School Family and Community Partnerships

School, Family, and
Community Partnerships
SCHOOL, FAMILY,
AND
COMMUNITY
PARTNERSHIPS
Preparing Educators and

Improving Schools
SECOND EDITION
J OYC E L . E P STE I N
Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships
Johns Hopkins University
New York London

First published 2016 by Westview Press
Published 2018 by Routledge

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Epstein, Joyce Levy.

School, family, and community partnerships : preparing educators and improving
schools / Joyce L. Epstein. — Rev. ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8133-4447-8 (alk. paper)
1. Community and school—United States. 2. Home and school—United States.
3. School improvement programs—United States. I. Title.
LC221.E68 2010
371.190973—dc22
2010023427
ISBN 13: 978-0-8133-5025-7 (pbk)

This book is dedicated to the memory of Mollie C. and Edward P. Levy,
whose love and support helped three sisters set and reach their goals, and to
Paul Jerrold Epstein, who turned my research on school, family, and
community partnerships into treasured real-life experiences.
Contents
List of Tables and Figures xi
Preface and Acknowledgments xv
Part One
Understanding School, Family, and Community Partnerships
1 Introduction 3
Matching Rhetoric with Practice 3
The Need 4
The Gap 5
Evidence of Change 7
Policies Encourage Preparation on Partnerships 9
More Is Needed 10
The Goals 11
Achieving the Goals 12
Using This Volume 12
Setting a Course 16
Featured Topics for Discussion 18
Activities and Exercises 19
Summary 20
References 21
2 Theory and Overview 25

Reading 2.1: Toward a Theory of Family-School 26
Connections: Teacher Practices and Parent Involvement,
Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 2.2: Moving Forward: Ideas for Research on 42
School, Family, and Community Partnerships,
Joyce L. Epstein and Steven B. Sheldon
Discussion and Activities 67
3 Research 91
Reading 3.1: Parent Involvement: A Survey of Teacher Practices, 95
Henry Jay Becker and Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 3.2: Teachers’ Reported Practices of Parent 115
Involvement: Problems and Possibilities,
Joyce L. Epstein and Henry Jay Becker
vii
Reading 3.3: School Programs and Teacher Practices of Parent 129
Involvement in Inner-City Elementary and Middle Schools,
Joyce L. Epstein and Susan L. Dauber
Reading 3.4: Parents’ Reactions to Teacher Practices of 150
Parent Involvement,
Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 3.5: Single Parents and the Schools: 171
Effects of Marital Status on Parent and Teacher Interactions,
Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 3.6: Parents’ Attitudes and Practices of Involvement 200
in Inner-City Elementary and Middle Schools,
Susan L. Dauber and Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 3.7: Effects on Student Achievement of Teachers’ 216
Practices of Parent Involvement,
Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 3.8: Homework Practices, Achievements, and 231
Behaviors of Elementary School Students,
Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 3.9: Student Reactions to Teachers’ Practices of 247
Parent Involvement,
Joyce L. Epstein
Part Two
Applying Research on School, Family, and Community Partnerships
4 Policy Implications 299

Reading 4.1: Parent Involvement: State Education 304
Agencies Should Lead the Way,
Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 4.2: Sample State and District Policies on 312
School, Family, and Community Partnerships
Reading 4.3: Research Meets Policy and Practice: How 331
Are School Districts Addressing NCLB Requirements for
Parental Involvement?,
Joyce L. Epstein
5 A Practical Framework for Developing Comprehensive

Partnership Programs 387
Reading 5.1: School, Family, and Community Partnerships— 389
Caring for the Children We Share,
Joyce L. Epstein
viii CONTENTS
6 Practical Applications: Linking Family and Community 493
Involvement to Student Learning
Reading 6.1: More Than Minutes: Teachers’ Roles in 496
Designing Homework,
Joyce L. Epstein and Frances L. Van Voorhis
Reading 6.2: Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS): 521
Interactive Homework in Math, Science, and Language Arts,
Joyce L. Epstein
Reading 6.3: Organizing Productive Volunteers in the 555
Middle Grades,
Joyce L. Epstein
7 Strategies for Action in Practice, Policy, and Research 573

Index 617
CONTENTS ix
Tables and Figures
TABLES
3.1 Characteristics of Teachers in Survey 97

3.2 Correspondence of Principals’ Active Encouragement 106
and Teachers’ Active Use of Selected Techniques of
Parent Involvement
3.3 Intercorrelations of Measures of Five Types of Parent Involvement 135
3.4 Zero-Order Correlations of Five Types of Parent 136
Involvement with School Level
3.5 Summary of the Strengths of Three Types of 138
Parent Involvement
3.6 Discrepancy Scores: Correlates of Teachers’ Reports 141
of Differences between Their Own and Parents’ Support
for Parent Involvement
3.7 Characteristics of Parents 152
3.8 Parents Who Never Received Personal Communication 155
from Child’s Teacher over One Year
3.9 Parents Reporting Frequent Requests for Parent 156
Involvement Techniques by Teacher-Leaders and
Other Teachers (Percent)
3.10 Parents Reporting Frequent Use by Teachers of 12 158
Parent Involvement Techniques, by Parents’ Education and
Teachers’ Leadership
3.11 Effects on Parents’ Reactions and Evaluations of 161
Three Measures of Teacher Leadership in Parent
Involvement at Classroom Level (Standardized
Regression Coefficients)
3.12 Contribution of Three Measures of Teacher Leadership to 162
Explained Variance in Parents’ Reactions and Evaluations
3.13 Characteristics of Single and Married Parents 178
3.14 Parents’ Reports of Frequency of Teachers’ Use of Parent 180
Involvement (12 Techniques)
3.15 Effects of Measures of Family, Student, and Teacher 182
Characteristics on Parents’ Reports about Teacher
Practices of Parent Involvement
3.16 Teachers’ Estimates of the Quality of Parents’ 185
Responses to Requests for Involvement
xi
3.17 Effects of Measures of Family, Student, and Teacher 186
Characteristics on Teachers’ Reports about Parent
Helpfulness and Follow-Through on Learning Activities at Home
3.18 Teachers’ Estimates of the Quality of Children’s 188
Homework Completion
3.19 Effects of Family, Student, and Teacher Characteristics on 189
Teachers’ Ratings of Children on Their Homework Completion
3.20 Characteristics of the Sample of Parents 203
3.21 Measures of Parent Involvement and Attitudes 204
3.22 Effects on Extent of Parents’ Involvement of School 206
Level, Family Characteristics, and Reported Teacher
Practices to Involve Parents
3.23 Comparison of Effects of Individual-Level and 208
Classroom-Level Reports of Teacher Practices to
Involve Parents (Elementary School Level Only)
3.24 Parents’ Reports about Homework 211
3.25 Effects on Minutes Parents Help with Homework of 211
School Level, Family Characteristics, Students’
Homework Time, and Teachers’ Practices to Involve
Parents in Homework
3.26 Influence on Change in Reading Achievement Test 220
Scores from Fall to Spring
3.27 Influence on Change in Math Achievement Test 222
Scores from Fall to Spring
3.28 Comparing a Common Model of Effects on Change in 224
Reading and Math Scores
3.29 Third- and Fifth-Grade City Students’ Reading and 226
Math Scores
3.30 Homework Variables as Correlates of Student 239
Achievements and Behaviors
3.31 Summary of Student Characteristics, Teacher Characteristics, 251
and Student Opinions in Nine Case and Nine Control
(Matched) Fifth-Grade Teachers’ Classrooms
3.32 Summary of Analyses of Effects of Multiple Measures 253
of Parent Involvement on Multiple Measures of
Student Attitudes and Behavior
4.1 Variables Affecting District-Level Leadership and 336

Facilitation from 2003 to 2004
4.2 Influence on District Leaders to Help Schools Meet 337
Challenges to Involve All Families
4.3 Influence of District Leadership and Facilitation on 339
Reports of Schools’ Progress in Family and
Community Involvement
xii TABLES AND FIGURES

4.4 Contrasting Correlates of District Policies and Written 341
Plans with NCLB Requirements
4.5 Levels and Sources of Funds for Programs of Family and 365
Community Involvement in Schools, Districts, and States
5.1 Epstein’s Framework of Six Types of Involvement for 395

Comprehensive Programs of Partnership, with
Sample Practices
5.2 Challenges and Redefinitions for the Successful Design 398
and Implementation of the Six Types of Involvement
5.3 Expected Results for Students, Parents, and Teachers 400
of the Six Types of Involvement
6.1 Summary of TIPS Interactive Homework Intervention 508

Studies
6.2 Components of Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork 513
(TIPS) Interactive Homework Assignments, by Subject
6.3 Linking the Goals of TIPS Interactive Homework to 532
Results of a Study of TIPS Writing in the Middle Grades
FIGURES
2.1 Overlapping Spheres of Influence of Family, School, 32

and Community on Children’s Learning (External
Structure of Theoretical Model)
2.2 Overlapping Spheres of Influence of Family, School, 32
and Community on Children’s Learning (Internal
Structure of Theoretical Model)
3.1 Opinions of Maryland Teachers about Parent Involvement 99

3.2 Fourteen Techniques for Involving Parents in Teaching 101
Activities at Home (Evaluations by Maryland Teachers)
3.3 Active Use of Parent Involvement Techniques by Grade Level 109
3.4 Levels of Support for Some Techniques by Estimated 110
Formal Education of Parents
3.5 Teachers’ Ratings of Parents’ Helpfulness and Follow-Through 274
3.6 Research Model for Studying Effects of Homework 276
3.7 Variables that Affect Homework Design and Completion 281
4.1 Policies and Activities Comparing State and District Policies 354
5.1 Type 1 Challenges 421

5.2 Type 3 Problems 439
TABLES AND FIGURES xiii

5.3 Map 1: Selected Steps from Workshops for Parents to 487
Student Learning
5.4 Map 2: Selected Steps from Weekly Interactive Homework 488
in Math to Student Learning
7.1 Parent Expectations 578

7.2 ATP Member Chart 588
7.3 Matching Tools to Tasks 592
7.4 Challenges to Partnerships 609
xiv TABLES AND FIGURES

Preface and Acknowledgments
T HIRTY YEARS SOUNDS LIKE A LONG TIME to work on a topic, but it is not very
long to build a field of study on school, family, and community partner-
ships. My colleagues and I began our research on parental involvement in
elementary schools in 1981. We followed with studies of involvement in the middle
grades in 1987 and in high schools in 1990. Since that time, we conducted research
and development activities with state and district leaders, and we continue this
work with educators at all policy levels.
In 1996, with useful results from many studies, I established the National Net-
work of Partnership Schools (NNPS) at Johns Hopkins University. NNPS guides
schools, districts, states, and organizations to use research-based approaches to build
goal-oriented partnership programs that contribute to student success. Members of
NNPS not only develop programs and improve practices of family and community
involvement, but also identify new questions and challenges that influence our re-
search. These connections—research that improves practice and practices that ex-
tend research—are often discussed in academic circles but rarely accomplished.
NNPS is showing how these connections can be organized and conducted to benefit
all partners.
Funding and Collegial Support
My work at Johns Hopkins University has been funded over the years by various
governmental agencies, including the Office of Educational Research and Improve-
ment (OERI) and its predecessor, the National Institute of Education (NIE) in the
U.S. Department of Education, and by a recent five-year grant from the National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). At Johns Hopkins,
my program on family and community involvement has been housed at the Center
for Social Organization of Schools (CSOS) in centers that changed names with each
new governmental grant, including the Center for Research on Elementary and Mid-
dle Schools (CREMS); Center for Research on Effective Schooling for Disadvan-
taged Students (CDS); Center on Families, Communities, Schools, and Children’s
Learning; and Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk
(CRESPAR). To give research on partnerships a permanent home, I established the
Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships within CSOS in 1995.
Grants from the Lilly Endowment, Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, Leon
Lowenstein Foundation, National Endowment of the Arts, Disney Learning Partner-
ship, Wallace–Reader’s Digest Funds, and MetLife Foundation also supported my
research and development projects. Over the years, many funders became colleagues
xv
in helping me think about needed directions for school, family, and community
partnerships. They included Oliver Moles and Ron Pedone at OERI; Joan Lipsitz,
Gayle Dorman, and Kent McGuire at Lilly; John Van Gorder at Lowenstein; Hayes
Mizell at the Clark Foundation; Jane Quinn and Catherine Pino at Wallace–Reader’s
Digest Funds; Laurie Lang, Tony Jackson, and Pamela Rubin at Disney Learning Part-
nership; and Rick Love at MetLife Foundation. I value their ideas and support.
Special thanks are due to educational leaders in Baltimore who supported, as-
sisted, and inspired me for many years. They included Jerry Baum, who directed the
Fund for Educational Excellence and who was a partner in fieldwork for nearly 10
years; Lucretia Coates, the first facilitator for school, family, and community part-
nerships in the Baltimore City Public Schools (BCPS), whose deep knowledge about
schools and families continues to influence this work; and Vivian Jackson, who as-
sisted middle schools for several years in implementing interactive homework. Other
talented facilitators for school, family, and community partnerships worked with
more than 160 elementary, middle, and high schools in Baltimore City to learn how
leadership on partnerships could, in fact, be organized in a large, urban school dis-
trict and how all schools in nine areas could organize teams of educators, family
members, and community partners to plan and implement effective partnership pro-
grams. They included (by history of participation) Marsha Powell-Johnson, Paula
Williams, Brenda G. Thomas, Joyce Bowyer, Marsha Greenfeld, Patricia Kidd-Ryce,
Joann E. Brown, Sandra E. Morgan, and Anjali Patel. Their knowledge and talents
helped many schools turn research into action and helped me learn about the real
world of district leadership and school-based program development.
Other district leaders in Baltimore supported the work of their facilitators and
schools in developing programs of partnership. They included (by history of partic-
ipation) Gary L. Thrift, Clifton Ball, Cynthia Janssen, Christolyne Buie, Charlene
Cooper Boston, Sandra L. Wighton, Ellen D. Gonzales, Anne Carusi, Jeffrey Grotsky,
Barry Williams, Patricia E. Abernathy, Cecil Ramsey, Irby Miller, and Carole Seubert.
These area superintendents and other administrators taught me valuable lessons
about how different district leadership styles contributed to improving schools’ con-
nections with families and communities.
Several local foundations in Baltimore also supported fieldwork conducted with
my community-based partner, the Fund for Educational Excellence. I owe a great
debt to the Fund and to BCPS for making it possible to systematically gather ideas
and data from countless teachers, principals, parents, other family members, and
students. Baltimore was a “learning laboratory” for school, family, and community
partnerships for more than a decade and helped identify the challenges and possibil-
ities for organizing district programs of school, family, and community partnerships
in elementary, middle, and high schools. Knowledge gained in BCPS contributed to
the development of NNPS and underlies many of the processes that are used, now,
in districts and schools across the country.
At this writing, the National Network of Partnership Schools (NNPS) at Johns
Hopkins University has grown to include about 1,200 schools and 150 school dis-
tricts located in more than 35 states, as well as 21 state departments of education
and over 50 organizations that work with schools and districts on partnerships. I
xvi PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

am grateful to thousands of teachers, administrators, parents, and students who
have worked with me and my colleagues over the years. They showed that with skill
and will it is possible to develop programs that engage all families in ways that help
students succeed in school. Their trials, tribulations, and triumphs contributed to
the practical approaches that are included in this volume.
Many colleagues and students at Johns Hopkins University worked with me on
studies in this volume and on countless other publications that are referenced here.
I am indebted to all of them, especially Henry Jay Becker, who met the challenge in
1981 to start our research program with a survey of educators and parents. His cre-
ative work and collaborative spirit helped generate many questions for the studies
that followed. Other valued research partners at Hopkins included Susan L. Dauber,
Susan C. Herrick, Seyong Lee, Lori Connors-Tadros, and many other helpful grad-
uate and undergraduate students.
Colleagues who worked with me from 1990 to 1995 in the Center on Families,
Communities, Schools, and Children’s Learning included codirector Don Davies and
researchers Carole Ames, Josephine Bright, Melvin Delgado, Larry Dolan, Charles
Glenn, Nitza Hidalgo, Vivian Johnson, Sharon Lynn Kagan, Colleen Morisset, Saun-
dra Nettles, Diane Scott Jones, Sau-Fong Siu, and the late Susan M. Swap. These re-
searchers conducted many studies that deepened an understanding of the scope of
school, family, and community partnerships from birth through high school. Their
work and that of many other researchers cited throughout this volume influenced
my thinking about the content of courses to prepare teachers, administrators, social
workers, school psychologists, sociologists of education, and other education pro-
fessionals to understand and conduct school, family, and community partnerships.
Ongoing Research and Development
Special thanks are due to my colleagues at the Center on School, Family, and Com-
munity Partnerships, currently including researchers Mavis G. Sanders, Steven B. Shel-
don, and Frances Van Voorhis; facilitators Marsha Greenfeld, Darcy Hutchins, Brenda
Thomas, and Jenn Ganss; and, in recent years, Claudia Galindo, Natalie Rodriguez
Jansorn, Cecelia S. Martin, Mary G. Nesbitt, Karen Clark Salinas, Beth S. Simon,
and Kenyatta Williams. The work we did together influenced the topics, discussions,
and activities in chapters throughout this volume and new research underway.
Other longtime colleagues and valued friends at Johns Hopkins University sup-
ported and encouraged my work for many years, including James M. McPartland,
Edward L. McDill, and the late John H. Hollifield. All of the researchers and facil-
itators at CSOS are working to show that social and educational research can help
educators improve schools for all students and benefit families and communities.
I am convinced that researchers learn most about schools by collaborating with
educators, parents, students, and others who implement programs, evaluate their
efforts, and report their results. All that we know or ever will learn about school, fam-
ily, and community partnerships depends on researchers, educators, families, stu-
dents, and others sharing the role of expert. All of my projects, publications,
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii

presentations, and collaborations with other researchers, educators, parents, and oth-
ers have been a true delight, making thirty years seem like a very short time indeed.
My family’s interest in my work has been most appreciated, including my late
parents’ unconditional support and my sisters’ ongoing encouragement. My son
Paul’s experiences in school literally brought my theories and research to life. He
showed how important it was for his mom and dad to be positively involved in his
education and how crucial it is for every child—all students—to be the focus of
school, family, and community partnerships. Now Paul and daughter-in-law Adrienn
continue to support my work that is built on family history.
What Is New in the Second Edition?
A direction-shaping survey that Mavis Sanders and I conducted asked over 160
deans and other leaders in colleges of education across the country how well their
institutions prepared future teachers and administrators to involve families and
communities in children’s education. Their responses revealed a dramatic gap be-
tween their belief that family and community involvement is a very important topic
for future teachers and administrators to master and their honest reports that their
graduates were unprepared to conduct effective programs of school, family, and
community partnerships. Those data inspired the completion of the first edition of
this book as one way to help new teachers and administrators begin their profes-
sional lives with a better understanding of useful approaches to family and com-
munity involvement.
Some progress has been made since the publication of the first edition of this
book. Research on partnerships has improved each year, as more and better studies
using ever more rigorous methods are completed. Inservice education has increased
to help practicing educators improve their plans and partnership programs. And
there are more preservice and advanced education courses on partnership program
development—but not enough. Most new teachers and administrators are inade-
quately prepared to work effectively with all students’ families in communities
across the country.
At the end of the first edition of this book, published in 2001, I noted: “Today’s
students are tomorrow’s parents. They are witnessing and experiencing how their
schools treat their families and how their families treat the schools. They are learning
by example how parents are involved at school and at home in their education.”
Some who were middle and high school students in 2001 now are reading this
book—preparing to be teachers! They need to know how to engage their future stu-
dents’ families and communities in productive ways. In this edition, some readings,
comments, and activities were retained from the first edition to ensure that future
teachers, administrators, and researchers of school, family, and community partner-
ships understand the history and development of this field of study. Other sections
are “new and improved” to share the progress that has been made in research, poli-
cies, and practical programs of family and community involvement.
xviii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

• New readings include a literature review that discusses new directions for
partnership program development; a summary of research on homework;
and new approaches to district-level leadership, state-level leadership,
and policies on family and community involvement.
• Comments, discussion topics, activities, references, and projects were
added and updated to enable future teachers and administrators to
“think new” about and delve deeper into many aspects of school, family,
and community partnerships.
The new edition of this book aims to encourage more professors of education,
sociology, psychology, and related fields to incorporate topics covered across chapters
in required courses that will prepare the next generation of education professionals
to understand and implement programs and practices of family and community in-
volvement to increase student success in school.
Joyce Levy Epstein
Baltimore, October 2010
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix

PART ONE
Understanding
School, Family,
and Community
Partnerships
1
Introduction
W HOSE DREAMS ARE THESE? Children will like school; work hard; do the
best they can; graduate from high school; continue their education; gain
employment; and become good citizens, friends, and members of their
families. Countless surveys and projects with thousands of educators, families, and
students reveal that these are common goals and dreams. Too often, though, these
ideals are unattained by this nation’s children. How can more students be helped to
meet these goals?
To answer questions about goals, we must ask questions about roles: What
should families do, what should schools and communities do, and what should stu-
dents do to reach their common objectives for children’s success in school and in
the future? These questions are the reasons for studying, implementing, and improv-
ing school, family, and community partnerships.
MATCHING RHETORIC WITH PRACTICE
No topic about school improvement has created more rhetoric than parental in-
volvement. Everyone says that it is important. In study after study, teachers, parents,
administrators, and even students from elementary through high school say that
parental involvement benefits students, improves schools, assists teachers, and
strengthens families. There are basic beliefs and agreements about the importance
of families and the benefits of parental involvement.
There also are some clearly expressed hopes and wishes for parental involvement.
Teachers would like families to assist, guide, and influence their children to do their
schoolwork. Families want teachers to let them know how to help their children at
home. Students wish their families were knowledgeable about their schools and
helpful to them on school matters at home. These desires are expressed in numerous
studies with diverse samples, in varied communities, and at all grade levels.
There is some confusion and disagreement, however, about which practices of
involvement are important and how to obtain high participation from all families.
3
Some educators expect parents to become involved in their children’s education
on their own. If they do, they are “good” parents. If not, they are irresponsible,
uninterested, or “bad” parents. Some educators and parents expect the school to
“tell parents what to do” and that parents will simply respond. Neither of these
approaches—waiting for involvement or dictating it—is effective for informing or
involving all families.
Research shows that partnership is a better approach. In partnership, educators,
families, and community members work together to share information, guide stu-
dents, solve problems, and celebrate successes. Partnerships recognize the shared
responsibilities of home, school, and community for children’s learning and devel-
opment. Students are central to successful partnerships. They are active learners in
all three contexts—at home, at school, and in the community. They link members
of these groups to each other. Students are not bystanders but contributors to and
actors in the communications, activities, investments, decisions, and other connections
that schools, families, and communities conduct to promote children’s learning.
What should programs of partnership look like? How can they be developed and
sustained? How could teachers, administrators, parents, other family members,
and others in communities be prepared to initiate and maintain productive rela-
tionships in their work to benefit students? How would teachers, administrators,
and others who work with children and families put the best knowledge and prac-
tices to work? How must practices change over time as students proceed through
the grades? How can research address these questions to continue to increase knowl-
edge and improve practices? These are the questions this book will address. Research,
to date, informs the answers; new research will enrich, confirm, or redirect practice.
THE NEED
All teachers and administrators have one thing in common, whether they are in
Maine or California; work with students in grade 1 or grade 12; teach Anglo,
Latino, African American, Asian American, Native American, or other students; or
have advanced or struggling students: All teachers’ students have families.
Students’ families, however, are not all the same. Some students live with two
parents, and others have only one parent at home. Some parents are employed, and
some are unemployed; some speak English, and some speak other languages at
home. Students come from many different family structures. Indeed, there are im-
portant variations in the characteristics and situations of students, families, schools,
and communities.
However configured, however constrained, families come with their children to
school. Even when they do not come in person, families come in children’s minds
and hearts and in their hopes and dreams. They come with the children’s problems
and promise. Without exception, teachers and administrators have explicit or im-
plicit contact with their students’ families every day.
All students and their families live in communities, whether close to or distant from
schools, that are diverse in geography and history and in economic and social char-
4 INTRODUC TION
acteristics. Wherever they are located, all communities include individuals, groups,
and organizations that care about children; share responsibility for children’s futures;
and are potentially valuable resources for children, families, and schools. Children,
families, and schools also are valuable resources for their communities.
Educators need to understand the contexts in which students live, work, and play.
Without that understanding, educators work alone, not in partnership with other
important people in students’ lives. Without partnerships, educators segment stu-
dents into the school child and the home child, ignoring the whole child. This parceling
reduces or eliminates guidance, support, and encouragement for children’s learning
from parents, relatives, neighbors, peers, business partners, religious leaders, and
other adults in the community.
THE GAP
Teachers learn to teach reading, math, science, and other specialties. They learn to
teach students in kindergarten and in all other grade levels. Administrators learn
how to manage the school as an organization, create schedules, and supervise many
tasks and many people. Most teachers and administrators, however, are presently
unprepared to work positively and productively with one of the constants of life in
school—their students’ families.
Consequently, many educators enter schools without adequately understanding
the backgrounds, languages, religions, cultures, histories, structures, races, social
classes, and other characteristics and goals of their students and families. Without
such information, it is impossible for educators to communicate effectively with the
people who matter most to the children in their schools, classrooms, and commu-
nities (Bryk and Schneider, 2002).
Few educators enter their profession with an understanding of how they and their
colleagues can develop and maintain partnership programs that inform and involve
all families every year that children are in school. Without such programs, it is impos-
sible for all families to remain active in their children’s education and development.
Few educators are prepared to work with businesses, agencies, and institutions
in their students’ communities to promote student success in school and beyond.
Without these connections, students are underserved and disconnected from oppor-
tunities that enrich their schoolwork and prepare them for the future.
An early survey conducted in the southwest region in 1980 found that only 4 to
15 percent of teacher educators taught a full course or part of a course on parent
involvement, and only 37 percent of the teacher educators included even one class
period on the topic. In the same region, just about all of the practicing teachers and
administrators who were surveyed agreed that teachers needed to be better prepared
to understand and work with families. And over 70 percent thought that there
should be a required course on the topic in undergraduate education (Chavkin and
Williams, 1988).
Another early study of elementary school teachers in Maryland indicated that
few attributed their practices of partnership to their formal education. Most teachers
INTRODUC TION 5
who had even one class on the topic of parental involvement specialized in early
childhood or special education or took administrative or other courses as part of
an advanced degree. Sometimes the topic was limited to families’ legal rights and
responsibilities to make specific decisions about children with special needs (Becker
and Epstein, 1982; see Reading 3.1).
Little change occurred in the 1980s and 1990s in preparing educators to under-
stand and work with families and communities to support their children’s education,
despite considerable progress in research, policy, and practice. An informal survey
of six campuses of the University of California that prepared teachers found that
few courses or even classes-within-courses were offered on family and school part-
nerships (Ammon, 1990). In Minnesota, more than half of the 27 colleges and uni-
versities with degree-granting undergraduate education programs offered no course
related to parent involvement for prospective teachers of kindergarten through
grade 12, and only one had a required course on the topic (Hinz, Clarke, and
Nathan, 1992). Most courses that were offered were for future teachers in early
childhood education or special education. Only 6 of 1,300 course listings focused
on comprehensive programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
A companion study of the 50 states indicated that no state required an entire
course in family involvement for the certification or licensing of teachers. According
to these reports, nine states required coverage of the topic in some course, with a
few more specifying that requirement for teachers of early childhood (11 states)
and special education (15 states). Approximately one-quarter of the states identi-
fied the need for elementary educators to show competence (however attained) in
school, family, and community partnerships. Fewer states expected middle or high
school educators to have competence in family involvement. Only seven states re-
quired principals or central office administrators to study parent involvement or
demonstrate proficiency in promoting parent involvement in their schools. No state
included this competency in recertification or renewal of certification, thereby re-
ducing the likelihood that practicing educators will update their family and com-
munity involvement skills (Radcliffe, Malone, and Nathan, 1994).
A study of official certification materials from all states in 1992 found similar
patterns and concluded that parental involvement was not a high priority in state
certification (Shartrand, Weiss, Kreider, and Lopez, 1997). The researchers con-
ducted follow-up inquiries with leaders of about 60 teacher education programs in
22 states that mentioned family involvement in their certification requirements. The
results indicated that teacher education programs responded to state policies by
teaching topics of parental involvement in some courses. Only nine of the universi-
ties in that sample reported having a required course on family involvement, usually
for teachers of young children.
At the start of the new decade, a study of 161 deans and chairpersons in schools,
colleges, and departments of education in the United States examined courses of-
fered to prospective educators and leaders’ perspectives of the need for change (Ep-
stein and Sanders, 2006). About 70 percent of the leaders strongly agreed that future
teachers, administrators, and counselors needed partnership skills, but only 7.2 per-
cent strongly agreed that the new teachers who graduated from their programs were
6 INTRODUC TION
prepared to work with all students’ families and communities. Slightly higher per-
centages believed that future principals (19 percent) and counselors (27 percent)
were prepared to work effectively with families. About 60 percent of the leaders of
the sampled institutions—more than in past surveys—reported offering a full course
on partnerships, mainly to graduate students or, as noted historically, to specialists
in early childhood and special education. Most (92 percent) noted that courses at
their colleges covered the topic of partnerships in at least one class. Even today—
even with some progress—most colleges and universities are not adequately prepar-
ing new professional educators to work with students’ families and communities.
The education leaders’ reports were confirmed in a national survey of education
school alumni in which 62 percent reported they were not well prepared for the re-
alities of the classroom (Levine, 2006). This includes a lack of skills to work with
diverse students and parents in ways that support student learning. Some might say
this reflects poorly on the teacher candidates, but the statistic really reflects the poor
quality of teacher education programs to help future teachers gain the skills they
need—immediately and in every classroom—to work with all students and their
families on students’ attitudes, efforts, achievements, and progress.
EVIDENCE OF CHANGE
There is evidence that change is possible. In 1989, deans of education and other
curriculum leaders at California campuses attended a conference on the need to add
school, family, and community partnerships to teacher education. Some took action
quickly. Within one year, five of the eight campuses represented at the conference
reported making a few changes in the content of courses and assignments in required
and elective courses for prospective teachers and administrators. The changes in-
cluded adding readings about parent involvement to existing courses, professional
development, or supervised teaching seminars. One campus added the topic of part-
nerships to an induction program for first-year teachers who had graduated from
the university the prior year (Ammon, 1990). These examples showed that small
changes, such as adding readings or discussions about school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships to existing courses, could be made quickly.
Other changes take longer if they require formal university approval, such as cre-
ating a new required or elective course on school, family, and community partnerships
for all future teachers or designing a certificate program to develop educational leaders
on partnerships. One example of this is a certificate program at the School of Educa-
tion at Johns Hopkins University. This five-course, 15-credit certificate at the graduate
student level, Leadership for School, Family, and Community Collaboration, devel-
oped by Dr. Mavis Sanders and her colleagues, required approval from the department
and the school’s academic review council (Graduate Division of Education, 2003).
In the past few years, more textbooks for various courses on teaching practice,
classroom management, and administrative leadership added topics on family and
community involvement (Cox-Peterson, 2011; Cunningham and Cordeiro, 2003;
Weinstein, 2006; Weinstein and Mignano, 2006; Santrock, 2008; Woolfolk, 2004).
INTRODUC TION 7
Positive actions also have been taken by individual professors at various colleges
and universities who designed and taught courses on school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships or added readings to existing courses in education, leadership
and cultural foundations, sociology, psychology, and social work (Chavkin, 2005;
deAcosta, 1996; Kaplan, 1992; Katz and Bauch, 1999; Kirschenbaum, 2001; Riehl,
2004; Van Wyk, 1998). For example, Bermudez and Padron (1988) designed a
graduate-level course that included classwork and fieldwork to help educators learn
to communicate better with families who spoke Spanish at home. Evans-Shilling
(1996) initiated a responsive field-based course that provided educators with ex-
periences in family-school relations. Allexsaht-Snider and others designed a required
course for educators preparing for early childhood education to increase under-
standing of family-school relations; it included fieldwork with families in school,
at home, and in the community (Allexsaht-Snider, Phtiaka, and Gonzalez, 1996).
She and her colleagues at the University of Georgia also infused these topics into
elementary education, field experiences, and other programs to prepare educators.
For several years, Mapp (2009) offered future teachers and policy analysts a full-
semester course on family and community involvement at the Harvard Graduate
School of Education. And the Harvard Family Research Project’s Family Involve-
ment Network of Educators (FINE) conducts projects and maintains a website
(www.finenetwork.org) to engage professors of education on topics of family and
community involvement.
Over the past two decades, these and other professors have worked to help future
educators understand the important roles that families and communities play in stu-
dents’ education. A few studies examined the impact of coursework about family
and community involvement on future teachers’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes
about partnerships. Morris and her colleagues at the University of Memphis found
positive effects of a four-semester school and community relations course on stu-
dents’ understanding of partnerships, attitudes toward parents, confidence about
working with families, and feelings of comfort and competence in planning family
involvement activities and programs (Morris and Taylor, 1998; Morris, Taylor, and
Knight, 1998).
Studies also show that teachers who feel more competent about their own skills
were more likely to implement activities to involve families, raising important ques-
tions about the need to improve coursework to increase teachers’ efficacy on part-
nerships (Garcia, 2004). Other professors have reported that coursework increased
their undergraduate and/or graduate students’ understanding of partnerships as one
of the essential components of school and classroom organization and as a major
influence on student learning and development (Albert, 2008; deAcosta, 1996; Des-
landes, Fournier, and Morin, 2008; Katz and Bauch, 1999; Shartrand et al., 1997;
Shumow, 2004; Weiss, Kreider, Lopez, and Chatman-Nelson, 2010).
The American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education (AACTE) partnered
with MetLife Foundation to fund five innovative projects to increase attention to
family and community involvement in their preservice programs for teachers
(AACTE, 2002). These included field experiences for future teachers at the University
of Texas at El Paso working with Latino parents in one school’s community and
8 INTRODUC TION
trials of Teachers as Faculty and Families as Faculty workshops to give future teach-
ers at the University of South Florida and the University of North Florida, respec-
tively, a chance to hear from local teachers and family members about desired
collaborations. Northern Illinois University’s project embedded partnership topics
throughout the curriculum for preservice teachers, and the University of North
Texas designed online components that professors in various courses could use to
provide future teachers with new knowledge about family and community involve-
ment. More support of this kind would greatly advance innovative attention to
teacher training on aspects of school, family, and community partnerships. More
research is needed to learn if and how courses with different designs and require-
ments affect teachers’ and administrators’ daily practice.
These examples and the results of the survey of deans suggest that leaders in
colleges and universities may be more ready than in the past to add the topic of
school, family, and community partnerships to their curricula. Readiness for change
also has been influenced by federal policies (e.g., recently by No Child Left Behind
[NCLB], with continued influence of Head Start, Even Start, and other programs
that require family and community involvement; see Reading 4.3). More college
and university professors have read research on school, family, and community
partnerships that accumulated in the past two decades, and more professors have
graduate students at the master’s and doctoral degree levels who are choosing top-
ics on family and community involvement for their dissertations (Epstein and
Sanders, 2006).
POLICIES ENCOURAGE PREPARATION ON PARTNERSHIPS
States are beginning to include school, family, and community connections in their
qualifications for the certification of teachers, administrators, counselors, and other
educators. For example, California’s Education Code and Commission on Teaching
Credentialing, Ohio’s Standards Revisions Teacher Education and Certification, Illi-
nois’s General Supervisory Endorsement, Minnesota’s Higher Education Coordina-
tion Board, Virginia’s student teaching requirements, and other legislation refer to
the importance of school practices to involve families and communities.
Some states require teachers, administrators, counselors, and other educators
to demonstrate knowledge and skills on partnerships to qualify for state certification
and reflect the standards for licensure of collaborating organizations. The Education
Commission of the States (2005) reported that of the 50 states, 17 directed all dis-
tricts and schools to implement parental involvement policies while 15 others “urge”
these programs. In the past few years, other states reported that, in addition to re-
quiring schools and districts to comply with federal requirements for parental in-
volvement policies and programs, state leaders provided professional development
on partnerships, awarded grants for innovative partnership practices, and recom-
mended (rather than required) schools conduct programs that involve all families
in their children’s education (Moles, 2008). Many states are reluctant to issue de-
tailed mandates and requirements for all districts and all schools to take the same
INTRODUC TION 9
actions, but most states have issued clear recommendations and other documents
that support parental involvement as an essential organizational component for ef-
fective schools and successful students.
National organizations for college and university program accreditation—
including the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE,
2002), the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC,
1992), and the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC)—have
standards for teacher and administrator education that explicitly include prepa-
ration and competence in working with families and communities (Council of
Chief State School Officers, 1996). For example, NCATE specifies that teacher
candidates should understand principles and strategies for school, family, and com-
munity partnerships to support students’ learning. INTASC and ISLLC stipulate
competencies that all teachers and administrators should master, including foster-
ing relationships with families and community groups to support student learning
and well-being. National teacher examinations for new teachers and national as-
sessments for highly accomplished teachers include questions and require skills on
parent and community involvement (National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards, 1994).
Still, all state and credentialing requirements about competencies on partnerships
tend to be general and aspirational, rather than specific about course content and
required credits. It takes time for state laws and accreditation standards to affect
college and university courses for future teachers and administrators.
MORE IS NEEDED
Despite some progress in the past ten years, the picture is still bleak. Most teachers
and administrators are not prepared to understand—much less design, implement,
and evaluate—new approaches for developing programs of family and community
involvement that increase the success of all students in school. Most administrators
are not prepared with new strategies to guide and lead their staffs to develop strong
school programs and classroom practices that inform and involve all families about
their children’s learning, development, and educational plans for the future. The
problem is serious for all educators and is particularly urgent for educators teaching
in public and charter schools that serve diverse families. It is still the case that rising
teachers and administrators need a repertory of research-based approaches to work
with all families, especially in economically distressed communities.
Even big changes that were made in the past few years have had limited impact.
Relatively few new teachers or administrators graduate from any one college or
university. The fact is that many more colleges and university programs need to im-
prove their programs to enable all future teachers and administrators to gain basic
knowledge and skills on partnership program development. It will be necessary to
scale up the number of professors and programs of teacher education, educational
administration, and other courses in order to prepare all educators to engage all
families in positive ways in their children’s education at all grade levels.
10 INTRODUC TION
It is time to advance undergraduate and graduate education by ensuring that fu-
ture teachers and administrators have the required courses with the newest content
coverage on school, family, and community partnerships. Simultaneously, it is im-
portant to encourage state education leaders to improve certification standards for
teachers, administrators, and counselors by specifying course requirements and com-
petencies that educators must have to support general statements about the impor-
tance of family and community involvement.
THE GOALS
Just as teachers are prepared to teach subject matter and administrators are prepared
to direct and manage schools and programs, all educators also must be prepared to
draw on all of the resources that will help students succeed in school, including fam-
ilies and communities. This volume aims to:
• add an understanding of school, family, and community partnerships to

