gotama Buddha, who was
his own son, would go to no other place, but would
surely come to his palace for almsfood the next day;
so he did not specifically invite the Buddha.
However he already gave order to prepare food for
the assembly. The Buddha, due to no invitation, went
round for alms with his retinue in the city. The king,
panicked and annoyed, reproached the Buddha for
making a disgrace to the royal Khattiya family
Whereupon the Buddha calmly replied that "it was the
—
manner of all the past Buddhas" to go round for alms-food
from house to house, and therefore it was right and
proper for him to keep up the tradition. It is in this
case the two above verses have been uttered.
22. Daw Mya Tin, The Dhammapada, P.64, verse 168, fh.2
78 Concepts of Dhamtna in Dhammapada
This really is a "practice" like "practice of
meditation", because the practitioner has to struggle
with himself to keep on practice. We should not consider
it easy to follow. Because to someone with high
self-respect and self-love, who have had a high social
status like Siddhattha and royal nobilities such as
Devadatta, Nanda, Ananda,...or ones of Brahmin families
like Sariputta, Moggallana, Mahakassppa etc. surely that
it is not for their belly to go round for alms when they
had left behind their family with wealth and fame. It
is for purpose of searching the way out of the circle of
rebirths for people and for oneself, they have to endure
ascetic-lives.
We should not value this "begging food"as an action
of ignobleness and laziness, although there also have
this kind of persons among the Sangha. As understood
by monks, the meaning and purpose of this practice
<San be explained as follows:
-Firstly it is to provide food for a monk to maintain
his life, getting him off the worries and attachments of
the world. All his time will be devoted to learning and
pondering over Scriptures and to practising meditation.
-Secondly, going round for alms is helpful for him
to depress and destroy his conceit (mana). He is
practising to get rid of his self-love.
-Thirdly, the monk is the "field of merit" for people
to practise their charity, with which they will be
"selfishless" instead of "selfish". Getting food from
them is giving them a chance to serve the Sangha as
well as the Triple-Gem.
The image of monk in yellow-robe calmly holding
the bowl reminds people of the image of the Buddha
and Buddha's teachings, awaking them from the
darkness of mundane life.
Dhamma as Just, Righteous Means 79
The proper way for going round for alms is passing

from house to house. Why it is so? Because all the
Buddhas love beings equally. The Buddha loves Xlpdli
in the same way as that of Rdhula-bis own son.
To return the merits of donors, the monk has duties:
-Teaching Dhamma and leading them on the
righteous way of liberation.
-Secondly the monk himself is a symbol of morality
by keeping Sila. People love him and follow his example.
Each individual is a cell of the entire body of
Tathdgata. A person leading the righteous life who even
only lives without doing anything else, has directly
contributed his part to purify the totalily, not to tell of
actively helping others to follow the Buddha's teachings.
Therefore the practice of going round for alms is
venerable, appreciated by all the Buddhas in the past
as well as in the future, just as the Gotama Buddha has
said: "Do not neglect the duty of going on alms-round;
observe proper practice (in going on alms-round). One who
observes proper practice lives happily both in this world and
in the next”.
4.5 Dhamma as Nature of Things.
The nature of things are qualities and characteristics,
physical,mental and spiritual, which naturally belong to
a person or thing. Dhamma in verse 46 has got that
meaning:
Phenupamam kdyamimam viditva
mancidhammam abhisambudhano
chetvdna mdrassa pappupphakdni
adassanam maccurdjassa gacche.”
Mancidhammam : (marici+dhamma) lit., mirage+na-
ture; nature of a mirage, ie., insubstantial like a mirage.
[One who knows that this body is impermanent
like froth, and comprehends that it is insubstantial as
a mirage, will cut the flowers of Mara (he., the three
80 Concepts of Dharnma in Dhammapada
kinds of vatta or rounds), and pass out of sight of the
king of Death.]
The nautre of this body is impermanent like froth
and insubstantial as a mirage. It also is the nature of
all universal phenomena.
It impresses the characteristics of ceaselessly chang¬
ing and non- self, so sufferings as result being followed.
SECTION 5
DHAMMA AS PHENOMENA
Besides the four above mentioned, the term
"Dhamma" has also got the concept of things or world
of phenomena in verses No 109, 353, 273 and 279.
5.1 Conditioned and unconditioned things.
All universal phenomena can be grouped into two
types: Conditioned things (Sankhara) and unconditioned
thing (Nibbdna).
Conditioned things are dhammas formed by the
union of causes. It can be understood as Sankhara. As
the Buddha taught, "Whatever is subject to the condition
of origination is subject also to the condition of
cessation". Due to cakkhu (eye) and rupa (visible form),
therefore Cakkhuvinnana (eye-consciousness) arises.
Due to sota (ear) and sadda (audible objects), there is
Sotavihhdna (ear- consciousness) and so on. Due to the
existence of five khandhas, there is the existence of a
human-being. And all dhamma formed by the union of
causes are named conditioned things.
Unconditioned thing is Nibbdna, which is a state
"unborn, unoriginated, uncreated and unformed" con-
strasting with the born, originated, created and formed
phenomenal world.
The term "dhamma" used in the sense of both
conditioned and unconditioned states of life are in verses
273 and 279
"Sabbe dhamma anatta" ti
Yada pahhdya passati
Atha nibbindati dukkhe

Esa maggo visuddhiyd? (Dhp. v. 279)
[All phenomena (dhammas) are without "self'; when
one sees this with insight wisdom, one becomes weary
of dukkha (i.e, the khandhas). This is the path of purity.].
In the two previous verses 277 and 278;
"Sabbe sankhara anicca" ti....
"Sabbe sankhara dukkha" ti
The term "sankhara" here is applied to any
conditioned things, while in the third verse the term
"dhamma" is used in the sense of both conditioned and
unconditioned things (as interpreted by Narada Thera in
his Dhammapada book, verse 279).
5.2 Realms of Conditioned Things.
According to Buddhism, Realms of conditioned
things are three which are sub-divided into thirty-one
in number, namely:
-Kdmdvacaraloka : Sentient Existence: 11
-R upavacaraloka: Realms of Form : 16
-Arupdvacaraloka: Realms of Formless: 4
If divided according to kinds of being, the thirty-one
realms can be enumerated into six. They are:
1. Niraya: Woeful states.
2. Peta yoni: The place of Petas or ghost beings.
3. Tiracchdna yoni: The realm of animal.
4. Asura yoni: The place of Asura demons.
5. Manussa : Human realm.
6. Devas: The realms of Gods.
In general, the six realms may be divided into two
groups, the first four of which is relatively miserable
due to unwholesome kamma (Duggati) and the other
relatively fortunate due to wholesome kamma (Sugati).
Dhamma as Phenomena 83
Let us have a general look at each of these realms

individually and starting from the realm at the bottom,
Niraya.
There are various hells in Buddhism and they are
principally eight hot hells and cold hells. In the hells,
beings suffer incalculable and inexpressible pain due to
their past evil deeds. When these kamma are exhausted,
they are reborn in a more fortunate realm of existence.
The next realm is the realm of ghosts (petayoni),
Petas are not spirits or mere disembodied souls. They
possess ugly or deformed bodies of varying imagnitude.
The Petavatthu book deals with the stories of those
unfortunate beings. They in this realm suffer chiefly
from hunger and thirst, and from heat and cold. They
are completly bereft of the objects of their desire.
Tiracchana yoni-the realm of animal, the living beings
suffer from the fear and pain due to constantly killing
and eating one another. They also suffer from fear and
pain caused by pian killing them for food, skin, bone
or horns. Even if they are not killed, domestic animals
are forced to work for man and are driven on by hooks
and whips. All these is a source of suffering.
The realm of Asura demons are Asurayoni. Peter D.
Santina refers them as demi-gods. They are more
powerful physically and are more intelligent mentally
than human beings. Yet they suffer because of jealousy
and conflict. It is said that their special characters are
anger, envy and jealousy.
I am going to skip the realm of human beings for
a while and go on the realm of gods (Devas) which is
the happiest among the six realms:
There are three kinds of gods:
-gods of kamdvacara loka.
-gods of Rupavacaraloka and
-gods of Arupavacaraloka.
Gods of kdmavacara loka are six in number-namely,

- -
Cdtummahdrajika the realm of the four kings who
are the guardian deities of the four quarters of the
firmanent.
-Tavatimsa-the realm of the thirty three Devas. The
Deva Sakka is the chief of this realm.
-
Yama the realm of the Ydma Devas.
-Tusita-the realm of Delight.
The Bodhisattvas who have perfected the Pdramitas
reside in this plane until the suitable moment comes
for them to appear in the human realm to attain
Buddhahood. The Bodhisatta Metteyya, the future Bud¬
dha, at present residing in this realm.
-
Nimmdmrati-dte realm of the Devas who rejoice in
their own creations and,
-Paranimmita vasavatti-the realm of the Devas who
make others' creation serve their own ends.23
The first four realm of woe, ghost-beings, animal,
Asura and manussa and six kinds of gods of kdmavacara
loka belong to Kdmdvacaraloka. The remaining two
Rupavacaraloka and Arupavacaraloka are realms of gods.
.
Gods of Rupav. and Arupav are those who cultivate
meditation and attained meditative absorptions (Jhanas).
As result of this good kamma, when dying they were
bom in these correspondent realm to enjoy their merits
until its exhausting.
We have had a general view of five realms of woe,
ghosts, animal, Asura demons and gods. These five
realms express two extremes: One is great pain and
another great happiness. Contrasted with the agony of
hell with boiled oil and hot fire, hunger, thirst, heat,
cold, fear, pain, anger of the first four realms is the
realm of great pleasures of heavens. In the woe, beings
23; NSrada Thera, the Buddha- Dhamma, New Delhi, Asian Educational
Services, 1991, p.200.
due to dull character covered with greed, hatred and

delusion, it really hard for them to digest and enjoy
the taste of Dhamma. In heavens, the happiness of
sensual pleasures or spiritual pleasures have been
lasting a long period of time. Beings here rarely face
the impermanence of birth, old age, sickness and death,
so most of them getting deep attachment in enjoying
their merits, forget to practise the Dhamma. When
suddenly comes the impermanence of old- age and
death, they have no chance to ponder over the Truth.
In Manussa or human-realm, beings also suffer
unhappiness as the Buddha often remind us "Life is
full of sufferings", but it won't go to the extreme
unbearable agony like the first four. Life is also full of
pleasures which most of beings like to grasp with,
however it won't go to the extreme happiness as the
realm of gods. And the life span is neither too long
nor too short, being enough for men to recognize three
marks of existences. Besides, in this realm, beings get
more chances to meet Buddhas themselves and to listen
to and practise the Dhamma, because Bodhisattvas often
choose this realm to develop paramitds or for the last
life to fulfil their bodhi to attain Buddhahood. In addition
to that, beings of human-realm possess enough
knowledge to understand the noble meanings of Dhamma
to practise in life. Because of these reasons, the Buddha
have often insisted that human-realm is the best among
all six ones. Being born as human-being is difficult,
being listened to the noble Dhamma is much more
difficult!
"Suppose the whole world were a vast ocean, and
on the surface of this ocean there were a yoke floating
about, blown about by the wind, and suppose at the
bottom of the ocean there lived a blind tortoise which
came to the surface of the ocean once every hundred
years. Just as difficult as it would be for that tortoise
to place . its neck through the opening in that yoke
86 Concepts of Dhamnta in Dhammapada
floating about in the ocean, just so difficult is it to
attain opportune birth as a human being!"
"Khoo thay, d uoc lam nguoi,
Kho thay, duoc song con,
Kho thay, nghe dieu phdp,
Kho thay, Phdt ra doi. ”
[Hard to gain is birth as man; hard is life of morals;
hard to get is the opportunity of hearing the Ariyad-
hamma; hard it is for a Buddha to appear]
(Dhp. v. 182)
It is possible for us to interpret that these six realms
are the different states of psychology in the same person.
It also is expressed that the six realms are present here,
in this world. These interpretations are not quite
unreasonable, because the states of agony, anger eniryt
jealousy, fear, happiness, serenity are states of mind
everyone can absolutely perceive in his daily life. It also
is the realm of woe that can be seen in prisons; the
misery of persons being harassed just like animal; men
due to feud, envy, hatred killed one another, just like
scene in Asura realm. All of these are obvious here, in
this very life of man- society. However, if we insist
that besides the human-realm and animal-realm, there
is no four others of hell, ghost, asura and gods, it may
be a certain mistake!
The Buddha has confirmed the long course exist¬
ences of beings through His exclamation:
"Long I endure the circles of rebirth,
Seeking but finding not the architect,
Rebirth continual is continual pain...”
5.3 Cause of formation of Realms :
Paticcasamuppada.
What is the cause to circle men in the six realms?
In order to explain the formation of men and of the
world, the Buddha has delivered the sermon of

