Principles of Ecology (Biol: 2051) Assignment two

1. How light radiation regulates daily and seasonal activities of many organisms? (Explain
the factors related to effects of wavelength, light intensity and light duration on living
organisms)? (3Pts)
A) Biological effects

Overexposure can cause dysfunction or outright destruction of tissue, either through heating
or photochemical reactions. As implied by the term “overexposure”, a certain threshold of
tolerable levels of exposure or irradiance is surpassed: the irradiance can become too high
and cause thermal damage or the accumulated exposure carries a photochemical reaction to a
toxic level. It should be stressed that this does not imply that there is no biological effect
below the threshold level, but the damage is minor and tolerable (non-destructive) and/or the
absorbed radiant energy causes a functional biological response (receptive absorption).
Below we present biological effects from “receptive absorption” or by “destructive or toxic
overexposure”.

i. Photothermal effects

a) Reception

Absorption of optical radiation by the skin will cause heating which can raise the
temperature. The skin can sense temperature differences smaller than 0.1°C on the face,
especially on the lips (Jones 2009, Stevens and Choo 1998). The skin is innervated by axons
(nerve endings from neurons residing in the spine) which carry transient receptor potential
(TRP) ion channels that are sensitive to temperature changes in their cell membranes.

b) Damage

Proteins can become denatured (loss of tertiary structure) at high temperatures and, cells and
tissue irreversibly damaged in 15 to 60 minutes at 45°C (Kampinga et al. 1995) and in a
matter of seconds at 60-70°C (Biris et al. 2009, Priebe et al. 1975). Pain and retraction
reflexes evidently serve to limit the damage. Blisters may develop first due to loss of
adherence between skin layers. Limited superficial thermal wounds, as from cosmetic or
therapeutic skin ablation by laser treatment, can be restored from deeper and neighbouring
layers of skin, but extensive third degree deep burns need special medical care and skin
transplants. The immune system will respond to thermal damage by an inflammatory reaction
in the skin. Regarding thermal damage to the eye, only pulsed lamps are of concern. If the
rate of energy deposition is faster than the rate of thermal diffusion (thermal confinement),
then the temperature of the exposed tissue rises.
2. Explain why the quality of light (wavelength/colour) is one of the limiting factors for
photosynthesis in terrestrial ecosystems than aquatic ecosystems? (3Pts)

2.2.3. Some effects of abiotic & biotic environmental factors

Effect of light on plants
Light provides energy for deriving almost all functions taken place in all ecosystems.
Orientation and movement of plants is also affected by light. This phenomenon is called
phototropism.
Light affects the photosynthetic rate of plants (productivity). Intense light promote a high rate
of transpiration & may cause dehydration of protoplasm, resulting in suppressing
photosynthesis by impairing enzyme activities.
The intensity and quality of light determine the distribution of photosynthetic organisms in
the aquatic environment.
Light exposure also affects plant growth. The photoperiod influences stem elongation,
flowering, fruit growth & other physiological processes in plants & animals. Because of this,
plants can be divided as short day, long day & day-neutral plants. Light period also affects
the structure of vegetation, growth, germination, pigmentation, nutrition requirement,
blooming & the susceptibility to parasites.
Behaviour and orientation of animals are also affected by light. Orientation and behaviour of
animals are affected by light. E.g. The bees do not fly towards or away from the sun, Locusts
stop their flight on a cloudy day, Birds use sunlight as means for their orientation &
migration, and their reproductive activities are also affected by light.
The response of organisms to day-length is termed as photoperiodism. It plays an important
role in the life cycle of several animals & plants.

Effect of light on aquatic organisms

All plant & animal species living in water are adapted to temp. Within a certain range
productivity of any aquatic system directly depends upon the availability of light.
The depth of the photosynthetic (=euphotic) zone in sea varies from 40 to 100m.
Effects of temperature (temp.) on plants or animals
At low temp., there is little decay of organic matter by decay-causing microorganisms.
Temp. can influence all forms of life by decreasing/increasing the vital activities of the
organisms, i.e., metabolism, behavior, death & reproduction.
Temp. determines the types of plants growing in d/nt areas. E.g.
 plants growing in high temp. areas like desert & tropical forests are called
megatherms;

 plants growing in areas with high & low temp. alternatively are called mesotherms;
  plants like deciduous forest growing in low temp. throughout the year are called
microtherms.

 Plants growing in very low temp. like mountains & alpine forests are called
hekistotherms.

It affects the growth of plant & the survival of soil biota.