the education and training of teachers, administrators, counselors, and
professionals in related fields;
• include this knowledge in the definition of what it means to be
professional;
• promote respect, trust, appreciation, and collaboration between and
among all adults who influence children’s lives and learning;
• enable educators to apply their knowledge to develop effective programs
of partnership in their schools and classrooms;
• support the integration of school, family, and community partnerships in
broader programs of school improvement, giving explicit attention to
improving practices of involvement; and
• encourage research on the simultaneous influences of home, school, and
community contexts on children’s learning and development.
The professional preparation of educators must include the information they

need to understand, conduct, and maintain school, family, and community partner-
ships. Without this information, teachers and administrators are restricted in the
resources they have to help students do their best. Also, families are then limited in
the influence they may have on their children’s learning and development for at least
12 years of school life. In turn, many children miss the support, encouragement,
and understanding they might have from their families and communities. In the end,
if educators lack knowledge and skills in organizing and implementing effective
partnerships with all students’ families, fewer students succeed in school.
The research base of the first edition of this book has been strengthened by ad-
vances in research, policy, and practice over the past ten years. It is now possible to
enable prospective and practicing educators to gain the knowledge, tools, and ex-
amples they need to mobilize families and communities to assist children’s learning
and development from preschool through high school.
INTRODUC TION 11
ACHIEVING THE GOALS
To recognize the need, fill the gap, and achieve the goals stated above, we must
change some of the requirements, options, and content of higher education courses.
Courses must be revised and expanded to include a solid base of information to
prepare teachers and administrators to understand and involve families in their chil-
dren’s education.
Ideally, there should be at least one comprehensive required course on school,
family, and community partnerships in every preparatory program. Because every
teacher and administrator works with children’s families (in person or unseen)
every day of their professional lives, this requirement is as important as a course in
teaching reading, math, or another subject in the preparation of school teachers,
and as important as any major required course in educational administration or
other educational specialties.
A less meritorious policy decision that still improves most preparatory programs
is to organize and offer elective courses on the topic of partnerships at the under-
graduate and graduate levels. There also should be a formal plan for how readings
on school, family, and community partnerships will be integrated in other required
and elective courses to ensure that all who are preparing for professions in education
have had substantial exposure to and experience with the theory, research, and im-
plementation of these partnerships.
The call for required, elective, and/or integrated courses is offered with a mix of
urgency and understanding. It is urgent that educators better understand families’
roles in children’s education and how to implement programs of school, family, and
community partnerships. It is understood that change in higher education must be
discussed and planned to alter long-standing practices in order to offer students
these options. Leaders in higher education must be change agents and take steps to
ensure that the educational professionals who are prepared in their courses, pro-
grams, departments, colleges, and universities are, in fact, well-qualified to teach
children and work with families and communities as partners in education.
In colleges and universities, courses also should be enhanced to prepare re-
searchers in sociology, psychology, education, and related disciplines to understand
the questions, methods, and problems of studying multiple contexts—home, school,
and community—and the interactions of individuals in these contexts. We must pre-
pare the next generation of education researchers to study the overlapping spheres
of influence on children’s learning and development, just as we must prepare the
next generation of teachers and administrators to work effectively with families
and communities.
USING THIS VOLUME
This book is about school, family, and community partnerships: how to think
about them, talk about them, study and understand them, act on them, and im-
prove them. It includes selected readings and excerpts of readings on the theory,
12 INTRODUC TION
research, policy, and practice of school, family, and community partnerships to
provide a solid base of information on the development, directions, problems, and
possibilities of these connections.
The readings and accompanying comments, discussions, and activities can be
used as the basis for a full course or as supplementary materials in courses such as
foundations of education, methods of teaching, contemporary issues in education,
education policy studies, educational administration, counseling, sociology of edu-
cation, sociology of family, educational psychology, school social work, and related
courses. Following are suggestions for using this volume as a text for a full course
or for supplementary readings.
A Comprehensive Required or Elective Course
A comprehensive course on partnerships must cover the major topics that educa-
tors need to study to proceed thoughtfully in their work with children, families,
and communities. This includes theoretical perspectives; results of research on par-
ticular approaches; effective policies and practices that teachers and administrators
should understand and be able to use to engage all families, involve the community,
and best serve students; and organizational strategies to help educators and fam-
ilies work together to design and implement sustainable programs of partnership.
Other texts or readings, activities, and projects may supplement this volume in a
full course.
Supplementary Readings in Other Required or

Elective Courses in Education and the Social Sciences
Readings on family, school, and community connections are important for fully un-
derstanding the sociology of education, sociology of the family, social foundations
of education, school administration and management, political science, political ac-
tion and organizations, social policy, school psychology, human development, social
work, community services, group processes, urban policy, and related fields. Indi-
vidual chapters, articles, and activities in this volume may be selected to bring the
topic of partnerships to courses in these specialties.
Presently, many courses focus on families without paying attention to children’s
schools; focus on schools without attending to their connections with families and
communities; or instruct about communities without considering the connections
and investments of community groups and organizations with educators, families,
and children. The readings in this volume will broaden the background and under-
standing of undergraduate and graduate students about the important connections
among home, school, and community for the purposes of assisting students,
strengthening families, and renewing communities.
Selections from this volume also may be woven into thematic courses. For ex-
ample, a course in education, sociology of education, or related fields may take a
INTRODUC TION 13
historical perspective, addressing the question: How have research, policy, and practice
on school, family, and community connections changed over the past half century?
Family and school connections have changed from rather superficial, peripheral ac-
tivities to theory-driven and research-based frameworks that guide basic and applied
research and school program development. Research on “community” has changed
from using mainly demographic data that rank locations as high or low on social
or economic variables to studying the people, processes, and resources in any com-
munity that can assist student learning. More and different themes would emerge
in a course covering the organization and effects of connections among children,
families, schools, and communities over the past two centuries.
Another elective course might address comparisons of school, family, and com-
munity connections across nations with comparative readings that explore common
and distinct international themes, policies, and school-based programs of family and
community involvement. A third thematic course might focus on social-psychological
perspectives of the interconnections and interrelationships of individuals that influ-
ence student development. This might include research on social networks of edu-
cators, parents, parents-and-educators, and student-peers-and-parents, and the
two-way, three-way, and many-way connections between and among schools, fam-
ilies, students, peer groups, and communities.
Linkages to Courses on the Methods of Teaching

Specific School Subjects and Practice Teaching
Readings on school, family, and community connections should be included in meth-

ods of teaching courses that prepare educators to teach specific subjects. That is,
teachers of every subject and grade level need to understand, design, select, conduct,
and evaluate appropriate connections with their students’ families about the cur-
riculum in specific subjects, homework policies, attendance and behavioral expec-
tations, children’s grades, challenges, and progress, and about academic decisions
such as course choices and the selection of enrichment programs. Teachers of all
subjects and grade levels need to understand, design, select, conduct, and evaluate
connections with individuals and groups in communities to maximize learning op-
portunities in reading, math, writing, science, computer skills, art, music, family life,
physical education, and other subjects.
Important theoretical issues to study and discuss include whether and how shar-
ing power with parents increases or decreases teachers’ power and professional
standing. Also, teachers need to learn specific skills, such as how to design home-
work that enables children to share skills and ideas at home, how to inform families
about what their children should know and do each year in each subject, and how
to inform families about children’s progress and involve families in the assessment
of students’ work. Teachers of all subjects also should understand the community
near the school; the home communities of their students; and the connections with
businesses, groups, and individuals in the surrounding community that may help
enrich and extend their teaching and students’ learning.
14 INTRODUC TION
Educators who are being prepared to teach, administer, or work in the schools
of the twenty-first century should learn about the scope and expansion of research
and practice in the field of school, family, and community partnerships. This infor-
mation will help them develop their own perspectives, understand the pros and cons
and the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches, and thoughtfully select or
design strategies to communicate with and involve families and communities in chil-
dren’s education.
Other Information
Even if a required course covered all of the topics in this volume, undergraduate
and graduate students still would need other information about families, schools,
and communities to be prepared for their professions. For example, students need
to read about the family as a social organization, the influence parents have on their
children at various age levels, diversity in family backgrounds and cultures, and
trends in family life. Similarly, professionals who work with families and children
need to know about school and classroom organizations to understand basic school
structures, functions, staffing, and alternative curricular and instructional approaches
for educating students. Educators need to build their knowledge about community
structures, processes, and services. The readings in this volume address these topics
only as they affect the design and conduct of school, family, and community part-
nerships. The fields of parent education and parent leadership are also related to
topics of family and community involvement (Bornstein, 2002).
No single course or class in higher education will provide all the information
and examples that professionals need to make decisions about which practices to
use in every school in which they work. Nevertheless, a basic, comprehensive, re-
quired course or substantial coverage in several courses should increase awareness
and understanding of the topic, alert educators that collaborating with families is
part of their professional responsibility, and provide many ideas and examples to
help teachers and administrators “tailor” programs and practices of partnership
to their particular school, family, and community settings.
Links to Inservice Education
The vast majority of practicing educators, social workers, school psychologists, and
others who work with families and children have had no prior formal education in
school, family, and community partnerships. Thus, there is and will continue to be
a great need for inservice education for practitioners in preschools; in elementary,
middle, and high schools; and at the district and state leadership levels to meet new
laws and requirements for effective programs of family and community involvement
linked to student achievement and success in school.
Most inservice programs, presently, are limited to a few hours’ duration and may
introduce teachers and administrators to one or two new practices of partnerships.
INTRODUC TION 15
A companion volume—School, family, and community partnerships: Your hand-
book for action (Epstein et al., 2009)—is a comprehensive inservice guidebook that
enables educators and parent leaders in schools, districts, and states to organize,
improve, and maintain effective programs of partnerships in their own locations.
SETTING A COURSE
This volume brings together a set of basic readings, with comments on new issues;
topics for class discussions; questions and activities for classwork, homework, field
experiences, and suggested projects; and other material for use in undergraduate
and graduate courses in education, psychology, sociology, and other disciplines. The
content, based on my work with colleagues, educators, and parents connects child
development, socialization, and education with the institutions of school, family,
and community and the individuals within them. The collection of readings and ac-
tivities stresses the importance of developing and maintaining programs of partner-
ships at the school, district, and state levels—not only what one teacher or one
principal or one parent might do on their own.
Some chapters should be particularly useful for improving the actions and ac-
tivities of prospective teachers, administrators, and others who plan to work with
schools and families. Other chapters aim to encourage research on new and
needed questions to advance the field of school, family, and community partner-
ships. The readings include literature reviews, original research, policy issues, and
activities for practice teaching and subject specialization. The final chapter serves
as a bridge to the practical, inservice education and program development that
must be customized for and conducted in all schools. The chapters cover the fol-
lowing topics:
Chapter 2: Theory and Overview. Two readings provide a broad perspective

on school, family, and community partnerships to introduce a theory of
overlapping spheres of influence and to provide an understanding of
new directions for research, policy, and practice. Theories of authority
and decision making and their applications at the school, district, and
state levels are explored and may be expanded.
Chapter 3: Research. Several original research studies are presented with
data collected from teachers, parents, and students on the nature and
extent of involvement, relationships among partners in children’s
education, and effects of partnership practices. The readings help
students examine research methods, interpret results, and consider
implications for school practice or for new studies to extend the field.
The involvement of parents in one- and two-parent homes is discussed
to focus on what schools may do to involve all parents, not just those
who usually become involved on their own. This chapter also introduces
research on homework to study connections of the classroom
curriculum, family involvement, and student attitudes and achievements.
16 INTRODUC TION
Chapter 4: Policy. Several readings summarize issues and advances in state,
district, school, and federal policies of partnership and the connections
of policies to leadership actions. These include research on NCLB,
guidelines for policy development, and examples of state and district
policies on family and community involvement. The readings and
activities show how research influences policy, how policy sparks
improvements in practice, and, coming full circle, how new policies and
practice open opportunities for more and better research. These topics
and a discussion of funding partnership programs make this chapter of
particular interest in educational administration courses.
Chapter 5: Practical Framework. This chapter connects research and policy
with practice. The reading and activities focus on my framework of six
types of involvement, sample practices of partnerships, the challenges
that must be met in excellent programs, and results that can be expected
if practices for each type of involvement are well designed and well
implemented. By applying knowledge and information to real-world
situations, future educators will gain an understanding of the basic
components for building goal-linked, school-based partnership
programs.
Chapter 6: Practical Applications. Particularly targeted to courses on
methods of teaching specific subjects and practice teaching, this chapter
summarizes research on a practical method for improving connections
with families about students’ homework. It discusses and illustrates how
to organize and conduct feasible family and community connections
connected to the curriculum at home and at school by (1) designing
interactive homework for students to discuss with their families at home
(Type 4 in the framework of six types of involvement) and (2)
organizing volunteers who present interdisciplinary discussions of art
and social studies (Type 3 in the framework). Both practical applications
demonstrate ways to organize family and community involvement to
increase student learning. These topics should be of interest in courses
for curricular specialists, students in methods of teaching classes, and
student teachers.
Chapter 7: Strategies for Action in Practice, Policy, and Research. This
chapter describes an action-team approach for implementing
comprehensive programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
Teamwork is key for organizing and sustaining programs and practices of
partnerships. As a team, educators, parents, and community members can
work together to plan and implement effective practices that involve all
families and promote children’s success in school. Essential program
elements—leadership, teamwork, written plans, funding, internal and
external collegial support, action to implement plans, evaluations, and
continuous improvement—must be organized to sustain excellent
partnership programs just as these factors are needed for effective
reading, math, testing, and other school programs. This chapter also
INTRODUC TION 17
summarizes the volume’s central themes and major conclusions about
school, family, and community partnerships.
FEATURED TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION
Each chapter introduces provocative and useful terms that change the way we think
about school, family, and community partnerships. For example, readings in Chap-
ter 2 describe school-like families and family-like schools to contrast collaborative
actions with previous narrow views of the different goals and missions of these in-
stitutions. This chapter also asks readers to consider how the multiplication of
labor may describe how educators and families help students learn better than the
division of labor that was emphasized in prior studies of organizations. Finally,
the chapter discusses seven ways to “think new” about partnerships in research,
policy, and practice.
Chapter 3 presents original research that provided a base on which studies of
school, family, and community partnerships continue to build. The readings illus-
trate and emphasize the importance of multiple reporters and multiple measures
of partnerships in research on partnerships. One reading identifies ten purposes of
homework and discusses the need for improving the design of homework to ensure
higher quality assignments before simply assigning more homework.
Chapter 4 emphasizes the need for side-by-side policies to balance top-down and
bottom-up approaches in states, districts, and schools. Readings and discussions in
this chapter also show how to translate legislated requirements for family involve-
ment into measures to study how federal (and other) legislation is implemented.
Comments in this chapter discuss food-for-thought stamps to support and expand
extracurricular, after-school, and summer enrichment activities for economically
distressed students and families.
Chapter 5 suggests redefinitions for each of the six types of involvement that will
bring school, family, and community partnerships into alignment with family factors
in the twenty-first century. For example, a new definition states that workshops for
parents are not only meetings at school but also the content of those meetings dis-
seminated to all who could not come, thereby enabling parents to attend workshops
in different ways.
Chapter 6 shows that homework is not always completed by the student alone
but can be purposely interactive with a parent or family partner. The chapter also
demonstrates how volunteers in the middle grades can make real contributions to
student learning.
Chapter 7 explains how concepts of trust and mutual respect are central to the
success of all partnerships and how seemingly contradictory concepts of equity
and diversity in partnerships must coexist. The chapter describes goal-oriented
and process-oriented approaches that educators may use to plan, implement, and
evaluate their programs of family and community involvement.
The readings and discussions in several chapters contrast what is versus what
might be in school, family, and community partnerships to encourage fuller inter-
18 INTRODUC TION
pretations of research results, new directions for research, and the application of
research for school improvement.
ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES
Each chapter includes comments and key concepts that extend and update the read-
ings, topics for informal classroom discussions, classroom activities, written assign-
ments, and field activities that encourage students to reflect on the readings, debate
ideas, describe related experiences, and conduct short-term and long-term projects.
Activities include classroom discussions; written comments; interviews with par-
ents, teachers, administrators, community members, and students; panel presenta-
tions; role plays; school visits; and other activities. Questions are provided for
students to use in their interviews, and students are asked to compose some of their
own questions. Some interviews with educators, parents, or others may be assigned
to all students to be completed individually, or interviewees may be invited to the
class for group interviews. Field activities and other tasks also may be assigned to
individuals, pairs, or groups.
Selection of assignments. There are more questions and activities in each

chapter than students in most classes can address in one semester.
Professors are encouraged to select and balance assignments so that
students engage in a mix of reflective writing, interviews, research,
discussions, and other activities. The assignments should reflect course
themes and meet the needs of undergraduate or graduate students in
teaching, administration, research, and other fields.
Answers to questions. Most of the discussion topics and questions have
many correct answers, not one right answer. Some questions first ask
students to “identify a school level (preschool, elementary, middle, or
high) or grade level that interests you.” Thus, students will select
different settings on which to base their answers. Students should
contribute ideas and written work using information from the readings
as well as their own perspectives and experiences. They should be asked
to justify their responses based on data or summaries provided in the
chapter or refute ideas with specific examples. Professors need to
encourage well-argued discussions and debates based on the content of
the readings, other research, data collected by students for homework or
projects, and students’ experiences.
Many students come into education, sociology, psychology, and other
courses with stereotypic views of families from backgrounds that differ
from their own (Graue and Brown, 2003). The discussion topics and
activities in this volume are designed to challenge stereotypes and
strengthen future teachers’ and administrators’ understanding of the
variations that define students and families in all groups.
INTRODUC TION 19
Follow-up. Some assignments may be followed up in class by sharing ideas,
discussing issues, and pooling data to create larger and more representative
samples for additional discussions. For example, if each student
interviewed two parents for an assignment, a class of twenty students
would produce a combined sample of 40 parents to better understand
parents’ ideas, goals, or problems. As another example, if each student in a
class identifies an exemplary product, the collection of good ideas may be
compiled as a computerized resource file for future reference.
Adaptation. Professors are encouraged to adapt or expand the exercises to
match the emphases of particular courses and classes. For example,
topics and questions about home-school connections at the school level
can be adapted and redirected to focus on district, state, or community
issues to meet the needs of students in educational administration or
community studies. Professors may increase the difficulty or length of
assignments by requiring students to complete more readings, conduct
and report activities marked “optional,” provide more examples, or
complete other related activities. Similarly, professors may reduce the
difficulty or length of assignments by assigning parts or sections of
activities that are provided in each chapter.
Elaboration. The questions in each chapter may spark ideas for term papers,
master’s or doctoral theses, or other research projects.
SUMMARY
This book offers a clear perspective on the importance of theory-driven and research-
based approaches to programs of school, family, and community partnerships. To
think about, talk about, and take action to improve home, school, and community
connections that support students’ education and school improvement, educators
must have a foundation on which to build. It is not acceptable to base ideas and fu-
ture actions only on personal, limited, or selected experiences or outdated stereo-
types. It is necessary to understand the basic and complex aspects of a field of study
to decide whether, when, why, and how to apply research in practice or to select
important questions for new research.
The volume supports six facts and one urgently needed action:
• Fact: All students have families. All students and families live in
communities. Families and communities are important in children’s lives
and, along with schools, influence students’ learning.
• Fact: Teachers and administrators have direct or indirect contact with
students’ families every day of their professional careers.
• Fact: Few teachers or administrators are prepared to work with families
and communities as partners in children’s education.
• Fact: There is widespread agreement and accumulating evidence that
well-designed programs and practices of school, family, and community
partnerships benefit students, families, and schools.
20 INTRODUC TION
• Fact: Ever more rigorous research and evaluations are needed to
continually improve knowledge about family and community
involvement and the effectiveness of state, district, and school programs
and practices.
• Fact: Although there is more to learn, we know enough now to implement
research-based, goal-linked programs of school, family, and community
partnerships that engage all families and help all students succeed to
their full potential.
• Action Needed: There must be immediate and dramatic changes in the
preservice and advanced education of teachers, administrators,
counselors, and others who work with schools, families, and students.
Changes are needed in coursework and field experiences to prepare
professionals to understand, respect, and collaborate with parents, other
family members, and individuals, groups, and organizations in
communities that can help students succeed.
This book will help. The readings and references provide a history of the field
and a window on how research and programs of school, family, and community
partnerships developed over time and must continue to develop. The comments,
questions, and activities in each chapter introduce topics that should be discussed,
debated, and studied. Whether used to organize a full course or to supplement other
courses in education and social science, this volume introduces new directions for
improving school, family, and community partnerships and will generate new ideas
for research, policy, and practice.
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Albert, M. (2008). Personal communication about “Literacy,” a family/school/community
collaborations course. State University of New York, Potsdam.
Allexsaht-Snider, M., H. Phtiaka, and R. M. Gonzalez. (1996, November). International per-
spectives: Preparing teachers for partnership. Paper presented at the Education Is Partner-
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Ammon, M. S. (1990). University of California project on teacher preparation for parent in-
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California. Mimeographed.
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Standards for school leaders. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Cox-Peterson, A. (2011). Educational partnerships: Connecting schools, families, and the
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Cunningham, W. G., and P. A. Cordeiro. (2003). Educational leadership: A problem-based
approach (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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action (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
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INTRODUC TION 23
2
Theory and Overview
T HE FIRST READING IN THIS CHAPTER examines theories of family and school

connections, discusses how data support or refute different theoretical per-
spectives, and presents a new theoretical model—overlapping spheres of
influence—to explain and guide research on school, family, and community part-
nerships. The article explains the organizational and interpersonal components of
the theory of overlapping spheres of influence and how this perspective extends pre-
vious theoretical models.
The second reading is a review of the literature that identifies seven principles
that ask researchers across disciplines to think in new ways about how to study the
structures, processes, and results of family and community involvement in educa-
tion. The new directions also guide educators at all school levels to develop more
powerful and effective partnership programs.
Together, the two readings in this chapter guide future educators and re-
searchers in how to think about, talk about, and study school, family, and com-
munity partnerships.
25
READING 2.1
Toward a Theory of Family-School Connections:
Teacher Practices and Parent Involvement*
THREE PERSPECTIVES ON FAMILY-SCHOOL RELATIONS
Three perspectives currently guide researchers and practitioners in their thinking

about family and school relations:
1. Separate responsibilities of families and schools