Paticcasamuppada-the Law of Dependent Origination.
Before and during the time of the Buddha, the
philosophical atmosphere of India was clouded with
many metaphysical theories. Generally, it belongs to
two extreme attitudes such as Eternalism and An-
nihilationism. While the Upanisadic tradition denied
change and impermanence as being illusory and upheld
the reality of a permanent "self', the materialist tradition
considered matter to be ultimately real, there is no after
life. These two extreme attitudes are rejected by the
Buddha in the doctrine Paticcasamuppdda or more
popularly, as the Niddna Chain, or Law of Dependent
Origination. The doctrine expresses that all physical and
psychical phenomena are conditioned by antecedent
physical or psychical factors, and that whole of existence
can be shown to be an uninterrupted flux of phenomena.
The general formula sets out in the early discourse,
as follows:
"When this is present, that comes to be,
From the arising of this, that arises.
When this is absent, that does not come to be;
On the cessation of this, that ceases."
(Imasmim sati idam hoti, Imassa uppada idam
uppajjati. Imasmim asati idam na hoti; Imassa nirodha
idam nirujjhati].
The classical formule of the doctrine sets out in
twelve links which run as follows:
"With ignorance (Avijjd) as condition, there are
volitional activities (Sankhdra).
With volitional activities as condition, consciousness
(vihmna).
With consciousness as condition, mentality-
materiality (ndrna-
rippa).
With mentality-materiality as condition, the sixfold
base (salayatana) with the sixfold base as condition,
contact (phassa).
With contact as condition, feeling (vedand)
With feeling as condition, craving (tanha)
With craving as condition, clinging (updddna).
With clinging as condition, becoming (bhava)
With becoming as condition, birth (Jdti)
With birth as condition, there is ageing and death
(Jardmarana) and sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and
despair; thus there is the arising of this whole mass of.
suffering".
There are various ways to interpret the Law of
Dependent Origination. One way to understand it is
over a period of three life-time: the past life, the present
life and the future life. In this case, ignorance and
—
mental activities belong to the past. The next eight
components of dependent origination Vinhana,
ndmarupa, salayatana, phassa, vedand, tanha, updddna and
bhava belong to the present life. And the last two Jdti
and Jardmarana belong to the future life. To the presence,
Avijjd and Sankhdra are causes, the next eight com¬
ponents are their results; to the future, the eight
components are causes and the last two are their fruits.
There also are scholars who interpreted it as follows:
Due to Avijjd and Sankhdra which are deeds created
in the past that Vihhdrn is formed to seek rebirth. The
process of rebirth is explained as the combining of two
factors, Vihhdrn and Nama-rupa from which the foetus
is formed in the mother's womb and the beginning of
a n#w life-span is represented.
When the individual is born, his senses (Salayatana),
i
if they are not impaired, will start functioning. In the

process, Phassa and Vedand and Tanha are formed. Tanha
is the cause of Updddna, as a result of which the process
of becoming (Bhava) is set in motion. This stage
represents again the end of a life span and the begining
of a fresh one. Birth as the result of becoming. Birth,
then, is considered as the cause of the entire mass of
suffering that one is faced with in his life.
The third interpretation is authoritative too. It
divides the twelve components into three groups, and
these are defilements (Kilesa), actions (Kamma), and
sufferings (Dukkha). According to this scheme, Avijja,
Tanhd and Upaddna belong to the group of defilements.
Sankhara and Bhava belong to the group of actions. The
remaining seven, that is, Vihhdna, Nama-rupa, Salayatana,
Phassa, Vedana, Jati and Jardmarana belong to the group
of sufferings.
We have the defilements which may be described
as impurities of the mind-Avijjd, Tanha and Upaddna.
These mental impurities result in actions, actions done
in previous lives (Sankhara) and actions that we perform
in this life (Bhava). Together, these defilements and
these actions result in rebirth. In other words, they
result in the formulation of consciousness, the name
and form, six senses, in contact, in feeling, in rebirth,
and in old-age and death. In this interpretation three
defilements and two actions are causes of rebirth and
sufferings. Rebirth and sufferings are their effects. In
this sense, the twelve components of dependent-origina¬
tion present a picture of Samsara with its causes and
its effects. When the twelve links are at work, the
process of life and death continues. When there is jthe
stop of these links, there is no continuity of the cycle
of birth and death.
How the process of repeated existence comes to an
end? ft comes to an end by breaking any of the chain.
It means when there is no ignorance, there is no
Volitional foices(sankhara) and so on. And the complete
path for freedom is the Noble Eightfold Path.
"Maggdnatthahgiko settho,
Saccamm caturo pada
Virago settho dhammanam
Dvipaddnahca Cakkhwnd." (Dhp, 273)
[Of path, the path of Eight Constituents is the
noblest; of Truths, the Four Noble Truths are the noblest;
of the dhammas, the absence of craving (i.e.Nibbdna) is
tjie noblest; of the two-legged beings, the All Seeing
Buddha is the noblest].
Nibbana will be discussed in the last section.
SECTION 6
DHAMMA AS BODHIPAKKHIYA
DHAMMA
(37 Factors of Englightenment)
Now we come to the next concept of Dhamma named
Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma, the path of virtue or thirty seven
Factors of Englightenment. They are so-called because
they are principles which are conducive Enlightenment.
We have found this concept through verses No 44,
45, 79, 86, 164, and 364.
"Ko imam pathavim vicessati
Yamalokahca imam sadevakam
Ko dhammapadam sudesitam
Kusalo pupphamiva pacessati” (Dhp.v. 44)
[Who shall examine this earth (i.e. this body) of
the world of yama (i.e. the four lower worlds) and the
world of men together with the world of devasl Who
shall examine the well-taught Path of Virtue (Dham-
mapada) as an expert florist picks and chooses flowers?]
"Sekho pathavim vicessati....sadevakam
Sekho dhammapadam sudesitam.... pacessati." (Dhp.v.
45)
[The Ariyasekha shall examine this earth....The
Ariyasekha shall examine the well-taught Path of Vir¬
tue ]
Dhammapadam sudesitam = the well taught Path of
Virtue, here means the thirty-seven Factors of Enlighten¬
ment (Bodhipakkhiya- Dhamma).
"Sekho"o:r "Sekhapuggala", that means one who is
practising the Dhamma, and has entered the path, but
has not yet become an Arahanta. The term is applied
to the first seven Ariyapuggalas, the eight or Arahat being
Asekha ,24
Verses 44 and 45 were uttered on the occasion of
five hundred Bhikkhus who after a journey, in their
leisure of that evening they had an idle talk, especially
the condition of the land they have passed. The Buddha
came to them. After knowing the subject of their talk,
he advised them not to have gossip with the external
world, but they should concentrate on their own body.
A man is a composing of Ndma and Riipa. Earth,
water, fire and air are four basic elements of Riipa. For
summarily, the Buddha mentioned Pathavim (earth)
representing for the body or Riipa of man.
\ What should the practitioner be mindful for the
subject related to his own body? That is impurity,
impermanence and soullessness. Through section 5 we
have known the misery of realms of hell, ghost-beings,
animals and Asura-demons; we have recognised the
temporary pleasures of the realms of gods and finally,
we have confirmed that it is lucky being a human-being
and it is much more lucky having chance to listen to
the Buddha's teachings in which the helpful way of
Liberation is Bodhipakkhiya dhamma. As in a flower-gar¬
den, the expert-florish shall choose the most beautiful
flowers to make nice corollas used in accordance with
their need, similarly, among thousands of worldy
objects, life- span shorten with the time passing-by, the
intelligent one shall race against the impermanence, not
to waste time for gossip, they choose for themselves
suitable objects to ponder over and by the way of
practising thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment to strive
for liberation.
24. dp. cit: 18, verse 44, fn.l
Dhamma as Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma 93
The Buddha repeatedly impressed its importance
and the advantage one must achieve by following it
through verses 86, 79 and 364.
"Ye ca kho sammadakkhate.
dhamtne dhammdnuvattino
te jana paramessanti
maccudheyyam suduttaram"(Dhp.v.86)
[Few among men reach the other shore (Nibbdna);
all the others only run up and down on this shore25,
but those who practise according to the well-expounded
Dhamma will reach the other shore, having passed the
realm of Death (i.e.,Samsdra), very difficult as it is to
cross.]
Or in verse 79:
"Dhammaplti sukham seti
vippasannena cetasa
ariyappavedite dhamme
sada ramati pandito."
[He who drinks in the Dhamma, lives happily with
a serene mind; the wise man always takes delight in
the Dhamma(Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma) expounded by the
Noble Ones /.Ariyas)]
The term Dhamma in "Dhammaplti" refers to the
Buddha's teachings.
"Dhammdramo dhammarato
dhammam anuvicintayam
dhammam anussaram bhikkhu
saddhammd na parihdyati (Dhp. v. 364)
[The bhikkhu, who abides in the Dhamma who
delights in the Dhamma, who meditates on the Dhamma,
and is ever mindful of the Dhamma, does not fall away
from the Dhamma of the virtuous].
25. Translation of verse 85 with the meaning connected with that of verse
86.
The first four "Dhamma" here refer to the Buddha's
teachings while Saddhammd, the Dhamma of the virtuous,
means the thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment and
the Nine Transcendentals (Lokuttara Dhamma.)26
The term Dhamma in "Ariydnam Dhammajivinam"
of verse 164 translated as "Noble Ones {Anyas) who
live according to the Dhamma"... The term Dhamma here
can be understood either as the Buddha's teachings in
general or Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma in particular.
Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma is practical method for ap-
pling in Buddhists' daily life. It is from simple to
complex to suit with any level of characteristics. Because
of its speciality, we will here, by turn, discuss about
some aspects of its formation and a critical study of it
is needed.
6.1 The formation of the concept:
The entire Buddha's teachings of practices and
principles are composed in thirty-seven "Dhammas", i.e.
Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma, 37 Factors of Enlightenment.
The Pali word Bodhipakkhiya is probably derived from
the Sanskrit form "Bodhipaksyd dharmah," which was the
earlier of the two (Bodhi+paksya/paksa), as this word
does not often occur in the Nikdyas or the Milindapanha,
though all the factors are mentioned in the
Mahaparinibbana- sutta. As E. Hardy has pointed out,
the collective term Bodhipaksa dharmah is found in the
Lalitavistara (86.182.11). It also occurs in the Mahavastu
(II, 290.6). The term emphatically refers to bodhi and
not to the Nirvana of the Pali scriptures. Both the term
and the complete formula seem to have originated
among the Sanskritists or quasi- Sanskritists, who were
the fore-runners of the Mahayana.
The number "thirty-seven" is first mentioned in the
Saddharmapundanka, but cata-sahasrikd prajMparamitd, the
26. Op.cdt.p. 125, verse 364, fn.l
list is given more than thirty-seven Dharmas. (The

numeral “thirty-seven", however, is also found in the
same book). The Pali Nettipakarana, which dates from
the beginning of the Christian era, mentions forty three
Dharmas. Asvaghosa mentions only twenty-eight items in
the Saund-kavya (XVD,24, ff), and he does not use the
term Bodhipaksya.27
The formula, in its final form, includes the following
thirty- seven Dharmas, which are usually given in this
order:
Four Satipatthana (Smrty-upasthandni) 4
Four Sammappadhdna (Samyak-prahandni) 4
Four Iddhipada (Rddhi-pddah) 4
Five Indriya (Indriyani) 5
Five Bala (Balani) 5
Seven Bojjhanga (Bodhy-ahgdni) 7
Attangikamagga (Ary-ast-anga- margah) 8
Total: 37
6.2 A Study of Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma
(1) Four Satipatthana (Fields of Mindfulness)
There is this one way, monks, for the purification
of beings, for the overcoming of sorrows and griefs, for
the going down of sufferings and miseries, for winning
the right path, for realising Nibbana, that is to say, the
four Fields of Mindfulness/'
It is Buddha's statement when starting to preach
Satipatthana sutta to His Bhikkhus. ,
Why?
Because "Sati" is like a door-keeper at the mind
door. As a door-keeper remains standing at the door,
so long he is quite alert the undesirable person is unable
to enter the room. Similarly, when there is the presence
27. Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,
India, Shantilal jain, Shri Jainendra Press, 1978, p.81,82
of awareness or mindfulness at mind-door, there is no

occasion for appearance of the immoral states.
The practice of Satipatthana is a fourfold namely:
Kaya-satipatthana (Mindfulness of the Body).
Vedana-satipatthana (Mindfulness of Feelings)
Citta-satipatthana (Mindfulness of Consciousness)
Dhamma-satipatthana. (Mindfulness of Phenomena)
"Herein, monks, a monk fares along contemplating
the body in the body, ardent, clearly conscious (of it),
mindful (of it) so as to control the covetousness and
dejection in the world; he fares along contemplating the
feelings in the feelings ; ardent, clearly conscious (of
them), mindful (of them) so as to control the covetous¬
ness and dejection in the world; he fares along
contemplating the mind in the mind, ardent, clearly
conscious (of it), mindful (of it) so as to control the
covetousness and dejection in the world; he fares along
contemplating the mental objects in the mental objects,
ardent, clearly conscious (of them), mindful (of them)
so as to control the covetousness and dejection in the
world."
And how, monks, does a monk fare along con¬
templating the body in the body?
KAYA-SATIPATTHANA
It means analysing and observing the body or
contemplation to the body or mindfulness as regards
the body.
There is a whole Sutta devoted to this subject named
Kayagatasatisuttam (M.No.xix.) Through this Sutta, one
can practise mindfulness of the body in the ways as
follow:
-One practises Anapdnasati with four subjects of the
body in which one observes the natural process of
breathing in and breathing out in every moment. During
the time, he has to draw his mind from different subjects
and fixed it on the in-coming and out going breaths.