Temperature also determines the types of animals growing in different areas with various
temp. range.
Animals also respond to temperature & are classified into 3 categories:
a) The animals that their body temperature changes with the environment are called
Poikilothermic animals, e.g., invertebrates, fish & amphibians. They are also called
as ectothermic because they can not regulate their body temperature by
physiological means, but gain heat from outside.

b) Animals with their body temperature do not depend upon environmental temp. are
called homeothermic or endothermic animals.

c) Animals (e.g., monotremes & marsupials) having a limited power of temperature

regulation are called heterotherms. They respond to temperature extremes by
hibernating or aestivating

mechanisms
Monotremes = egg-laying mammals (e.g., echidna)
Marsupials = animals having pouch to carry their offspring (e.g., Kangaroo)
Effects of water or precipitation on plants or animals
Water is essential for survival and growth of plants & animals. Water also is essential for
most of the plant’s biochemical reactions. In addition, water stores essential dissolved
nutrients.
Hence, water determines the reproduction conditions of organisms. Water determines the
photosynthetic rate of plants (productivity). Cellular activities of both plants & animals are
also determined by water. Shortage of water leads to desertification or degradation of area
due to loss of plants. Hence, shortage of water results in famine on animals since plants dry
up.
Effects of nutrients on plants
Nutrients are essential for growth & productivity of plants. The deficiency of nutrients affects
the productivity of plants. Among soil deficiencies that affect productivity, deficiency of
nutrients is especially important. The nutrients most necessary for proper plant growth are
nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, iron, calcium, sulfur, & magnesium, all of which usually
exist in most soils in varying quantities.
In addition, most plants require minute amounts of nutrients known as trace elements, which
are present in the soil in very small quantities. Such nutrients include manganese, zinc,
copper, & boron.
b) Biotic factors
The biotic factors which affect the survival & distribution of an organism include:
Intraspecific factors – those which occur b/n members of the same species, such as
competition for food & territory
Interspecific factors – those which occur b/n members of different species, such as predator-
prey interactions, host-parasite interactions, competitive exclusion & resource partitioning
Other detailed mutualistic r/ships such as species-specific pollinators and fruit dispersal
agents
3. What is environmental factor? Discuss density dependent and density independent
factors? (4Pts)