2. Shared responsibilities of families and schools
3. Sequential responsibilities of families and schools.
These perspectives are profoundly different. Assumptions based on the separate

responsibilities of institutions stress the inherent incompatibility, competition, and
conflict between families and schools. This perspective assumes that school bureau-
cracies and family organizations are directed, respectively, by educators and parents
whose different goals, roles, and responsibilities are best fulfilled independently. It
asserts that the distinct goals of the two institutions are achieved most efficiently
and effectively when teachers maintain their professional, universalistic standards
and judgments about the children in their classrooms and when parents maintain
their personal attention and particularistic standards and judgments about their
children at home (Parsons, 1959; Waller, 1932; Weber, 1947).
The opposing assumptions, based on shared responsibilities of institutions, em-
phasize the coordination, cooperation, and complementarity of schools and families
and encourage communication and collaboration between the two institutions. This
perspective assumes that schools and families share responsibilities for the social-
ization and education of the child. Teachers and parents are believed to share common
goals for their children, which can be achieved most effectively when teachers and
parents work together. These assumptions are based on models of inter-institutional
interactions and ecological designs that emphasize the natural, nested, and necessary
connections between individuals and their groups and organizations (Bronfenbren-
ner, 1979; Leichter, 1974; Litwak and Meyer, 1974).
The third perspective, sequential responsibilities of institutions, emphasizes the
critical stages of parents’ and teachers’ contributions to child development. This ap-
proach is based on the belief that the early years of a child’s life are critical for later
success, and that by age five or six, when the child enters formal schooling in kinder-
garten or first grade, the child’s personality and attitudes toward learning are well
established. Parents teach their young children needed skills, arrange educational
* By Joyce L. Epstein. Originally published in K. Hurrelmann, F. Kaufmann, and F. Losel, eds., Social
Intervention: Potential and Constraints (New York: de Gruyter, 1987), 121–136. Reprinted with
permission.
26 THEORY AND OVERVIEW

programs and experiences, and are guided or supported by social and educational
agencies (e.g., pediatricians, preschool teachers, and the media) to prepare their chil-
dren for school. At the time of children’s formal entry into school, the teacher as-
sumes the major responsibility for educating them (Bloom, 1964; Freud, 1937;
Piaget and Inhelder, 1969).
Understanding the Contrasting Theories:

Mechanisms Producing Family-School Relations
In addition to the three major theoretical distinctions between separate, shared, and
sequential responsibilities, there are other theories that help explain the mechanisms
for building family and school relations and the resulting variations in the connec-
tions between institutions and their members. Among the most useful are symbolic
interactionism and reference group theories. Symbolic interactionism (Mead, 1934)
assumes that self-concept, personality, values, and beliefs are products of our inter-
actions with others. The theory suggests that we learn how others perceive and an-
ticipate our goals and behaviors, and that we fashion our behavior to fulfill the
expectations of others and to receive their recognition. In terms of family and school
connections, if teachers do not interact with parents, they cannot be informed about
or understand the parents’ expectations for their children and the teachers. They
cannot shape their teaching behavior to be responsive to those expectations. If par-
ents avoid teachers, they cannot be informed about or understand the schools’ ex-
pectations for their children or the parents. They cannot shape their behavior to
provide useful assistance to the students and teachers.
Reference group theory (Merton, 1968) makes other important connections be-
tween esteem and interaction. A reference group is a collectivity or an individual who
is taken into consideration by another group or individual to influence their attitudes
and behaviors. This happens when one group or individual recognizes the impor-
tance of the other or admires the positions and actions of the other. For example,
if, in planning children’s educational programs, a teacher considers the roles parents
can play, it may be because the teacher considers parents an important reference
group. If, in planning their family activities, parents take the teachers’ or schools’
goals and actions into account, it may be because they consider teachers an impor-
tant reference group. Sometimes only the higher-status group influences the behavior
of the other in an unreciprocated pattern. Teachers may take parents into account
without parents reciprocating the consideration, as in some communities where par-
ents have strong control of educational politics and policies. Or parents may con-
sider teachers an important reference group without the teachers reciprocating, as
when parents try to help their children with schoolwork even if the teacher has not
given them encouragement or ideas about how to help at home.
The three main theories explain the basic differences in philosophies and ap-
proaches of teachers and parents that produce more or fewer, shallow or deep
family-school connections. The other theories explain the motivations to remove
or reinforce boundaries between schools and families.
THEORY AND OVERVIEW 27

Understanding the Contrasting Theories:
Changing Patterns in Family-School Relations
There have been important changes in the patterns of partnerships between the
home and school over time. In the early 19th century, parents and the community
greatly controlled the actions of the schools. The home, church, and school sup-
ported the same goals for learning and for the integration of the student into the
adult community (Prentice and Houston, 1975). The community, including parents
and church representatives, hired and fired the teachers, determined the school cal-
endar, and influenced the curriculum. When the students were not in school, the
families and others in the community taught their children important skills and
knowledge needed for success in adulthood.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a different pattern of family and school
relations emerged. Increasingly, the school began to distance itself from the home
by emphasizing the teachers’ special knowledge of subject matter and pedagogy.
Teachers began to teach subjects that were not familiar to parents, using methods
and approaches that were not part of the parents’ experiences. The family was
asked to teach children good behavior and attitudes to prepare them for school
and to take responsibility for teaching children about their ethnicity, religion, and
family origins. These family responsibilities were separate from the schools’ goal
to teach a common curriculum to children from all ethnic, religious, social, and
economic groups.
During the 1980s and 1990s, family-school relations changed again in response
to increased demands from the public for better, more accountable schools. Both
better-educated and less educated parents want a good education for their children
and are requesting or requiring schools to keep them informed about and involved
in their children’s education.
AN INTEGRATED THEORY OF FAMILY-SCHOOL RELATIONS
Changing times require changing theories. School and family relationships have
been different at different times in history. It is not surprising, then, to see a restruc-
turing of theories, from inter-institutional separation in the 1930s–1950s to coop-
eration between schools and families in the 1970s–1980s to accommodate the social
changes affecting these organizations. But we do not yet have a model of family-
school relations that accounts for the variation and process of change that will con-
tinue to influence the interactions of families and schools. The existing theories omit
attention to history, student development, and the influence families and schools
have on each other.
A life-course perspective (Elder, 1984) enables us to integrate useful strands from
the different theories of family and school relations to correct the weaknesses of the
separate theories. This perspective requires that we pay attention to three charac-
teristics in family-school relationships: history, developmental patterns, and change.

History
Four recent trends help to explain why changes are needed in our theories of family
and school relations:
1. More mothers with a college education and bachelor’s degree. Over the past 40
years there has been a dramatic increase in the number of U.S. high school students,
especially women, who attend and graduate from college. Whereas fewer than 20
percent of bachelor’s degrees were earned by women prior to 1950 (mostly in the
field of education), fully half of the earned bachelor’s degrees were awarded to
women in 1980 in many fields (Bureau of the Census, 1984). The education of moth-
ers affects their interactions with teachers. Whereas most mothers were once less
educated than college-trained teachers, most mothers are now attending some col-
lege and have near, equal, or higher educational status than their children’s teachers.
There is still great variation in the education of women, but the proportion of educated
mothers has made a difference in how parents view teachers, how teachers view par-
ents, and whether and how mothers become involved in their children’s education.
2. Baby and child care. Dr. Spock’s (1950) influential and popular book increased
the number of parents who became knowledgeable about and involved in the ed-
ucation of their infants and toddlers. The book offers sensible information to all
parents about the importance of home environments for children’s learning, infor-
mation that had previously been known to only a few parents. Although Spock’s
book is not very useful in its discussions of older children and has little to say about
school, it increased parents’ awareness of and experience with their children as
young learners. Spock’s book, other child care books, and private and public health
care programs continue to prime new generations of parents of infants and toddlers
for the next phase of their children’s lives: school.
3. Federal regulations and funding for parent involvement. In the 1960s, Head Start
and other federally sponsored programs for disadvantaged preschoolers recognized
that parents needed the help of educators to prepare their preschool children for
regular school to break the cycle of school failure that threatened their children.
More important, the preschools recognized that, despite the lack of advanced edu-
cation of many mothers, the schools and the children needed the mothers’ involve-
ment to be successful. Mothers of children in Head Start were required on advisory
councils and often were involved in classrooms as volunteers and paid aides, and at
home as tutors.
During the same decade, Follow-Through programs required schools to recognize
the continued importance of parents as educators beyond the preschool years (Gor-
don, Olmsted, Rubin, and True, 1979). The Education for All Handicapped Children
Act (Public Law 94–172) of 1975 brought teachers and parents together to discuss
the educational program of each child. The federal programs and their official recog-
nition of the importance of parents put parent involvement on the agendas of the
local schools (Hobson, 1979; Keesling and Melaragno, 1983; Valentine and Stark,

1979). Schools could not easily limit parent involvement to the parents of children
in federally sponsored programs, and so more parents at all grade levels, regardless
of education or economic background, became involved with their children’s schools
and teachers.
4. Changing family structures. In the past decade, two key changes in family struc-
ture have dramatically affected family and school relations. These are the increase
in the number of single parents and in the number of mothers working outside the
home. Mothers who work outside the home need to manage the care and schooling
of their children with more exactitude than do mothers who work at home. They
must arrange for their children’s care before and after school, on school holidays,
and during illnesses. Attention to the needs of the children has increased the concern
of working mothers about the quality of day care, school, and after-school programs.
Single mothers are even more likely than other mothers to work outside the
home and are especially sensitive about their responsibilities to their children. They
have accentuated the need of all parents for information from teachers to help them
use their limited time at home more productively in the interest of their children.
Although [employed] mothers and single parents do not volunteer to help at the
school building as much as other mothers, research shows that they are just as in-
terested as other mothers in their children’s education and spend as much or more
time helping their children at home (Epstein, 1984 [Reading 3.5]).
Increasingly, schools have had to replace traditional images of family life and
patterns of communication with mothers at home with new images and new pat-
terns of communication to accommodate different types of families. Some schools
have made these adjustments to help all families, however structured, to interact
successfully with the school. Other schools have not changed their expectations for
or communications with families, despite the changes in families.
These four trends, over the last 40 to 50 years of the 20th century, changed family-
school connections in the United States. These changes, singly and in combination,
involved more parents in their children’s education beyond preschool, officially and
publicly recognized parents as “teachers,” and increased the need for better com-
munication between the home and school.
Developmental Patterns
Schools’ and families’ interactions need to fit the age, grade level, and level of social
and cognitive development of the children. Schools are more like families for young
students, with closer ties between teachers and parents of preschool and early elemen-
tary students. Schools may become increasingly impersonal in the secondary grades,
with the aim of preparing students for interactions in adulthood with other formal
organizations in government, work, and society. But through high school, schools
vary in the extent to which they communicate with, inform, and involve parents in
their children’s education. We do not know the type, degree, or optimal mix of per-
sonal and impersonal relations across the grades that lead to maximum learning and

successful preparation for adulthood. But our model of family-school relations must
be based on a developmental framework to account for the continuity of school and
family actions and interactions across the school years and the changes in forms and
purposes of parent involvement at different student ages and stages of development.
Change
Families and schools are ever-changing. Families change as the members mature,
developing new skills, knowledge, contacts, and patterns of social interaction. A
family builds a changing, cumulative history of relationships with the school for
each child in attendance. Interactions with one school affect the family’s knowledge
and attitudes in dealing with new schools that their children enter.
Schools change as the members come and go. New students enter the school each
year, new combinations of students enter classes, and new teachers and administra-
tors join the staff. The talents, perspectives, and leadership of the school change
with the maturity and stability of the staff’s abilities to consider complex educational
issues, practices, and goals. They may be more open to parents’ requests and to
parental involvement. Schools can build a changing, cumulative history of relation-
ships with families as the students proceed through the grades.
A MODEL OF OVERLAPPING FAMILY AND SCHOOL SPHERES
Figures 2.1 and 2.2 introduce a model of family and school relations that accounts
for history, development, and changing experiences of parents, teachers, and students.
External Structure
The external structure of the model consists of overlapping or nonoverlapping

spheres representing the family, school, and community. The degree of overlap is
controlled by three forces: time, experience in families, and experience in schools.
Force A represents a developmental time and history line for students, families,
and schools. Time refers to individual and historical time: the age and grade level
of the child and the social conditions of the period during which the child is in
school. For example, in infancy the spheres in our model may be separate. The child
first “attends” home, and the family provides the main educating environment. Par-
ents and teachers do not initially interact directly about the child’s learning. Even
in infancy, however, the spheres may overlap. For example, if an infant is physically,
mentally, or emotionally handicapped, parents and special teachers may begin a
highly organized cooperative program to benefit the child. For all children, the fam-
ily and school spheres may overlap to some extent in infancy and early childhood,
as parents apply knowledge of child rearing and school readiness from books, their
own school experiences, and information from pediatricians, educators, and others.

Force B Force C
Experience, Experience,
Philosophy, Philosophy,
Practices of FAMILY Practices of
SCHOOL
Family School
Force D COMMUNITY
Experience,
Philosophy,
Practices of
Community
Force A
Time/Age/Grade level
FIGURE 2.1 Overlapping Spheres of Influence of Family, School, and Community

on Children’s Learning (External Structure of Theoretical Model)
FAMILY SCHOOL
f F S s
c C c
p P T t
KEY: Intra-institutional interactions (lowercase)

Inter-institutional interactions (uppercase)
f/F = Family c/C = Child

s/S = School p/P = Parent
t/T = Teacher
Note: In the full model the internal structure is

extended, using the same KEY to include:
co/CO = Community
a/A = Agent from community/business
FIGURE 2.2 Overlapping Spheres of Influence of Family, School, and Community

on Children’s Learning (Internal Structure of Theoretical Model)
32
Later, in a regular pattern, the spheres overlap when the child “attends” home,
school, and the community.
There will be a “typical” or expected pattern of separation or overlap at different
times based on the age of the child, the level of school, and the historical period
when the child is in school. Up to now, the greatest overlap of family and school
spheres for most children has occurred during the preschool and early elementary
grades. But there has also been great overlap for some children at all grade levels
because of the varying philosophies, policies, practices, and pressures of parents,
teachers, or both, as represented by Forces B and C.
Force B and Force C represent the experiences of and pressures on family and
school organizations and their members that need to be accounted for to study, un-
derstand, or change family-school relations. These forces push together or pull apart
the spheres to produce more or less overlap of family and school actions, interactions,
and influence all along the time line. When parents maintain or increase interest
and involvement in their children’s schooling (Force B), they create greater overlap
of the family and school spheres than would be expected on the average. When
teachers make parents part of their regular teaching practice (Force C), they create
greater overlap than would typically be expected.
After the child enters school there will be some overlap of the two organizations
at every grade level. This is true as long as there are family members (or surrogates)
with whom the child and school interact. Even in seemingly separate situations
such as private, elite boarding schools or state boarding schools for delinquent
youngsters, there are family and school contacts about contracts, payments, rules,
visits, evaluations, and so forth that define the “minimum” overlap of the two
spheres over the school years. The “maximum” overlap occurs when schools and
families operate as true “partners,” with frequent cooperative efforts and clear,
close communication between parents and teachers in a comprehensive program
of many important types of parent involvement (Epstein, 1986 [Reading 3.4]; Gor-
don, 1979; Seeley, 1981). But there is never “total” overlap because the family
maintains some functions and practices that are independent of the schools’ or
teachers’ programs, and the school maintains some functions and practices that
are independent of families.
Children are connected to the same families but to different teachers over the
course of their school years. Each new teacher (Force C) and each family’s continuing
or new involvement (Force B) create dynamic patterns of family-school relationships.
There is continual adjustment in the overlap or separation of the two spheres.
Time alone (Force A), or the increasing age of the child, does not make parents
more knowledgeable about how to help their children with particular school prob-
lems. Indeed, our research shows that it currently works the other way. The older the
child (after grade 1), the less overlap there is in the two environments, and the less
the parent feels able to help the child in school (Epstein, 1986). Thus, in Figure 2.1,
if we included only Force A, we would see, for most families and schools, quite sep-
arate spheres in infancy, increasing overlap during the preschool years and grade 1,
and decreasing overlap from grades 2 or 3 on.

By adding Forces B and C we recognize that the parents’ and teachers’ practices
and the pressures they put on each other alter the typical patterns to create more or
less overlap for families and schools at every grade level. For example, some teachers
of older students increase their interactions with the parents of their upper elemen-
tary and secondary school students to keep the families involved in their children’s
education. For children in these teachers’ classes, there will be greater overlap of
family and school goals and interactions than for children whose teachers ignore
the role of parents in their teaching practice.
Internal Structure
The internal structure of the model in Figure 2.2 shows the interpersonal relation-
ships and influence patterns of primary importance. Two types of interactions and
influence are shown: within organization (lowercase letters) and between organi-
zations (capital letters). Two levels of interaction are also shown: standard, organiza-
tional communications (family and school) and specific, individual communications
(parent and teacher). Family (f) and parent (p) [interactions] and school (s) and
teacher (t) interactions are those that occur separately [within the organization in
separate spheres of influence] as parents, offspring, or other relatives conduct their
family life and personal relationships, or as teachers, principals, and other school
staff create school policies or conduct school or individual activities. By contrast,
Family (F) and School (S) [interactions] and Parent (P) and Teacher (T) interactions
are those that occur as members of the two organizations interact in standard, or-
ganizationally directed communications (F and S), or in unique, individually directed
communications (P and T) [in the overlapping spheres of influence].
Family (F) and School (S) connections refer to the interactions between family
members and school staff that concern all families and the general school staff or
school programs. These include, for example, communications to all parents about
school policies; workshops available to all parents on child rearing or child develop-
ment; programs for all parents to become involved at the school as parent volunteers;
or family actions that may affect the schools, such as activities of parent-teacher
organizations, parent advisory councils, or citizen advocacy groups in the community.
These types of involvement establish common structures for communications and
interactions between families and schools as organizations.
Parent (P) and Teacher (T) connections refer to specific interactions between par-
ents and teachers about an individual child. These may include, for example, parent-
teacher conferences about the child’s progress; parents’ notes or phone calls to
teachers about the child’s academic, social, or personal problems or needs; or the
teacher’s specific suggestions to parents about how they can help their own child
with learning activities at home.
The Child (C) has the central place in all of the patterns of interaction and influ-
ence in this model. We assume that the child’s welfare and interests are the parents’
and teachers’ reasons for interacting. For the child, the school and family policies,
parent and teacher interactions, and the child’s understanding and reactions to these

connections influence academic learning and social development. The multidirec-
tional arrows in the model show that children interact with, influence, and are influ-
enced by their families and especially parents, and by changes in their families and
parental behavior that result from the actions of the schools. Children interact with,
influence, and are influenced by their schools and especially teachers, and by the
changes in schools’ and teachers’ practices that result from the actions of families.
The external and internal structures of the model are, of course, intimately re-
lated. The internal organizational and individual relationships are influenced simul-
taneously by the age and grade level of the student and the common practices of
the time period (Force A) and by the actions, attitudes, experiences, and decisions
of teachers and parents (Forces B and C). The degree of overlap of family and school
organizations and their goals and practices affects the social and psychological dis-
tance between the family and school members, their patterns of communication,
and the results or outcomes of more or less interaction. Each of the components of
the model can be translated into well-specified measures to study the effects of par-
ent involvement (e.g., teachers’ practices of parent involvement, parents’ initiatives
or responses to teachers’ requests) on student achievement, attitudes, and other stu-
dent, parent, and teacher outcomes.
The model recognizes the interlocking histories of the institutions and the in-
dividuals in each, and the continuing, causal connections between organizations
and individuals. The model energizes an integrated theory of family and school re-
lations by acknowledging the continuous change that occurs in families and schools;
the accumulated knowledge and experiences of parents, teachers, and students;
and the influence of these different patterns on student motivations, attitudes, and
achievement.
SCHOOL-LIKE FAMILIES AND FAMILY-LIKE SCHOOLS
The proposed model of overlapping spheres assumes that there are mutual interests
and influences of families and schools that can be more or less successfully promoted
by the policies and programs of the organizations and the actions and attitudes of
the individuals in those organizations. Although there are important differences be-
tween schools and families (Dreeben, 1968), we need to recognize also the important
similarities, overlap in goals, responsibilities, and mutual influence of the two major
environments that simultaneously affect children’s learning and development.
Earlier theories asserted that schools treat students equally, judging them by uni-
versal standards and rewarding students for what they do (achievements) and not
for who they are (ascriptions). In contrast, families are said to treat children indi-
vidually, judging them by personal standards and special relationships, basing re-
wards and affection on the children’s individual growth and improvement or on
their membership in the family and not on achievements relative to other children.
These “pure” images of different institutional approaches and functions are not very
accurate portrayals of how schools or families actually work to motivate students
toward success in school. The distinction between universalistic and particularistic

treatments has been blurred in families that are more aware of the importance of
schooling and its components and in schools with more personal and individualized
environments. These are school-like families and family-like schools.
School-Like Families
Some parents run “school-like” homes. They know how to help their children in
schoolwork and take appropriate opportunities to do so. School-like families often
have persistent and consistent academic schedules of learning for their children from
infancy on, with books on colors, shapes and sizes, and music and art as part of
their early “school-like” curricula. Before the children enter school, these families
are directed by “absentee” or remembered teachers or by contemporary educational
sources and resources. During the early years the family teaches the young child,
but in fact it may be that images of school or teachers in absentia influence the fam-
ily in how and what to teach the child.
Some families operate very much like schools. They not only create school-like
tasks for their children and reward them for success but also match tasks to each
child’s level of ability and involve the children in active learning rather than passive
listening. These families not only translate the curriculum of the school into home
tasks, but also put into practice principles of organizational effectiveness (Rich and
Jones, 1977) and use the same structures (i.e., the task, authority, reward, grouping,
evaluation, and time or TARGET structures) that guide effective classroom instruc-
tion (Epstein, 1988).
Although most parents accept and love their children for their unique qualities
and lineal connections, many families reward their children for real and objective
accomplishments, as teachers do. Many families judge their children on standard
criteria and reward their children as they learn the “basic skills” (from learning to
walk to learning to read) and as they acquire social skills and advanced academic
skills or other talents. School-like families place more emphasis than other families
on their children’s place in a status hierarchy.
Family-Like Schools
Teachers vary in their recognition and use of the overlap between family and school
spheres of influence. Some schools make their students feel part of a “school family”
that looks out for their interests and provides unique experiences for each child.
Schools may relax and de-standardize their rules, vary the students’ roles, and alter
the reward system to be more responsive to the student and to be more like a family.
Although schools impose some uniform standards on all students (e.g., atten-
dance regulations, graduation requirements, formal codes for dress or conduct),
these may not be as important as student-teacher relationships and personal, indi-
vidual attention for influencing and improving student motivation and progress.
Presently, brighter students often are given various opportunities to interact on

friendly and preferential terms with teachers. Slower students often experience less
personal, less family-like treatment, which may further reduce their motivation to
come to school to learn.
Schools vary in how much they emphasize uniform or special standards. Some
schools recognize and reward only students who are in the top groups or tracks or
who get the highest grades. Other schools reward students for individual progress
and improvement in achievement, as parents do. They place less emphasis on the
students’ place in a status hierarchy. Particularistic treatment, associated with family
relations, implies a degree of favoritism or special attention to the unique and en-
dearing qualities of individuals. This kind of treatment occurs at some schools, also,
with some students receiving family-like treatment, attention, and even affection
from teachers.
Time in Family and School Environments
The child is either in or out of school. Some count the hours that students spend in
school (e.g., Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, and Ouston, 1979). Others cite the time
that students are not in school and are under the influence of the family, community,
media, churches, camps, day care programs, peer groups, or part-time employers
(Csikszentmihalyi and Larson, 1984). At least 16 hours per school day plus weekends
and vacations are out-of-school time. The seemingly clear dichotomy of time in or
out of school is obscured by the degree of overlap in the two environments. For ex-
ample, when the student is in school, the family’s influence may still be at work. A
student knows whether a parent knows what is happening in school, what the stu-
dent is learning, and how he or she is expected to behave. Homework activities may
affect the student’s attention in class and readiness for new and more difficult work.
Similarly, when the student is at home, the school’s influence may be still at work. At
home, a student may consider how a teacher wants homework to be completed and
may use school skills and information to discuss ideas and solve problems.
Time in and out of school, then, is not “pure” school or family time. Time in
school may be influenced by the family; time out of school may be influenced by
teachers and other school programs and experiences. The degree of overlap in the
two environments on matters of schoolwork and on the recognition and support of
students’ unique, individual talents influences the students’ attention, motivation,
and learning in and out of school.
EXPLORING THE THEORY: EFFECTS OF FAMILY-SCHOOL

OVERLAP ON PARENTS, STUDENTS, AND TEACHING PRACTICE
From research completed over the past several years, we have some evidence of how
teachers’ practices reflect the three current theories of family and school relations
and how the degree of overlap in family and school spheres influences parents’ at-
titudes and behaviors and student attitudes and achievements.

Variation in Overlap in Teaching Practice
As stated previously, the philosophies and practices of teachers reflect the three
theories of school and family relations: separate, sequential, and shared spheres of
family and school responsibilities and influence. For example, some teachers believe
that they can be effective only if they obtain parental cooperation and assistance
on learning activities at home. In their classrooms, cooperation is high. These teach-
ers make frequent requests for parental assistance in reinforcing or improving stu-
dents’ skills. They orchestrate actions to increase the overlap in family and school
spheres of influence.
Other teachers believe that their professional status is in jeopardy if parents are
involved in activities that are typically the teachers’ responsibilities. In their class-
rooms, inter-institutional cooperation is low. These teachers make few overtures to
parents and rarely request them to help their children with learning activities at
home. They maintain more separate spheres of influence for the school and the fam-
ily (Becker and Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.1]; Epstein and Becker, 1982 [Reading
3.2]). Teachers’ present practices also illustrate assumptions of sequential patterns
in family-school relations. More teachers of young children (grade 1) than of older
children (grades 3 and 5) are frequent users of parent involvement techniques. In a
clear, linear pattern, most teachers of young children assist parents to become in-
volved in their children’s education, but most teachers of older children ignore or
discourage parental involvement. Along the time line, then, there is increasingly less
overlap of family and school spheres.
Benefits from Greater Overlap
Our surveys of teachers, principals, parents, and students show that:
• Teachers control the flow of information to parents. By limiting or

reducing communications and collaborative activities, teachers reinforce
the boundaries that separate the two institutions. By increasing
communications, teachers acknowledge and build connections between
institutions to focus on the common concerns of teachers and parents: a
child who is also a student (Becker and Epstein, 1982).
• Parents do not report deep conflict or incompatibility between schools
and families. Rather, parents of children at all grade levels respond
favorably to teachers’ practices that stress the cooperation and overlap
of schools and families. Frequent use by teachers of parent involvement
leads parents to report that they receive more ideas about how to help
their children at home and that they know more about the instructional
programs than they did in the previous year (Epstein, 1986).
• Teachers who include the family in the children’s education are
recognized by parents for their efforts. They are rated higher by parents
than are other teachers on interpersonal and teaching skills, and they

are rated higher in overall teaching ability by their principals (Epstein,
1985, 1986).
• Students’ test scores suggest that schools are more effective when
families and schools work together with the student on basic skills.
Students whose teachers use frequent practices of parent involvement
gain more than other students in reading skills from fall to spring
(Epstein, 1991 [Reading 3.7]). And fifth-grade students recognize and
benefit from cooperation between their teachers and parents (Epstein,
1982 [Reading 3.9]).
The results of our research show that although teaching practice reflects all three
of the major theoretical positions, parents, students, and teachers benefit most from
practices that increase the overlap in school and family spheres of influence all along
the developmental time line.
CONCLUSION
Over the last few decades of the 20th century, ideas about family-school relations
changed as other social conditions affected schools and families. Theories moved
away from the separation of family and school and toward greater teacher-parent
cooperation and communication. Our model of family-school relations integrates
the discrete, extant theories and reflects the fact that at any time, in any school,
and in any family, parent involvement is a variable that can be increased or de-
creased by the practices of teachers, administrators, parents, and students. Programs
and practices can be designed, revised, and evaluated to learn which variations pro-
duce greater school and family effectiveness and student success. The members of
the school and family organizations can act and interact with others in ways that
include or exclude parents from their children’s education and that include or ex-
clude teachers as influences on the family. These actions push the spheres of family
and school influence together or apart in a continuous, dynamic pattern, and influ-
ence student learning and development.
Schools and families vary on the dimensions that are supposed to distinguish
family and school treatments and attention to children. There are family-like schools
and school-like families, as well as schools and families that are distinct in their ap-
proaches to education and socialization. Some have suggested that schools and fam-
ilies have different goals for their children (Lightfoot, 1978), but our research
suggests that although parents’ educational backgrounds differ, both more- and less-
educated parents have similar goals to those of the school for their children’s edu-
cation (Epstein, 1986).
The main differences among parents are their knowledge of how to help their
children at home, their belief that teachers want them to assist their children at
home, and the degree of information and guidance from their children’s teachers
in how to help their children at home. These factors create more or less school-
like families.