His mind is alert, all time, his mind is aware of the
in-coming and out-going breaths. By this way, his mind
becomes pure and tranquil.
In another way one observes the physical move¬
ments such as sitting, standing, walking, lying etc. He
has to be aware of his movements. For instance, if a
man is walking, at that Time he is fully conscious of
his walking. Similarly, when he is sitting, he is full
aware of his sitting.
Or one contemplates the loathesome character of
our body which is nothing beside the heap of 32 types
of impurities namely hair, nails, teeth, skin etc. By this
practice one cannot find in his bofy anything for which
he can develop the pride.
Or one observes in personality of man that it is
composed of ndma (mind) and rupa (form) which is
nothing beside four elements: Pathavi,Apo, Tejo and
Vdyodhatu (viz.earth, water, fire and air respectively).
Or one sees the corpes of the persons who died
one, two, three, four or five days before. As he observes
them in different stages of decomposition, he reflects
to his own body which cannot escape from this condition
and fells detachment from it.
While he is thus diligent, ardent, self-resolute, those
memories and aspirations that are worldy are got rid
of; by getting rid of them the mind itself is inwardly
settled, calmed, focussed, concentrated. Thus, does a
monk develop mindfulness of body.
VEDANA-SATIPATTHANA:
Here one contemplates the three types of feeling.
They are:
1. Sukha vedana 2. Dukkha vedand and 3. Upekkha
vedana.
Sukha vedana means pleasant feeling which is
divided into two groups:
-Sukha vedana : physical pleasant feeling and,-
Somanassa vedanaimental pleasant feeling.
Dukkha vedana means unpleasant feeling which is
also divided into two: -Dukkha vedana: physical un¬
pleasant feeling and, Domanassd vedana: mental un¬
pleasant feeling.
Upekkha vedana means indifferent feeling. It is of
only one type, that is ne'ptral mental feeling.
Thus the five types of feeling used to appear in
various moments. The practitioner remains mindful in
the moment of anything of particular type of feeling.
CITA-SATIPTTHANA :
Here one practises Mindfulness with regard to Qitta.
He knows the nature of mind is fickle, restless, unsteady
like a monkey or a wind. One observes his mind that
it is composed of Lobha (greed), Dosa (hatred) and Moha
(Delusion), then he tries to destroy all these defilements.
Or it is composed of Alobha (Sacrifice), Adosa (friendli¬
ness) and Amoha (Right understanding), then he
cultivates all of these qualities,
DAMMA-SATIPATTHANA:
In this process, one ponders over the various
dhammas namely:
-Pahcantvarandni : five hindrances.
-pancakkhandha : five aggregates.
-Satta bojjhangd : seven enlightenment factors.
-Dvddasayatdni : twelve bases, and,
-Cattarariyasaccani : four Noble Truths.
He considers them and understands them clearly.
These four Sati of Kdya, Vedana, Citta and Dhamma
are Catu Satipatthdna. Among them, Kayasatipatthana is
the most important because it is easy to practise, and
being suitable to any level of characters.
Dhamma as Badkipakkhiya Dhamma 99
As the Buddha declared in Kdyagatdsati-suttam that

if Kdyagdtasati being developed, made much of, making
it a vehicle, making it a foundation, practising it,
increasing it, and fully undertaking it, then one certainly
gets ten advantages. They are , he is one who overcomes
dislike and liking; fear and dread; can bear physical
unpleasant feelings; acquires the four meditations and
can experience the various forms of psychic power.
And if one probably develops Satipattham either for
seven years, or it's no need for seven years, just for
six years, five years, four, three, two, one or even seven
months, six, five...., or even seven days only, one of
two fruits is to be expected for him: either profound
knowledge here-now, or, if there is any residuum
remaining, the state of non-returning.
It is in this reason the Buddha has taught:
"There is this only way, for the purification of beings,
for the overcoming of sorrows and griefs, for the going down
of sufferings and miseries, for winning the right path, for
realising Nibbana, that is to say, the four Fields of
Mindfulness."
This kind of practice these days is popularly
approved in Japan and Vietnam in monasteries and
among Buddhist lay-people.
(2) Four Sammappadhana : (Right Efforts)
In the ceaseless struggle between good and bad,
moral and immoral, one seeks the help from the Four
Right Efforts. The Buddha taught it in various ways,
the best-known being the efforts to avoid, overcome,
develop and maintain. They are:
-Preventing the arising of ill, unprofitable states not
yet arisen, (avoidance).
-As to ill, unprofitable states that have arisen, he
puts forth desire '"to destroy them (overcoming).
100 Concepts of Dhatntna in Dhammapada
-As to profitable states that have not yet arisen, he

puts forth desire for their arising (developing)
-As to profitable states that have already arisen, he
puts forth desire, makes an effort for their continuance,
for their non-confusion, for their more-becoming, in¬
crease, culture and fulfilment (maintaining)(S.V.
trans,p.8)
Why are these efforts named Right Efforts?
That means a balanced effort neither too weak nor
too strong. It can be illustrated with the story of Sona
Kolivisa in Anguttara Nikaya III (trans.p.266).
While the Ven. Sona lived alone and secluded in
Coolwood near Rdjagaha, this thought occured to him:
"Of those disciples of the Blessed One who are
energetic, I am one." (He had been born in a rich
family and had tender feet. After ordination he practised
walking meditation with so much effort that his\
meditation-walk was stained with blood from his cracket 1
feet, hence these reflections), "yet my mind is not
detached and free of the cankers....Would it not be
better for me to give up the training, return to the
lower state of a lay-person, enjoy my riches and do
good deeds?"
The Buddha knew in his mind Sona's thoughts. He
went to him and asked him. " Tell me, Sona, when in
earlier days you lived at home, were you not skilled
in playing the lute's stringed music?" "Yes, Lord".
"And tell me, Sona, when the strings of your lute were
too taut, was your lute then tuneful and play-
able?"Certainly not. Lord" "And when the lute-strings
were too lack, was your lute then tuneful and playable?
"certainly not, Lord". But when your lute-strings were
neither too taut nor too slack, but in the middle-pitch,
was your lute then tuneful and playable? "Certainly,
Lord". In the same way, Sona, if effort is applied too
strongly it will lead to restlessness, if too slack it will
lead to lassitude. Therefore, keep your effort balanced,
penetrate to a balance of the faculties".
"Just as, monks, the river Ganges flows to the east,
slides to the east, tends to the east, even so a monk,
by cultivating the four right efforts, making much of
the four right efforts, flows, slides and tends to
Nibbdna (S.V.ch.I.p.219)
(3) Four Iddhipada ; (Bases of Psychic Powers)
This term consists of two words: Iddhi and Pada.
Various translations were made, usually "Bases of
psychic powers." But to Har Dayal, the best translation
of the term "Iddhi" is "wonder-working-power" and of
“Pada” is base. So Iddhipada is translated "Bases of
wonder-working power."28
Iddhipada is of four:
— The basis of psychic powers of which the features

are desire, together with the co-factors of concentration
and struggle.
---The basis of psychic powers of which the features
are energy together with the co-factors of concentration
and struggle.
— The basis of. are thought. and
—
struggle
The basis of psychic power of which the features
are investigation, together with the co-factors of con¬
centration and struggle.
If, by emphasizing desire, a monk lays hold of
concentration, lays, hold of one pointedness of mind,
this act is called "desire-concentration
If, by emphasizing energy, a monk lays hold of
concentration, lays hold of one-pointedness of mind,
this act is called ''energy-concentration.”
28. Ibid: 105
If, by emphasizing thought, a monk..., this act is

called "thought-concentration.” Now, if by emphasizing
investigation, a monk...., this act is called "investigation-
concentration. "
For the non-arising of ill, the abandoning of ill, the
arising of profitable states and the establishing the
profitable states, if a monk generates desire and makes
an effort, sets going energy, these are called "The
co-factors of struggling."
This desire and this desire-concentration and these
co-factors of struggle are called by one name: "The basis
of psychic power of which the features are desire, together
with the co-factors of concentration and struggle."
The same are three others.29
The Buddha taught that these bases of psychic
power, if cultivated and made much of, conduce to
going neither to the hither nor to the further shore, i.e,
going strainght to Nibbdna. Why it is so?
Because they have powers to cut off all ill, to fulfil
comprehension, and wisdom. When a monk has
cultivated and made much of the four bases of psychic
power, he enjoys manifold forms of psychic power: he
gets six Abhihhd (super- knowledges). Furthermore,
whosoever has cultivated and fully undertaken them, if
he so wished, he might remain on earth for his full
span of life, or for what is left of it. It is by the fact
of cultivating and making much of these four bases fo
psychic power that the Tathagata is called "Arahant, a
Fully Enlightened One.”
(4) Panca Indriyani and Panca Balani. (Faculties and
Forces):
Buddhism or the path of the Buddha, is the path
of purification. In this path, it has been repeatedly told
29. Sarhyutta-nikaya V, Book VII, trans.p.239
that for gradual purification, the practice of five Indriyas

and five Balas are needed. They are:
Saddhd, Viriya, Sati, Samadhi, Pahhd and,
Saddhabala, Viriya-bala, Sati-bala, Samddhi-bala, and
Pahhd-bala.
Various translations have been made for the term
Pahca Indriya. The familar one is " Five Faculties", but
to Har Dayal, the term indriya means "belonging to the
ruler", "governing tuling, controlling, principle, directive
force." "These five indriyas are related to moral and
spiritiual qualities and values"(Pali Diet.). So it should
be rendered as "Five chief categories" or "chief
controlling principles".
Pahcabaldni means Five Forces.
The final formula of these two have passed a process
of Change and selection. The Pali texts speak of four,
five or seven balas, and the name vary. Only three items
(Viriya, Samadhi and Pahhd) are mentioned at Mahavastu
and Samadhi is ommitted at Lalitavistara. Chanda (Strong
desire) takes the place of Saddhd in several passages of
Lalitavistara.
There five Indriyas and Balas are mentioned as a
group in Samyutta nikdya V and in several passages of
Buddhist Sanskrit literature. H.Kern thinks that the only
different between the Indriyas and the balas is that the
later are more intense than the former. But to Har Dayal
the Indriyas are regarded as static in character, while
the Balas are dynamic.
A brief discussion of each of them is given belows:
SADDHINDRIYAM ; (SADDHA+INDRIYAM).
Saddhd means "Faith". We have known that
Buddhism is the religion of wisdom. The Buddha is a
representative of wisdom, being a great leader who
always gives much respect to the individual's judge¬
ment. He has honestly advised the people of Kdldmas
104 Concepts of Dhamtna in Dhammapuda
of Kesaputta not to accept anything merely on the
authority of another, but to exercise their own reasoning
and judge for themselves whether anything is right or
wrong. Thus, is Saddhd-indriya here a blind-faith?
—Absolutely not. Saddha here is accompanied with
Pahhd. After considering carefully, we have found out
that if we follow and pratise the teachings of the
Buddha, we ourselves, not anyone else, will gain much
advantage first. .For this reason it is said that "Saddha
is mother of all kinds of merit. "
Milindapahha gives two characteristics of Saddha:
"Sampasddana lakkhand Saddha" and
"Sampakkhandanalakkhand Saddha'’.
When we find the definition Sampasadanalakkhana
Saddha, it means that Saddha has the characteristic of
Tranquillisation. Just as when water becomes dirty and
water- purifying-gem (udakappasadako mani) is put into
it, immediately the dirt particles disappears and the
water becomes pure. Similarly, when consciousness
becomes dirty with hindrances, Saddha makes it clear,
serene and untroubled.
It is again said that Saddha has got the characteristic
of aspiration-Sampakkhandhana lakkhand saddha. The
Yogdvacara establishing himself in Saddha makes right
efforts for higher achievement. He becomes Sotdpahna
again proceeds further and he becomes Sakadagami,
Andgami and Arahatta in due course. In this way Saddha
insprires one to proceed further for attainment of
gradual purification and higher states.
VIRIYINDRIYA: (VIRIYA+INDRIYA)
The literal meaning of the word Viriya is energy,
perseverance. We have discussed it in part (2) Four
Sammappadhana. Here we just add one characteristic of
it which Milindapahha mentioned is "mental moral
support." All the good qualities which it supports do
Dhamnta as Bodhipakkhiya Dhamtna 105
not fall away. This has been explained with the help
of illustration.
Sometimes due to the heavy rain or the push of
strong wind, the thatch starts falling. The house owner
erects a wooden pillar and provides supports accord¬
ingly. Getting support in this way, the thatch of the
house does not fall. Similarly when there is the downfall
the consciousness due to immoral forces, Viriya comes
to help and grant support and make the mind strong.
SATINDRIYA : SATI+INDRIYA)
—
We have known the important role of Sati (Mind¬
fulness) at Part 1- Catu satipatthana, and its necessity
to monks on the way towards freedom of rebirths.
Two characteristics are hereby mentioned such as\
—— Apildpana lakkhand Sati and,