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Environmental factor is defined as the factors which limit the species to particular habitats are
called environmental factors
They are responsible for the growth, distribution, abundance, behaviour and ultimate survival
of the organisms.
Physical and chemical factors collectively form the abiotic environmental factors whereas the
flora & fauna form biotic environmental factors
A population is collectively exposed to these factors. However, some factors exert more
influence than the others do.
Any factor that tends to slow down the rate of metabolism or potential growth of a
population in an ecosystem is said to be a limiting factor.
However, a factor that controls the survival of a population in an ecosystem is said to be a
regulatory factor
The success of a population or community depends on many factors.
Any condition that approaches or exceeds the limit of tolerance for the organism may
function as the limiting factor.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
DENSITY
According to this, environmental factors are divided into:
 density dependent &
 density independent environmental factors
i. Density dependent factors
Density-dependent factors describe a situation in which population growth is controlled by
crowding, predators & competition.
Density dependent factors are seen when the population size is large.
When population numbers are high, many factors will affect population growth:
 the availability of food,
 parasites,
 increased predation &
 contagious/transmitting diseases.
Density-dependent factors may exert their effect by reducing birth rates, increasing death
rates & extending generation times.
Density-dependent factors have biotic nature:
a. Food
Food controls the mortality, fecundity, & birth rate of an organism.
Food is the only sources of energy for living organisms, & its shortage acts as a limiting
factor
b. Predators
Predators usually limit the prey population although, in extreme cases, they can drive
the prey to extinction.
c. Parasites & Diseases
A disease can spread rapidly across the densely populated area, especially across the same
members of a species. Parasites are able to pass from host to host more easily as the
population density of the host increases. For this reason, epidemics among humans are
particularly severe in cities.
Competition may occur between populations within an ecosystem for any of the available
resources like food, space, light or shelter.
If two species occur at the same trophic level, then they are likely to compete with each other
for food if they eat the same prey.
ii. Density independent factors
Density-independent factors are events & influences that affect the growth of a population.
These factors occur regardless of population size in a species. Density independent variables
are abiotic in nature.
Example: extreme cold, tornado, drought, forest fire, or volcanic eruptions.
4. What are the characteristics of population? How populations become stable? (4Pts)
A. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
In ecology, population may be defined as a group of organisms of the same species
occupying a particular place.
A population may be subdivided into local populations, which are the smallest collective
units of a plant or an animal population, & which are breeding among themselves
(interbreeding). A population has various group characteristics, which are statistical
measures.
The basic characteristic of a population include
 density,
 age structure (the ratio of one age class to another), &
 sex ratio (the proportion of one sex to another).
Population has birth & immigration rates that increase the population density.
Population has also death & emigration rates that decrease the population density
Hence, the difference of gain & loss of population is population growth.
Population growth, carrying capacity, survivorship curves, population regulation &
interactions are also aspects of population study.
Age & sex structure of a population (= population structure)
Age structure of a population is a structure derived from age categories of either animal,
human or plant population. The proportion of individuals in each age group is called age
structure or age distribution of the population. The age structure determines, in part, a
population reproductive rate, death rate, vigour, survival & other demographic characteristics.
Therefore, the natality & mortality is also different for respective ages. Thus, age distribution
becomes an important phenomenon in population studies.
From an ecological point of view, there are 3 major age groups in any population:
 pre-reproductive (or juvenile dependent phase),
 reproductive (or adult phase), &
 post-reproductive (or old age/phase)
The relative duration of these ages in proportion to life span varies greatly with different
organisms. For humans in recent times, the three ages are relatively equal in length, about a
third of a human life falling in each class. Early humans, by comparison, had a much shorter
post reproductive period. Many animals notably insects, have extremely long pre-
reproductive periods, a very short reproductive period, & no post-reproductive period.
More specifically, the age structure of a population can be analysed using specific age
categories:
  may use life history categories which includes pre-reproductive, reproductive, & post
reproductive stages. E.g., In insects, eggs, pupae, larvae, & instars can be used.
 can use size class in plants. This includes height/diameter in trees, etc. In plants,
reproduction is better predicted by size than by age.
i. Age structure in animals
A population could show an increasing, decreasing or stable growth. All continuously
reproducing populations tends to a stable age distribution. Normally, increasing population
has an increasing proportion of young, whereas decreasing population has a decreasing
proportion of young. In stable population, the age specific birth rate & the age specific death
rate do not change. The number of individuals in each categories of stable population is
almost proportional.
ii. Age structure in plants
Age determination in plants involves a coherent of marked individuals over time or
determining the ages of individuals by growth rings.
Age determination in plants is not simple. If you take even-aged stands of trees, most
individuals fall into a very few age classes b/c they dominate the site; competitively
excluding young age classes. Hence, age structure in such stands is less useful than some size
criterion.
The same is true for uneven aged-stands. In this type of stands, older individuals are not
necessarily the dominant one. What seem smaller young trees in appearance are of course the
same age with the dominant one.
One or two age classes dominate & hold the site until they die or removed.
In such a population, age alone is a poor criterion of population dynamics.
Therefore, population size in terms of height or diameter is most important criterion to
determine the structure of a plant population.
Sex ratio
In most sexually reproducing organisms, the sex ratio tends to be 1:1 (one male to one
female).
The sex ratio at birth (child stage) and after child stage vary among different animals
including human population.
For instance, among mammals, the sex ratio is often tend to toward males (the number males
> females), but the population shifts towards females in older age group (no. of females >
males).
This might be due to males being fighters for mating & territories.
E.g., the study on N. American Elk (Wapiti) showed that the ratio of male to female was 113:
100, but it abruptly dropped to 85:100 b/n 1.5 to 2.5 age groups. The greatest drop occurs
between ages of 7 & 14. The decline of females is very slow.
In birds, the sex ratio tends to remain weighted towards the males.
In human population too, males exceed females at birth, but as age
5. Discuss the population growth strategies in detail? (4Pts)
POPULATION STRATEGIES
Life is full of danger & the animals should minimize the danger to survive. Organisms
struggle to get resources such as food, cover, mate (opposite sex) to survive.
The strategies are applied for food gathering, reproduction, predator escape, etc.
The general forms of survivorship curves can indicate what evolutionary strategy a species
has & how population numbers are maintained. Animals do not deliver in dry season because
chance to develop is less (i.e., death rate is high).
Individuals in population with curves like (type I) usually have few offspring.
These offspring are well cared for so that their chance of survival is high.
Such strategies occur in birds & large mammals including humans.
Species with curves like (type III) usually have large numbers of offspring, most of which die
before they reach maturity.
Most plants, fungi, fish, amphibians & invertebrates have this strategy
The evolutionary strategies for r-selected populations are (r -stands for intrinsic rate of
growth):
 usually show high fluctuation in density
 they have high mortality rate
 they are usually smaller in size
 they mature early
 probably breed once & disappear
 The population grows even beyond the carrying capacity when the env't is good
 They have a very short life span & also short generation time (generation time is
simply the average span b/n the birth of individuals & the birth of their offspring).
 live in highly unpredictable env'ts with density independent mortality
 adapted for rapid dispersal and colonization
 no parental care to offspring's
 Insects & rodents are good examples for r – strategists.
 Hence, r-selection is associated with type III survivorship curves of the
populations.
The evolutionary strategies of k-selected populations are as ff(k-stands for carrying
capacity):
 Populations kept at or near carrying capacity
 Populations are highly specialized to compete for resources
 Spend relatively little of their energy stores on reproduction
 Characterized by slow growth
 Produce few offspring
 Have delayed reproductive maturity
 Live in stable (predictable) env't with density dependent mortality
 Have good parental care including educating their young, or well cared for their
young
 Have a longer life span & with high survival rate
 Are larger in size
 With repeated breeding (iteroparity)
 Usually homeotherms.
 Larger mammals & birds are good examples of K-selected populations.
 They tend to be associated with type (I) & (II) survivorship curves.
Part Two
1. Discuss the physical and biological structure of community? (3Pts)
2. Define ecosystem and discuss the major types of ecosystem? (3Pts)
3. Discuss the properties, components of ecosystem, ecosystem structure and function?
(4Pts)
4. What is ecosystem productivity? Discuss primary and secondary productivity? (3Pts)
5. What are the major factors affecting primary productivity? (2Pts)
6. Explain food web and food chain? What are the characteristics of detritus and grazing
food chain? (2Pts)
7. Explain ecological pyramid? Briefly explain the three types of ecological pyramid? (3Pts)
8. What is climate change and global worming? What are the causes, attributed effects and
evidences of climate change? (3Pts)