The main differences among teachers are their ability to put principles of child
and adolescent development and organizational effectiveness into practice in in-
struction and classroom management, their ability to communicate with students
as individuals, their beliefs about the importance of parents’ involvement and par-
ents’ receptivity to guidance from the school, and their ability to communicate with
parents as partners in the children’s education. These factors create more or less
family-like schools.
The theoretical model of overlapping spheres of influence, its underlying assump-
tions, and research on the effects on parents and students of teachers’ practices of
parent involvement aim to:
• extend studies of families by intensifying attention to the interplay of

family and school environments during that part of the parents’ and
children’s lives when the children are in school or are preparing for
school, from infancy through the high school grades; and
• extend studies of school organization and effects by intensifying
attention to the total educational environment of children including the
home, and by examining the implications of this extension for teachers’
roles and student learning and development.
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READING 2.2
Moving Forward: Ideas for Research on School,
Family, and Community Partnerships*
It is a social fact that children learn and grow at home, at school, and in the com-
munity. People in these three contexts affect children’s learning and development,
for better or for worse, from infancy through the school years and beyond. This im-
portant reality often is ignored by researchers who study only schools or only fam-
ilies. Educators, too, may focus only on the school curriculum, instruction, or testing,
without giving attention to students’ families and communities, as if students were
not also children, friends, and neighbors.
Increasingly, research and exemplary practice reveal that it is all but impossible
to separate the interests and influences of educators, parents, and other educational
partners on student achievement, attitudes, and behaviors. Although it is, admittedly,
harder to study more than one setting at a time, it is critical for researchers to rec-
ognize the simultaneous and cumulative effects of home, school, and community
on student development. It is, therefore, imperative that we “think new” about re-
search on school, family, and community partnerships.
The field of school, family, and community partnerships is a young field of study,
compared to other educational research topics. Knowledge has grown over the past
twenty-five years with sharper theory, expanded research questions, improved meth-
ods of analyses, and with the interest and efforts of educators and policy leaders.
Advances have been made by researchers across disciplines and across countries
using varied methodologies to study the nature and effects of school programs and
family involvement at different grade levels and in diverse communities. Many pub-
lications have summarized the results of research, documented progress in programs
and in policies of parental involvement, and pressed for more and better studies
(Booth and Dunn, 1996; Boethel, 2003; Castelli, Mendel, and Ravn, 2003; Chavkin,
1993; Christenson and Conoley, 1992; Davies and Johnson, 1996; Edwards, 2004;
Epstein, 2001; Fagnano and Werber, 1994; Fruchter, Galletta, and White, 1992;
Henderson and Mapp, 2002; Hiatt-Michaels, 2001; Patrikakou, Weissberg, Red-
ding, and Walberg, 2005; Ryan, Adams, Gullotta, Weissberg, and Hampton, 1995;
Sanders and Epstein, 1998a, 1998b; Schneider and Coleman, 1993; Smit, Van der
Wolf, and Sleegers, 2001; Swap, 1993; and see extensive, annual bibliographies com-
piled by the Harvard Family Research Project, 2004, at www.gse.harvard.edu). Col-
lectively, these and many other publications have shaped the field and, literally, speak
volumes about topics that need more attention in future research.
In one overview of the field, Epstein and Sanders (2000) discussed several topics
that needed more research, including partnerships at times of student transitions;
the organization of school-community connections; students’ roles in school, family,
* By Joyce L. Epstein and Steven B. Sheldon. Originally published in C. F. Conrad and R. Serlin, eds.,
SAGE Handbook for Research in Education: Engaging Ideas and Enriching Inquiry (Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage, 2006), 117–137. Reprinted with permission.

and community partnerships; results of school, family, and community connections;
fathers’ involvement in children’s education; the impact of federal, state, and local
policies; the effects of preservice and advanced education on partnerships for future
teachers and administrators; and more. These topics, scarcely studied a few years
ago, still need attention.
SEVEN PRINCIPLES TO HELP RESEARCHERS THINK IN NEW WAYS
The many thoughtful overviews and summaries of research on partnerships make

it unnecessary to re-review the literature. In this chapter, we look in a different di-
rection and identify seven principles that have emerged from prior studies and from
exemplary practice that should help researchers across disciplines think in new ways
about how to study the structures, processes, and results of family and community
involvement in education. These principles require researchers to think in new ways
to (1) broaden the familiar term of parental involvement to school, family, and com-
munity partnerships to recognize the shared responsibilities of educators, parents,
and others for children’s development and learning; (2) understand the multidimen-
sional nature of involvement; (3) view the structure of partnerships as a component
of school and classroom organization; (4) recognize multilevel leadership for in-
volvement at the school, district, and state levels; (5) focus involvement on student
success; (6) acknowledge the importance of increasing the equity of involvement of
parents to promote more successful students; and to (7) advance knowledge and
improve practice with more and better studies. We discuss the importance of these
defining principles for researchers, educators, families, and others who have a stake
in improving schools and in increasing student success.
1. School, family, and community partnerships is a better

term than parental involvement to recognize that parents,
educators, and others in the community share responsibility
for students’ learning and development.
The development of a theory on partnerships opened new ways to think about

the involvement of parents in children’s education. The theory of overlapping
spheres of influence posits that students learn more when parents, educators, and
others in the community work together to guide and support student learning
and development (Epstein, 1987, 2001). In this model, three contexts—home,
school, and community—overlap with unique and combined influences on children
through the interactions of parents, educators, community partners, and students
across contexts. Each context “moves” closer or farther from the others as a result
of external forces and internal actions.
The external structure of the model of overlapping spheres of influence shows that,
by design, the three contexts can be pulled together or pushed apart by important
forces (i.e., the backgrounds, philosophies, and actions of families, schools, and

communities and the developmental characteristics of students). The internal struc-
ture of the model identifies the institutional and individual lines of communication
and social interactions of parents, teachers, students, and community members with
students and each other.
Classic sociological theories suggested that school and family organizations are
most efficient and effective when they had separate goals, roles, and responsibilities
(Waller, 1932; Weber, 1947). However, data on student learning indicated that stu-
dents did better in school when the important people in their lives at home, at
school, and in the community had common goals and played collaborative, com-
plementary, and supportive roles (Epstein, 2001).
The theory of overlapping spheres of influence integrates and extends ecological,
educational, psychological, and sociological theories and perspectives on social or-
ganization and relationships (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1986; Comer, 1980; Elder,
1997; Leichter, 1974; Lightfoot, 1978; Litwak and Meyer, 1974; Seeley, 1981).
Based on concepts of symbolic interactionism, social exchange, reference group, and
ecological theories, the theory of overlapping spheres of influence recognizes the
interdisciplinary nature of school, family, and community partnerships. It empha-
sizes the need for reciprocal interactions of parents, educators, and community part-
ners to understand each others’ views, to identify common goals for students, and
to appreciate each others’ contributions to student development. For example, as
the theory translates to practice, we see that teachers who hold parents as a reference
group are more likely to design and conduct interactions and activities that account
for the roles parents play in their children’s education. Similarly, parents who under-
stand teachers’ work and school goals for their children communicate with the school
and organize home activities that support their children as students (Epstein, 1987).
Concepts of social capital (Coleman, 1988; Lin, 2000) also are relevant to the
theory of overlapping spheres of influence. Through their interactions, parents, ed-
ucators, and community partners establish social ties and exchange information
that accumulates as social capital, and that may be used to improve children’s
schools and learning experiences.
The theory of overlapping spheres of influence has been tested in two ways. Most
often it has been applied to study school and district programs of family and com-
munity involvement and to learn whether and how well educators, parents, and com-
munity partners interact to help students succeed in school (Sanders, 1999; Sanders
and Simon, 2002; Sheldon and Van Voorhis, 2004). The theory also has served as a
lens through which to examine how future teachers and administrators are prepared
to understand shared leadership in schools, including educators’ shared responsibil-
ities with families and communities to maximize student learning (Chavkin, 2005;
Epstein, 2001, 2005a; Epstein and Sanders, 2006). For example, teachers who believe
that they, alone, are responsible for student learning may teach differently from teach-
ers who believe that they share responsibilities with parents and others for student
success (Blackwell, Futrell, and Imig, 2003; Epstein, 2001). Administrators who be-
lieve that they and their teachers form a “professional community” may manage their
schools differently from administrators who view schools as full “learning commu-
nities,” including educators, students, parents, and community partners (Epstein,

2001; Epstein and Salinas, 2004; Price, 2005). By focusing family and community
involvement broadly on how students learn and grow, we may improve the education
of future educators as well as the policies and practices in schools.
Other useful theories and extensive research on parent involvement focus mainly
on parents’ motivations and actions, largely absent the school context. Hoover-
Dempsey and Sandler’s (1997) theory of why parents get involved in their children’s
education, for example, emphasize the role of parental beliefs and feelings of com-
petence as chief determinants of parental behavior. Also, Grolnick and Slowiaczek
(1994) created a multidimensional model of parental involvement that stresses the
phenomenological experiences of children resulting from parent-child interactions
related to schooling. In contrast, the theory of overlapping spheres of influence
focuses on school-family-community interactions and the design and development
of school programs and practices that affect parental behavior and student success
in school. Taken together, the varied theories support research on different aspects
of the complex work of parenting, teaching, and learning, and contribute to a
fuller understanding of education and the roles of home, school, and community in
child development.
The theory of overlapping spheres of influence should help researchers across
disciplines “think new” about family and community involvement in children’s
education. Research may focus on school-level activities that affect all families
(such as all teachers’ interactions with all families about all children at a school
open-house night) and individual-level communications that affect one family at
a time (such as one teacher’s meetings or phone calls with one parent about one
child). With attention to contexts and social relations, the theory of overlapping
spheres of influence changes the narrow focus of “parental involvement” from
what an individual parent does to a broader, more realistic representation of how
students move, continuously, in and out of several contexts and how the influential
people in those contexts may work together contribute to students’ education and
development.
Researchers may conduct studies of the social forces that affect the external struc-
ture of the theoretical model, including how federal, state, and local policies influ-
ence the implementation of programs and actions to strengthen families, improve
schools, and increase student achievement. The theory also grounds studies of the
internal structure of the model by recognizing that there are many paths to part-
nerships in the interactions between and among teachers, administrators, counselors,
parents, community partners, students, and others. For example, Sanders (1998) ex-
plored how family, school, and church affiliation supported African-American teens’
achievement levels and identified positive effects across contexts. Catsambis and
Beveridge (2001) studied family, school, and neighborhood factors that affected
high school students’ math achievement and found that negative neighborhood in-
fluences may be offset by positive family involvement. Additional research is needed
on whether and how each and all connections are affected by the design and imple-
mentation of partnership programs and practices. Questions may be asked, for ex-
ample, about how much overlap of home, school, and community is necessary for
students’ optimal achievement at each grade level.

2. School, family, and community partnerships is a
multidimensional concept.
In many early studies, definitions of parental involvement were unclear, incomplete,

or confounded. It was hard to know how to categorize and measure the ways that
parents were involved in their children’s education. Terms such as parents as teachers
and parents as learners were not useful because they defined roles that were part
and parcel of the same types of involvement. A parent could be both a teacher and
a learner when working as a school volunteer and when helping students with
homework, even though these are two very different activities. The early terms used
to classify involvement were neither theoretically grounded nor research-based, but
grew out of Head Start and Chapter 1 program descriptions that focused on parents,
not on students, and not on actions that could be taken at home, at school, and in
the community to promote student success.
A series of studies in elementary, middle, and high schools conducted from 1981
to 1991 generated a framework of six types of involvement: parenting, communi-
cating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the
community (Epstein, 1995, 2001). The framework identifies broad, separable cate-
gories of practices that involve parents with teachers, students, and community part-
ners in different locations and for specific purposes, all contributing to student
learning and success. The six types of involvement are represented by many different
practices, raise specific challenges, and are responsible for producing varied results
for students, families, and educators (Epstein et al., 2009). The framework has
proven useful in research, policy, and practice across school levels and in diverse
communities (Catsambis, 2002; Lee, 1994; Simon, 2004; Epstein and Lee, 1995;
Salinas and Jansorn, 2004; Sanders, 1999; and see practical examples for the Na-
tional Network of Partnership Schools, 2005, on the website www.partnership
schools.org).
In brief, the six types of involvement are:
Type 1: Parenting—helping all families understand child and adolescent

development and establishing home environments that support children
as students
Type 2: Communicating—designing and conducting effective forms of two-
way communications about school programs and children’s progress
Type 3: Volunteering—recruiting and organizing help and support at school,
home, or in other locations to support the school and students’ activities
Type 4: Learning at Home—providing information and ideas to families
about how to help students with homework and curriculum-related
activities and decisions
Type 5: Decision Making—having parents from all backgrounds serve as
representatives and leaders on school committees and obtaining input
from all parents on school decisions
Type 6: Collaborating with the Community—identifying and integrating
resources and services from the community to strengthen and support

schools, students, and their families, and organizing activities to benefit
the community and increase students’ learning opportunities.
Schools may choose among hundreds of practices for each type of involvement
to guide and encourage purposeful interactions of parents, educators, students,
and others in the community. For example, there are many ways to use common
and advanced technologies for teachers and parents to communicate with each other
(Type 2); many ways to organize volunteers to assist educators, students, and fam-
ilies (Type 3); and so on. Each type of involvement requires two-way communica-
tions, so that educators and families exchange information and ideas with each
other and recognize and honor their shared responsibilities for children’s education.
Each type of involvement poses clear challenges that must be addressed to reach
all families (Epstein et al., 2009). For example, schools may be faced with the chal-
lenge of involving parents who cannot speak or read English. Teams of educators
and parents may work together to provide information in words and forms the fam-
ilies understand and to implement activities that ensure that these parents, like all
others, have easy access to channels of communication with teachers and adminis-
trators, and opportunities for input to school decisions. Other challenges include
getting information to families who cannot attend school meetings; sending parents
positive communications about their children’s work and accomplishments so that
connections are not only about students’ problems; providing ways for parents and
teachers to communicate so that information about students flows from school to
home and from home to school; providing opportunities for many parents to vol-
unteer at school and in other locations; preparing teachers to guide families to mon-
itor and interact with their children about homework; ensuring that families from
diverse neighborhoods are represented in the decision making process and on school
committees; and identifying and using community resources to help meet school im-
provement goals (Epstein et al., 2009). By addressing these and other challenges,
schools can reach out to involve parents across racial, educational, and socioeconomic
groups so that they can actively support their children’s education.
The framework of six types of involvement was adopted by the National PTA
(2004) as its “standards” for all schools to inform and involve parents and commu-
nity partners in the schools and in children’s education. Further, the No Child Left
Behind Act (Public Law 107-110, 2002) outlines activities for the six types of in-
volvement in its guidelines for schools’ programs for family involvement.
Researchers who are ready to think in new ways about the nature of school, fam-
ily, and community partnerships may use the framework of six types of involvement
in full or in part to address questions about programs, activities, and results of in-
volvement. Research is sorely needed on the design and effects of contrasting ap-
proaches to resolve the countless challenges that arise for each type of involvement.
The challenges must be solved to help all families feel welcome at school and ready
and able to support their children (Epstein, 2001; Epstein et al., 2009). For example,
many studies in diverse communities will be needed to solve questions about the
design of effective parent-teacher conferences with parents who do not speak En-
glish, and to identify other effective formats for two-way communications with all

families throughout the school year. Because the vast majority of parents work full
or part time during the school day, today’s schools must schedule meetings at varied
times and have many different ways for parents to become and remain informed
and involved with their children at home and in the community. It no longer is
enough to require “bodies in the school building” as the only evidence of parents’
interest and involvement in their children’s education. (See Chapter 5, Reading 5.1,
for a complete overview and activities on the six types of involvement.)
These kinds of “nitty-gritty” questions must be addressed to provide a stronger
research base for educators’ decisions about the design and content of partnership
programs. The framework should help researchers focus studies on the challenges
associated with particular types of involvement, increase understanding of what
schools may do to involve families in different ways, and provide parents with re-
alistic and productive options for their involvement. Researchers also may focus on
complex questions about the connections between and among the six types of in-
volvement and the sequence or mix of types of involvement that helps schools build
comprehensive and high-quality programs. The framework of six types of involve-
ment provides an efficient way to categorize activities and to accumulate and syn-
thesize results of studies so that knowledge grows and so the results of research can
be used by educators to improve practice.
3. A program of school, family, and community partnerships is

an essential component of school and classroom organization.
The theory of overlapping spheres of influence and framework of six types of in-
volvement promote the view that school, family, and community partnerships
should operate as an organized program of structures, processes, and collaborative
activities to help students succeed in every school, not as a set of fragmented activ-
ities for parents. A planned program of partnership with activities linked to school
improvement goals establishes family involvement as a component of school im-
provement, part of the professional work of educators, just as the curriculum, in-
struction, and assessments are understood as essential school organizational
components. The difference is that programs of partnership require educators to in-
teract and collaborate with parents, other family members, and community partners,
and not only with other educators.
A series of studies identified eight “essential elements” for effective school pro-
grams of school, family, and community partnerships: leadership, teamwork, action
plans, implementation of plans, funding, collegial support, evaluation, and network-
ing. Specifically, in longitudinal studies of over 500 schools, Sheldon and Van
Voorhis found that schools whose Action Teams for Partnerships received technical
assistance and support from district leaders and from external partners were more
likely to form committees, write plans, adjust for changes in principals, reach out
to more families, evaluate their efforts, and sustain their programs. These schools
also addressed more challenges to involve “hard-to-reach” parents and reported
that more families were involved in their children’s education (Sheldon, 2003; Shel-
don and Van Voorhis, 2003). By implementing the essential program elements, ele-

mentary, middle, and high schools improved the scope and quality of activities for
several types of involvement (Epstein, 2001; Sanders, 1999, 2001; Sanders and Har-
vey, 2002; Sanders and Simon, 2002; Sheldon and Van Voorhis, 2004).
Longitudinal studies confirmed the connections of essential program elements
with increased outreach and involvement (Epstein, 2005b; Sheldon, 2005, 2007;
Sheldon and Van Voorhis, 2004). Specifically, schools that improved their pro-
grams over time increased the involvement of more and different parents as volun-
teers and in decision making at school. These schools also increased outreach by
teachers, including greater use of homework designed to encourage parent-child
interactions (Sheldon 2003; Sheldon and Van Voorhis, 2004). The studies show, re-
peatedly, that more can be done to involve more families if educators, parents, and
others work as a school team to plan their partnership programs, schedule activities,
share leadership for activities, evaluate progress, and continually improve the quality
of activities and outreach.
In schools, the word plan often raises concerns among educators. Presently, most
schools have an annual school improvement plan that outlines major goals for
students and for improving the school climate. Pressed for time, most educators are
not eager to write additional, different, or extra plans for family and community
involvement. Yet studies of partnership program development show that educators
and parents do more together when they work as a team and write annual, detailed
schedules of partnership activities.
One of the most helpful new directions for applying research on partnerships in
practice has been for educators to link detailed written action plans for family and
community involvement to their annual school improvement plans. For example,
in Buffalo, plans for partnership are appended to the Comprehensive School Edu-
cation Plan (CSEP); in Maryland to the School Improvement Plan (SIP); in Los An-
geles to a Single School Plan. Each school, then, has only one major plan with stated
improvement goals, accompanied by a detailed schedule and assigned responsibili-
ties for family and community involvement activities. In this way, a formal program
of partnerships is linked to school goals for which educators and students are held
accountable, bringing parents and community partners to the central purpose of
schools and schooling, and not treated as an extra burden or afterthought.
Several studies also suggest that it was necessary, but not sufficient, for schools
to establish “the basics” of a partnership program, such as organizing a team, writ-
ing a plan, or even implementing planned activities. To measurably affect program
quality, parents’ responses, and results for students, schools also had to address key
challenges to reach all families (Sheldon, 2003, 2005, 2007).
Researchers who are ready to think in new ways about school, family, and com-
munity partnerships may conduct studies on the design and development of any or
all of the eight essential elements to extend an understanding of the formation and
qualities of programs of family and community involvement. The result is not a
“parent program,” which, by its very label excuses educators from participating,
but a “student success program”—part of school organization—which requires
teachers, parents, students, and other critical partners to organize their interactions,
efficiently and effectively to support children’s education. Two basic questions for
researchers and for educators are: How can family and community involvement

programs be organized systematically as a regular part of every school’s work?
Which structures, processes, and activities best help principals, teachers, parents,
and others plan, implement, and sustain partnership programs that help boost stu-
dent achievement and success?
4. Programs of school, family, and community

partnerships require multilevel leadership.
Family and community involvement activities focus mainly on the school level be-
cause that is where students and their families are located every day. Nevertheless,
district and state leaders have important roles to play in guiding and motivating
superintendents, principals, and school teams to develop and implement policies
and plans for good partnerships (Epstein, 2001; Epstein et al., 2009).
Multilevel leadership supports the view that family and community involvement
is part of school organization, as district leaders help coordinate and facilitate the
smooth operation of all schools within a district. District leaders for partnerships
may, for example, develop clear policies for all schools’ partnership programs, or-
ganize and offer professional development workshops to school teams, help teams
write plans for goal-oriented partnership programs, share best practices, evaluate
their programs, and improve from year to year.
Analyses of longitudinal data from about 80 school districts indicated that these
functions and activities improved the quality of district leadership on partnerships,
increased direct connections with schools, and helped schools improve their school-
based programs, as discussed above (Epstein and Williams, 2003; Epstein, Williams,
and Lewis, 2002; Epstein, Williams, and Jansorn, 2004). The quality of district
partnership programs was affected by the leaders’ years of experience and time
spent on partnerships, use of NNPS (National Network of Partnership Schools)
planning and evaluation tools, and the extent to which district leaders directly as-
sisted their schools.
Compared to their counterparts in other districts, experienced district leaders
were more likely to write annual district-level leadership plans, identify a budget
for partnerships, conduct training workshops for school teams and other colleagues,
offer grants or other funding to schools, recognize excellence in school programs,
help schools share best practices, and conduct other leadership actions. District lead-
ers who evaluated their own and their schools’ programs were more likely to visit
their schools more often to provide support and assistance (Epstein and Williams,
2003). Regardless of their initial practices in the prior school year, district leaders
who used NNPS tools and services for program development, planning, and evalu-
ation increased the number of activities they conducted at the district level to orga-
nize their own work, facilitated their schools to address challenges to reach more
families, conducted program evaluations, and increased the overall quality of their
own and their schools’ programs (Epstein and Williams, 2003; Epstein et al., 2004).
It may be that by using planning and evaluation tools, district leaders were more
serious about their work on partnerships and, therefore, guided schools to take
more actions in developing their programs.

Historically, the earliest federal policies concerning Chapter 1 and Title I called
for district advisory councils. These were almost always symbolic committees that
enabled a few parents to have input to district policies, but that did little to increase
the involvement of all families in all schools. District advisory councils still are use-
ful, but district-level professional leaders also are needed to assist schools to under-
stand the importance of teamwork and how to develop their programs of family
and community involvement.
State leaders for partnerships, too, have shown that clear policies and profes-
sional development activities can increase districts’ attention to their work on part-
nerships with their schools (Epstein, 2001; Epstein and Williams, 2003; and see
National Network of Partnership Schools, 2005, for summaries of Wisconsin’s and
Connecticut’s policies and programs on the website www.partnershipschools.org in
the section “Success Stories”). The importance of active multilevel leadership on
partnerships is recognized and codified in the requirements for family involvement
in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (Public Law 107–110, 2002), which redi-
rects state and district leaders away from monitoring sites for compliance to actively
helping schools improve the quality and results of partnership programs.
Researchers who are ready to think in new ways about school, family, and com-
munity partnerships may ask questions about the effects of contrasting district and
state leadership structures and processes. The fifty states and nearly 15,000 districts
in the United States will respond in varied ways to NCLB requirements for parental
involvement. Researchers have a rare opportunity to conduct multilevel studies to
identify the most effective ways that states and districts organize their leadership
on partnerships and the impact of their policies and actions for their schools. (See
Chapter 4 on district and state leadership and links to policy development.)
5. Programs of school, family, and community

partnerships must include a focus on increasing
student learning and development.
The most common question from researchers, reporters, and educators about
school, family, and community partnerships is: What are the effects of family and
community involvement on student achievement? The question is on the right track
with its focus on students. The theory of overlapping spheres of influence places
students at the center of the internal structure of the model, as the main reason for
interactions among educators, parents, and others in the community. The theory,
then, supports the intense interest in how schools’ practices to involve families affect
student outcomes. But the question, as typically posed, is far too narrow, as family
and community involvement affects not only student achievement, but also student
health, attitudes, and behaviors (Epstein 2001; Hill and Craft, 2003; Patrikakou et
al., 2005; Reynolds, Temple, Robertson, and Mann, 2002).
Attention to results for students is fueled by present policies and practice. For
example, NCLB and most state and local policies specify that parental involvement
should be designed to help increase student achievement and success in school. In

practice, numerous innovative ideas are emerging of how to involve families with
students on reading, math, and other subjects and on how to design involvement
activities that are linked to other school goals (such as good attendance and behav-
ior) that contribute to student success (Salinas and Jansorn, 2004).
For more than a decade, research has been strengthening its base of evidence on
results of family involvement for students. Many studies at the elementary, middle,
and high school levels confirmed that students had higher achievements, better at-
tendance, more course credits earned, better preparation for class, and other indi-
cators of success in school, if families were involved in their education (Catsambis,
2002; Epstein, 2001; Lee, 1994; Muller, 1993; and see summaries of studies in Hen-
derson and Mapp, 2002).
Types of involvement. Researchers have extended their studies from general ques-
tions about involvement to pointed questions about how the six types of involve-
ment affected student outcomes. For example, Simon (2001, 2004) found that when
high schools conducted specific activities to increase parents’ attention to teens’ high
school work and postsecondary planning, parents responded by conducting more
interactions with their teens about those subjects. Catsambis and Beveridge (2001)
pressed further, using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses to study how
school, family, and neighborhood factors independently affected students’ math
achievement. Specifically, they showed that students in neighborhoods with high
concentrations of poverty had had lower math achievement test scores, but this ef-
fect was ameliorated by ongoing parental involvement in high school. These studies,
conducted with large national sample surveys of parents and students at the middle
and high school levels in the National Educational Longitudinal (NELS) data set,
indicated that it is never too late to initiate programs of family and community in-
volvement. Students benefited from their parents’ interest, interactions, and guidance
through high school.
Subject-specific goals for students. New studies are contributing to an understanding

of the importance of goal-linked family involvement to help students produce spe-
cific results. Studies of family involvement in reading have been most numerous and
offer some pertinent lessons for future research.
A review of research on family involvement interventions in schools reported
that these programs had mixed results on student achievement in reading and other
subjects (Mattingly, Prislin, McKenzie, Rodriguez, and Kayzar, 2002). That review,
however, examined diverse partnership programs with varied goals, without giving
separate attention to whether or how parents or other family members were en-
couraged or guided to support their children’s learning in targeted, goal-linked ways.
Of the 41 studies reviewed by Mattingly et al. (2002), 16 (with a sample size of
more than 2 students) guided parents to become involved with their children on
reading and language arts activities. Fifteen of these targeted “reading” programs
were reported to produce significant gains on students’ reading or language arts
achievement test scores and, where measured, differences between intervention ver-
sus comparison groups on reading or language arts skills and scores. Interventions
that were not closely linked to intended results (such as general communications

with teachers or about school programs, improving student attendance, or improving
students’ skills asking questions) did not produce gains in students’ reading skills.
Another review of research conducted from 1997 to about 2000 strengthened
the importance of measuring subject-specific involvement for results in specific sub-
jects (Henderson and Mapp, 2002). Of 51 studies, 7 examined the impact of family
involvement interventions that guided parents to participate in reading-related
activities. All 7 studies indicated that targeted, reading-related family involvement
was associated with increased students’ reading and language arts skills in case and
control groups or as participants in the interventions over time.
These and earlier reviews (Miller, 1986; Silvern, 1985; Tizard, 1982) and addi-
tional studies (Cairney, 1995; Epstein, 2001) support the position that when family
involvement is focused on reading and literacy activities at home, including reading
aloud and discussing stories, students’ reading achievement increased. The results
should help researchers think in new ways about which interventions to increase
parental involvement are most likely to affect specific results for student learning.
Many schools already are implementing subject-specific involvement activities
to engage families in productive ways to help students reach specific goals. Schools
may strengthen their partnership programs by including various activities for all six
types of involvement for specific goals for students, including improving reading
(Epstein et al., 2009). For example, a school may conduct workshops for parents
to help them understand reading standards and parent-teacher conferences that
focus only on reading progress and next steps, recruit reading volunteers to help
students improve reading, assign reading homework to increase students’ reading
time and discussions of books at home, and implement other activities that empha-
size the importance of the school’s reading goals and parents’ opportunities to talk
with their children about reading. A review of literature on family involvement with
students on reading, indicated that, across the grades, subject-specific interventions
to involve families in reading and related language arts positively affected students’
reading skills and scores (Sheldon and Epstein, 2005b).
A series of school-level studies, titled Focus on Results, examined whether schools
that implemented family and community involvement activities to address other
learning and behavioral goals for students showed measurable changes on student
outcomes over one year. On achievement outcomes, schools that focused family in-
volvement with students on math, particularly through math homework that re-
quired parent-child interactions and math materials for families to take home,
increased the percentages of students who were proficient in math on state tests
from one year to the next (Sheldon and Epstein, 2005a).
Family involvement also affected students’ non-achievement outcomes. In schools
where educators communicated well with families about attendance, schools’ rates
of average daily attendance increased, and chronic absence decreased from one year
to the next (Epstein and Sheldon, 2002; Sheldon and Epstein, 2004). These results
were reinforced by another study using longitudinal data from Ohio, which showed
that schools in NNPS improved attendance rates compared to a matched sample of
schools that did not receive guidance on partnership program development (Shel-
don, 2007). Similarly, when educators communicated effectively and involved family
and community members in activities focused on student behavior and school safety,

schools reported fewer disciplinary actions with students from one year to the next
(Sanders, 1996; Sheldon and Epstein, 2002).
Other researchers explored the effects of family involvement with children on
homework at the individual student level (Epstein and Van Voorhis, 2001). They
found significant results of subject-specific family involvement for students’ writing
skills (Epstein, Simon, and Salinas, 1997) on science report card grades and home-
work completion (Van Voorhis, 2003, 2004).
The range of studies described above shows the potential for researchers to con-
duct many more studies of the effects of subject-specific and goal-linked activities
for family and community involvement on linked student outcomes. The extant
studies also revealed several difficulties that must be addressed in conducting re-
search on the results of involvement for student outcomes. Here we discuss three
challenges that make effects studies difficult.
The challenge of conducting studies of interventions. Studies of the effects of par-

ticular practices of involvement require intensive and extensive cooperation and
collaboration between researchers and educators. And there are no shortcuts for
the time and care needed from all participants. For example, the studies discussed
above of family involvement with students on homework required teachers to con-
nect with students’ families in targeted, well-designed, subject-specific assignments
for an extended period of time, up to one year.
The quality of the implementation of a program or practice must be measured
before it is possible to measure results related to the intervention. For example, a
three-year study of the Partnership Schools Comprehensive School Reform (CSR)
Model (Epstein, 2005b) demonstrated that a Title I elementary school could organize
whole-school change that combined changes in instruction with improvements in
family and community involvement focused on reading, writing, and math. Over three
years, the CSR school improved its state achievement test scores in these subjects com-
pared to matched schools. The CSR school also closed the gap in test scores with the
district as a whole, despite the fact that the district included several schools in more
affluent neighborhoods with higher test scores in the base year. The school also in-
creased the number of families involved in students’ education at school and at home.
To build on present knowledge, studies of the effects of parental involvement on
student outcomes must be longitudinal with data on families’ prior involvement
and students’ prior scores on the selected outcomes, the nature and quality of
schools’ involvement activities, the families’ responses to those activities, and the
students’ present outcomes. With these rich data, researchers will be able to address
the basic question: How do school practices to involve families affect parents’ be-
haviors and the change or continuity of student achievements and behaviors? With-
out the full complement of longitudinal measures, studies simply document that
successful students tend to have parents who are involved.
The challenge of isolating effects of partnerships. In practice, when educators de-

velop programs to involve families with students on specific subjects or on other
goals, they may report positive results, overall, for children’s achievement. For ex-
ample, an Action Team for Partnerships in an elementary school serving mainly

Latino and Hmong families in Saint Paul, MN, wrote annual plans with many ac-
tivities for the six types of involvement that focused on student learning. This school
reported gains in 2004 on students’ test scores of 13 percent in reading and 10 per-
cent in math, which they attributed, in part, to the hard work of their teachers and
students and to family involvement and support (see National Network of Partner-
ship Schools, 2005, and the awards summaries on the website www.partnership
schools.org in the section “Success Stories”).
The example illustrates an inescapable problem for research on comprehensive
partnership programs. It is difficult to isolate the effects of one program component
from the effects of all other school improvement activities that are occurring simul-
taneously. In the school example, teachers were working with students on more de-
manding reading and writing standards and curricula, and more parents were
involved with students on reading and writing tasks. The problem plagues all studies
of school reform and can only be resolved by applying increasingly reliable measures
of the nature and quality of specific practices, and by using increasingly rigorous
methods, including longitudinal data to account for starting points on key indepen-
dent and dependent variables.
The challenge of explaining negative results. Among the most provocative and least
studied patterns of results of school, family, and community partnerships are the
negative associations of certain types of involvement with some measures of student
achievement and behavior (Desimone, 1999; Lee, 1994; Muller, 1993; Simon, 2000).
Several studies, particularly in middle and high schools, indicate that more parents
communicate with teachers if their students have low achievement and poor be-
havior in school. By contrast, in the same schools, more parents volunteer and par-
ticipate in school decision making if their students have high achievement and
better behavior.
These contradictory correlations must be put in context. Without well-developed
partnership programs, teachers and parents contact each other mainly when stu-
dents have academic and behavior problems. If a school is not conducting some
positive interactions with all families, then the number of communications between
teachers and parents will be correlated with low achievement or poor behavior (Ep-
stein, 2001; Epstein and Lee, 1995; Lee, 1994; Catsambis, 2002). This intriguing
pattern of effects shows why researchers need to understand the different types of
involvement and the contexts in which communications among teachers, parents,
and students are conducted. Studies are sorely needed that delve deeper into the re-
sults of parent-teacher-student communications to solve students’ academic and be-
havioral problems over time.
Despite real progress in research on results of family and community involvement
for student learning and development, this remains the most important topic for
new and better studies. Researchers who are ready to think in new ways may study
whether and which family and community involvement activities affect specific ac-
ademic, attitudinal, behavioral, health, and other outcomes at all school and grade
levels for diverse groups of students. Research is needed on whether parent-teacher
communications about poor achievement and behavior have different effects at dif-
ferent grade levels and as a function of the roles that students’ play in the process.