Upaganhand lakkhand Sati.
When we say Apildpana lakkhand Sati, it means that
Sati has the characteristic of repetition. And how is
repetition the mark of mindfulness?
— "As mindfulness, O king, springs up in his heart,
he repeats over the good and evil, right and wrong,
slight and important, dark and light qualities, and those
that resemble them, saying to himself. "These are four
Satipatthana, these the four Sammappadhdna, these four
Iddhipada..., this serenity and this insight, this wisdom
and this emancipation." Thus does the recluse follow
after those qualities that are desirable, and not after
those are not; thus does he cultivates those which ought
to be practised, and not those which ought not. That
is how repetition is the mark of mindfulness."
Again "Upaganhand" is defined as Sati's charac¬
—
teristic Upaganhand lakkhand sati. It means that Sati has
the characteristic of "keeping up", to make us aware
of the fact that we have so many dhammas in us which
are helpful and so many which are not helpful. Doing
106 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhamtnapada j
so, it inspires us to acquire developing the dhammas ;
which are helpful and give up the dhammas which are

not helpful.
It has also been explained with the simile of the :
adviser of the king. As theking has an adviser who

everyday tells or advises the king about the useful and
harmful dhammas. Knowing them so, the king makes
the evil in himself die out, and keeps up the good.
Similarly, with the development of Sati one is conscious
of his good qualities.
——
SAMADHI INDRIYA
PANNA INDRIYA
Will be discussed in the next chapter.
(5) Seven Bodhyangani. (Bojjhanga)
[Seven factors or constituents of Enlightenment]
Seven Bojjhanga, seven constituents of Enlighten¬
ment, which forms Bodhi. Bodhi is derived from the
root "budh" meaning Knowledge, Enlightenment, and
therefore, the knowledge possesed by the Enlightened
One, the Buddha. It is considered as being attainable
through the accomplishment of the principles conductive
to the maturing of Enlightenment.
Seven Bojjhanga are:
-Sati (mindfulness).
-Dhamma-vicaya (investigation of the Buddha's teach¬
ings)
-Viriya (Energy).
-Piti (Joy).
-Passaddhi (Serenity).
-Samddhi (Concentration) and
-Upekkha (Equanimity).
We have above mentioned Sati and Viriya. Samddhi
will be discussed in the next chapter. Thus here we
will discuss only four constituents of Dhammavicaya, Piti,
Passaddhi and Upekkha.
Dhamtrn as Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma 107
-DHAMMA-VICAYA:
Vicaya (Skt. pravicaya) means investigation. Dhamma
here means Buddha's teachings. So Dhamma-vicaya
means investigation of the Doctrine.
On the way leading to the highest goal of life, the
knowledge of Buddha's teachings is an essential
constituent to construct the Bodhi. Because "practice
without learning is a blind practice; well-versed without
practice is a bookcase.” However, as above mentioned,
Ch'an of China found by Bodhidharma, whose policy is
much prefered practice to theory, even Buddha's image.
This way is suitable to the minor kind of person with
high character, who has accumulated the seed of Bodhi
from incalculable past existences. To this kind of person,
he is able to get enlightened at once even hearing only
one verse, such as the sixth patriarch Hue Nang of
Ch'an of China. Besides, almost human-beings covered
with deep delusion, they have to cultivate their mind
from time to time by pondering over the teachings oh
the Lord.
-PITI: is zest, joy or pleasurable interest. It is derived
from V'pj' . It is a psychic factor, the function of which
is to make psychic factors and consciousness full of joy.
It is a kind of inner joy while Sukha is the happiness
got through body when the object is realized. It has
been explained with a simile.
Suppose there is a man who is travelling through
the desert. After travelling for some days, he becomes
extremely tired. There is no food to eat, no water to
drink. Being suppressed in this way he looses the hope
of life. In the meantime he catches a sigh a man coming
from the opposite direction. His cloth is wet, water is
dropping down from his hair. The traveller thinks that
there must be a tank nearby. His mind is now full of
joy (Piti). He with this hope comes up to the tank little
later. Drinking water as much as he likes and becomes
satisfied. It is the state of Sukha but Sukha is attained
with the objectives realized.
Piti is one of five Jhanahga, antidote of Vydpdda
(ill-will or hatred), one of five Nivarana (hindrances),
being practised thoroughly at Rupajhana stage. Narada
Thera in his "A Manual of Abhidhamma" mentioned five
kinds of Piti.
PASSADDHI:
Passaddhi is composed of Pa + sambh, to calm, to
be tranquil. Passadhi is tranquillity, calmness, quietude,
serenity.
The chief characteristic of Passaddhi is the suppres¬
sion or the allaying of feverishness of passions (Kilesa
daratha vupasama). It is like the cool shade of a tree to
a person affected by the sun's heat. Passaddhi is opposed
to uddhacca, restlessness or excitement. When highly
developed it becomes a factor of Englightenment. '
There are two kinds of Passaddhi, viz. Kdya-passaddhi
and Citta-passaddhi. Here Kaya is refered to the body of
psychic factors-namely, Vedand, Sahhd and Sahkhara: And
Citta connotes the whole consciousness.30
UPEKKHA:
'Upa' means impartially, justly + to see, to
view, to look (ikkhati), literally means seeing impartially.
It is viewing an object with a balanced mind, neither
with attachment nor with aversion. Atthasdlini states:
"This is impartiality in connection with the object, and implies
a discriminative knowledge."
Here Upekkhd does not mean mere neutral feeling,
but a state of mind without attachment to good and
bad situations, to agreeable and disagreeable matters.
Narada Mahathera mentions four kinds of Upekkhd
accompanied different kinds of Citta.31 Visuddhimagga
\30. Narada Thera, A Manual of Abhidhamma, Srilanka, The Colombo
.Apothecaries, 1980, p-110
31. |bid: 53,54
enumerates ten kinds of Upekkha. (The Path of Purity,

Vol.n, p.184-186).
Upekkha is one of Brahmavihdra. Buddhaghosa gives
a very appropriate simile in illustrations of the four
divine states in which Upekkha has the promotion of
the aspect of neutrality as its characteristic, like the
mother's attitude to the son who busies himself with
his own affairs.
Upekkha and Ekaggata are important factors of the
fourth Jhana of Rupajjhana and of the whole four stages
of Arupajjhana.
How about the practice of seven Bojjhanga?
;
When a monk, dwelling aloof, remembers and turns
over in his mind the teaching of the Norm, it is then
/ that the limb of wisdom which is mindfulness is
established in that monk. When he cultivates the limb
of wisdom which is mindfulness, then it is that the
monk's culture of it comes to perfection. Thus he,
dwelling mindful, with full recognition investigates and
applies insight to that teaching of the Norm and comes
to close scrutiny of it.
With that way he proceeds into the practice of
Norm-investigation (Dhamma-vicaya) and so on.32
Finally the Buddha declared seven fruits the
practitioner can get when the seven limbs of wisdom
are thus cultivated, thus made much of. The highest is
Arahattaphala and the lowest is Sotapattiphala.
(6) The Eightfold Path. (Atthangikamagga).
Buddha says there is suffering in this universe.
Suffering arises due to certain cause. Cessation of this
suffering is Nirvana and the path is nothing but the
Eightfold path, namely:
32. Samyutta Nikaya V, trans. p. 55-57

HO Concepts of Dhamma in Dhammapada
-Sammaditthi
-Sammdsankappo
(Right View)
(Right Thought) } PANNA
-Samavdcd
-Sammd kammanto
-Sammd ajivo
(Right Speech)
(Right action)
(Right Livelihood)
} SILA
-Samma vayamo.
-Sammd sati.
-Sammd samddhi.
(Right Effort)
(Right Mindfulness)
(Right Concentration)
} SAMADHI
This Eightfold Path is a complete path for freedom.

When a man follows this properly, he gradually gets
purity. In the end he realizes the goal of life, technically
called Nibbdna.
The entire teaching for practice of the Buddha is
not beyond thirty-seven constituents of Enlightenment.
One follows one group of it properly, he can end up
his circle of rebirth, not to say of he follows to practise
the entire thirty-seven. So again we remember what the
Buddha said:
"Those who practise according to the well-expounded
Dhamma (Samma-dakkhdte dhamme dhammanuvattino)33 mil
reach the other shore (Nibbana), having passed the realm of
Death (i.e., samsdra), very difficult as it is to cross."
Although the entire Buddha's teachings of practices
are composed in thirty-seven Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma, it
generally is not beyond Sila-Samddhi and Pahha.
In Atthahgikamagga, Samma-ditthi and Sammd sankap-
po belong to PANNA. Samma- vacd, Samma-kammanto
and Sammd-djivo belong to SILA. And the last three,
Sammd-vaydmo, Sammd-sati and Sammd samddhi belong to
SAMADHI. Sometimes Sammd Vayamo is classified into
33. Sammadakkhite dhamme dhammanuvattino [Samma + akkhate =
well-preached Anuvattino = According to.]
Dhamma as Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma ill
Sila, because Right Effort is needed in any state of
mind.
It seems that there are three separated divisions
Stla, Samddhi and Pahhd but each of three functions
without separation with the other two. When a person
is practising Stla, that means at the same time there is
the appearance of Samddhi and Panna in him. The same
way is applied to Samddhi and Pahhd.
In 37 Bodhipakkhiya Dhammas, the four Satipatthana
and four Iddhipada belong to Samddhi. Four
Sammappadhdna is identical with Right Effort which
belongs to either Samddhi or Stla. Pahca Jndriyani and
Pahca-Baldni are composed in Samddhi and Pahhd.
Stla has been discussed in section-4. In the next
part Samddhi and Pahhd will be related.
SECTION 7
DHAMMA AS SAMATHA AND

VIPASSANA
Besides various concepts the term Dhamma has
conveyed, a special one we should really notice is that
of "Dvayesu Dhammesu," the only term appeared in
verse 384 of the Dhammapada refering to Two Dhammas,
that is, the practice of Tranquillity (Samatha) and Insight
Meditation (Vipassana).
"Yada dvayesu dhammesu
Pdragu hoti brahmano
Atthassa sabbe samyogd
Attham gacchanti jdnato”. (Dhp. v. 384)
[When the Brahmana is well-established in the two
Dhammas, then, in that knowing one, all fetters are
destroyed],
By the Satipatthdnasutta, the Buddha has repeatedly
emphasized that "this is the only way for the purification
of beings, for the overcoming of sorrows and griefs, for
the going down of sufferings and miseries, for winning
the right path, for realising Nibbana, that is to say, the
four Fields of Mindfulness."
This attitude of the Buddha stated that meditation
is the only path leading to freedom. And the thirty-seven
Factors of Enlightenment which is made short in
Eightfold-path is the only way being practised through
Meditation.
Before coming to the main points to discuss, some
confusion about the words Mindfulness, Meditation,
Dhamrm os Samatha and Vipassana 113
Concentration and Contemplation may be arisen. And

what are they?
7.1. Distinction: Mindfulness, Meditation, Concentra

tion and Contemplation.
Mindfulness (Sati) means analysing and observing
an object, awareness of the presence of object as a door¬
keeper at mind-door. There are four kinds of Sati we
have discussed.
Contemplation as watchfulness would, therefore,
not much differ from Mindfulness (Sati), as both are
essentially kinds of observation.
Meditation [Skt. Dhyana, Pali Jhana, Chinese Chan,
and Japanese Zen], too, is a form of attention and
reflection. Its basic meaning is meditation, absorption,
abstraction and trance. The use of term may have been
pre-Buddhist. There are two spheres of Jhana namely:
-Rupajjhdna (or Rupavacara-jhana), the fine material
sphere.
-Arupajjhana (or Arupavacara-jhdna), the immaterial
sphere.
When we say Dhyana, that is chiefly used to refer
to the four meditative absorptions of Rupajjhdna. There
are four states (or five, according to Abhidhamma) in
Rupajjhdna. There are numerous methods and subjects
of meditation. (Buddhaghosa mentioned forty
kammatthdna, objects of meditation). The practice of
Dhyana leads to Samddhi (Concentration) due to the
development of one-pointedness (Ekaggata).
Concentration, then, is called "the power of
individualizing", developed by practice, for it focusses
the attention on one point, whereby distracting influen¬
ces are kept at a distance. This is the checking of the
five hindrances, when full estasy (Jhana) may occure,
which is truly right concentration (Sammasamadhi).
Kammatthdna such as kdyagatasati, Ampanasati, Anus-

sati
.....
(recollections) such as recollection of the virtues of
the Buddha, recollection of the Dhamma, of the
Sangha or contemplation of a device as a clay disk
(pathavi-kasinamandala) are forms of meditation or mental
development (Bhdvand).
7.2. Samatha-bhavana-Samadhi
In the process of practising meditation, as its result,
one's mind is developed and the mental development
is called Bhdvand. Here one has to distinguish two kinds:
* Development of Tranquillity (Samatha-bhavana), i.e.,
Concentration (Samadhi) and,
* Development of Insight (Vipassand-bhavand), i.e.,
wisdom (Pahha).
If we stop thinking, our mind only concentrate to
follow either the breath in and out or a single object
(such as earth- kasina....) with vigilance and clear
consciousness, that is called Samathd-bhdvand.
If our mind is following an object, analyzing and
pondering over it, although this object is either our
breath or five hindrances, five aggregates, four elements,
seven Bojjhanga....such activity is named Vipassand-
bhavand.
The way of practice of the Four Satipatthdna is
composed both Samatha and Vipassand. Concentrating
the mind on the objects of Kdya, Vedana, Citta and
Dhamma is Samatha, and pondering over the true
characteristic-impermanences and soullessness of them,
is Vipassand.
By means of deeply practising Samatha, Yogdvacara
will attain the state of concentration (Samadhi) by
destructing five hindrances which are substituted by the
five Jhanahgas. He from time to time perceives in his
mind the five meditative absorption stages of Rupaloka
and the four stages of Arupaloka.
Dhamma as Samatha and Vipassana 110*
Due to skilfully practising Vipassana, Paitm is
disclosed. With Pannd, one clearly sees the true
conditioned nature of all things. Now he is fed up with
worldly pleasures, detachment from them and in due
course cutting of all defilements.
Why it is so?
Because Concentration has got non-distraction as its
characteristic. Its function is to eliminate distraction. It
is manifested as non-wavering.34
Milinda-Pahhd, mentioned "being the leader" as its
characteristic. All good qualities have meditation as their
chief, they incline to it, lead up towards it, and are as
so many slopes up the side of the mountain of
meditation.
If being not practised, Concentration often very
weak-is one of the seven mental states (Sabbacitta
sadharana cetasika) inseparably associated with all con¬
sciousness.
Right concentration (Sammd-samddhi), as the last link
of the Eightfold Path is defined as the four meditative
Absorptions (Jhdna). In a wider sense, comprising also
much weaker states of concentration, it is associated
with all kusala consciousness. Opposite to Sammd-samddhi
is Micchd-samadhi-wtong concentration associated with
all karmically unwholesome consciousness. However as
always, every time Concentration is mentioned, that
means it conveys the meaning of Sammd- samadhi.
In Concentration one distinguishes three grades of
intensity:
(1) "Preparatory concentration" (Parikamma-samddhi)
existing at the beginning of the mental exercise.
34. Buddhaghosa, The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), Trans, by