The agenda is all but limitless because there is a long list of student outcomes
that are of interest and importance in school studies (Epstein, 2001; Gerne and Ep-
stein, 2004; Patrikakou et al., 2005). These include academic outcomes such as
readiness for school, participation in class, completion of homework, report card
grades, test scores, course credits, high school completion, and enrollment in post-
secondary education; social and emotional outcomes for students’ personal devel-
opment, such as motivation to learn, attitudes toward schoolwork, dimensions of
self esteem, positive relationships with teachers, peers, friends, and other adults in
school, attendance, good behavior, perseverance on tasks, postsecondary planning;
health-related outcomes for student growth and development, such as nutrition,
weight management, physical strength, exercise, sex education, prevention of the
use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco, and other health topics; and other indicators of
citizenship, good character, and academic commitment. The varied outcomes may,
in turn, affect student achievement and vice versa, yielding a vast agenda for studies
of results of family and community involvement on student development.
Research on the effects of family involvement on student outcomes is, presently,
a mile wide and an inch deep. Studies have identified numerous types of involvement
and an array of academic, attitudinal, behavioral, and health outcomes for students.
But only a few studies have been conducted on any single outcome, at certain grade
levels, and in selected communities. Few studies are based on appropriate longitu-
dinal data or other rigorous methods. We still need to know: Which involvement
activities produce measurable results for students, and under what conditions? Thus,
the topic of whether, which, and how family and community involvement affects
results for students needs many new contributions to improve the topography of
the field.
6. All programs of school, family, and

community partnerships are about equity.
Parental involvement programs must include all families, not only those who are
presently involved or easiest to reach. This requirement, written into federal law in
the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), also is stipulated in just about all state edu-
cation policies and district mission statements. For example, NCLB’s Section 1118
requires educators to communicate with all parents in languages that they will un-
derstand about their own child’s achievement test scores, trends in test scores for
all schools in a district and major subgroups of students, and other indicators (e.g.,
attendance, graduation rates, teachers’ qualifications). Schools also are required to
provide clear information and options to parents to transfer their children to a more
successful school if their own school underperforms for two consecutive years, and
information for selecting supplemental education services for eligible children.
The emphasis in federal policy on well-designed partnership programs that involve
all families has important implications for research on school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships. Many studies show that although most parents report that they
want to be partners with educators, only some parents, particularly those with more
formal education, higher incomes, and familiarity with schools remain involved in

their children’s education across the grades (Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Dauber and
Epstein, 1993; Lareau, 1989; Useem, 1991, 1992). The well-documented inequalities
raise new questions about producing greater equity of family and community in-
volvement in order to promote more success of students.
Typical distributions of involved and uninvolved parents can be changed with
well-designed partnership programs. Studies conducted with elementary, middle, and
high schools are accumulating that indicate that when schools conduct high-quality
partnership programs, parents respond. This includes parents with less formal edu-
cation or lower incomes who might not become involved on their own. Program
quality and the actions taken at home are as important as or more important than
family background variables such as race, ethnicity, social class, marital status,
mother’s education or work status, or language spoken at home for determining
whether, how, and which parents become involved in their children’s education and
how students progress and succeed in school (Cairney and Munsie, 1995; Comer
and Haynes, 1991; Dauber and Epstein, 1993; Epstein, 2001; Henderson and Mapp,
2002; Sanders and Epstein, 2000; Simon, 2004). These results are also represented
in exemplary practice (Salinas and Jansorn, 2004).
Some research and practical reports like to discuss over-involved and under-
involved parents (Gibbs, 2005). In fact, both groups may be assisted by well-planned
partnership programs. In surveys of parents, highly involved and hard-to-reach
parents report that they need more and better information from their children’s
schools to know how to use their limited available time to best assist their children
(Dauber and Epstein, 1993). Without good guidance, the under-involved wait for
information and the over-involved set their own agendas, whether their actions ben-
efit their children or not.
Several decades of studies of family involvement with children about reading
show how this works in practice. Many studies in this and other countries confirm
that children do better in reading and other literacy skills if their families support
reading at home with more books and reading experiences (Binkley, Rust, and
Williams, 1996; Donahue, Finnegan, Lutkus, Allen, and Campbell, 2001; Sheldon
and Epstein, 2005b). Although more educated families and those with more dispos-
able income have more books at home, schools can create more equity in involve-
ment about reading by implementing activities that help all parents understand their
children’s reading programs and encourage reading at home. Schools also may work
with local businesses to provide children with books to take home, thereby making
home reading environments more equitable (National Network of Partnership Schools,
2005; Salinas and Jansorn, 2004).
As another example, district leaders in the Seattle Public Schools are helping
schools develop partnership programs that increase the equity of involvement for
highly diverse families. District leaders from several departments worked together
to develop presentations, website communications, handbooks, and other publica-
tions for parents in 10 languages. The Superintendent noted that these programs
helped educators “align parent involvement practices with academic goals, con-
tributing to real systemic change in school buildings.” In the past year, the district
tracked over 260 activities for the six types of involvement attended by over 18,360
parents, with translated materials provided at over 60 percent of the activities. The

work in Seattle is demonstrating that, with committed district leaders, even schools
in challenging communities can increase the equity of parental involvement to sup-
port students’ success in school (National Network of Partnership Schools, 2005,
and see these and other examples of programs and practices at www.partnership
schools.org in the section “Success Stories”).
It no longer is enough to identify inequalities in parental involvement. Re-
searchers who are ready to think in new ways about family involvement may con-
duct studies designed to produce greater equity of involvement for all parents.
Because families are important for students’ success in school, it is important to
learn how more families—ideally, all families—become involved in ways that pos-
itively support their children’s success in school. This requires researchers to go be-
yond questions of whether families are involved or not, to test alternative strategies
that help families and educators build trust and respect for one another and that
enable all parents to guide their children to do their best in school. Researchers may
study the processes and technologies needed to involve parents who are typically
hard to reach, including parents who have less formal education, speak languages
other than English at home, and typically would not become involved on their own.
At its core, education is about providing equal opportunities to learn. Because it
is well documented that students benefit from goal-linked family and community
involvement, researchers may conduct studies that yield more and better informa-
tion on which partnership approaches help resolve the past and present inequalities
in levels of involvement among diverse families.
7. Methods of research on school, family, and

community partnerships must continue to improve.
The young field of school, family, and community partnerships will continue to
grow if researchers ask new and pointed questions about the implementation and
results of involvement activities. Knowledge will grow, too, with better measures,
larger and more diverse samples, and the use of various methods of data collection,
including surveys, case studies, experimental or quasi-experimental designs, longi-
tudinal studies, field tests, program evaluations, and policy analyses. Researchers
who are ready to think in new ways about school, family, and community partner-
ships will contribute new knowledge on partnerships by using the most rigorous
methods of analyses that are appropriate for their questions.
After more than two decades of research on family involvement that framed the
field, researchers should be ready to move from exploratory and descriptive studies
to confirmatory studies and targeted evaluations about how full programs and spe-
cific practices of school, family, and community partnerships develop and affect
families and students. Here, we discuss a few ways that researchers may move for-
ward with various methods of analyses.
Experiments and matched samples. Experimental and quasi-experimental research is

needed to compare schools that are implementing specific partnership programs or
practices with similar schools that are not (Boethel, 2003; Henderson and Mapp,

2002; Mattingly et al., 2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental methods are best
suited for studying well-defined, tightly controlled interventions. For example, Van
Voorhis (2001, 2003) built on early studies of the feasibility of the Teachers Involve
Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) interactive homework process (Epstein et al., 1997) by
conducting a quasi-experimental study of case and control classrooms to better un-
derstand the impact of student-parent interactions about science homework. The study
revealed that parents were much more involved when children led conversations and
experiments with family partners at home on science, and students benefited in report
card grades and homework completion, compared to parents and students in matched
classrooms that had the same homework without a family involvement component.
She also showed that parental involvement for case and control classes did not differ
in English and math—subjects that did not use the TIPS method.
Experimental designs with strict comparisons of partnership versus non-partnership
schools are difficult, given widespread support for parent involvement and far-reaching
federal, state, and local policies that require all schools to have programs of family
and community involvement (Kessler-Sklar and Baker, 2000). When experimental
or quasi-experimental conditions are not possible, researchers can improve studies
of the effects of family and community involvement on student achievement and
other indicators of success by using longitudinal data with well-specified effects
models, and closely matched samples of schools and/or students.
Well-specified multivariate models. Researchers can advance knowledge by identi-

fying the paths that connect school activities to family responses and to results for
students. For example, Sheldon (2005) employed Structural Equation Modeling
(SEM) techniques to identify the connections of key program structures with the
extent of schools’ outreach to involve more families and with the resulting family
involvement. He showed that program plans, district support, and collegial support
at the school contributed to better program outreach to more families. In turn, out-
reach promoted greater family involvement. The processes occur simultaneously, as
the program grows and as plans and activities are implemented.
Notable research on other aspects of parental involvement using SEM has been
conducted by Hill and her colleagues, on the mechanisms by which parent-child
interactions may translate into various student outcomes and how these processes
vary across ethnic and socioeconomic groups (Hill et al., 2004; Hill and Craft,
2003). SEM holds promise for testing different theoretical models of school, home,
and community connections and for identifying simultaneously occurring effects such
as parents’ responses to school practices of involvement and results for students.
Multilevel analyses. Researchers who are ready to think in new ways about school,
family, and community partnerships can advance knowledge by studying the multi-
level effects of state policies and actions on district leadership and school programs
to reach all families. Multilevel analyses using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM)
will be useful in separating the independent effects of policies and leadership actions
that occur with a nested system (e.g., families within schools, schools within districts,
districts within states). Because federal policies require state, district, and schools
to have coordinated activities for partnership program development, multilevel

methods such as HLM are particularly appropriate for studying the connections
and influences that occur across policy levels (Bryk and Raudenbush, 1992).
Researchers may be helped in framing new studies of family and community in-
volvement and effects using SEM and HLM methods, by tapping national data sets,
such as the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K), starting with a kinder-
garten cohort in the fall of 1998, and ECLS-B, starting with a birth cohort in 2000.
The large-scale surveys included surveys of teachers, parents, and students and may
encourage model testing and studies of multilevel effects of family and community
involvement in schools and in neighborhoods. Still, large national surveys have
strengths and weaknesses. The number of items on school, family, and community
partnerships may be limited, and items may be unrelated to theoretical or practical
concerns. Researchers ready to think in new ways about family and community in-
volvement still may benefit from well-designed local, regional, and state surveys,
case studies, experimental studies, and action research that can delve deeply into
the implementation and effects of specific practices of family involvement.
Small, in-depth studies. Although large and methodologically sophisticated studies

are needed, as noted above, there still are times, in a young field of study, that small,
in-depth quantitative and qualitative studies are appropriate. For example, over the
past twenty years, most research has focused on school-family connections. There-
fore, initial studies on school-community connections had to be conducted from
the ground up. By using survey data from schools in many parts of the country and
intensive inquiries in one elementary school, Sanders (2001) developed a useful cat-
alogue of school-community connections and their targeted participants (i.e., com-
munity connections to assist parents, students, teachers) (Sanders, 2003; Sanders
and Harvey, 2002). A series of studies of three high schools in urban, suburban,
and rural communities revealed how high schools can organize school-community
connections to benefit all partners in education (Sanders, 2005; Sanders and Lewis,
2005). Now, there is a much stronger base on which to build future studies of the
effects of school-community partnerships on student learning and development.
Other topics that have not been studied much (e.g., the involvement of parents
in nontraditional families such as foster parents, gay and lesbian parents, and non-
custodial parents; involvement at transition points; involvement to influence stu-
dents’ postsecondary plans; involvement to improve students’ health outcomes; and
other topics that researchers identify) may benefit from small, exploratory studies
that help define terms, identify activities, develop measures, and establish other para-
meters. By contrast, topics that have been studied extensively (e.g., teachers’ and
parents’ attitudes about involvement and all effects studies) may be revisited, but
require researchers to ask more detailed questions and use more advanced methods
than in prior studies in order to make original contributions to the field.
More rigorous research on school, family, and community partnerships, using
diverse methods and valid and reliable measures, should increase knowledge on
the factors that produce the most effective programs and on the processes and
paths that strengthen (1) leadership for partnerships, (2) the quality of program
plans, (3) outreach to involve more families, (4) responses by families and com-

munity partners, and (5) the impact on student achievement and other indicators
of success in school.
CONCLUSION
If family involvement is important for student success, as decades of research indi-

cates, then we must address the fruitful question: How can more families—indeed
all families—become involved in their children’s education in ways that will con-
tribute to student success?
Studies of parental involvement over the past twenty-five years have set a firm
base on which new research can build to increase understanding of programs and
practices of school, family, and community partnerships. The early work yielded a
useful theory and framework of six types of involvement that have guided research,
policy, and practice. Studies to date have identified and explored many aspects of
the involvement of parents, teachers, administrators, and students. Researchers have
begun to inspect, dissect, and identify components and effects of partnership pro-
grams in schools and school districts. By framing the field, the early work also shows
that much is left to learn.
Despite the challenges of studying schools, families, and communities simulta-
neously, it is necessary to “think new” about how students learn and develop as
they progress from preschool through high school. Well-documented problems with
student achievement, motivation, attitudes about education, school behavior, and
future plans are partly due to “old think” that separated school and students from
home and community, leaving teachers to work on their own, isolated from other
influential people in children’s lives.
The seven principles featured in this chapter should help researchers think in new
ways about the structures and processes of family and community involvement that
will help educators, parents, and community partners work more systematically, or-
ganizationally, and collaboratively to support student success. The sixth principle—
that involvement is all about equity—is pivotal, as it requires attention to all of the
other principles. That is, to study how to produce more equal opportunities for fam-
ily involvement and for student success, it is imperative for researchers to understand
that parents, educators, and others at home, in school, and in the community share
an interest in and responsibilities for students’ education and development.
It is necessary for researchers to recognize the difference between asking or re-
buking each parent, individually, to become involved versus enabling every school
to organize effective programs that encourage the productive involvement of all
families. It is important for researchers to explore whether and how district and
state leaders may work in concert with schools to establish and continually improve
effective partnership programs that reach all families. Because schools are being
held accountable for improving academic and other results for students, researchers
must conduct studies that go beyond process outcomes for parents to study the ef-
fects of school, family, and community partnerships on academic and behavioral
outcomes for students. If researchers think in these new ways, they will move the

field forward with studies that go beyond documenting inequities to explore and
identify programs and practices that promote greater equity in the involvement of
diverse families and the effects of involvement on indicators of success for students
in elementary, middle, and high schools.
All seven changes in thinking are needed to study the design and development of
comprehensive partnership programs, outreach to involve all families, family and
community responses, and results for students. By thinking in new ways about
school, family, and community partnerships, researchers not only will extend the
knowledge base, but also help educators improve policy and practice.
NOTE
This research was supported by a grant from NICHD. The opinions expressed are
the authors’ and may not represent the policies or positions of the funding agency.
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DISCUSSION AND ACTIVITIES
The comments in this section extend and update the content of the two readings in
this chapter. Main concepts are listed that summarize what you should know after
reading the articles. Questions and activities are provided for class discussions and
homework assignments. They may suggest field activities, research projects, or other
exercises.
COMMENT
Emerging Theory
New theories develop or emerge in several ways. One way—the “out-of-the-clear-

blue-sky” process—is to think about an unexplained phenomenon and devise an
explanation. Then the explanation must be tested to determine whether the theory
is correct. Usually, a puzzle of this sort is solved little by little, as evidence accumu-
lates to prove or disprove a theory.
Another way that new theories emerge—the “wait-a-minute-what-was-that again?”
process—is to conduct studies based on an established theory and be forced by the
results to question, challenge, and reformulate existing ideas. When results repeatedly
disprove a prevailing theory or parts of it, new or integrated theories are needed.
The latter example explains why I developed the theory of overlapping spheres
of influence to explain the effects of families, schools, and communities on students’
learning and development. Early sociological theory suggested that organizations are
most efficient and effective if they have separate missions and operate independently.
Data from my own and many other studies revealed repeated evidence that educators
who worked in partnership with families and communities were more effective than
those who worked in isolation in improving school climate, teachers’ professional
behavior, parents’ confidence, and students’ success in school. The model of overlap-
ping spheres of influence more completely and accurately depicts and explains the
simultaneous influence of schools, families, and communities on students’ learning
and development and on improving school programs and family support.
A new, revised, or expanded theory encourages researchers to redraw models, re-
cast hypotheses, reexamine patterns in data, consider alternative explanations, and
decide whether the theories operate as complementary or competing perspectives.
The old and new theories of school, family, and community partnerships are com-
plementary because the overlapping spheres of influence model acknowledges that
families, schools, and community organizations conduct some activities separately
and others jointly.
Research supports the theory. At different grade levels, with various data sets, in
diverse communities, and with different involvement and outcome measures, studies
show that students do better when their teachers, parents, and other important
adults in their lives work together to help the students succeed in school. Researchers

have reported results of family and community involvement on attendance (Chang
and Romero, 2008; Epstein and Sheldon, 2002; Sheldon, 2007); behavior (Davalos,
Chavez, and Guardiola, 2005; Noguera, 1995; Sheldon and Epstein, 2002; Taylor
and Adelman, 2000); homework attitudes and achievements (Epstein and Van
Voorhis, 2001; see Readings 3.8 and 6.1); reading (Lonigan and Whitehurst, 1998;
Sénéchal and LeFevre, 2002; Sheldon and Epstein, 2005b; see Reading 3.7); math
(Catsambis and Beveridge, 2001; Desimone, 1999; Friedel, Cortina, Turner, and
Midgley, 2007; Hong and Ho, 2005; Sheldon and Epstein, 2005a; Sheldon, Epstein,
and Galindo, 2010; Valadez, 2002; Yan and Lin, 2005); and other subjects and out-
comes (Sheldon, 2009).
The results to date are important, but researchers and practitioners should con-
duct new studies to learn if and how the theory works in their locations with their
students and families. Additional tests of the theory of overlapping spheres of influ-
ence will improve knowledge, particularly in studies that use robust and reliable
measures and longitudinal data on outcomes to control for students’ starting points.
COMMENT
Connecting Literature with Theory
Reading 2.2 reviews research on and draws conclusions about knowledge gained
on school, family, and community partnerships nearly 25 years after the theoretical
model was first introduced. Periodically, it is important to review how a field is
growing, what has been learned, and where it needs to go. Many comprehensive
literature reviews have been conducted over the years, including Booth and Dunn
(1996), Fan and Chen (2001), Henderson and Mapp (2002), Jeynes (2003), Jordan,
Orozco, and Averett (2001), Ryan et al. (1995), Weiss, Bouffard, Bridglall, and Gor-
don (2009), and others. The reviews document and organize the work of many re-
searchers who conducted studies to increase knowledge on partnerships. Literature
reviews also help other researchers, graduate and undergraduate students, and prac-
titioners learn which topics have been covered and what questions need to be ad-
dressed to strengthen the field, clarify confusing or contradictory findings, and apply
results in policy and practice.
In this chapter, the two readings are linked because the literature review (Reading
2.2) draws from the studies that tested and confirmed the theoretical model. The
principles drawn from the literature also inform policy leaders and educators about
new directions that will produce more successful programs than in the past.
MAIN CONCEPTS
From the two readings in this chapter and the comments and activities that follow,
you should have a good understanding of the following concepts and terms:

• overlapping spheres of influence
• external and internal structures of the model of overlapping spheres of
influence
• separate versus shared responsibilities of families, schools, and
communities
• importance of historic events and trends for changing theories of school,
family, and community relationships
• family-like schools and school-like families
• central role of the child in partnerships for education
• school, family, and community partnerships as a term that includes and
also extends parent involvement
• multilevel leadership, including district support and guidance to enable
each school to develop its goal-linked partnership program
• the importance of focusing on equity in developing partnership
programs to change the historic pattern from some families becoming
involved some of the time to all families being involved in their
children’s education at all grade levels
• a research-based framework of six types of involvement that can be
studied systematically by researchers and can guide educators in
developing comprehensive programs of partnerships
These concepts and terms are discussed in the following comments, questions,
and activities.
COMMENT
“Overlap” in Spheres of Influence
In the model of overlapping spheres of influence, shared responsibilities of home,

school, and community are identified and developed. Families, educators, and com-
munity members and organizations also conduct activities independently. The
boundaries of home, school, and community are flexible and permeable in this
model. That is, the extent of overlap is affected by the backgrounds, philosophies,
and accumulated actions and experiences of families, educators, and community
members. These factors lead to more or fewer practices of school, family, and com-
munity partnership and, thereby, more or less overlap of the spheres of influence
on student learning and development.
QUESTIONS TO DISCUSS
1. a. How might overlapping spheres of influence of home, school, and

community create less efficient but more effective organizations than
are created by separate spheres of influence? Could overlapping

spheres of influence of home, school, and community ever create
more efficient organizations? less effective ones? Explain your ideas.
b. Which organizational feature—efficiency or effectiveness—would
you choose for a school attended by your child, and why? When
might you trade one for the other?
c. Discuss how boundaries between and among schools, families, and
communities can be fixed and rigid or flexible and permeable. What
different effects might permeable and impenetrable home-school-
community boundaries have on student attitudes, behavior, and
learning?
2. a. What statements or actions have you heard or seen that showed that
parents were operating within a model of separate spheres of
influence or within a model of overlapping spheres of influence?
b. What statements or actions have you heard or seen that showed that
teachers were operating within a model of separate spheres of
influence or within a model of overlapping spheres of influence?
c. How would a student describe schoolwork and homework within
these two models?
3. Suppose you wanted to know which theory—separate spheres or
overlapping spheres of influence—better explains changes in students’
writing skills or classroom behavior. Remember, changes in students’
writing skills and classroom behavior may be positive or negative over
time.
a. Write a hypothesis to test one of these theories.
b. Briefly describe a study that would address your hypothesis and that
could be conducted in one year or less.
ACTIVITY
External Structure of the Model
Figure 2.1 (page 32) represents the external structure of the model of the theory of
overlapping spheres of influence of family, school, and community on children’s
learning and development.
A. Draw or photocopy the diagram. Write the title of one activity that you
think belongs in one of the nonoverlapping sections. This would be an
activity that is exclusively or mainly the family’s responsibility, the school’s
responsibility, or the community’s responsibility. Under the diagram, write
a sentence or two to explain why you placed the activity in that particular
nonoverlapping area.
B. Write the title of one activity that you would place in overlapping
sections. The activity may be one that represents shared responsibilities

by the school and family, by the family and community, or by any two or
three of the contexts. Under the diagram, write a sentence or two to
explain why you placed the activity in those overlapping areas.
C. Share your diagram and ideas with an educator, parent, or student.
Identify whom you worked with. Ask the interviewee the following
questions:
1. Do you agree or disagree that the activity in A (above) is exclusively
or mainly the separate responsibility of home or school or
community? Explain your ideas.
2. Do you agree or disagree that that the activity in B (above) requires
shared, cooperative, or overlapping responsibilities of home and
school or any two or three contexts? Explain your ideas.
3. Record the responses you receive. Do you want to revise your
examples, or were they confirmed in your interview? Explain.
ACTIVITY
Internal Structure of the Model
At the core or inner structure of the model of overlapping spheres of influence are
the interactions that occur between and among the people in the major contexts—
parents, teachers, community members, and students—as individuals and in groups.
Figure 2.2 (page 32) shows one part of the internal structure of the model of over-
lapping spheres of influence. It illustrates the institutional and individual interac-
tions of individuals at school and at home, with the student as the center of the
interactions.
A. Examine Figure 2.2. In the chart below, provide one positive and one
negative example of an interaction that might occur for each two-way
connection that is listed here.
Connection A positive interaction A negative interaction

might be . . . might be . . .
1. A parent (p) and

a teacher (t)
2. All Families (F) and all

teachers and staff at
School (S)
B. Identify one more set of two-way arrows in the diagram that interests
you. List one positive and one negative interaction that might occur for
the connection you selected.

C. Figure 2.2 on p. 32 depicts the interactions at the individual and
institutional levels among people in schools and families. Draw the same
diagram showing the institutional and individual interactions for the
overlapping spheres of influence of family and community or school and
community contexts. Describe one positive and one negative example of
an interaction for one set of two-way arrows in your diagram that
interests you.
COMMENT
Forces That Activate the Model
Four “forces” are shown in the model of school, family, and community partnerships
that press for more or less overlap of the spheres of influence: (1) family background
characteristics, philosophy, and practices; (2) school characteristics, philosophy/
policy, and practices; (3) community characteristics, policies, and practices; and
(4) time (age of student) and history. These multifaceted forces move the external
structure, creating more or less overlap, and activate the interactions and commu-
nications in the internal structure that create new interactions and exchanges.
The various forces push or pull the spheres of influence from within, based on the
activities for the six types of involvement that are selected, implemented, and improved
over time. In simple terms, if there is greater overlap, there will be room for more
and different kinds of connections, communications, and collaborations between
and among students, parents, teachers, community members, or others involved in
students’ learning and development at home, at school, or in the community.
1. a. Select one of the “forces” that pushes the spheres together or pulls
them apart: school, family, or community backgrounds; philosophies/
policies; practices; or time/history.
b. How do you think the force that you selected might increase or
decrease the shared responsibilities of families and schools? What
about that force would make educators and parents have more or
less contact with each other about students’ work, attitudes,
behavior, health, or other indicators of student success in school?
2. List three variables representing the force you selected that could be
measured to study their influences on school, family, and community
partnerships. Explain why each variable would be a useful measure of the
force that you selected. For example, grade level is one variable that
represents the force of time or history. This variable can be easily
measured and used to study whether connections between home, school,
and community increase or decrease as students move through the grades.