Bhikkhu Nyanamoli, p.85
(2) "Neighbourhood concentration" (Upacdra-
samadhi) i.e., concentration "approaching" but not yet
attaining the 1st Rupajjhdna.
(3) "Attainment Concentration" (Appand-samddhi),
i.e. concentration which is present during four stages
of Jhana.
Concentration of saints of Lokuttara stage, i.e., four
Maggas and four Phalas is called supramundane (Lokut¬
tara), having Nibbana as object. Any other concentration
even that of Rupajjhdna stages and Arupajhana stages, is
merely mundane (Lokiya). Buddhaghosa in his Visud-
dhimagga divided Concentration into five kinds. If going
into details with sub- divisions, there are altogether
sixteen kinds of concentration.35
According D. 33, the development of concentration
(Samddhi- bhdvand) may procure a fourfold blessing:
(1) Present happiness through the four absorptions.
(2) Knowledge and vision (Nana-dassana) here
probably identical with the divine Eye.
(3) Mindfulness and clear comprehension through
the clear knowledge of the arising, persisting and
vanishing of feelings, perceptions and thoughts.
(4) Extinction of all cankers (dsaoakkhaya) through
understanding the arising and passing away of the five
aggregates.
Tranquillity, or Concentration of Mind, according
to Sankhepavannana (Commentary to Abhidhammattha
Sahgaha), bestows a threefold blessing: favourable
rebirth, present happy life, and purity of Mind which
is the condition of Insight.
7.3 Vipassana-bhavana-Panna
Insight meditation or Development of Insight
(Vipassana- Bhdvand) leads to wisdom (Pahhd).
35. Ibid: 85,86
Dhamttw as Samatha and Vipassand 117
Pahhd = Pa + ha (Pa means Rightly; Na, to Know).
Pahhd, literally, means right knowing. It is generally
translated as understanding, knowledge, wisdom or
insight. It helps us knowing the dhamma as they really
are. When we understand the nature of dhamma perfectly
we become able to give up which that are not beneficial
and to acquire which that are beneficial. Therefore it
has been defined as "Chedarn Lakkhand Pahhd" which
means it has the characteristic of cutting down or
destroying all the cankers. And enlightenment is also
its mark (Obhdsana Lakkhand Pahhd). When wisdom
springs up in the heart, it dispels the darkness of
ignorance, it causes one seeing things as they really
are in the light of Aniccd, Dukkha and Anatta.
As Pahhd dominates in understanding the real
nature and as it overcomes ignorance, it is called a
controlling faculty (indriya).
It is wisdom that is the decisive liberating factor,
it has to be mostly discovered through the process of
trainings of the two others SUa and Samadhi. The
culmination of wisdom practice leads directly to the
stages of Holiness.
With regard to the condition of its arising one
distinguishes three kinds of knowledge: Knowledge
based on Learning (Suta- maya-pahha); knowledge based
on Thinking (Cintd-mayd-pahhd) and knowledge based
on Mental Development (Bhavana-mayd-pahha).
Knowledge Based on Learning" is that knowledge
which one has heard from others and thus acquired
through learning.
"Knowledge Based on Thinking” is that knowledge
which one has acquired through one's own thinking,
without having learnt it from others. And,
"Knowledge Based on Mental Development" is that
knowledge which one has acquired through mental
development in this or that way; and which has reached
the stage of Full Concentration (Vis. XIV).
The first and second are “Reasoning” (yoniso

mamsikdra), while the last is wisdom (Panitd).
Wisdom may be either mundane (Lokiya, the first
and second), or supramundane (Lokuttara, the third).
Supramundane wisdom is of three kinds:
1. Joined with one of the four supramundane Paths
(Maggas).
2. Joined with one of the four Fruitions of these
paths (Phalas).
3. Regarding the Extinction of Consciousness (Nirod-
ha- samdpatti).
There are altogether twelve types of wisdom
composing into four groups as mentioned in Visud-
dhimagga XIV. Milindapanha noted the comprehension is
the characteristic mark of reasoning while “cutting off'
is that of wisdom. Just as the barley reapers with the
left hand they grasp the barley into a bunch, and taking
the sickle into the right hand, they cut it off. In the
same way, the recluse by his thinking grasp his mind,
and by his wisdom cut off his failings.
Buddhism is the religion of wisdom, the instinctive
insight. The Buddha required his disciples to see thing
with wisdom. By wisdom men cut off Ntvarana-
defilements of mind, root out greed, hatred and delusion
and finally obtain Nirvana.
In brief, “Concentration” (Samadhi) is the indispen¬
sable foundation and precondition of Insight by purify¬
ing the mind from the 5 mental defilements or
hindrances (nwarana), while Insight (Vipassana) produces
the four supramundane stage of Holiness
(Lokuttaravacara) and deliverance of mind.
All these do not mean that one has to follow Samatha
first and Vipassana in the second step. Or someone
prefer to practise either one of them. The best way is
practising both depending on his state of mind. If his
mind is excited with greed or hatred or distraction,
Dhatnma as Samatha and Vipassana m
finding no peace for meditation, the best way in this
situation is Samatha to calm down the mind. With
peaceful mind, if he finds out that his characteristic
tends to sensual desire, in this case the contemplation
of the loathesome character of the body with 32 types
of impurities, or mindfulness on different states of
decomposition of corpses is the best. If his characteristic
tends to hatred, the practice of Mettd (Loving-kindness)
in this case is needed. He comtemplates all kinds of
sufferings that human beings suffer in the sickness,
diseases and death as displayed daily in hospital to
arise Mettd. Or he ponders over the deep-rooted
delusion beings have accumulated from their incalculable
past existences, from which their characters differ one
anothers to arise Mettd. Or he regards all beings as
relatives due to the long course of Samsara to arise
Mettd. This is he is using the opposited method.
Going to further stage, he directs his mind to ponder
over the Four Noble Truths, the conditioned state of
Dhamma in the light of the Law of Dependent-Origina¬
tion, through it he recognises the danger of Tanhd, the
emptiness, unreality, temporariness of Dhatnmas. With
this knowledge he develops detachment from them. He,
being in mundance but supramundane, unties the
grasping of sense-organs, worldly objects, conscious¬
ness, breaking off the chain of twelve links to enter the
door of freedom.
Ndgasena Thera mentioned twenty-eight good
qualities of meditation. It will give the practitioner long
life, and endow him with power, it cleanses him from
faults, it removes from him any bad reputation giving
him a good name, it destroys discontent in him filling
him with content, it releases him from all fear endowing
him with confidence, it removes sloth far from filling
him with zeal, it takes away lust and ill-will and
dullness, it puts an end to pride, it breaks down all
doubt, it makes his heart to be at peace, it softens his
120 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhamntapada
mind, it makes him glad, it makes him grave, it gains

him much advantage, it makes him worthy of reverence,
it fills him with joy, it fills him with delight, it shows
him the transitory nature of all compound things, it
puts an end to rebirths and finally it obtains for him
all the benefits of renunciation.
There are four reasons for which the Tathdgatas
devote themselves to meditation after Enlightenment.
They are: They may dwell at ease,- and on account of
the abundance of the advantages of meditation,- and
on account of its being the road to all noble things
without exception-and because it has been praised and
lauded and exalted and magnified by all the Buddhas.36
The Buddha therefore says, "May you develop
mental concentration, O monks; for whoso is mentally
concentrated, sees things according to reality. And in
Milindapanha it is said: "Just as when a lighted lamp
is brough into a dark chamber, the lamp- light will
destroy the darkness and produce and spread the light,
just so will Insight once arisen, destroy the darkness
of Ignorance and produce the light of knowledge."
Dhammapada said, "When the Brahmana is well-es¬
tablished in the two Dhammas, then, in that knowing one,
all fetters are destroyed."
36. T.W. Rhys. Davids, the Questions of King Milinda, Book I, p. 197,198
SECTION 8
DHAMMA AS NINE
TRANSCENDENTALS
(4 Maggas + 4 Phalas + Nirvana)
Besides all the concepts mentioned above, the term
Dhamma also refers to the sense of Nine Transcendentals
which means four Maggas, four Phalas and Nirvana in
verses 115, 217, 261 and 393. This is the highest stages
the yogavacara attained by means of diligently going
through Samatha-bhdvand and Vipassand-bhavana.
"Y6 ca vassasatam jive
apassam dhammamuttamam
ekaham jtvitam seyyo
passato dhammamuttamam" (Dhp, v. 115)
[Better than a hundred years in the life of a person
who does not comprehend the noble Dhamma, is a day
in the life of one who comprehends the Noble Dhamma].
Dhammamuttamam - The Noble Dhamma or the
Highest Dhamma (The Nine Transcendentals)37
The path on which a Bodhisattva has to undertake
is practising 37 Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma, cultivating ten
Paramitds along with ten stages of Bhiimi to develop
Bodhicitta which is consisted of both Sunya (or prajhd)
and Karund (compassion). This Bodhicitta as being of the
nature of "pure truth, pure, evolving from the voidness
of all phenomena, fulfilling Buddhahood, good in every
respect, beneficial to beings, produce the thought of
37. Daw Mya Tin, The Dhammapada, Verse 115, p. 43, fn.2
122 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhamrmpada
Enlightenment, practice leading to Enlightenment". This
Bodhicitta is his object to practise.
Similarly, the path on which an Arahanta has to
pass is practising Sila-Samadhi-Panm through 37 Bod-
hipakkhiya Dhamma. To him, Meditation is the only
means, supramundane Pahhd is what to achieve and
Arahanta phala is the fruit to be attained.
Before entering into the Arahantaphala, the yogdvacara
has to pass all stages of meditative absorptions of
Rupajjhana and Arupajjhana, then comes Lokuttara stages
of Saints. Correspondent to each stage of Jhana is an
aspect of consciousness (Citta). So all the aspects of
consciuosness can be orderly grouped into four types
according to degree of development: Kamdvacaracitta,
Riipdvacaracitta, Arupdvacaracitta and Lokuttaracitta.
8.1 The process to attain Rupajjhana stages:
A man is living in the world of desire that means
he is in Kamdvacara stage. Due to his accumulated
merits, or after vicissitudes of life, a desire to get rid
of the circle of rebirths arising in him. He left family,
leading a homeless life, following the Buddha's steps,
eager to put himself under the control of Sila:
He trains himself with modesty and fear of blame.
His bodily conduct, his conduct in speech, in thought,
his mode of living, he keeps all these under control,
perfectly pure. He guards six doors of sense-organs
towards forms, sounds, smells, tastes, touch and mental
objects. He is moderate in eating, being intent on
vigilance and possessed of mindfulness and clear
consciousness. Until then he is practising and perfecting
his conduct (Sila).
Now going further, he develops meditation to
destroy five hindrances (nivarams) namely:
Kamacchanda,
Vyapada,
Dhamma as Nine Transcendental 123
Thinamiddha,
Uddhaccakukkucca and,
Vicikiccha.
Kdmacchanda means strong desire for sensual
pleasure of indriyas to beautiful objects.
Vydpdda means ill-will or a desire to harm others.
Thinamiddha generally is sloth and torpor, technically
means Idleness. This is the state of dull witted,
half-conscious, sleepy.
Uddhaccakukkucca-uddhacca means distractions, and
kukkucca means brooding over. In this way, brooding
over what has been done and what has not been done
is kukkucca. In general sense, worry and flurry are the
uddhaccakukkucca. Or there arises continuously different
mental states one after one in his mind and he can't
stop them to concentrate on one object. This is the state
of uddhaccakukkucca.
Vicikiccha means doubt regarding to the Buddha,
Dhamma and Sangha. He feels doubt about the method
of practising meditation, he wonders whether it is the
right path to bring peace and meditative absorptions.
It is a state of vicikiccha.
The antidote of five NIvaranas is the five Jhdnahga
namely: Vitakka, Vicdra, Ptti, Sukha and Ekaggatd,
Vitakka means steadily keeping the mind towards
the object, while Vicdra is fixing the mind on the object.
As a bee flies to a flower, after roling around the flower
then he sits on it to take nectar. Flying to and rolling
around the flower just like Vitakka. Sitting on the flower
just like Vicdra
Piti is a kind of inner joy while Sukha, a kind of
bodily happiness. We have known the distinction of
them with the simile of the traveller through a desert.
Ekaggatd means one-pointedness by which con¬
centration is developed.
Through Meditation practice, one gradually sub¬

stitutes five hindrances by five Jhanangas in this way.
Vitakka destroys Thinamiddha; Victim destroys
Vicikicca; Piti to Vytipada; Sukha to Uddhaccakukkucca and
Ekaggatti to Ktimacchanda.
As a man contracting a loan, now is freed himself
from the loan; as a seriously ill man recovering from
that disease; as a prisoner freed from the prison; as a
slave got freedom from that slavery; and as a rich and
prosperous man passed safely a wilderness of desert,
they are very happy and joyful. Similarly, as a debtless
man, as a healthy, as a prisoner freed, as a slave got
liberty, and as a rich getting secure ground is a Bhikkhu
after getting rid of these five hindrances.
The Buddha expressed the state of mind of a
Yogavacara obtained the Four Stages of Rupajjhtina in
Majjhima Niktiya I, Mahassapurasuttam No, XXXIX as
follows:
"By getting rid of these five hindrances which are
defilements of the mind and weakening to intuitive
wisdom then, aloof pleasures of the senses, aloof from
unskilled states of mind, he enters on and abides in
the first meditation which is accompanied by initial
thought (Vitakka) and discursive thought (Victim) is born
of aloofness, and is rapturous (Piti) and joyful (Sukha).
And again, a monk by allaying inital and discursive
thought, with the mind subjectively tranquillised and
fixed on one point, enters on and abides in the second
meditation which is devoid of initial and discursive
thought, is born of concentration and is rapturous and
joyful.
And again, a monk by the fading out of rapture,
dwells with equanimity, attentive and clearly conscious
and experiences in his person that joy of which the
ariyans say. "Joyful lives he who has equanimity and
Dhamma as Nine Transcendental 125
\
is mindful", and he enters on the abides in the third
meditation.
And again, a monk by getting rid of joy and by
getting rid of anguish, by the going down of his former
pleasures and sorrows, enters on and abides in the
fourth meditation which has neither anguish nor joy,
and which is entirely purified by equanimity and
mindfulness.
After attaining the state of fourth meditation, he,
with his mind thus composed, quite purified, quite
clarified, without blemish, without defilement, grown
soft and workable, fixed, immovable, directs his mind
to the knowledge and recollection of former habitations,
the knowledge of the passing hence and arising of
beings, and the knowledge of the destruction of the
cankers. With the knowledge of the destruction of the
cankers, he understands as it really is: This is dukkha,
this is the arising of dukkha, this is the stopping of
dukkha, this is the course leading to the stopping of
dukkha. He understands as it really is: These are the
cankers, this is the arising of the cankers, this is the
stopping of the cankers, this it the course leading to
the stopping of the cankers. When he knows thus, sees
thus, his mind is freed from the canker of sense-
pleasures, the canker of becoming and the canker of
ignorance. In freedom the knowledge comes to him: “l
am freed"; and he comprehends: "Destroyed is birth,
brought to a close is the Brahma-faring, done is what
was to be done, there is no more of being such or
such."
Monks, this is called a monk who is a recluse, and
who is a brahman, and who is washen, and who is
expert in lore, and who is learned, and who is an
ariyan, and who is a perfected one."
''SUadassanasa mpannam
dhammattham saccavedinam
126 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhammajrada
attano kamma kubbdnam

tam jano kurute piyam" (Dhp. 217)
[He who is endowed with Virtue and Insight, who
is established in the Dhamma, who has realized the
Truth and performs his own duties, is loved by all
men],
Nikdya here mentioned the four stages of Rupajjana
with the appearance of Jhanahgas as follows:
Vitakka, Vicdra, Piti, Sukha, Ekaggatd, are prominent
at the First Jhdna.
Piti, Sukha, Ekaggatd at the second Jhdna.
Sukha and Ekaggatd at the Third Jhdna.
Upekkhd and Ekaggatd at the Fourth Jhdna.
However, Abhidhamma analised Jhdndhgas of
Rupdvacara into five by putting "Vicdra, Piti, Sukha,
Ekaggatd" at the second Jhdna. All others are the same.
The second notice is that after attaining the four
Rupajjhdna stages, the yogdvacara directed his mind to
practice and obtain three Abhihhd (supernormal powers)
namely:
* Pubbe-Nivdnanussati Nana. (Reminiscence of past
births).
* Dibbacakkhu. (Celestial Eye) and,
*Asava-ksaya-vijdnana (the knowledge of the destruc¬
tion of the Asavas). With Asavaksaya-vijnana he clearly
understands the Four Noble Truths, absolutely cuts off
all defilements to attain Arahantaphala.
However through Majjihima with suttas namely,
Ariyapariyesanasuttam (MI. No. XXVII)
Alaggadupamasuttam (M.I, No. XXIH); Nivapasuttam
(M.I, No. XXVI) the complete process for attaining
Arahantaphala would run in the procedure as follows:
attainment of Rupajjhdna, next Arupajjhdna, then six
Abhihhd and finally Four Maggas and four Phalas of
Lokuttara stage.
Dhamma as Nine Transcendentals 127
8.2 Attainment of Arupajjhana Stages:

After the attainment of four Rupajjhdna stages, the
practitioner directs his mind to practise objects without
form such as Ananta Akasa (infinite space), Ananta
vihhdna (infinite consciousness), Akihcahha (the Nothing¬
ness of Consciousness) and "Neither perception nor
non-perception." And as its result, respectively he will
pass the Four Arupafjhdnas namely:
* Akdsdmhcayatam.
* Vihhdnahcdyatana.
* Akincanhayatam and,
* Nevasanmnasannayatana.
8.3 Attainment of Abhinna:

After passing Nevasanmnasannayatana, his mind is
in the state of no feeling-perception concentration. With
his mind thus composed, quite purified, quite clarified,
without defilement, he develops the six supernormal
powers (Abhinna) namely:
* Iddhividha (Skt. Rddhi): Various psychic powers.
* Dibbacakkhu (Skt. Divya-caksus): Celestial Eye.
* Dibbasota (Skt Divya-srotra): Celestial Ear.
* Pubble-Nivasanussati Nam (Skt. Purua-
Vivdsdnusmrti-Jmna): Reminiscence of past births.
* Paracittavijanam (Skt para-citta-jhdm): Thought
reading.
* Asava-ksaya-vijdmna (Skt. Asrava-ksaya- jmna): The
knowledge of the destruction of the asavas.
We also remember that the yogdvacara used to
practise the Four Iddhipada (Bases of psychic-powers),
he will surely get these six ones.
8.4 Attainment of 8 Lokuttara stages and Nirvana.
With the sharp sword of Asava-ksya-vijanana he in
due course cuts off the ten subtle-state-fetters
(Samyojams) namely:
128 Concepts of Dhamma in Dhatntnapada
1. Sakkayadiithi (false view).

2. Vicikiccha (doubt).
3. Stlabbatapardmasa (grasping in practice of wrong
rites and rituals).
4. Kdmardga (delight in sensual pleasures).
5. Patigha (hatred, antipathy).
6. Rupardga (desire for having existence in the Rupa
Brahmaloka).
7. Aruparaga (desire for having existence in the
Arupa Brahmaloka ).
8. Maria. (Conceit).
9. Uddhacca (distraction).
10. Avijja (ignorance).
In his first effort he tries to destroy the three first
fetters namely Sakkdyaditthi, Vicikiccha and
Silabbataparamdsa. Firstly, he simply knows that they are
being destroyed and he is in Sotapattimagga stage. His
consciousness is called Sotapattimagga citta. Next, he
knows that they have been destroyed. He is in
Sotdpattiphala stage and his consciousness is called
Sotdpattiphala citta. After destruction of these three fetters
he is called Sotdpahita or a man entering the stream that
leads to Nirvana. He has the vision of Nirvana at this
stage.
"As the traveller by night sees landscape around
him by each flash of lightning and the picture so
obtained long thereafter swims before his dazzled eyes,
so the individual seeker by the flashing light of Insight
catches a glimpse of Nirvana with such clearness that
the after picture never more fades from his mind38.
If he doesnot realize Nibbana in this life he will
return to life seven times more for attaining it.
38. Narada Thera, The Buddha-Dhasnma, p. 290
Dhamma as Nine Transcendentals 129
In his second efforts, he weakens the two Kamaraga

and Patigha. Firstly, he understands that they are being
made weak. In the second stage he understands that
they have been made weak. The former is called
Sakadagamimagga and the second Sakadagdmiphala. After
their weakening he becomes Sakaddgdmi means Once-
Returner. If he does not get Nirvana in this very life,
he will have to come once again to realize it.
In his third efforts he proceeds to destroy the above
two fetters and gets Andgamimagga and Anagdmiphala
stages. Now he is Andgdmi, Never Returner. If he does
not realize Nirvana in this life, he will not be returned
here but born in a divine kingdom Suddhdvasa from
where he directs to Nirvana.
In his fourth efforts he proceeds to destroy the
remaining five fetters: Ruparaga, Arupardga, Mam,
Uddhacca and Avijja. The highest reward for this struggle
are Arahantamagga and Arahanta phala. Now his tittle is
Arahant a worthy person, emancipated being. "Destroyed
is birth, brought to a dose is the Brahma-faring, done is
what was to be done, there is no more of being such or
such".
"Yamhi saccahca dhammo ca, ahimsa samyamo damo,
sa ve vantamalo dhtro, "thero" iti pavuccati”. (Dhp. v.
261).
[Only a wise man who comprehends the Four Noble
Truths and the Dhamma, who is harmless and virtuous,
who restrains his senses and has rid himself of moral
defilements is indeed called a thera].
"Na jatahi na gottena, na jaccd hoti brahmano, yamhi
saccahca dhammo ca, so suci so ca brahmano". (dhp.v.393).
[Not by wearing matted hair, nor by lineage, nor
by caste, does one become a brahmana; only he who
realizes the Truth and the Dhamma is pure; he is a
brahmana ].
The term "Thera” and "Brahmana" here are identical
with "Arahant".
These are the formal steps to advance the Arahanta
stage. However the Nevasahnandsahnayatanna is regarded
as a dangerous stage by the Buddha himself in the
Ahguttara Nikdya III. (Because in this stage yogdvacara's
consciousness is too weak). So in many suttas he
suggests his disciples going straight from the Fourth
Rupajjhdna stage to the practice of Abhinhd (only three
among six), especially Asava-ksaya-vijamna, the
knowledge of the destruction of the asavas. With this
pahhd he cuts off ten fetters to get Arahantaphala.
There are many cases in which persons attained
Arahantship straight way by merely cultivating Insight
without the aid of Jhanas. They are named Sukkha
Vipassakas, dry-visioned Arahants, who accumulated
gems for Englightenment from past existences. He will
never return to the circle of rebirths and finally attaining
Nirvana, a permanent peaceful state.
Nirvana will be discussed in the next and also last
section.
SECTION 9
DHAMMA AS THE TRUTH

Now we come to the last concept of Uhamma in
the Dhammapada, that is, Dhamma as the Truth in verses
70,176, 205 and 354.
The common meaning of the Truth is the quality
or state of being true. One expresses the truth through
body, speech and mind. Doing or telling or under¬
standing the fact as it is to appreciate the Truth. That
is the meaning of tihamma as used in verse 176
"Ekam dhammam atitassa
Musavadina jantuno.
Vitinna paralokassa
Natthi pdpam akdriyatn”
[For one who trangresses the Truth, and is given
to lying, and who is unconcerned with the life hereafter,
there is no evil that he dare not do.]
In verse 11, word "Sdram" also contains the meaning
of Truth such as.
"Asdre saramatino
Sdre casdradassino
te sdram nddhigacchanti
micchdsankappagocard"
[They take untruth for truth; they take truth for
untruth; such persons can never arrive at the truth, for
they hold wrong views.]
Asdre: Lit, essenceless; according to Commentary,
right view,i.e., untruth.
Sure, lit, essence;according to the Commentary,
right view, i.e., truth.
Sdram: Truth-According to the Commentary, essence
of the Dhamma. The essence of the Dhamma comprises
Sila, Samadhi, Pahhd, Vimutti, Paramattha and Nirvana.39
The term Paramattha (Skt. Paramaribo) means ab¬
solute standpoint. Such as in the first sentence of
Abhidhammasatthahgaho: "Tattha vuttdbhidhammatthd
catudhd paramatthato, cittam cetasikam rupam nibbanamiti
sabbatha" (According to the absolute standpoint, there
are four Dhammas belonging to the Abhidhamma namely,
Citta, Cetasika, Rupa and Nibbdna).
The opposite term of Paramattha is Sammuti that
means relative or conventional point. For instance, "the
table" we see with our eyes is from the relative point.
According to the absolute standpoint, the thing named
"table"consists of mechanical energy and characteristics.
Or we can take another example. We see a gold-ring
differing from a gold-necklace (in sammuti aspect), but
both are made of gold (paramattha).
In the same way, when preaching discourses, the
Buddha often used the terms man, woman, beings,
human-beings (sammuti). But in Abhidhamma, what the
Buddha used are Khandha, Ayatana, Dhdtu-(paramattha).
Or the whole mundane and supramundane things
(sammuti) are composed in four Dhammas: Citta, Cetasika,
Rupa and Nirvana (paramattha).
In Buddhist philosophy, the Truth is of two kind :
Sammuti- sacca(Skt. Samvrit-satya: conventional/empiri¬
cal/relative or worldly level truth) and Paramattha-
saccfl(Skt. paramartha-satya: ultimate/absolute/higher or
transcendental truth).
39. Daw Mya tin, Op.Cit., p.5,fn. 1,2,3, verse 11.

Dhamma as the Truth 133
9.1 Relative truth.(Sammuti-sacca).