COMMENT
School-Like Families and Family-Like Schools

When educators and families recognize their shared responsibilities and interests in
children’s success in school, the activities and attitudes in both environments tend
to change. Teachers and administrators create more family-like schools. A family-
like school recognizes each child’s individuality and uniqueness, and, like a family,
it makes each child feel special and included. Families create school-like families
through their attitudes and practices. A school-like family recognizes each child as
a student, and, like a school, it reinforces the importance of school, homework, and
activities that build students’ skills, talents, and feelings of success. These construc-
tions and the resulting actions at school and at home help more children define
themselves as students, as well as sons or daughters.
A teacher may say, “I know when a student is having a bad day, and how to ap-
proach the situation. We’re like a family here.” A parent may say, “I keep after my
daughter to let her know that homework comes first—before TV,” or, “My son’s first
job at home is to finish his schoolwork.” A student slips and calls a teacher “Mom”
and then laughs with a mixture of embarrassment and happiness about the error.
As soon as you hear these concepts you will remember examples of schools,
teachers, and classes that were “like a family” to you and activities or events at
home that were “just like school” that supported your work as a student. You may
think of how a teacher paid individual attention to you, recognized your uniqueness,
and praised you for your own progress, just as a parent would. You may recall that
parents, siblings, and other family members engaged in and enjoyed some educa-
tional activities with you and took pride in the good schoolwork or homework that
you did, just as a teacher would. You begin to hear, see, and read about family-like
schools and school-like families in newspapers or magazines, on television, and from
children in your family.
There also are school-like and family-like community groups and organizations.
A local zoo or botanical gardens may be “just like school”—a place to learn. A local
library that welcomes, works with, and cares for students, families, and educators
may feel “like a family.”
1. Describe and discuss one example of a school-like family and one example
of a family-like school that you have experienced, read, or heard about.
2. a. Give one example of how a school-like family and how a family-like
school may be positive forces for children.
b. Give one example of how these could be negative influences.
c. What information might a school give families to help keep their
connections positive?
d. What information might a family give a teacher to help keep their
connections positive?

3. A community also may be family-like and school-like. The statement,
“We’re like a family here,” is often used in community groups, organiz-
ations, and businesses. Some communities, however, are more active than
others in supporting the needs and goals of schools, students, and families.
a. Give one example of an activity that you have read or heard about
that illustrates a family-like community that cares for children as a
family should.
b. Give one example of an activity that you have read or heard about
that illustrates a school-like community that gives children messages
about the importance of school, learning, citizenship, or other issues
that match the messages of home and school.
ACTIVITY
Reading for Understanding
Explore the concepts and terms that other researchers have used for school-like
families or families whose actions at home help their children define themselves as
“students.” Terms such as cultural capital, social capital, funds of knowledge, and
management skills have focused attention on how families gather and use resources
and skills to help their children succeed in school.
A. Read one of the following articles or books by other researchers that

contribute in important ways to the literature on school, family, and
community partnerships.
CULTURAL CAPITAL
Lareau, A. (1987). Social class differences in family-school relationships: The impor-

tance of cultural capital. Sociology of Education 60: 73–85.
———. (1989). Home advantage. Philadelphia: Falmer.
———. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
SOCIAL CAPITAL
Coleman, J. S. (1987). Families and schools. Educational Researcher 16: 32–38.

Lin, N. (2000). Social capital: theory of structure and action. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

FUNDS OF KNOWLEDGE
Moll, L. C., C. Amanti, D. Neff, and N. Gonzalez. (1992). Funds of knowledge for
teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory
into Practice 31: 132–141.
Gonzalez, N., L. C. Moll, and C. Amanti. (Eds.). (2005). Funds of knowledge: Theo-
rizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Baker, D. P., and D. L. Stevenson. (1986). Mothers’ strategies for children’s school achieve-
Useem, E. L. (1992). Middle schools and math groups: Parents’ involvement in chil-
dren’s placement. Sociology of Education 65: 263–279.
ASSETS
Benson, P. (1997). Creating healthy communities for children and adolescents. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Benson, P. L., P. C. Scales, S. F. Hamilton, and A. Sesma Jr. (2006). Positive youth devel-
opment: Theory, research, and application. In W. W. Damon and R. M. Lerner (Eds.),
Handbook of Child Psychology, Volume 1 (pp. 894–941). New York: John Wiley.
INTEGRATED COMMUNITY SERVICES
Dryfoos, J. (1994). Full-service schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Dryfoos, J., and S. Maquire. (2002). Inside full-service community schools. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin.
COMPLEMENTARY AND SUPPLEMENTARY LEARNING
Gordon, E. W., B. L. Bridglall, and A. S. Meroe. (2004). Supplementary education: The

hidden curriculum of high academic achievement. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Lit-
tlefield.
Weiss, H. B., S. M. Bouffard, B. L., Bridglall, and E. W. Gordon. (2009). Reframing
family involvement in education: Supporting families to support educational equity.
Equity Matters: Research Review No. 5. New York: The Campaign for Educational
Equity, Teachers College, Columbia University.
B. 1. Give the full reference for the article, book, or chapter you read, and
write a short summary of the main ideas on family support for
children’s education.
2. Explain whether and how the main ideas correspond to, complement,
or contradict the theory of overlapping spheres of influence.
3. Discuss how the author’s concepts match, contribute to, or differ
from school-like families, family-like schools, family-like communities,
or school-like communities.

COMMENT
Central Role of the Child in School, Family,

and Community Partnerships
The theory of overlapping spheres of influence sets the child at the center of the in-
ternal structure of the model. The assumption is that students are the main actors
in their own education and the primary reason for communications between school
and home. The students must do the work to learn to read, write, calculate, master
other skills, and develop personal talents.
Not only are students responsible for learning, they also are responsible for
whether most communications between school and home have the desired effects.
Studies show that students are often the main source (sometimes the only source)
of information for parents about school and community activities. In strong pro-
grams of school, family, and community partnerships, teachers prepare and encour-
age students to help conduct traditional communications such as delivering memos
or report cards, and new communications such as interactive homework and student-
led parent-teacher-student conferences.
The central role of students in school, family, and community partnerships is sup-
ported by research in this and other countries. For example, early on, Swiss re-
searchers Montandon and Perrenoud (1987) described the child as a “go-between”
who was both the messenger and the message between family and school.
Teachers and parents know that students serve as messengers to transmit infor-
mation from school to home and from home to school. Students also communicate
nonverbally. Their attitudes, facial expressions, and body language tell teachers, par-
ents, coaches, and others a great deal about students’ experiences at home, at school,
and in the community. At different times and in many ways, students speak for
themselves, for their teachers, and for their parents.
1. How do or how should students’ roles in school and family partnerships

change from one grade level to the next?
a. Give one example of a typical activity and one example of an ideal
activity that students conduct to connect home and school at each
school level:
School Level Typical Activity Ideal Activity

Students Conduct to Connect Students Could Conduct to Connect
School and Home School and Home
(1) Preschool
(2) Elementary School
(3) Middle School
(4) High School

2. Students can be guided to be more effective messengers, communicators,
discussants, interactors, demonstrators, and celebrators of new skills.
a. Select a grade level that interests you.
b. Discuss one way in which a teacher at that grade level might inform
students about their roles and responsibilities in school, family, and
c. Discuss one way in which parents might encourage their children at
that grade level to communicate with them about school and
classroom activities.
COMMENT
Understanding Authority
in Theories of Partnership
Underlying the contrasting theories of school, family, and community connections

are questions of who has responsibility and authority for children’s education. What
do parents do? What do teachers do? What does the community do? Where? When?
How well? With what goals? These are questions of control and the division of labor.
By contrast, the model of overlapping spheres requires the multiplication of labor.
Control
Principals, teachers, and district and state leaders may fully control the school or-
ganization or share control and leadership with parents, students, and others in the
community. Principals can make decisions about the school and students’ education
with or without allowing or encouraging teachers, parents, and students to partic-
ipate. Teachers can direct student learning with or without allowing or encouraging
parents to assist.
On their own, some parents become and stay involved in their children’s educa-
tion at home, at school, and in the community, regardless of whether the school
shares control with them. School policies and decisions about control make a dif-
ference, however, in whether there is broad involvement by all parents or limited
involvement by a few parents who are able to obtain information and organize their
own activities and participation.
Division of Labor
Teachers and administrators may stress the separate skills and contributions of
teachers and parents, emphasizing the specialization in their work at school and at
home. Specialization requires expertise in a few well-defined tasks. Teachers who

have been advised to stick to the basics restrict their attention to teaching academic
skills. They may emphasize the tests they give students to show how teachers’ work
differs from that of families.
Teachers who separate school from home may say, “If the family would just do
its job, I could do mine. I could teach these kids.” Families who separate home from
school may say, “I get my child to school each day; then it’s the school’s job to teach
him.” This division of labor reflects early social organizational theory that schools,
families, and other organizations are more efficient and effective if they have sepa-
rate goals and responsibilities to influence different behaviors. The division of labor
reflects a model of separate spheres of influence.
Multiplication of Labor
By contrast, educators and families may stress the combination of skills of teachers
and parents, emphasizing the generalization of their efforts to educate students at
school and at home. When they teach the “whole child,” teachers teach academic
skills and increase their attention to the child’s self-concept, aspirations, social skills,
and talents—some of the traditional responsibilities of parents. When involved in
their children’s education, parents increase their attention to their children’s abil-
ities and mastery of skills, how they get along with other children and adults, and
their future plans for education and work—some of the traditional responsibilities
of teachers.
Shared responsibilities multiply the messages that children receive about the im-
portance of the work they do as students. The multiplication of labor reflects a
model of overlapping spheres of influence and the view that schools, families, and
other community organizations will be more effective, if not always as efficient,
when they work together to promote student success.
Thus, schools can be characterized by sole or shared control with families, by a
strict division and separation of labor, or by the multiplication and “overlap” of
labor concerning students’ learning. These are not mutually exclusive concepts, and
both are pictured in the model of overlapping spheres of influence.
1. Why is it important for children to receive common messages about the

importance of school from their teachers, their families, and their
communities? In addition to giving common messages, what is one other
way in which schools, families, and communities might multiply their
resources to assist students?
2. When might it be important to maintain a division of labor between
school and home? Give one example of when it would be good for
children to hear a unique message from home or from school.
3. Which groups or organizations in a community do you think are most

likely to demonstrate a multiplication of labor to assist students’ learning
and development?
COMMENT
Mutual Respect of Teachers and Parents
All discussions about school, family, and community partnerships begin with a call
for mutual respect between teachers and parents, teachers and other family mem-
bers, students and teachers, business partners and educators. A perceived lack of re-
spect is often given as the reason for the lack of communication and interactions
among the home, school, and community. This becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy,
making the history of poor communication the reason for perpetuating separate
spheres of influence. Parents’ and teachers’ respect, appreciation, recognition, and
admiration for each other and for the work they do separately and together with
children are represented in the structure and processes of the model of overlapping
spheres of influence.
Parents and teachers establish respect for each other in different ways when they
work in separate or overlapping spheres of influence on children’s learning. In or-
ganizations that maintain separate spheres of influence, parents may receive respect
for their home training and child raising. Depending on one’s perspective, a “good
mother” may have a well-behaved or creative child or a child who is both. Teachers
are respected for their school lessons and educational programs. A “good teacher”
may make tough demands on students or conduct highly engaging classes or do both.
Traditionally, teachers’ expertise is based on professional training; parents’ ex-
pertise is based on successful home management. When the emphasis is on the effi-
ciency of separate organizations, respect for teachers and parents is site specific,
based on the role of the adults in each setting and the distinct jobs they do.
In organizations that support overlapping spheres of influence, respect is extended
to parents and teachers who work well together and who fulfill shared responsibil-
ities for the education and socialization of children across the school years. In over-
lapping spheres of influence, parents and teachers require information about each
other’s goals to be knowledgeable partners and responsive to student needs. When
the emphasis is on overlapping influence, respect for teachers and parents is student
specific, based on the combined interests and efforts of teachers, parents, students,
and others across settings to support and encourage learning and development.
1. Why do you think the concept of respect is so powerful as the basis for
school, family, and community partnerships? Which do you think comes
first, respect or partnership? Explain your answer.

2. Give examples from your reading or experience of:
a. Respect by teachers and parents for the separate work of families
and schools.
b. Respect by teachers and parents for the shared or overlapping work
of families and schools.
3. How do the theories of social behavior (e.g., symbolic interactionism or
reference group theory) described in Reading 2.1 help to explain how
respect is developed in school, family, and community partnerships?
a. Select and identify one social or behavioral theory discussed in
Reading 2.1.
b. Describe two ways in which the assumptions of the theory you
selected increase or decrease mutual respect between teachers and
parents or between teachers and citizens of the community.
COMMENT
Shared Responsibilities: Who Teaches What?

What Families Do, but Schools Do Too
Families are responsible for teaching children about their cultural background, val-
ues, religious beliefs, manners, and other important aspects of life. Many families
also take responsibility for developing their children’s talents. They reward their
children’s successes and redirect failures. Increasingly, schools share some of these
responsibilities. Programs and intergroup processes in many schools nurture stu-
dents’ self-respect and increase their knowledge, tolerance, and appreciation of other
students’ cultural backgrounds and values. Some teachers and some school and
community programs help students develop self-confidence, manners, sportsman-
ship, and talents as much as or more than some families.
Parents are expected to act as advocates, liaisons, and buffers for their children,
protecting and advancing their children’s rights to participate in school programs
and to receive needed social, health, and educational services. Some families fulfill
these responsibilities easily, whereas other families need information and assistance
to fulfill them. Increasingly, schools provide these protections and share information
with families so that they become more knowledgeable about how to work with
the school, school system, and community on behalf of their children.
What Schools Do, but Families Do Too
Schools have a major responsibility for helping students develop independence and
self-reliance because teachers cannot give all students instant individual attention.
By their practices, however, some schools foster children’s dependence on the teacher.
For example, some teachers give students few opportunities to design and conduct
projects, answer questions that have more than one right answer, or develop their

individual talents. Some families at all economic levels influence their children’s de-
velopment of independence as much as or more than some schools.
Schools are responsible for helping students learn school subjects and gain aca-
demic and intellectual skills. Teachers’ daily, focused, and challenging lessons in-
crease students’ abilities to read, write, compute, think, and apply their knowledge
in useful and creative ways. In partnership with schools, some families at all eco-
nomic levels boost their children’s knowledge and skills with numerous learning ac-
tivities at home in reading, writing, computing, thinking, and solving problems.
Some schools and teachers guide all or most parents to conduct activities and
interactions at home that support and enhance children’s learning. In some cases,
the creative and useful activities at home increase student learning as much as or
more than the activities at some schools.
These and many other examples illustrate why it is hard to determine “Whose
job is it?” to help students develop knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and talents.
For students, learning is not limited in time or place but occurs in school, at home,
and in the community. These complex factors underlie the concept and model of
overlapping spheres of influence.
1. Describe two traditional “teachings” of families that are aided by the

actions of schools.
2. Describe two traditional “teachings” of schools that are aided by the
actions of families.
3. Describe two traditional “teachings” of communities that are aided by
the actions of families and/or schools.
4. Think about how children learn. Discuss your views on these questions:
a. Is it possible for children to separate what is learned at home from
what is learned at school or in the community? Give one example to
support your view.
b. Identify one school subject that is likely to be strongly influenced (1)
by school, (2) by home, and (3) by the community. Are any of your
examples solely influenced by one context? Explain.
c. How might your ideas on A and B affect the development of
programs of school, family, and community partnerships?
COMMENT
Partnerships Subsume Parental Involvement
When educators talk about parental involvement, they often put all of the respon-
sibility on parents to connect with teachers and administrators and to become in-
volved with their children at home. By contrast, the term school, family, and

community partnerships assigns responsibilities to schools, to families, and to com-
munities to share information, ideas, activities, and services with each other about
schools and children’s education.
Some researchers, educators, and others use terms like parent engagement or par-
ent participation. These terms still focus on the actions and efforts by parents but
hide the requirement for schools and communities to take responsibility for orga-
nizing programs that make it possible for all parents to become involved in their
children’s education in productive ways. When the focus is only on parents, we lose
sight of the importance of school programs that assist parents and engage commu-
nity partners in exciting and important goal-linked activities that support student
learning and development.
Developing programs of school, family, and community partnerships in schools
and districts gives all families more equal opportunities to become involved in their
children’s education and development, rather than just a few. The broader term also
makes room for students as key members of the partnership because they are influ-
enced by all three contexts—home, school, and community—and recognizes that
students are the main actors in their education. Swap (1992) contrasted programs
that separate and isolate parents with those that build good partnerships, and showed
clearly that educators’ philosophies about involvement affect the actions they take.
As noted in Reading 2.2, the broader, better term school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships is necessary to increase equity of involvement. Equity aims for
equal opportunities for parents to become involved in their children’s education,
equal feelings of welcome at a school, equal evidence of respect from schools for
parents’ roles, and, in two-way communications, equal respect from parents for teach-
ers’ efforts in promoting students’ success.
As noted in Reading 2.2, the term partnership for programs that involve families
and communities in education has been chosen with care. It has a history of mean-
ings, connections, and examples in other fields, particularly in business, that
strengthen the meaning of partnerships in education. The term will not go out of
favor as a whim or fad in education. It stands for some important interactions.
1. a. Do you think that school, family, and community partnerships is a

better term than parent involvement for studying the connections of
teachers, parents, and others and for developing practical programs in
elementary, middle, and high schools? Why or why not?
b. List other terms that you have seen, heard, or read that refer to
family and community involvement (e.g., home-school relations,
caring community). Select one term on your list, and compare its
usefulness to the term school, family, and community partnerships.
2. How many similarities and differences can you think of in comparing
the concepts of partnerships in business and in home, school, and
community connections? Following are two examples:

Concept of Partnerships Partners in Education and in Business
• shared responsibilities Recognize their responsibilities to each other, to the

“product,” and to the public
• shared investments Put in the necessary time to reach their goals in business
a.Give two more examples of similarities between partnerships in

business and school, family, and community partnerships in
education. State the concept, and explain the similarities in intent or
actions.
b. Give two examples of differences between partnerships in business
and school, family, and community partnerships in education. State
the concept, and explain the differences in intent or actions.
3. a. How might the following terms guide teachers, parents, and
community members to work as partners to increase children’s
success in school?
To ensure this quality: Teachers, parents, and community partners

could take this action:
(1) Unity
(2) Commitment
(3) Trust
(4) Obligation
(5) Assurance
COMMENT
The Influence of History on Theory
Reading 2.1 argues that changing times require changing theories. The concept of
overlapping spheres of influence reflects social changes that have affected families,
schools, and communities over the past half century. Four trends were discussed
that altered the relationships of schools, families, and communities, reducing their
separate responsibilities and increasing shared responsibilities:
1. More mothers have higher education and are prepared to work on an

equal status with teachers.
2. Baby and child care books and media guide families through the infant,
toddler, and early childhood years and prepare them to seek information
and advice as their children continue to grow through later childhood,
early adolescence, and adolescence.

3. Federal regulations and federal, state, and local policies reinforce the
importance of the involvement of all families in their children’s
education, including economically disadvantaged families and families
that speak languages other than English at home. Over time, starting in
the 1960s, federal, state, and district policies have directed schools to
conduct programs that will increase family and community involvement
in ways that support student achievement and success in school.
4. Changes in family structure (including more mothers working, more
single parents, and more diverse family groups, such as blended families,
same-gender parents, and families in transition) require educators to
understand the diversity among family forms and to provide all families
with good information so they can make productive use of limited time
together. Employed parents, homeless families, and other critical
conditions require schools and communities to provide services to assist
families with the supervision of children before and after school, during
the summer, and in major vacation periods.
The demands on schools have increased educators’ awareness that they cannot
do the job of educating children alone. Educators have learned that they need fam-
ilies and communities as partners in children’s education. Similarly, the complexities
and demands in family life have increased parents’ awareness that they need their
schools and communities as partners to increase their children’s chances for success.
1. Select one historic trend listed above that interests you.

a. Give one example of how the trend you selected might promote
successful partnerships with families.
b. Give one example of how the trend you selected might create
problems for schools or for families. Explain how that problem
might be solved.
2. Parents with more formal education and those with less formal education
are increasingly interested and involved in their children’s education.
Discuss why you think these simultaneous (and seemingly contradictory)
trends are important for the design and implementation of programs of
COMMENT
Changing the Question
Family environments and activities influence student learning and success in school.
From the 1960s to today, studies in sociology, psychology, and education have been

conducted on whether and how families and home environments influence children’s
achievement and which family practices affect children’s development, learning, and
success. I call these “first-generation” studies of home and school connections. The
results of almost all such studies show that children do better in school on many
measures if their parents support and encourage school activities. This is a social
fact in children’s education and development.
There still are many questions to ask about family influences on children at all
grade levels and in diverse cultural, linguistic, and community contexts. However,
the consistent and confirmatory results on the importance of families in children’s
lives prompted me to ask a new question that changed the way that I think about
and study school, family, and community partnerships: IF families are so important,
HOW can schools and communities help more families become and stay involved
in their children’s education—especially parents who would not, typically, become
involved on their own?
You will read studies in this book and in other books and journals that ask what
educators, parents, and others can do to develop effective programs to involve all
families and communities in children’s education and in schools. I call these “second-
generation” studies of home, school, and community partnerships, because they
change researchers’ attention from questions about the importance of families to a
harder question about the structures and processes in schools’ programs that may
increase the equity of outreach to all families and their involvement in their chil-
dren’s education at all grade levels. Because surveys of parents from all backgrounds
and cultures show that they want to be able to guide and assist their children at all
grade levels, new studies should focus on the nature of programs and practices that
help all parents—particularly those who would not otherwise become involved on
their own—to support their children’s learning and development through high
school graduation and beyond.
1. In your view, what is the difference between the two lines of research that
explore (1) if and how families are important for student success (first-
generation studies) and (2) if and how schools can develop programs to
involve all families in their children’s education (second-generation
studies)? Discuss your ideas about why each focus is important for
understanding students’ success in school.
2. Read these two sentences:
a. It is important for all children to be ready for school.
b. It is important for all schools to be ready for children and their
families.
(1) How are the two sentences linked in meaning?
(2) How do these two sentences differ in meaning?
(3) Give one idea of how each of these sentences is informed by first-
generation studies of family involvement and by second-
generation studies of school, family, and community partnerships.

COMMENT
Does Family Involvement in a Specific Subject Generalize

to Help Students Succeed in Other Subjects?
It is important to learn whether and how specific practices of involvement produce

particular results for students in the short term and over the long term. As Reading
2.2 suggests, family involvement with children in reading at home may lead students,
first, to be motivated to read and to pay greater attention to instruction in reading
class. This may help students gain reading skills in the short term and, if their mo-
tivation is sustained, in the long term.
Over time, involvement in reading may lead to family discussions and interac-
tions with children about other subjects. Also, after learning how to involve families
in reading, teachers may, over time, improve the quality of the information they give
to families about how to interact with their children in other subjects.
Subject-specific interactions at home may help children see that their families are
interested in all aspects of their education. Initial support from families in reading,
then, may translate into more serious work by students in many school subjects
and activities. This line of events and effects may progress at different rates, de-
pending on how much the school informs and involves families about their chil-
dren’s education.
In surveys of students, most students report that their families believe education
is important (MetLife, 2008). But not all of these students succeed in reading, math,
and other subjects. Not all students who say that their families value education
graduate from high school on time. Indeed, most families who believe education is
important are not presently involved in school-related learning activities at home
unless their children’s teachers guide these interactions.
There are many unanswered questions about the paths between parents’ beliefs
about education, activities initiated by teachers to reach out to families, families’
responses, students’ motivation to learn, students’ work in school, and students’
achievement in specific subjects and overall success in school.
1. Draw and label a diagram with paths that show how family involvement
in one activity (e.g., involvement in reading aloud or listening to a child
read) might lead to family involvement in other subjects.
2. Draw and label a diagram with paths that show how the effects of family
involvement on student learning might “travel” from family involvement
in a specific subject (e.g., reading) to improved student achievement in
that subject, other subjects, and success in school overall.

ACTIVITY
Next Questions
Many topics need more attention in research on whether and how school programs
and practices can effectively involve all families in supporting, guiding, and encour-
aging students to do their best in school. Here are six topics that need more and
better studies:
Transitions. Which practices of school, family, and community partnerships

are needed at important points of transitions when children move from
elementary to middle to high school, or from one grade level to the next,
or at unexpected times when students change schools or change teachers?
Results of Family and Community Involvement. What are the results of
specific types and practices of school, family, and community
partnership for students, parents, teachers, and the school community?
Community Connections. How can we better understand and activate the
resources in communities that contribute to comprehensive programs of
school, family, and community partnerships and to results for students?
Students’ Roles. What active roles must students play at all grade levels in
programs of school, family, and community partnerships?
Involving Fathers. What practices to involve all who “parent” children
(mothers, fathers, grandparents, foster parents, and others) are most
effective in engaging fathers and father figures, who have typically been
less actively involved with the schools and in their children’s education?
Collaborations in Research. How can researchers, policy leaders, and
educators most effectively collaborate in developing, maintaining, and
evaluating programs of school, family, and community partnerships that
make a difference for student success?
Many topics and many issues are embedded in these six questions.
1. Select one of the six topics/questions listed above that interests you.
2. a. From the readings in this chapter, summarize two results from prior
research that you believe are “basic” for understanding the topic you
selected and that would benefit from more and better studies in the
future.
b. Write one clear question that you believe would extend knowledge
on the topic that you selected. Explain in a few sentences why you
think your new question is important.

FIELD EXPERIENCE
Interview to Discover How Theory Works in Practice
There are some things that families do on their own (nonoverlapping spheres of in-
fluence) and some things that families do with information and support from or in
collaboration with schools, other families, and the community (overlapping spheres
of influence). Interview two parents individually who have different socioeconomic
situations or who live in different neighborhoods.
A. Briefly describe the two parents you interviewed and the features of their
economic conditions or neighborhoods.
B. Ask each one the following questions, and record their responses.
What is one topic, problem, or decision concerning your child’s
development or education that you discuss as a family with:
1. little or no information or influence from the school, community, or
other families?
Parent 1
Parent 2
2. some or most information or influence from the school?
Parent 1
Parent 2
3. some or most information or influence from the community?
Parent 1
Parent 2
4. some or most information or influence from other families?
Parent 1
Parent 2
C. How did the responses from the two parents differ? How were their
responses similar? What surprised you in their responses? Summarize
your views on how the two families make decisions or resolve problems
about child raising, independently or with school, family, and
community connections.
D. Compare summaries in class to determine how other families in different
socioeconomic situations work within the nonoverlapping and
overlapping spheres of influence in raising children.
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3
Research
S TARTING WITH A STATEWIDE STUDY of teachers, parents, students, and adminis-

trators in six hundred elementary schools in Maryland in 1980 and 1981,
my colleagues and I began to learn about practices of partnership that were
used by teachers, guided by principals and district leaders, aligned with state and
district policy, desired by families, and responsive to students. We examined how
often and in what ways teachers and their schools involved parents, whether and
how parents’ social class and marital status affected their involvement, and how
elementary school students understood and reacted to connections between their
families and teachers. We studied the results of partnerships on the attitudes and prac-
tices of teachers, the actions and behaviors of parents, and the attitudes and achieve-
ments of students.
The early studies provided systematic, quantitative analyses of the nature and
extent of family involvement in the elementary grades. The data raised many ques-
tions about existing theories of effective school organizations and effective families
and communities and led to the development of the theory of overlapping spheres
of influence (see Chapter 2, Reading 2.1).
In 1987, we began field studies with educators, families, and students in urban
elementary and middle schools. This research—a collaborative effort with the Bal-
timore City Public Schools and a community organization, the Fund for Educational
Excellence, in Baltimore—increased understanding of how involvement changes
across the grades, by teachers of different subjects, for parents from various racial
and cultural groups, and in schools that are guided to systematically organize their
programs of partnership with families and communities.
In 1991, we started a series of field studies to learn how to define, organize, and
study school, family, and community partnerships at the high school level. This re-
search in urban, suburban, and rural settings identified how to expand the language
and actions of partnership for educators, parents, and students through the twelfth
grade. These studies reinforced and extended our understanding of the important
roles students play in school, family, and community partnerships.
The early studies and the research that continues today aim to improve knowl-
edge about whether and how family, school, and community connections improve
91
school organization and assist student learning and development across the grades,
from preschool through high school.
This chapter presents data from teachers, parents, and students on the nature
and results of school-based partnership programs. See Chapter 4 for research, policy,
and program development at the district and state levels.
DATA FROM TEACHERS
Readings 3.1 and 3.2 report results of a survey of nearly 3,700 teachers in about six
hundred elementary schools in the state of Maryland. The survey, conducted in 1980,
was one of the first large-scale studies of teacher attitudes and practices of involve-
ment that also included data from administrators, parents, and students in the same
schools and classrooms. In addition to the survey data, we analyzed teachers’ written
comments and concerns about school and family connections. Their reports revealed
that some teachers were farther along on this agenda than others. That is, some teach-
ers knew how to reach parents whom other teachers did not reach. We learned many
things from these teacher-leaders that subsequently helped us help other educators
to develop their programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
In 1987, we collected data from teachers and parents in the elementary and mid-
dle grades in Baltimore City. With these data, we tested the theory of overlapping
spheres of influence and explored and extended research on the major types of in-
volvement. Reading 3.3 reports the attitudes and practices of teachers in urban el-
ementary and middle schools that served a majority of African American students
and families in economically distressed neighborhoods.
The data show that teachers’ ideas and behaviors are more positive if they believe
that their school as a whole is working to involve families. Some teachers commu-
nicate effectively with families regardless of parents’ race, formal education, neigh-
borhood, or school context. These teachers’ efforts and successes suggest that other
teachers could do the same if they were helped to use similar strategies for develop-
ing partnerships, particularly if they are supported by the administrators and other
teachers in the school. Data from teachers and reports from parents in the same
schools (see Reading 3.6) document changes in the practices of partnerships that
typically occur from the elementary to the middle grades in schools that have not
started to organize partnership programs.
DATA FROM PARENTS
Three readings present results of research on parents’ reactions to and involvement