A search for truth is an essential feature of
philosophers and religions. Men feel tiny before
phenomena and vicissitudes of life. Many metaphysical
questions have been subjects for men to ponder as soon
as the Buddha's time of more than 2500 years ago, as
doubts of Mdlunkyaputta put to the Buddha in Majjhima
Nikdya II.
In verse 70, Dhamma refers to the Four Noble Truths
(Catu Ariyasacca).
"Mdse mdse kusaggena
bdho bhuhjeyya bhojanam
na so sankhatadhammatiam
kalam agghati solasim”.
Sahkhatadhammdmm : who have well-weighed the
Law, Max Muller and Burlingame. "Who well have
taken things into account", Mrs. Rhys Davids, "who
have studied the Dhamma noble", Woodward. The
commentarial explanation is: "The Ariyas who have
realized the Four Noble Truths"40
[The prolonged, so-called meritorious fasting of alien
ascetics who have not destroyed the passion, is not
worth the sixteenth part of a solitary day's fasting of
an Ariya who has realized the Four Noble Truths].
The Buddha-the Enlightened One-who has caught
the Truth. The first sermon He delivered to the five
ascetics was Catu Ariyasacca. However the term "Sacca”
in Pali (Satya in Sanskrit, derived from "sat", being), is
not an ultimate truth, but the factual truth or actuality,
experienced without delusion. Through Ariyasaca,, the
Truth is to be found in the relative conditions of things
and events, of cause and its result; to know the truth
is to know and see things as they really are (Yathd-
bhuta-ham-dassana), which is not a comprehension of
40. Narada Thera, Dhammapada, notes of verse 70
the ultimate substance of matter, but an understanding
of the phenomenal nature of material qualities. So this
truth is a relative knowledge. It is itself Dhamma which
whether a Tathdgata arises in this world, or whether no
Tathdgata has arisen, still it remains a fact that life is
suffering (dukkha); this suffering is due to Ignorance
(Avijja) and Craving (Tanha) and the way out of this is
the Noble Eightfold Path.
—
All the Buddha's teachings are the Truth relative
or factual truth. It is the means to achieve the highest
goal of life: the ultimate truth, Nirvana.
9.2 Ultimate Truth (Paramatthasacca).
It is that which ascetics, monks of any religions
ceaselessly tried and are trying for. To Buddhism, that
is Nirvana, the highest goal of homeless life. \
The term Nirvana (P .Nibbdna) derived from the root
Nir+Va (Nir: to cut, Va: to blow). It means blown out,
gone out , put extinguished. According to Commen¬
taries, it is "Freedom from Desire." Nirvana crnstitutes
the highest and ultimate goal of all Buddhist aspira¬
tions,i.e. absolute extinction of existence. The word is
derived from the root meaning extinguished through
lack of fuel, and' since rebirth is the result of desire
(tanha), freedom from rebirth is attained by the
extinguishment of all such desire. Nirvana is therefore,
a state attainable in this life by right aspiration, purity
of lile, and the elimination of egoism. This is the
cessation of existence, union with Ultimate Reality. The
Buddha speaks of it as "unborn, unoriginated, un¬
created, unformed," contrasting it with the born,
originated, created and formed phenomena.
Dhamma in verse 205 is used in this meaning:
'Pavivekarasam pitvd
Rasam upasamassa ca
Niddaro hoti nippdpo
Dhammapiti rasam pivam.”
[Having had the taste of solitude and the taste of

perfect peace (of Nirvana), one who drinks in the joy
of the essence of the Dhamma is free from fear and
evil].
Mddhyamika school also holds these two kinds of
Truth, [while to Vijhdna-vdda or Yogdcara school, there
are three degrees of knowledge: parikalpita and Paratantra
correspond to Sammuti-sacca and Parinispanna to Paramat-
tha- sacca ], but they are somehow identical with
knowledge. The relative level consists of man's reason¬
ing and its products. It causes man to see the universe
and its manifold phenomena, and to consider them as
real. Due to taking it as real, beings crave for them
and try grasping them (Buddhist technical term, beings
due to ignorance covering the Buddha-nature)-as a man
in dream feels happy and unhappy along with what
happening in his dream. Only having waked up, he
immediately recognises all those to be unreal visionary.
We distinguish ourselves and anothers, subjects and
objects, samsara and nirvana. However Samsdra and
Nirvana are two sides of the same hand. Just as pure
and impure water in the same cup of water. We can't
deny one side of our hand, as well as can't desire pure
water while throwing away the cup of impure water.
Therefore this relative level is necessary, according to
Nagarjuna. Because the absolute level can be understood
and realized only by the removal of relative truths.
Defilement itself is Bodhi. It is here, in this life to be
Nirvana. We can't find Nirvana beyond this visionary
world. This is the positive idea of Mahayana, repre¬
sentative through the image of Bodhisattvas, great beings
who know all as relatives, being component parts of
the same body, courageously enter into the world to
undertake beings' trouble, to help people and at the
same time to develop their own Bodhicitta to attain the
highest goal of life, Nirvana.
The T'ien-T'ai followed Nagarjuna holding "siinyata"
to be the central ideal of its philosophy. There is no
true state or noumenon besides phenomenon, no
difference between Samsdra and the Nirvana or Sunyata
(reality). In order to avoid thinking noumenon versus
phenomenon, they established the threefold Truth: Truth
of Void, Truth, of Temporariness and Truth of Mean.
All things are produced by causes and conditions,
they do not have any independent reality; they do not
possess any self- nature. When these causes and
conditions disappear, these things also disappears.
Hence they are said to be empty (sunya). This is called
Truth of Void or the truth breaking through subjective
illusions. But the emptiness of the dharmas does not
mean nothingness. It temporarily exists as phenomenon.
This is called the Truth of Temporariness or the truth
of establishment, since it establishes the dharmas
temporarily, where they can be reached by the senses.
However things neither exist nor non- exist.
Neither "Exist" because it is empty nor "Non exist"
because it enjoys existence as phenomenon. This is the
Truth of Mean or Middle. This middle doesnot mean
something between the two, it is over and above the
other two.
These three truths of the Tien Tai school emphasize
the idea of totality and mutual identification, the whole
and its parts are identical. "One thought is the three
—
thousand worlds" a thing or being is the true state and
that the true state is immanent in everything. When
this applied to the religious life, it means that
phenomenal life is not denied but affirmed absolutely.
The everyday life of the layman is part of the life of
the Buddha.
The identification of phenomena with the absolute
is further illustrated by the Tien-Tai doctrine of the
Absolute Mind (to Yogacara is Alayavijhhna). This
absolute mind embraces the universe in its entirety. All
things in the world depend on this mind for their
existence. This absolute mind originally and for all times