in their children’s education, with data from families who are in the same schools
as the teachers described above. Reading 3.4 presents data from a survey of parents
of students in six hundred elementary schools in Maryland. Reading 3.5 takes a
closer look at these data to explore patterns of participation of single and married
parents in their children’s education.
92 RESEARCH
These data help explain why earlier ideas about parental involvement were lim-
ited by their inattention to whether schools and teachers were conducting practices
to involve all parents. Omitting measures of what schools and teachers do to en-
courage and increase the involvement of all families distorts an understanding of the
involvement of single parents, those with less formal education or low income, and
mothers who work outside the home. Many of these families rely on information
and guidance from schools to help them organize their admittedly limited time and
to enable them to remain involved in their children’s education at each grade level.
Reading 3.6 reports data from parents of elementary and middle school students
in urban schools that were beginning to plan and implement practices of partner-
ship. Conventional wisdom is that low-income families, racial minorities, single par-
ents, and parents with less formal education are not and do not want to be involved
in their children’s education. Presently, in many schools, this belief is partly true.
These families tend not to be as involved as other families. But the statement also
is partly false. These families want to be involved. Indeed, in all of the surveys we
conducted since 1980, just about all parents report that they try to remain involved
at home in their children’s schooling, but they need more and better information to
know what to do that will help their child each year.
In schools that are actively working to develop partnership programs that reach
out to and involve all families, the conventional wisdom is completely false. In these
schools, just about all parents are informed and involved in their children’s educa-
tion in important ways each year (Epstein et al., 2009; see also the section “Success
Stories” at www.partnershipschools.org).
DATA FROM STUDENTS
The last three readings in this chapter are based on data from elementary school
students who were in the classrooms of teachers who varied in their practices of in-
volving families in their children’s education. Reading 3.7 reports the effects on stu-
dent achievement of school programs that involve families in learning activities at
home. This study reveals an important subject-specific connection. Involvement by
parents in a particular subject at home—here, in reading—leads to gains in student
achievement in that subject.
Reading 3.8 explores how homework creates three-way connections among stu-
dent, teacher, and family. Reading 3.9 uses data from a survey of fifth-grade students
to better understand their views about homework and parent involvement and their
attitudes toward school. We wanted to learn whether teachers’ practices to involve
families affected students’ perceptions of the congruency between home and school
and whether students’ homework habits were affected by teachers’ practices to in-
volve families. We also wanted to see if reports from teachers, principals, and stu-
dents about parent involvement produced similar results on these measures.
The results of these analyses influenced a new line of research and development
to help teachers design new forms of interactive homework to involve families in
various school subjects to boost student achievement (see Chapter 6 on practical
approaches to homework design).
RESEARCH 93
SUMMARY
One of the most consistent results in the various surveys that we and other re-
searchers have conducted in the United States and other countries is that teachers
have very different views of parents than parents have of themselves. Most teachers
do not know parents’ hopes and dreams for their children or their questions about
parenting children at different age and grade levels, nor do they understand what
parents presently do at home to help their children.
Similarly, neither parents nor teachers fully understand what students think about
school, family, and community partnerships. Indeed, most adults believe that stu-
dents want to avoid or minimize family involvement in their education. Data from
students from the elementary grades through high school suggest the opposite. Stu-
dents want families to be knowledgeable partners with their schools in their educa-
tion and available as helpful sources of information and assistance at home.
Although the readings in this chapter and other studies show that there are con-
nections between family involvement and student achievement, there is still much
to learn about which practices produce positive results for student learning. We need
to learn how, when, for whom, and why particular practices increase students’ skills
and scores in specific subjects. The readings, discussion topics, and activities in this
chapter raise new questions for research on the effects of school, family, and com-
munity partnerships on student learning and development.
Data from teachers, parents, and students can be gathered with various research
methods, including surveys, experimental and quasi-experimental studies, inter-
views, focus or discussion groups, and other strategies. Whichever study designs
and methods of inquiry are used, one group’s perspective—educators, parents, or
students—alone will not provide an accurate base on which to plan better programs
or practices of partnerships.
The readings in this chapter illustrate why it is important to measure and account
for teachers’, parents’, and students’ views to identify gaps in knowledge that each
has about the other. These studies also illuminate the common interests of teachers,
parents, and students in developing better communications between home and
school. This chapter should give you a good understanding of the early, basic re-
search on school, family, and community partnerships and the results of initial stud-
ies of teachers, parents, and students. The early studies and the comments, discussion
topics, and activities in this chapter suggest many new questions that can be studied
now with rigorous methods to advance the field.
REFERENCE
Epstein, et al. (2009). School, family, and community partnerships: Your handbook for action
(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
94 RESEARCH
READING 3.1
Parent Involvement: A Survey of Teacher Practices*
Teachers approach their instructional tasks with a variety of perspectives and strate-
gies that emphasize certain aspects of teaching and de-emphasize others. For exam-
ple, some teachers teach language skills using organized games, whereas other
teachers teach the same skills by direct instruction. Teachers adopt different ap-
proaches to the same subject matter partly because their teaching situations differ.
Their students may have different learning problems, or their classrooms may have
varied resources and facilities. Even in the same teaching situation, however, teachers
may vary the instructional techniques they use depending on the particular skills
and talents they have for using various materials and forms of instruction or the in-
fluences of their college training, supervisors, or colleagues. In a particular situation,
for a certain type of student, which is the most effective teaching strategy? That is
the most difficult question in the world of education and research.
One general approach that some teachers have found useful is to involve parents
in learning activities with their children at home. This type of parent involvement
is distinctly different from the parent involvement that brings parents into the class-
room to assist the teacher or the parent involvement that includes parents as par-
ticipants in decisions on school governance. Parent involvement in learning activities
is a strategy for increasing the educational effectiveness of the time that parents and
children spend with one another at home.
As with most educational strategies, there are different opinions about the likely
effectiveness of teacher efforts to get parents to be more active in learning-related
activities at home. Some educators believe that widespread parent interest in the ac-
ademic progress of their children constitutes an immensely underutilized teaching
resource, requiring only general guidance and modest effort to bring results in many
cases. Pointing out the major competing time commitments of parents and teachers
and the highly variable instructional skills of parents, others have suggested that all
teaching of academic skills should be left to the teacher in the classroom. They sug-
gest that little if any effort should be made by educators to influence parent-child
academic-related interaction patterns at home.
There is very little information to support or refute either position. Research that
systematically relates teachers’ efforts to stimulate parent involvement in learning
activities at home to the effects of this strategy on students and their families has
not been conducted. Up to now, there has been very little research even to indicate
how much teachers focus their activities in this direction. However, there are several
studies showing that parents can influence student achievement and social develop-
ment (Leichter, 1974; Lightfoot, 1978; Marjoribanks, 1979).
* By Henry Jay Becker and Joyce L. Epstein. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the teachers
and administrators in Maryland for their time and interest in this study. The research was supported by
the National Institute of Education, Grant NIE-G-80-0113. No official endorsement of the authors’
opinions by the NIE should be inferred. Reprinted with permission from Elementary School Journal 83
(1982): 85–102.
RESEARCH 95
To measure how elementary school teachers feel about parent involvement in
home learning as a teaching strategy and to see how widespread this teaching strat-
egy is, we conducted a formal survey of first-, third-, and fifth-grade school teachers
in most of the public schools in the state of Maryland in spring 1980. This survey
was the first phase of an ongoing study that will give teachers and administrators
information about the effects of these parent involvement strategies on the educators
who use them and on the parents and students who are affected by them.
SURVEY RESPONDENTS
The survey’s results describe the teaching practices and professional attitudes of ap-
proximately 3,700 public elementary school teachers in more than 600 schools in
16 of the 24 school districts in Maryland. In the 15 districts that offered full coop-
eration with the project, the response rate was 73 percent of the teachers selected
as participants in the study. In the remaining district, where access to teachers was
limited, the response rate was only 35 percent. The study also includes information
from more than 600 elementary school principals in the state who responded to a
brief questionnaire on parent involvement programs in the school.
Table 3.1 describes the characteristics of the 3,698 teacher respondents. Approx-
imately 28 percent of the survey respondents are first-grade teachers, 30 percent
teach third grade, 29 percent teach fifth grade, and 13 percent are either reading or
math specialists or others whom the principal designated as important contacts for
a study of parent involvement (e.g., parent involvement coordinators).
Approximately 90 percent of elementary teachers are female; of the male teach-
ers, about 70 percent teach the fifth grade. About 20 percent of the sample is black,
and more than 60 percent of the black teachers are in a major central city district.
The teachers range in age from their early twenties to their seventies, with most
teachers (38 percent) in their thirties, born between 1940 and 1949. Approximately
half of the teachers have taught for more than 10 years, and of the rest, most have
taught at least 5 years. Nearly half have graduate school degrees. Although a ma-
jority of teachers teach a single class of children both reading and mathematics,
team teaching and departmentalization of instruction are common. For example,
among fifth-grade teachers, 75 percent report some form of nontraditional teaching
arrangement.
The responding teachers are representative of their profession in the state, and
they reflect the broad range of geographic and socioeconomic variation in their stu-
dent populations. The state’s large metropolitan population and several smaller
urban and rural areas are represented in the statistics in Table 3.1, as is the range
of parents that are college educated, high school educated, and less educated.
The questionnaire for teachers requested information on what teachers think
about parent involvement strategies and how they practice them. The survey focused
on 14 specific techniques that teachers may employ to encourage parents’ partici-
pation in learning activities with their children.
96 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.1 Characteristics of Teachers in Survey*
Teacher Characteristics Respondents (%)
Grade level:
Grade 1 28
Grade 3 30
Grade 5 29
Other reading, math, parent involvement specialists 13
Sex:
Female 91
Male 9
Race:
White 78
Black 21
Other 1
Education:
Bachelor’s 12
B.A. or B.A. plus credits 40
Master’s 26
Master’s and credits or doctorate 21
Experience:
1–5 years teaching 17
6–10 years teaching 32
Over 10 years 51
Class assignments:
Teach single class all day 55
Teach several classes during day 45
Location of school district:

Rural/small town/small city 32
Suburban ring of metropolitan area 49
Central city of metropolitan area 19
Students’ parents’ education (teachers’ estimates)

Majority did not complete high school 25
Majority are high school but not college graduates 52
Majority are college graduates 23
* N = 3,698.
Overall, the survey results indicate a very positive view of parent-oriented teach-
ing strategies and widespread, although not intensive, use of these 14 teaching tech-
niques. The next sections describe teachers’ attitudes about parent involvement,
reported practices, and some of the differences in opinions and practices among
teachers who responded to the survey.
RESEARCH 97
TRADITIONAL TEACHER-PARENT COMMUNICATIONS
Some forms of communication and contact between parents and teachers are nearly
universal. Virtually all teachers (over 95 percent of the respondents) report that they
talk with children’s parents, send notices home, and interact with parents on open-
school nights. Approximately 90 percent of the teachers ask parents to check and
sign students’ homework. These standard parent-teacher communications have be-
come accepted ways of bridging the information gap and the sense of distance felt
by teachers and parents who may be strangers to one another but who share com-
mon interests in the same children. Based on their questionnaire responses and the
comments initiated on the survey form, teachers clearly support the use of these
standard patterns of interaction with parents.
However, the survey shows considerable variation in the ways that teachers con-
duct these standard interactions with parents and in the topics teachers emphasize
in these discussions. For example, 65 percent of the teachers report that they discuss
“with each parent” what they can do at home with their children; the other 35 per-
cent discuss this topic “as the need arises,” which may mean once, twice, or never.
Similarly, most teachers discuss with all parents how they teach reading and math
in their classrooms, but some do this only with a few parents. More significantly,
many teachers who discuss their own teaching methods with parents do not talk
about parents’ responsibilities with homework, and many who discuss helping with
homework do not discuss their own teaching methods.
Only a minority of teachers initiate interactions with parents that go beyond
what is traditionally expected of them. Although nearly 80 percent of the teachers
conduct more than three parent conferences in a school year, only 7 percent initiate
three or more group meetings or workshops for parents apart from school-sponsored
parents’ nights. Generally, teachers who conduct workshops for parents are the ones
who most actively emphasize the teaching role of parents at home.
Principals of the schools in which teachers were surveyed reported near-universal
support of traditional parent-teacher communications. Approximately 95 percent
of the principals report that they have a PTA or PTO, and about half report an
active parents’ advisory council associated with Title I or other programs. These
standard organizations for parent participation usually have a core of active par-
ents; approximately half of the principals report that more than 20 parents are
actively involved in meetings and activities each month. Of course, even 20 parents
active in developing schoolwide and school-community activities is only a small
fraction of the parents who may become involved in activities that concern their
own children.
Like the teachers, principals generally support the concept of parent involvement.
Most of the principals have strong opinions in favor of parent volunteers in the
classroom, and nearly three out of five report that they have held staff meetings or
workshops during the school year that focused on methods for helping parents work
with their children at home.
98 RESEARCH
THE FEASIBILITY OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT
The teachers’ responses to the questionnaire suggest that many teachers believe par-
ent involvement at home could be an important contributor toward achieving the
goals they have set for themselves and their students. At the same time, many teach-
ers do not know how to initiate and accomplish the programs of parent involvement
that would help them most. This dilemma is suggested by responses to six statements
in the questionnaire about the value of parent involvement strategies. Figure 3.1
contains the wording of these items and graphs of the teachers’ responses.
On two of the six items, there was a good deal of agreement. Most teachers feel
that parent involvement is an important factor in solving the problems faced by
schools and that parent involvement in the classroom is useful for increasing parent
Can Parent Involvement Work? Maryland elementary school teachers . . .

Agree
Disagree
In this country, parent involvement

is not an answer to the major problems
of the schools—the schools must solve
their problems on their own.
Teachers can only provide parents with

ideas about how to help with their
children’s schoolwork—teachers cannot
influence parents to use these ideas.
Most parents—although they can teach

their children to sew, use tools, or play
a sport—do not have enough training
to teach their children to read or to
solve math problems.
Realistically, it is too much to ask

parents to spend a full hour per day
working with their children on basic
skills or academic achievement.
If parents regularly spend time in the

classroom, one result is that they usually
make a greater effort to help their
children at home.
Many parents want more information

sent home about the curriculum than
most teachers provide.
FIGURE 3.1 Opinions of Maryland Teachers about Parent Involvement
RESEARCH 99
learning assistance at home. On the other four items, teacher opinion was divided
concerning whether teachers can actually influence parents to help their children at
home, whether most parents have sufficient skills to teach their children to read or
solve math problems, whether it is fair to ask parents to spend an hour each evening
working with their children on school-related activities, and whether parents want
to know more about the school curriculum than they are usually told.
Although almost three-quarters of the teachers agreed that the general idea of
parent involvement is a good one, approximately half of the teachers had serious
doubts about the success of practical efforts to involve parents in learning activities
at home. This should not come as a surprise. Teachers have not been educated in
the management of parent involvement, the teachers’ and parents’ time is finite,
teachers and the parents have different skills and often diverse goals for the children,
and teachers and parents may have many children (and other family obligations)
that require a share of their time and interest. Despite these real difficulties, some
teachers have developed procedures that enable them to select and manage parent
involvement programs.
FOURTEEN TECHNIQUES TO INVOLVE PARENTS
Teachers were asked several questions about each of 14 specific teaching techniques
that involve parents in learning activities at home with their children. These tech-
niques, as well as others added by the teachers, can be grouped into five categories:
(1) techniques that involve reading and books; (2) techniques that encourage discus-
sions between parent and child; (3) techniques that specify certain informal activities
at home to stimulate learning; (4) contracts between teacher and parents that specify
a particular role for parents in connection with their children’s school lessons or ac-
tivities; and (5) techniques that develop parents’ tutoring, helping, teaching, or eval-
uation skills. The graphs in Figure 3.2 summarize how often the teachers in our
survey use the 14 techniques, grouped according to these five categories.
Techniques Involving Reading and Books
One of the most frequently mentioned home-learning activities for parents to con-
duct with preschool and elementary school children is reading. It is not surprising
that the teachers in our survey reported that parent-child reading is their most used
parent involvement technique. Two-thirds of the teachers said they frequently ask
parents to read to their children or listen to the children read, and more than one-
fifth named this activity as the most valuable parent involvement technique in their
own teaching practices. Parent involvement in reading activities is a more prevalent
teaching practice among teachers of younger children. For example, only one-third
of the fifth-grade teachers make active use of this technique in their practice, whereas
seven out of eight first-grade teachers do so. The decline in use of this technique
may be because teachers of older students see less need for assigning read-aloud
100 RESEARCH
Evaluation Unrealistic to expect parent cooperation
Categories: “no support”
Parents do not have sufficient skills
Workable, but did not use this year “passive support”
Used a few times this year
Used MANY TIMES this year “active support”
The MOST SATISFYING parent involvement techniques
ACTIVITIES EMPHASIZING READING

Ask parents to read to their
child regularly or to listen
to the child read aloud.
Loan books, workbooks, etc.,

to parents to keep at home
for short periods as extra
learning material.
Ask parents to take their

child to the library.
LEARNING THROUGH DISCUSSION

Ask parents to get their child
to talk about what he or she
did that day in your classroom.
Give an assignment that

requires the children to ask
their parents questions, for
example, the children write
their parents’ experience.
Ask parents (one or more) to

watch a specific television
program with their child and
to discuss the show afterwards.
INFORMAL LEARNING ACTIVITIES AT HOME

Suggest ways for parents to
incorporate their child into
their own activities at home
that would be educationally
enriching.
Send home suggestions for

game or group activities related
to the child’s schoolwork that
can be played by parent and
child.
Suggest how parents might use

the home environment (mate-
rials and activities of daily life)
to stimulate their child’s
interest in reading, math, etc.
(continues)
FIGURE 3.2 Fourteen Techniques for Involving Parents in Teaching Activities at
Home (Evaluations by Maryland Teachers)
101
FIGURE 3.2 (continued)
CONTRACTS BETWEEN TEACHER AND PARENT

Establish a formal agreement
where the parent supervises
and assists the child in
completing homework tasks.
Establish a formal agreement

where the child provides
rewards and/or penalties
based on the child’s school
performance or behavior.
DEVELOPING TEACHING AND

EVALUATION SKILLS IN PARENTS
Ask parents to come observe
the classroom (not to “help”)
for part of a day.
Explain to parents certain

techniques for teaching, for
making learning materials,
or for planning lessons.
Give a questionnaire to
parents so they can evaluate
their child’s progress or
provide some other feedback
to you.
activities or because they believe parents are less able to organize instruction for
fifth graders.
Teachers in the survey were asked about two other parent involvement techniques
directly related to reading and written material: asking parents to take their child
to the public library and loaning books and teaching materials to parents on a short-
term basis. The majority of teachers believed these to be useful techniques.
As a group, the three techniques involving reading and books elicited more sup-
port from teachers than any of the other categories of parent involvement. Reading-
related techniques have broad support across all teaching situations but are most
often chosen as the most important method by first-grade teachers and by teachers
with a large proportion of children who have difficulty learning.
Learning through Discussion
Schooling is more than learning the mechanics of reading. Many teachers place im-
portance on the development of students’ ability to express themselves orally. Even
if families do not usually spend much time reading together, they can provide op-
portunities for students to learn from conversations and discussions.
102 RESEARCH
The teachers in the survey were asked about three techniques that structure
parent-child conversation in ways that might be educationally useful. One of these
asks parents to view a particular television program with their child and to discuss
the program afterward. When this technique is employed, it may be a mild sugges-
tion to parents or it may include a set of discussion questions prepared by the
teacher for the parents prior to the evening of a specific telecast. To use this tech-
nique intensively, the teacher would have to have advanced access to, or knowledge
of, the content of the television program.
The systematic assignment of discussion about television programs was one of
the least frequently used parent involvement techniques in the survey. Approximately
one-third of the teachers said that parents would not cooperate with a request to
participate or that they would be unable to handle such discussions in ways that
would be educational. Only about 2 percent of the teachers reported that they used
this technique frequently. However, there was more “passive” support for this tech-
nique than for any other on the survey. Most teachers said that this was a way of
involving parents that could work in their teaching practices, even though they had
not used it.
Two other methods of involving parents in discussions are (1) family exchanges
about daily school activities and (2) homework assignments that require children to
interview parents to obtain biographical or other information. Parent-child discussions
about school were frequently mentioned by teachers as a technique they request or
require of parents, but student interviews of parents were infrequently assigned.
Most teachers felt that students could profit from assignments that required them
to ask parents questions, but only 15 percent made active use of the method. As ex-
pected, the older the children the more likely they were to be assigned homework
that involved asking parents questions. There is a large amount of “passive support”
among teachers for this method of parent involvement in school activities. It may
be that the procedures necessary to implement these techniques are not established
well enough to permit wide adoption by teachers.
Informal Learning Activities at Home
The “parent as tutor” is one model of structuring parent-child teaching and learning
activities at home. This model involves efforts to have parents read to the child, su-
pervise and review the child’s homework, or give practice tests or math drills using
teacher-distributed flash cards. The parents’ role is to supplement the formal school
curriculum to ensure greater mastery of basic skills by their child.
The “parent as role model” is another way of structuring parent-child learning
activities. This model is based on the idea that the parent is a natural teacher of var-
ied skills and serves as a role model. The child may learn different skills at home
from those taught in schools and may imitate the parents or adopt the parents’ val-
ues about what kinds of skills are important, interesting, or fun. A number of those
who propose more intensive parent involvement in learning activities at home sug-
gest that parents can be most effective when they informally introduce their children
to skills different from those emphasized at school (Rich, 1980). The question is
RESEARCH 103
whether and how teachers can motivate parents who would not normally do so to
take time to provide informal learning opportunities at home.
The teachers in the survey were asked about three techniques that involve parents
and their children in informal educational activities: suggesting educationally en-
riching ways for parents to involve their child in their own activities at home; send-
ing home suggestions for game or group activities related to the child’s schoolwork
that can be played by parent and child; and suggesting how parents might use the
home environment (common materials and activities of daily life) to stimulate their
child’s interest in reading, math, and other subjects.
Each of these three techniques, as shown in Figure 3.2, elicited a similar pattern
of responses from the teachers. Approximately 30 percent of the teachers rejected
these techniques either because of insufficient parent cooperation or because they
felt the activities would be too difficult for parents to conduct. Another 40 percent
supported the use of these methods in theory but only infrequently used the tech-
niques in their teaching practice. Finally, about 30 percent of the teachers actively
supported and used these methods in their teaching practice. Approximately 10 per-
cent chose one of the three items in this category as the parent involvement method
they found most useful and satisfactory.
Many of the parent involvement techniques presented to the teachers in our sur-
vey were employed as extensively by teachers just starting their careers as by teach-
ers who had had many years of experience in the classroom. However, all three
techniques in this category were used most extensively by experienced teachers. For
example, only 16 percent of the teachers in their first or second year of teaching
said they frequently sent home ideas for parent-child learning games and activities,
whereas 25 percent of the teachers with more than 10 years of classroom experience
said they did so. Eighteen percent of new teachers often suggested ways for parents
to involve their child in their own activities, but 30 percent of the experienced teach-
ers did so. It is interesting that many of the new teachers who used these activities
reported that these were their most satisfying parent involvement techniques. These
techniques tended to be preferred by reading and math specialists, teachers of low-
achieving students, teachers of students from highly educated families, and teachers
in rural or small-town areas.
Contracts between Teachers and Parents
The techniques presented to the teachers in the survey included two that involve
the use of “contracts.” This term implies a formal agreement to conduct and com-
plete an activity or set of activities. The two techniques are distinguished by the
kinds of behavior requested of the parents. In one case, the parent is asked to
provide or withhold privileges or punishments to the child for school perfor-
mance and behavior patterns, based on rules determined jointly by the parent,
teacher, and student. The parent does not engage in any direct instructional ac-
tivity in this type of contract, but assists the teacher in shaping productive school
behavior.
104 RESEARCH
The second “contract” technique requires parents to supervise or assist with the
student’s homework or other projects. This may or may not involve some instruction
or clarification by the parents but always involves the structuring of the home en-
vironment to support the student’s school responsibilities. This kind of activity is
often informally organized by teachers and parents, but we were interested in those
instances where a formal contract for parental responsibilities was arranged by the
teacher, parent, and child.
Teachers expressed less consensus about the value of both types of parent-teacher
contracts than about most of the other parent involvement techniques. Approxi-
mately 40 percent of the teachers felt that these techniques were not worth pursuing
because they would not increase learning or because of insufficient parental coop-
eration or skills. On the other hand, 20 percent of the teachers felt that contracts
for parental supervision of homework and projects were valuable enough to use
“many times” during the year or were the most important parent involvement tech-
nique in their practices. Fewer teachers gave active support to formal contracts in-
volving parental rewards for school behavior, but many of those who used the
technique believed it was the most useful one they employed.
There were some important differences in the use of contracts by teachers at dif-
ferent grade levels. In contrast to many other parent involvement techniques sup-
ported mainly by teachers in the lower grades, contracts were used equally across
the grades. They were preferred as the most satisfying techniques by twice as many
fifth-grade teachers as first-grade teachers. Teachers used contracts with parents
of students at all achievement levels but were more apt to use them with students
of more educated parents. Teachers in suburban districts used contracts more fre-
quently, and younger teachers were more likely than older teachers to classify con-
tracts as their most satisfying parent involvement technique.
Helping Parents to Teach
The list of 14 parent involvement techniques contained three activities for teachers
to use to equip parents with observational and instructional skills: (1) instruction
for parents in teaching and in making learning materials that could be used at home
to supplement the teacher’s work at school, (2) classroom observations to see how
teaching proceeds in school and how the children respond to particular lessons and
methods of teaching, and (3) parent responses to teachers’ questionnaires to evaluate
their own child’s progress or problems in school. The latter activity may assist the
teacher more directly than it assists the parent. However, evaluation forms are often
useful sensitizers, and thus may help parents to conduct activities at home with the
child. Of these three activities, more teachers use classroom observation by parents
than the other choices; very few of the teachers reported frequent use of evaluation
forms from parents. Classroom observations and teaching parents about teaching
and evaluation were encouraged by teachers of young children. Urban teachers
and experienced teachers used these techniques more than teachers in suburban and
rural areas and new teachers.
RESEARCH 105
TABLE 3.2 Correspondence of Principals’ Active Encouragement and Teachers’
Active Use of Selected Techniques of Parent Involvement
Principals Who Teachers Who
Techniques Encourage (%) Use Actively (%)
Read aloud or listen to reading 76 66
Informal games at home 45 24
Contract with parents on students’ projects 33 25
Loan books to parents 31 41
Teach parents techniques for tutoring and evaluation 24 21
Parent contracts to reward or punish behavior 12 13
Parent-led discussion of TV shows 12 2
Techniques Encouraged by Principals
The reports from principals show the same selective emphasis on reading as the re-
ports from teachers. As Table 3.2 indicates, 76 percent of the principals say they
have personally encouraged many teachers to adopt the technique of asking parents
to read to their children or listen to their children read. The principals placed least
emphasis on the same two techniques that were given least emphasis by the teachers:
parent-led discussion of television programs and contracts with parents to system-
atically reward or punish student behaviors.
Although teachers and principals, as groups, seem to make similar judgments
about the usefulness of different parent involvement techniques, direct influence
from the principal on the teacher’s practice is difficult to measure with the data
available. Only one teacher in six indicates that the source of his or her most valu-
able parent involvement technique is a “principal or other administrator.” Teachers
who actively use a particular parent technique are only slightly more likely than other
teachers to have a principal who encourages teachers to adopt that same technique.
HOW MUCH EMPHASIS ON THE 14 TECHNIQUES?
Most teachers understand that parent involvement is a complex process and make
only tentative requests for such involvement. Regardless of which technique they
use, only 9 percent of the teachers “require” parental cooperation; the rest “suggest”
the technique. This means that teachers’ control over the technique and the response
from parents are limited. Indeed, approximately 40 percent of the teachers report
that none, fewer than half, or an unknown proportion of the parents carried out
their requests to conduct certain activities. These conditions may explain why nearly
60 percent of the teachers say they can provide ideas for learning activities at home
but they cannot influence the parents to use them.
Teachers estimated how many parents would attend meetings or workshops on
learning activities at home. As the table on the next page shows, only one-third of
the teachers believe they could attract a good number of parents to the meetings,
106 RESEARCH
and then only if they were conducted in the evening. Thus, it would require extra
or voluntary effort by teachers for even a small percentage of parents to become
teaching partners through workshops conducted at school.
Estimated Attendance Few or None Many or Most

of Parents (% of Teachers) (% of Teachers)
At morning meeting 87 13
At evening meeting 66 34
Teachers report having the most contact with parents of children with learning
and discipline problems and with parents who are already active in the school. For
example, one-third as many contacts with parents are reported for “average” stu-
dents as for students with problems. Most teachers report that they ask only some
parents (not parents of all students in the class) to conduct particular learning ac-
tivities at home.
Actions that are requested rather than required and carried out with little or un-
known frequency, meetings attended by small groups of parents rather than all par-
ents, and selected use of parent involvement techniques with only certain parents
are all indications that, for the average teacher, parent involvement at home is not
indispensable to satisfactory teaching.
DIFFERENCES IN TEACHERS’ USES OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT
In this section, teachers’ opinions and practices are reported for different grade levels
and for various educational levels of students’ parents. Results are then summarized
for the pattern of home visits, the use of parent involvement with different school
subjects, and the relationship between parent involvement at home and parent as-
sistance in the classroom. Finally, we discuss the use of techniques by teachers in
schools where all teachers practice parent involvement and where few teachers
do so.
Grade Level of Students
Most researchers who have studied parent involvement in learning activities, as well
as those who have developed programs for parent involvement, have viewed the
parents of preschoolers and early elementary-aged children as their primary targets.
In the 1960s and 1970s, various Head Start and Follow-Through programs system-
atically incorporated specific functions for parents as part of their organizational
RESEARCH 107
arrangements. Many of these programs were found to increase student learning of
school-readiness skills more than programs used as alternate “control” treatments.
Much of the emphasis on early childhood has been due to a belief that parents of
young children are more willing and more able to perform useful functions in an
educational program than are parents of older children. It may be, however, that
procedures and tasks for useful parent participation for older children simply have
not been worked out.
Figure 3.3 shows that most of the 14 parent involvement techniques in our survey
were more likely to be used by teachers of younger students. However, in only a
few cases were the differences of large magnitude. Parent and child reading activities
had the most pronounced decline with increasing grade level. The three “informal”
learning activities included in the list also declined with increasing grade level, as
did efforts to teach parents techniques for teaching their children. On the other
hand, the techniques of contracts and assignments that required children to ask
their parents questions and the limited use of television-based family discussions
and parent-evaluation forms were as often used with older children as with younger.
Some teachers at all grade levels used each of the techniques in the survey.
Educational Level of Parents
Many of the written comments of teachers reinforced common stereotypes of par-

ents: “pushy” upper-middle-class parents, “helpful” middle-class parents, and “in-
capable” lower-class parents. However, the statistics on the techniques teachers use
successfully with different groups of parents tell a different story. Teachers who deal
with college-educated parents, those who work with parents with average schooling,
and those whose students’ parents have very little schooling are about equally likely
to be active users of parent involvement strategies. However, teachers who do not
actively use parent involvement techniques respond differently to questions about
the likely success of these techniques according to the educational levels of their
students’ parents. Teachers who are not active users and who teach children with
highly educated parents report that the parent involvement techniques would work
but that they do not choose to use them. Teachers who are not active users and who
teach children with less-educated parents are more apt to report that the parents
would not be able or willing to carry out activities related to the child’s schoolwork
at home.
Figure 3.4 illustrates the differences in the pattern of use of several of the tech-
niques with parents of different educational levels. For each technique, bar graphs
are shown for three groups of teachers—those whose students’ parents were mainly
college graduates, those whose students’ parents were mainly high school gradu-
ates, and those whose students’ parents nearly all lacked a high school diploma.
Each bar graph shows the proportion of teachers who make active use of the tech-
nique, the proportion who believe it could work but are not frequent users, and the
proportion who do not feel that their students’ parents could or would participate
effectively.
108 RESEARCH
Percent
90
• Read with child
80
70
60
50
• Ask child about school
40
• Use home environment to teach
• Play learning games
30
• Teach parents techniques