contains two natures, one is pure and the other impure.
It is the ground of all phenomena, in other word, the
Tathdgatagarbha (Buddha treasury), Dharma realm.
Nirvana, Sunya, Pahha, Bodhicitta, Buddhata, Dharmakdya.
Bhutatathatd, Tathatd— the ultimate and unconditioned
nature of all things. It is neither one, since it pervades
everything, nor multiple, since it remains identical with
itself. So, Dharmakdya is in everyone. Everybody has
the potention to become Buddha.
9.3 The Way to the Ultimate Truth
The way leads to prajhd to attain the ultimate truth
(Sunyata or Nirvana) is not beyond the threefold
SBa-Samddl}i and Pahha.
Keeping precepts in order to prevent and destroy
defilements of mind, in other side, to develop the good
qualities which is helpful to practise Meditation.
Meditation leads to concentrated mind which conditions
the appearance of wisdom (pahha). However, we should
remember that pahha is not produced from Samadhi. Just
as the pure nature of water is due to keeping the cup
of impure water immobile, the dust particles go below
and the purity appears. Just as the clarified nature of
mirror is not due to cleansing all dust covering it. The
nature of clarity of mirror is natural, is characteristic of
mirror, however, because of the cover of dust so it
seems there is not. Now we cleanse dust, the clarified
nature appears. ITs also the same case of the image of
the moon on the bottom of a river. When being shaked
by winds and waves, water filled with dirt, it seems
there is no moon there. When there is neither wind
nor waves, water stands still and becomes pure, the
moon appears. Similar is the case of Samadhi and Pahha.
And once Pahha flares up, ignorance disappears. As a
lamp brought into the darkened room, the dark
disappears at once. We see things clear as they really
site. This is the liberation (vimutti). The comprehension
of "i am freed" is Vimutti-ndnadassana.
When we achieve prajha, we reach the state of
absolute truth (paramattha-sacca) which is beyond thought
arid conception, unconditioned, indeterminate. This
absolute truth cannot be preached in words, but in
order to indicate, it is called Sunyata (Reality). "Sunyata
is the synonym of that which has no cause, that which is
beyond thought or conception, that which is not produced,
that which is not born, that which is without measure".
Sunyata itself is Nirvana.
It is because Pahhd is Buddhata (Buddha-nature),
something that is always present in oneself, Ch' an
school (Dhyana school) holds the view that man has
ability to apprehend it by intuition directly, completely,
and instantly without the need of following steps by
steps the procedure of SBa-Samddhi-Pahhd. In order to
apprehend the Buddha nature, one must calm the
mind-Meditation in every moment of life to observe the
innermost mind or nature in tranquillity. Reciting the
suitas, worshipping the Buddha images, or performing
the rituals are really of no avail and should be
abandoned. Instead, one should allow the mind to
operate freely, spontaneously, and naturally.
Anyway, "there are many paths leading to Roma"
Similarly, there are lots of means in Buddhism leading
to the only goal of life: the absolute truth or Nirvana.
"Sabbadanam dhammaddnam jindti
Sabbarasam dhammaraso jindti
Sabbaratim dhammarati jindti
Tanhakkhayo sabbadukkham jindti."
(Dhp. 354)
[The gift of the Dhamma excels all the gifts; the
taste of the Dhamma excels all ' tastes; delight in the
Dhamma excels all delights. The eradication of craving
(i.e., attainment of Arahatship) overcomes all ills
(samsdra-dukkha)].
CONCLUSION:
This is an analytical study of the concepts of
Dhamma depicted in the Dhammapada Sutta. Through
each part of the research we can get a rather careful
look of the position and worth of the Dhammapada in
the entire Buddhavacana.
We have passed through various concepts as
conveyed in the Sutta. Besides the popular concept of
the Buddha's teachings, i.e. Tipitaka, this valuable work
has revealed that Dhamma is also used in the sense of
Cetasikas, especially volition (Cetand), the major essence
in forming Kamma of human-beings. Hence it is said
"Cetand itself is kamma”. Dhamma is also used in the
conception of "Law"-five orders or process which
operate, in the physical and mental realms in which
the Law of Kamma is the only one. Dhamma is also
interpreted as Just, Righteous, a good way or pratice
(Dhamma or kusalakamma) and unjust, unfair (Adhamma
or Akusala kamma). It's also as phenomena in general,
composed of all conditioned and unconditioned things
including Nirvana or it is Nirvana itself etc.
People from existences to existences circled in the
Samsara of rebirths. The Buddha through Tipitaka in
general, and particularly in the Dhammapada, has showed
the only way Sila-Samddhi and Pahhd, and because of
beings with various levels of mind, so thirty-seven
Bodhipakkhiyas are divided to suit each of them.
However, it is generally stated that either STIa-Samadhi-
Panna, or the Noble Erghtfold Path or thirty-seven
Bodhipakkhiyas, all needed to do is through the practice
of Meditation—Samatha and Vipassam. It is Meditation-
~the only path for the purification of beings, for the
overcoming of sorrows and griefs, for the going down
of sufferings and miseries, for winning the intuitive
wisdom, for realising Nine Transcendentals in which
Nirvana is the highest, a state of cessation of existence,
the Ultimate Reality.
Thus, through 423 verses of the Dhammapada, 48
verses in which the term Dhamma is used to convey
nine concepts. The interesting discovery must stimulate
scholars about the prosperity of Dhamma contained in
the whole Tipitaka. It will certainly be a good and
high-appreciated topic for those who thirst for a rather
complete knowledge of wider concepts of Dhamma, the
term with diversified, deep and philosophical aspects
in almost ancient Indian religions, specially in Bud¬
dhism.
Over two thousand and five hundred years have
* been passing by! How many vicissitudes of human¬
being's history are! In spite of all phenomena changing
due to the nature-rules of impermanence, each word of
Buddha's teachings in Tipitaka generally, in the Dham¬
mapada particularly, still maintain its eternal value. It is
quite not surprising when the great commentator
Buddhaghosa gave a comparison of the teachings of the
Buddha with four Sagaras, four great oceans un¬
fathomable in their every respect.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) AMBEDKAR, B.R: The Buddha and His Dhamnta.
Bombay, Siddharth College Publication, 1957.
(2) BAPAT, P.V: 2500 years of Buddhism . New Delhi,
Publication Division, 1964.
(3) BARUA, Beni Madhab and S.Mitra: Prakrit Dham-
mapada (Introduction)
(4) BEAL, Samuel: Texts from the Buddhist Canon.
(Dhammapada). London, Triibner and c.o. Ludgate
Hill, 1878.
(5) CH'EN, Kenneth K.S: Buddhism in India. America,
Princetion University Press, 1969.
(6) CHONTH3EN, Ven, Thich; Phat Hoc Khai Luan.
Giao Hoi Phat Gia'o Viet Nam, Ban Giao Due
Tang Ni, 1993.
(7) DASGUPTA, Surendranath: A History of Indian
Philosophy (vol.IV, Dharma). India, Shri Jainendra
Press, 1975.
(8) DAVIDS T.W.Rhys: The Questions of King Milinda
(Book I). India,Shri Jainendra Press. 1992.
(9) DAVIDS, T.W. Rhys and William: Pdli-English
Dictionary. London, The Pali-Text Society, 1972.
(10) DAYAL, HAR: The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist
Sanskrit Literature. India, Shantilal Jain, at Shri
Jainendra Press, 1978.
(11) DHAMMARATANA, Bhikkhu U: Buddha and Caste
System. Lucknow, Standard Printers, 1969.
(12) GEIGER, Wilhelm: Pali Literature and Language.
Trans, by Batakrishna Ghosh. Delhi, Oriental
Books Reprint Corporation, 1978.
(13) GELIGER, Willhelm: The Mahavamsa. Nice Printing
Press, 1993.
(14) KASHYAP, Bhikkhu J: The Abhidhamma Philosophy
(Vol I). Delhi, A.K. Distributors, 1982.
(15) LAW, Bimala Churn: A History of Pali Literature.
Delhi, Goyal Offset Printers, 1983.
(16) MULLER, F.Max: The Dhammapada. India, Shri
Jainendra Press, 1992.
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pada). Vien Dai Hoc Van Hanh, 1982.
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yeu Ludn (Tapi). Vien Dai Hoc VanHanh, 1971.
(19) NARADA, Thera: A Manual of Abhidhamma.
Srilanka, The Colombo Apothecaries, 1980.
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and Teaching of the Buddha, New Delhi, Asian
Educational Services, 1942.
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Merry, 1959.
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Gayatri Offest Press, 1992.
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Ganest Offest Printers, 1992.
(24) ROGERS, R.E. Captain I: Buddhaghosa's Parables.
New Delhi, Alok. Publications, 1977.
(25) SANITNA, Peter D.: Fundamentals of Buddhism.
Taiwan, The Corporate Body of the Buddha
Educational Foundation, 1984.
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Indian Buddhism. Delhi, Orient Offest, 1989.
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Burma Pitaka Association Publication. Delhi, Photo
Offsets Printers, 1990.
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(Vol.II). Delhi, Shandlal Jain at Shri Jainendra
Press, 1983,
INDEX
A Acinnakamma 36
Abhidhammapitaka 4, 7,8, A pa r apariy a vedaniya
12 kamma 37,42
Agamas 6 Ahosi kamma 37,42
Anguttaranikaya 6,8,11 Avijja 38
Abhidhamma 7,37,126 Arahattaphala 47
AtthasalinI 7 Ananda Thera 59
Apadana 8 Anadesana 62
Angavasena 11 Adhamma 69
Abbhutadhamma 12,13 Akusalakamma 70, 74
Asoka's dhamma 17,60,75 Arupavacaraloka 82,84
Atthakatha 21,25 Atthangikamagga 109
Asahga 26 Ariyan 125
Alayavinnana 26 Arupajjhana 127
Arupavacara-citta 27 Abhinna 127
Akusala-citta 27 Anagami magga and phala
Akusala cetasika 28,29 129
Anfiasamana cetasika Arahanta magga and phala
28,29 129
Appamanna 30 B
Anantariyakamma 35 Buddha 1,2,5,9,10,46,50,
Asannakamma 35,43,44,50 71,112
Buddhavacana Buddha's Cariyapitaka 8
teachings 1,2,3,4,9,13, Christian Ere 9
58,60,61
Conditioned things 11,82
Bhajana 1
Chuh-yau-king 18,19
Buddha's parinibhana 3,9
Cetana 29,33,34
Bhikkhuni-vibhahga 5,8
Cakkhupalathera 37,42
Buddhaghosa 5,9,39
Cotta niyama 40,50
Buddhavamsa 8
Cunda 36
Bodhi 9
Citta-Kiccani 56
Buddhagaya 9
Concentration 113,115,116
Barua, B.M. and S. Mitra
20 Contemplation 113
Bodhipakkhiya Dhamma Cankers 125
23,91,94 Catu+ Ariyasacca 133
Bhavanga 31,53,55,56 D
Bija niyama 40,50 Dhamma 2,3,4,6,7,14,15,
Bodhadharma 45 16,17,23,24,32,33,40,41,
48,57,58,61,66,67,69,75,
Bhavangacalana 56
76,81,93,129,131,134
Bhavarigaviccheda 56
Dhammapada 2,8,10,14,15,
Bojjhanga 106,109 17,18,19,20,21,22
Bhavana 114 Dhammakhandhavasena
Brahman 125 14
C Dasgupta, S.N. 16
Council (1st) 3,9,21 Dhammaniyama 40,50
Cittapariyadana 6 Dhammavinayavasena 4
Citta 7,25,26,31,32,37 Dighanikaya 6,8,11
Cetaska 7,24,27,31,32 Dhammasangani 7,8
Cullavagga 8 Dhatukatha 7,8
Index 145
Dharmatrata 18 Javana-ritta 54,55,57
Ditthiddhammavedamya Jhananga 125,126
kamma 37,42
K
Devadatta 35,46
Kuddala 2
Dhamma-vicaya 106,107
Kuddala-pitaka 2
E
Khandhaka 4,5,8
External objects 52
Khuddakanikaya 6,7,8,
Ekaggata 124
11,15
F
Kathavatthu 7,8
Fa-Kheu-King 17
Khuddakapatha 8
Fa Kheu pi-ii 18,19
Kalavasena 9
Fa-tsi-Yao-sin 18,19
Kamma 25,33,35,37,38,
G 39,41,43,44,47
Geyya 12 Kamavacararitta 26
Gatha 12,13
Kusalacitta 27
Geiger, Mrs. M. and Prof.
W. 16 Kiriya-dtta 27
Garukakamma 35, 47 Katattakamma 36
Gotami 57 Kammaniyama (Law of
Kamma) 40-51
H
Kumbhaghosaka 41
Holypath 1
Kusalakamma 70,72,74
I
Itivutaka 8,12,13
Kamavacaraloka 82,84
Immoral Kamma 37 Kamacchanda 123,124
Internal objects 52 L
Iddhipada 101 Lokuttara-citta 27
J Law 40
Jataka 8,12,13 Laotzi 48
Janakakamma 34 Lokuttara stages 127
M N
Majjhimanikaya 6,59,72, Nikaya 6,7,11
124,126 Nipatas 6
Mulapariyayasutta 6 Nibbana (Skt. Mirvana)
Mulapannasa 6 7,10,81,127,128,134
Majjhimapannasa 6 Niddesa 8
Mahapatthana 7 Nikayavasena 11
Majjhimanikaya 8,11,33,44 Navangabuddhasasana 12
Maha-vibhanga 8 Narada Thera 21
Mahavagga 8 Nagasena Thera 39,119
Mahakassapathera 9 Niyama 40
Mara 10 Namarupa-pariccheda-
katha 63,64
Mahaparinibbana 10
Nine transcendentals 121
Majjhima Buddhavacana
11 O
Mahabharata 16 Oghataranasutta 6
Mahavamsa 21 P
Mallika 36, 44 Pitaka 1,2,4
Moral Kamma 37 Pariyatti 1
Manodvaravithi 38,53,54, Patipatti 1
56 Parinibbana 3
Moggallana 42 Pitakavasena 4
Matthakundali 44 Parivara 4,5,8
Mental actions 71 Patimokkha 4
Manussa 85 Pannasa 6
Mindfulness 113 Puggalapaftnatti 7,8
Meditation 113 Patthanappakarana 7
Madhyamika 135 Patthana 8
Index 147
Petavatthu 8 R
Patisambhidamagga 8 Rasavasena 3
Pali 9 Rupa 7
Pathama Buddhavacana Rajagaha 9
9,10 Rebirth 10
Pathama 9 Rhys Davids 16
Pacchima Buddhavacana Rupavacaracitta 26
10,11 Rupajjhana 26,122,126
Pada 17 Rupavacanaloka 82,84
Phenomena 24,32,81 s
Pakinnaka cetasika 29 Sutta 1,5,6,12
Pannindriya 30 Samsara 3
Pukkusati 36 Sutta-pitaka 4,5,6,7,8,15,64
Pancadvaravithi 38,53,54 Sutta-vibhanga 4,5,8
Prajnaparamita 45 Samyuttamkaya 6,8,11,59
Sutta-nipata 8,13
Panna 47,59,110,117,137
Sri Lanka 9
Pancadvaravajjana 53
Sobhana cetasika 28,30
Patisandhi-citta 55,56
Sabbacitta sadharana 29
Paramattha-desana 63
Sobhanasadharana 30
Physical actions 70
Sanna 32
Paticeasamuppada 86,87
Sankhara 32,33,81,82,89
Panca Indriyani 102,103 SHa 47,59,72,73,110,137
Panca Balani 102,103 Samadhi 47,59,110,115,137
Piti 107,123,124,126 Samyojana 50
Passaddhi 108 Sampaticchana 54,55,57
Paramattha 132 Santirana 54,55,57
Paramattha-sacca 132,134 Samvarasamvara Katha 63
148 Concqjts of Dftamma in Dhammapada
Satipatthana 95,96,97,98 Uparipannana 6
Sammajipadhana 99 Udana 8,12,13
Sona 100 Udanavarga 19
Saddhindriyam 103,104 Udanavargavivarana 20
Satindriya 105,106 Upatthambhakakamma
Samatha 112,119 34,46
Samatha-bhavana 114 Upapilakakamma 34,43,46
Sukha 124,126 Upaghatakakamma 34,43,
Samyojanas 127 46
Sotapatti magga and phala Upapajjavedaniya kamma
128 37,42,
Sakadagami magga and Utuniyama 40,51
phala 129 Unconditioned thing 81
Sammuti 132 Upekkha 108,109
Sammuti-sacca 132, 133 Uddhaccakukkucca 123,
Sunyata 136,138 124
T V
Tipitaka 7,8,9,11,58 Vimutti 3
Theragatha 8,13 Vimuttirasa 3
Therigatha 8,13 Vinaya 4
Theravada 9 Vinaya-pitaka 4,5,8,62
Tanha 38 Vihara 5
Tadalambana 38, 55,56 Vibhanga 7,8
Thinamiddha 123,124 Vimanavatthu 8
Truth 131 Vibhajjavadins 9
T'ren T'ai 136 Vattagamani Abhaya 9
U Veyyakarana 12
Uposatha 4 Vedalla 12,13
Index 149
Vasumitra 18 Vyapada 123,124
Vasubandhu 26 Vicikiccha 123,124
Vipaka-citta 27 Vitakka 123,124,126
Viratiyo 30 Vicara 123,124,126
Vedana 32,39,46 Y
Virmana 54,55 Yamaka 7,8
Votthapana 54,55,57 Yogavacara 35
Vocal actions 70 Yathaparadha-sasanam 62
Viriyindriya 104 Yatha-dhammasasanam 63
Vipassana 112 Yathanulomasasanam 64
Vipassana-bhavana 116 Yogacara school 135
BhiWchun! T.N. TIN LIEN wtt
bom in 1981 In Dongt%.
province Southern Vietnam.
She payitd B.Se. from Ink
University of Cantho (1973), n
Vietnam with first division. She
was also educated at Vietnam
Higher School of Buddhjist
Studies and got her B.A. in
Buddhist Studies as the second
topper with distinction (1998).
In 1991, she was granted a
scholarship by ICCR for her
further study in Buddhist
Studies in University of Delhi
and passed M.A. (1993) and
then M.Phil. (1995).
Currently she is a Pli.D.
researcher of Delhi University.
The present work is her
dissertation from which she has ;
awarded as Topper of M.Phil
degree.

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The Dhammapada is the most

popular and best-known text of

I which aije summarized in follow- >

I.IJ.N.I II•14539-40- X SU mOO

Bhikkhuni T.N. Tin Lien

First Edition : 1996

Price : Rs. 200-00

Laser typesetting & Printing at :

as means, way, state, practice and nature. In some

Delhi, INDIA Bhikkhum T.N. TIN LIEN

d. Panca Indriyani and Panca Balani

a compound word along with the term "Kudddla" (a

Khuddakanikaya is the last Nikdya of the Suttapitaka,

1. Dhammasangani 1. Dlghanikaya 1. Sutta-vibhanga

1. Khuddakapatha. 2. Dhammapada 3. Udana

It is the canon of the Theravada school which itself

Vidhupayam titthati Marasenam suram va

Lo! When appear

dissolve; And he is as a light

Having annihilated Mara's hosts,

However according to another tradition, the stu¬

"Handa dani bhikkhave amantayami vo, Vayadhammd

Navangabuddhasasana, "the ninefold teaching of the

Veyyakarana is applied to those Suttas containing

11. Majjhimanikaya I Sutta No 44,43; Dighanikaya II Sutta No. 21;

literally means "what supports or upholds". As the

ma”; and the way in which it came to be used in India

12. B.M. Barua and S. Mitra (Prakrit Dhammapada) p.xv (Introduction).

Regarding the time of collection, the date of

13. Max Muller, Dhamrnapada (Introduction).

The Dhammapada has been translated in many

CONCEPTS OF DHAMMÿ IN THE

In the Dhammapada, the term Dhamma appeared in

DHAMMA AS MENTAL STATES

Mind is leader of men's actions and is performed

school of Mahdyana of Asanga and Vasubandhu added

When the Yogdvacara practises Arupajjhdna he will

Manasika speaks the sense which belongs to mind.

The Anhasamana cetasikas are psychic factors

(jealousy), Macchariyam (miserness), Kukkuccam (brooding

Questions might be arised such as from where these

(Vedana is one, Banna is another. The remaining fifty

opposing force can check the path of the flying arrow

It is also in the case of Pukkusdti, a young rtÿonk

-Ditthiddhammavedamya kamma (Immediately Ef¬

the jungle of Kamma and its complicated results. Men

two thought-moments (sham). The function which is

Why is there difference about the time Kamma giving

daughter, Mallikd, chief queen of king Pasenadi,

depending on the donor's Citta whether pure and

that his sin cannot be counted equal to that of the

ing the Buddha to hand over the authority of the Sangha

Dhammavinicchayena = (dhamma + vinicchaya) dis¬

self-responsibility, educating people to believe in them¬

It's right time to drop the subject of Kamma and

2.3. Physical organic order (Bija-niyama)

Eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, these are called

3. Avajjana : turning to impressions at the

DHAMMA AS BUDDHA VACANA-

But to Punnathera in the Majjhimanikdya III,