• Contract to supervise
20
10
• Watch, discuss TV shows
1 3 5
Grade Level Taught
FIGURE 3.3 Active Use of Parent Involvement Techniques by Grade Level
109
Evaluation no support
110
Categories:
passive support
active support
Play High Read High

Send home suggestions Educ. Ask parents to read to Educ.
for game or group Med. their child regularly or Med.
activities related to the Educ. to listen to the child Educ.
child’s schoolwork that read aloud.
can be played by parent Low Low
and child. Educ. Educ.
Contract High Discuss High

Establish a formal Educ. Ask parents to get Educ.
agreement where the Med. their child to talk Med.
parent provides Educ. about what he or Educ.
rewards and/or penalties she did that day in
based on the child’s Low your classroom. Low
school performance Educ. Educ.
or behavior.
Instruct High Evaluate High

Explain to parents Educ. Give a questionnaire Educ.
certain techniques Med. to parents so they can Med.
for teaching, for Educ. evaluate their child’s Educ.
making learning progress or provide
materials, or for Low some other feedback Low
planning lessons. Educ. to you. Educ.
FIGURE 3.4 Levels of Support for Some Techniques by Estimated Formal Education of Parents
To summarize Figure 3.4, let us consider two examples. The upper-right panel of
the figure shows that techniques that involve parent and child reading activities are
used by a majority of teachers with students whose parents are from all educational
backgrounds. The solid black segments indicate that approximately 60 percent
of the teachers made active use of this technique at every parent-education level. Of
the remaining teachers, those whose students’ parents had little education were more
apt to attribute their lack of use to the absence of parental cooperation or skills,
whereas teachers of students whose parents had more education claimed the tech-
nique could work but that it was not currently part of their teaching practice. Thus,
whether parents with little schooling are viewed by the teacher as “capable” of as-
sisting their children in reading at home may depend on whether the teacher has
worked out procedures and communication patterns that would enable parents with
little schooling to assist.
The middle-right panel of the figure shows that approximately 30 percent of the
teachers surveyed make active use of techniques that involve parent-child discussions
at home with parents at all educational levels, with slightly more teachers actively
using the technique with low-educated parents. Teachers who were not active users
offered contradictory explanations for lack of use in relation to their students’ fam-
ily social class. Those who reported that their students’ parents had little schooling
said that using discussions could not work, whereas those whose students had better-
educated parents said the techniques could work but that they were not being used.
The pattern for all of the techniques in Figure 3.4 (and the others not listed there)
is fairly uniform. It seems clear that some teachers of students from families with
less formal education have developed techniques that enable these parents to par-
ticipate in the schooling of their children and to successfully cooperate with the
school. How do they do this? Are the teachers’ techniques generalizable so that
other teachers with similar populations can use them? Do the efforts of the teachers
and the parents benefit the students, the teachers, or the parents?
Home Visits
Most contacts between teachers and parents are in the form of notes and memos
transmitted by the child. Yet personal contacts between parent and teacher may be
vitally important to develop the commitment of parents to participation in a pro-
gram of learning reinforcement at home. Teachers make personal contact most often
by brief conversations before and after school, by parent conferences on “parent
night” or by special appointment, and by telephone conversations with parents.
One infrequently used method for developing personal relationships is home visits
by the teacher. Fewer than one-quarter of the teachers in the survey indicated that
they had made any home visits during the school year, and only 2 percent said they
had visited more than a handful of children’s homes. The teachers who visited chil-
dren’s homes were more likely to be favorable toward parent involvement tech-
niques. In particular, they were most likely to be active users of techniques that
emphasized oral exchanges between parent and child: having parents discuss TV
RESEARCH 111
programs, having parents ask children about school, and having children interview
parents. Also, teachers who visited several homes made more use of parent evalua-
tions and parent classroom-observation methods than did other teachers.
School Subjects for Parent Involvement at Home
Teachers reported the academic subjects in which they used their favorite parent in-
volvement techniques. Their responses indicate the popularity of reading as an ac-
tivity parents can conduct successfully. Over 80 percent of the teachers listed one
or more reading-related subjects as the focus of their most successful technique for
parent involvement. In contrast, only 20 percent of the teachers emphasized parent
involvement in science activities, and approximately one-half used their favorite
techniques in math-related home-learning activities. Especially in the early elemen-
tary grades, teachers ask parents to supplement the teachers’ emphasis on basic
skills rather than enrich or extend students’ experiences with other subjects such as
arts, sciences, or home and hobby skills.
Parents in School
Some teachers report having many parents who are active at school and willing vol-
unteers in their classrooms. Others report almost no parent activity in the school
building and no use of classroom volunteers. Approximately half the teachers have
at least some parental assistance in the classroom, ranging from a few days per
month to every day. Most parents who assist are selectively recruited, although some
teachers send out general requests for parental help.
Most teachers (84 percent) agree that if parents spend time at school, “they usu-
ally make a greater effort to help their children learn at home.” Observing a teacher’s
techniques for presenting material, handling questions, and analyzing mistakes may
help parents to be more effective in conducting school-related learning activities at
home. This helps to explain why teachers invite parents to observe their classes. If
watching the class can aid the parent at home, it is a rather effortless way for teach-
ers to help parents to assist in learning activities at home.
Not surprisingly, teachers who report more parent involvement in the school also
are more favorable to using techniques that involve parents in learning activities at
home. Support for each one of the 14 parent involvement techniques was positively
correlated with the proportion of parents who were active at school and the frequency
with which the teacher made use of parent volunteers in the classroom. Teachers
who reported the most active parents in the school and in the classroom were espe-
cially supportive of the techniques that use informal activities at home and that
teach parents tutoring and evaluation skills. For example, of the teachers who often
suggested how parents might use materials and activities at home to stimulate their
child’s interest in school subjects, about 60 percent had parent help in the classroom,
mostly on a weekly basis. Of those who “passively” supported this technique, fewer
112 RESEARCH
than 50 percent had parent classroom volunteers. Only 30 percent of the teachers
who were pessimistic about this kind of at-home parent activity had parents’ help
during the school day.
School Support for Parent Involvement
Do teachers develop attitudes about parent involvement and related teaching prac-
tices as a consequence of their observations of, and conversations with, other teach-
ers at the same school? This question is of interest because it is useful to know
whether a “group effort” across an entire school is necessary for successful parent
involvement programs or whether individual teachers develop personal programs
regardless of the activities of other teachers in their schools.
For all types of parent involvement techniques except the activities involving
reading and books, there was a small but positive association between an individual
teacher’s support for a technique and a measure of overall parent involvement ori-
entation for all teachers in the school. It appears that some teachers are encouraged
to use some techniques when their school climate supports parent involvement, but
there are many examples of individual successes without support from other teach-
ers in the school.
CONTINUING STUDIES OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT
We have documented teachers’ reports of different practices in parent involvement

across the state of Maryland. We discuss the teachers’ comments on major issues of
parent involvement in Reading 3.2. In other research we are collecting more detailed
information from a small sample of teachers and principals who participated in the
survey. We need to know why teachers use particular techniques, how they imple-
ment them, and why they reject other techniques. We are surveying parents and stu-
dents to obtain reports of teachers’, parents’, and students’ experiences with parent
involvement and the effects of family involvement on student achievement and at-
titudes. (See Readings 3.3 through 3.9 and Reading 4.3.) This information will en-
able more teachers to make reasoned choices and decisions about implementation,
adoption, or adaptations of parent involvement techniques for particular settings
and students.
What do the differences in teachers’ practices mean in terms of student learning,
the quality of education for students, and the quality of the school environment for
teachers and for parents? It may be that parent involvement helps to improve stu-
dent learning or improves the process by which teachers and parents provide edu-
cation. It may also be that other teaching strategies are equally or more effective
and efficient. Although proponents and opponents of parent involvement in learning
activities have their opinions about the answers to these questions, the facts are not
yet known.
RESEARCH 113
REFERENCES
Leichter, H. J. (1974). The family as educator. New York: Teachers College Press.
Basic Books.
Marjoribanks, K. (1979). Families and their learning environments: An empirical analysis.
London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Rich, D. (1980). Families learning together. Washington, DC: Home and School Institute.
114 RESEARCH
READING 3.2
Teachers’ Reported Practices of Parent Involvement:
Problems and Possibilities*
DEBATABLE ISSUES OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Several major issues related to parent involvement were discussed in the comments
added by over 1,000 teachers to a survey of teachers’ practices. Results of the survey
of 3,700 teachers in approximately 600 schools in Maryland are described in Read-
ing 3.1. The teachers’ comments reflect the variation in years of experience and
in the number and types of contacts individual teachers have had with parents. Each
theme can be viewed from two perspectives: There are potential advantages, but
there are also potential problems, with any parent involvement technique. Teachers’
comments reveal their contrasting opinions on the benefits expected from parent
assistance at home and on the organizational structures used to conduct parent in-
volvement activities. Some teachers are very positive about parent involvement; oth-
ers have been discouraged by their attempts to communicate and work with parents.
Teachers’ Time
Many teachers commented on the amount of time needed to prepare projects,

workshops, and/or directions for parents to use and supervise at home. The crucial
questions are whether the time required by the teacher is worth the trouble and
whether teachers should volunteer their time without knowing the likely effects of
their efforts.
Some teachers telephone parents frequently to give positive messages about a
child’s progress in school or special skills or abilities observed as well as to discuss
problems. If a teacher telephones 30 parents and talks for 10 minutes to each, the
teacher spends 5 hours voluntarily on the telephone with parents. The teacher may
do this in addition to preparing lessons, grading papers, preparing report cards,
working with parents, and preparing parent involvement activities. How much time
can teachers give to parent-related activities? How often? With what effect? These
are not trivial questions.
Several teachers offered positive statements that indicated that the job of teaching
cannot be accomplished without programs that involve parents. For example:
* By Joyce L. Epstein and Henry Jay Becker. We gratefully acknowledge the efforts of the teachers who
contributed comments to the survey. Research was conducted at the Johns Hopkins R and D Center for
Social Organization of Schools and was supported by the National Institute of Education, Grant
NIE-G-80-0113. No official endorsement of the authors’ opinions by the NIE should be inferred.
Reprinted with permission from Elementary School Journal 83 (1982): 103–113.
RESEARCH 115
I really rely on parent help. Long ago I realized that only with parent help can my job
be performed adequately.
Other comments indicated that the time needed to develop learning activities for
parents to use at home or in schools is just not available to teachers or not worth
the trouble:
You completely omitted from your questionnaire any items regarding the additional
time and effort required of the busy teacher in parent involvement activities.
I believe both parents and students can benefit from parent involvement. However, I
also know that it takes a great deal of training and explaining and coordinating to
have a good program. I’ve spent many hours doing just this. Frankly, I no longer feel
like giving the many hours of extra time required to do this. We are not provided with
time to do this type of training. It’s all our own time. I no longer feel like giving my
time without compensation.
Parents’ Time
The teachers acknowledged that parents’ time at home is limited by the responsibil-
ities of children, spouse, and/or other family members; cooking and chores; and a
general need for relaxation. Many teachers wondered whether parents should be
asked to spend at least a short time with each child on academic activities, whether
parents’ time at home (and how much time) should be spent developing their chil-
dren’s nonacademic skills and responsibilities, or whether teachers have any justifi-
cation in requesting or requiring parent assistance in academic or social development.
Some teachers suggested that short periods of time spent on learning activities at
home can be beneficial to the students if the time is well planned:
Parents have so little “prime” time to spend with their child or children. It is essential
that we give these people some very practical and meaningful tips on how to spend
quality time with their children.
In my memo to parents I ask them to spend just 10 minutes a night going over the
child’s word cards. This way neither the child nor the parent feels over worked.
I have also experienced that parents are more than willing to help children in assign-
ments that are short, reinforcement-type work, on which the child (and therefore the
parent) can be successful. Parents love to hear their children read.
Others stressed that the “learning activities at home” should not be on school
lessons but on general socialization and development:
I find it far more profitable for the child to get “home training” at home, since today’s
children do not seem to display the sense of responsibility needed to do their best. . . .
116 RESEARCH
Self-reliance, responsibility, and a good self-concept learned at home contribute to im-
proved academics at school. Then there would be less need for parental involvement
in teaching the academics.
I feel it is my job to teach and that parents may become impatient and frustrated when
working on skills at home. Some reinforcement at home is quite helpful as long as it
is kept to a minimum amount of time and done consistently. An hour a day is unre-
alistic, and unfair to parent and child. I feel that children spend a large part of their
day in school (hopefully learning) and at home need to be released for relaxation,
play, and pursuing interests (hopefully, not all television). Parenting is in itself a de-
manding job.
Students’ Time and Feelings
Many teachers focused their comments on the benefits or problems for the stu-
dents of parent involvement in learning activities at home. Some believed aca-
demic activities should be kept to a minimum so children could follow interests
in their out-of-school time. Many stressed with deep conviction that students’
time at home should be mainly the time to play, participate in activities of special
interest, or relax. Others expressed concern that academic tasks at home can
cause parents and children psychological stress as the pressure to perform vies
with the child’s need for help and the parents’ desire to help. Others believe the
child’s time at home should reflect parents’ teaching of home-related skills and
responsibilities.
Several teachers expressed concern that the complex relationships between par-
ents and children can be affected by the kinds of activities assigned for work at
home by teachers:
Most parents are very willing to assist at home and welcome ideas, but I stress working
for short periods of time and only when both parties are not becoming upset. Some
parents tell me they want to help, but they lose their patience. On the other hand, chil-
dren often feel embarrassed when they don’t think they are performing as well as they
want to for their parents.
Care must be taken in “home help” situations so that pressure on the child is not in-
creased by emotional or unenlightened parental involvement when the goal is to help
the child and thereby lighten pressure placed upon him.
Teachers had varied opinions on whether they should try to maximize the po-
tential advantages of parent assistance for some children, even if other children may
not be assisted. Some teachers believe parent activities are valuable even if only some
parents complete them; other teachers believe no parent-conducted learning activ-
ities should be assigned unless all parents agree to cooperate. They charge that chil-
dren of parents who do not do their part are put at a disadvantage through no fault
of the students. Compare the two points of view:
RESEARCH 117
Although many of my students come from homes where support of schools is great,
there are also a good number of students who come from homes where support is min-
imal and parent involvement is very low. This makes it difficult to give the class an
assignment involving parents when only some of the students have parents who would
bother to help.
Most parents talk a good story, but rarely follow through on any involvement. Then
there are some who, given prodding, guidance, and a great deal of specific directions
on what to do, will try consistently to help their child. It pays off, even if the results
are minimal. It is for these few that it is worth doing what we can to get them involved—
because it’s ultimately for the children.
The teachers’, parents’, and students’ time, commitment, and reactions were re-
peatedly discussed by the teachers. There were legitimate differences of opinion.
Should some of the parents’ and students’ time at home be spent on lessons and
school assignments, or should the time be spent on new experiences and diverse
skills that build on parents’ special abilities? The answers to such questions may
depend on such factors as children’s ages, the types of learning problems that might
be involved, the parents’ education, the subject matter being studied, and the existing
relationship between the parents and the child.
Expected Benefits
There are few rewards, other than internal ones, to encourage a teacher to spend time
working toward the potential benefits of parent involvement. Some teachers lamented
the lack of support from their principals or other teachers. Others recounted the psy-
chological obstacles that prevent teachers from trying some activities or from trying
more than once. In spite of some real problems, many teachers described benefits they
perceived or expected for their students and for the parents from parent involvement:
better basic skills, and greater retention of skills over the summer because of work
conducted at home during the vacation; better behavior of students in class; greater
number and variety of classroom materials developed by parents at home; enrichment
in areas the teacher could not direct; and improved parental self-image because of
successful cooperation with the school. The following comments reflect many of the
teachers’ remarks about the benefits of parent involvement:
Although my teaching career is near a close, I believe parent involvement is one of the
keys to improving education, and it should be encouraged. It will not only promote
better pupil performance, but it will improve the self-image of each parent, especially
in a school community (Title I) such as ours.
I welcome the parents’ help and their expertise that increase my children’s understand-
ing in special enrichment areas in which I may not be well-versed. For the most part,
any assignment I send home is pursued and completed with parents’ help.
118 RESEARCH
I feel a good parent education group or program is needed to help parents enjoy and
understand their children’s need to try, fail, and try again on their own. Parents can
guide and show their love by being there (and giving assistance) when their children
need them, but not by doing the work for their children.
Subgroup Differences
Some teachers specified that benefits from parent involvement should be expected
only for some children. They described some groups of parents they believed were
less able to conduct learning activities successfully at home. However, other teachers
pointedly commented that these same groups were successfully involved in parent
involvement activities. The important question is whether benefits from parent in-
volvement can be expected from parents of older students, parents with little edu-
cation, working parents, and single parents.
For example, some teachers believed the benefits will depend on the family struc-
ture and the other activities of the parents. The following comments illustrate the
debatable issue of involvement of working mothers:
I feel my experience as a working mother and as a single parent has helped tremen-
dously in gearing my relationships and assignments involving parents.
More and more of my “parents” are single parents and sole support. Their time and energy
are limited. They do want to cooperate for the most part but are too tired and overworked.
I don’t even help my own children very much because I am too tired when I get home.
Mother’s employment—this factor has nothing to do with parental involvement. You

did not ask if parents were alcoholic, drug addicts, child abusers, etc.—You did not
ask if parents I work with (and for) are interested in school, impressed with my cre-
dentials, comfortable with the administrators and me. These are important facts—
mother’s employment activities are not.
Working parents have more demands on their time. Helping kids at home becomes a
more frustrating task when a parent is tired or has many jobs to do. Other parents get
carried away and ask the kids to do too much at home.
Several teachers commented on differences between parents with more or less

formal education:
I don’t feel the educational level of the parents plays too great a part because in my
experience I’ve had tremendous parent involvement with those whose educational level
did not go beyond the eighth grade.
Parent involvement became extremely poor as the years progressed. When the
emphasis of education went back to basics, the parents withdrew. This could be
RESEARCH 119
attributed to their own poor educational backgrounds and preparedness to help
their children.
In general, teachers did not specify the benefits of parent involvement. Most teach-
ers said, “It depends on the students and their parents,” as this teacher commented:
I have had excellent cooperation from parents this year. In many instances it has been
up to 95 percent. Other years have not produced the same results. Last year, I had the
cooperation of approximately 10 out of 32 parents—and it was the same school. It
depends on the group of children—if I had completed this questionnaire last year my
responses would have been totally different.
Many teachers thought that the school climate and the principal’s support were
important, as this teacher noted:
Most of my teaching career, my principals have been very much against the teacher
working with parents other than when discipline was involved, and have been unwill-
ing for the teacher to have contact with parents outside of regular classroom hours.
My breakthrough in working with parents has been due to working with an outstand-
ing teacher who is excellent in home and school relations.
Use of Parent Involvement Coordinators
Many comments were offered by teachers on the Title I programs. These programs
often include parent coordinators, whose job it is to get more parents involved in
more aspects of school life. The Title I programs are the largest federally funded
programs for parent involvement. Several teachers remarked on the benefits from
excellent Title I parent programs, but just as many said the programs were poor
and wasteful. The contrasting opinions suggest that some organizational strategies
are necessary if the programs are to succeed from the teachers’ point of view.
I teach in a Title I school where we have an organized Parent Involvement Program

headed by two Parent Involvement Aides. They lead many programs and activities once
conducted by the teacher, such as home visits, telephone calls, trips with children to
dentist or doctor, assistance with clothing needs, recruitment of parent volunteers to op-
erate the Reading Club, and organization of workshops for parents to learn games that
can be used at home. So many of these opportunities are out of the hands of the class-
room teacher. Twenty-five or 30 years ago when I taught in a rural Appalachian con-
solidated school, I had much more parent involvement than I do now. From my
teaching point of view, I definitely had more support from parents on things I attempted
to do. Although our Title I aides have very good rapport with our parents, there seems
to be more of a trend to let the aides do things for the parents and less emphasis on
helping parents to help themselves. We do have “star” examples of parent volunteers
of more than 10 years who now are “super” paid Title I aides. That is progress, as they
help not only their own families but others.
120 RESEARCH
Under the Title I program, we have a home visitation aide who takes learning games
into homes of our Title I students. Parents are to play these with the students. Of my
eight Title I students, only two parents agreed to accept the games and neither of the
two children involved ever played any of the games. I consider this a total waste of
our federal money.
Many Title I programs mandate parental involvement. I’ve been active in helping de-
velop and conduct parent-involvement workshops. I often have classroom workshops
to bring parents up-to-date on curriculum and let them know that they are their child’s
primary and most important teachers.
I have found that since the school I have worked in became Title I there is less parent
involvement. The conclusion that I have come to is that since there are paid assistants,
parents feel that their services are not needed.
Parent volunteers require constant professional supervision and coordination. This is

not done by a Title I Parent Coordinator with a high school education. Our Title I par-
ent coordinator has been my greatest influence in working with parents.
The reactions partly reflect the teachers’ personal attitudes and partly the fact that
some Title I programs are better organized, are staffed by more qualified coordinators,
and communicate better with teachers. How do the successful Title I programs operate
to strengthen family and school ties? What strategies from successful Title I programs
can be incorporated into any school to improve home-school alliances? The teachers’
opinions on Title I programs raise important questions for further study.
Problems with Parental Assistance
Many teachers who have had experience working with parents have important con-
cerns about the likely success of parent involvement practices. Some teachers de-
scribed problems often associated with volunteers: undependability, shortened
schedules, low commitment, and different goals and values of volunteers and the
schools. Others were concerned about the parents’ lack of training in methods and
approaches for teaching children who have learning problems. These concerns are
related to the teachers’ lack of time to provide parents with adequate training in
how to teach or how to deal with learning problems. These are especially important
concerns for parent volunteers in the classroom, but parents at home are also “vol-
unteers.” They are not accountable to the teacher. Some teachers commented on
how parents fail to follow through in learning activities at home.
Other teachers were concerned that students might not develop responsibility if
parents assume too much of the responsibility for students’ assignments:
[T]he more opportunities we give our parents to be in the school and the more infor-
mation given out by teachers, the more parents tend to take any work that is given to
the child as their work rather than developing responsibility in their children.
RESEARCH 121
Other teachers expressed concern that parents have many problems other than
academic ones that interfere with teachers’ requests for assistance with learning ac-
tivities at home:
Some parents do not know how to, or will not, control their children. They expect
teachers to work miracles and get their children to learn and to behave when the par-
ents cannot make their own children behave. When contacting parents, especially for
behavior problems, I hear more and more frequently, “I don’t know what to do with
them.” No teacher can teach if time must be spent on simple discipline and manners
that should be learned at home. I believe that it would help many parents to see their
children work with others in the classroom.
I have found as a teacher in this transient community that the parents are too busy
to bother about how their children are doing. If everything is going smoothly, the
parents stay at home. Only if trouble arises does one hear from a parent. Even if you
are doing a fantastic, outstanding job you do not hear from parents. Only in time
of trouble.
Parent involvement is the problem. I have accomplished the impossible when I manage
to just get some parents into the school for a conference.
The effectiveness of using these techniques depends on the community(ies) the school
is serving. I have taught in a school where the parents were so involved that one did
not need to use techniques. I have taught in a school where very few parents were ca-
pable of using any technique no matter how simple. I have also had a parent who could
have helped her son tell me that that is my job.
Some admitted that teachers fear parents, and this fear inhibits the kinds of pro-
grams that teachers attempt:
Most teachers fear parents and I, too, only use parents when I feel I have complete
control.
My experience indicates that teachers are even more fearful than the parents of our
interaction.
Successful Efforts
Despite the possible problems, some teachers with parents of all educational levels
and students at all achievement levels have been able to establish programs that em-
phasize the link between school and home.
Reading with Children. Many teachers described how they organize a formal pro-
gram in which parents or students read on a regular basis. For example:
122 RESEARCH
About 4 years ago in a school with a large minority population, most parents were
contacted and agreed to see to it that their children read—either to the parent or by
themselves for 10 minutes every evening. Many parents cooperated and I believe it
helped the children’s reading skills. Of course, the children could read longer than 10
minutes if they wished. They brought in slips signed by their parents each morning and
were rewarded occasionally by small items donated by local businesses. Very few par-
ents objected.
Signing Papers and Folders. Many teachers have devised different systems to keep
parents aware of the children’s schoolwork. When teachers ask parents to sign daily
work or weekly folders, they are fulfilling an obligation to keep parents informed
of children’s progress before or between report cards. Some teachers also send home
skill-building assignments or games based on the students’ problems identified in
schoolwork or on tests:
By having parents sign children’s graded math tests and units, I cover several problem
spots. Parents always have a good idea of grade average; parents can see the child’s
progress or lack of it; signing math units enables parents to see all of their children’s
daily assignments before they are disposed of without the hassle of seeing them every
night. Units get signed when the test is taken. If a child receives a poor grade, I attach
a sheet telling the parents to review and study the needed skills with their child. The
signing insures that the parents see the note.
I send a letter to parents each time we start a new phase of work, explaining what we
will be doing and how they can help. This is signed and returned. I also send all return-
able work home on blue or green paper or attached to a blue or green computer card.
Parents and kids know blue papers are to be returned. I have about 95 percent respond.
Some use a system that permits the parents to communicate with the teacher with
more than a signature:
A buddy-book: Each day I write a comment concerning the child’s work and general
behavior in a book devoted just to homework and teacher-parent comments. The par-
ent signs and responds.
Others have devised phone conference systems to talk with working parents,
evening and Saturday conferences and workshops, and other means for two-way
communication with parents.
Preparation of Materials. Teachers described two ways in which parent-made

materials are used for learning activities. Materials made in school are used at home:
I give parents materials to make flashcards just like mine in math or reading for use at
home. Also, parents have watched “mini” lessons on skills that they could teach at home.
RESEARCH 123
I like the mini-clinic: Parents of four Kindergarten and seven first-grade children were
encouraged to participate. Parents alternated monthly for individual or small group
meetings to discuss activities and games they could use to reinforce skills being taught
by the teacher. We sent home materials to be used for a month and returned at the next
meeting. Children having the most difficulty learning were selected. Of the 11 parents
invited, nine participated. One grandmother and two fathers also attended. Personal
contact has made a difference. The success of our parent-involvement programs ap-
pears to be closely related to teacher commitment.
Materials made at home are also used at school:
In my “read along with the family” program I send home books and a tape recorder
for grandparents or parents to tape the child’s favorite story or book. They can listen
to it in class. I prepare an activity sheet to go with the tape.
Home Visits. Some teachers use home visits to lay the groundwork for communica-
tion with parents that will occur throughout the year. Home visits are arranged vol-
untarily on weekends or before the beginning of the school year by the teacher and
parents or are formally organized by the school administration. Some schools give
teachers release time while substitute teachers cover their classes; other schools es-
tablish half-days for children so that the teachers’ visits occur on the afternoons
when no school is scheduled; other schools allocate two full days for teachers’ visits
when there is no school scheduled.
Our most effective technique is used in the first week of school when the first-grade
children attend half days only. We make a 20-minute visit to each home, explain the
program and needed supplies, hear concerns, etc. I feel I gain 6 weeks of knowledge
about the child during that visit. Also, I feel good in being able to greet each parent by
name (usually!) the next time we meet.
I visited each child’s home before school opened in the fall. I took each child’s photo-
graph, chatted about the things he or she liked to do, pets, etc. On the first day of
school the photos and the stories of each child were on the bulletin board. The visit
also gave me an opportunity to talk with the mother (and often with both parents)
about the curriculum, plans for homework, etc. I expect to resume these visits next
summer because they are so useful. There are no tearful children the first week. I know
the children by name before they come into the classroom. It is very easy to recruit
parent volunteers. It forms the basis for continuing parent contact throughout the
year—because we know each other. Telephone conversations when a child is absent or
seems troubled strengthen my relationships with the parents. It seems to me that edu-
cation must be a partnership between parent and teacher.
Summer Learning at Home. Summer activities that enable parents to help their chil-
dren maintain skills from the school year may be an especially important area for
124 RESEARCH
home-school programs. One teacher commented on the work she arranged for par-
ents to supervise during the summer:
At the end of the year I sent home a calendar of summer activities that would involve
parent-child participation and would help the child improve or retain basic skills.
Dilemmas of Parent Involvement
The teachers were aware of the dilemmas of home-school relationships:
Parents are so involved with staying alive and being able to keep up economically, there
is little or no energy left to devote to children—much less spend time teaching, disci-
plining, etc. The time they have is spent being loving, lenient, and feeling guilty for not
having time or energy to help their children. The children have no motivation to study.
Many of the children I teach are too busy raising the little children in the family, clean-
ing house, and doing adult work at home because their parents are out trying to make
ends meet. It amazes me that the children can run houses, raise siblings, and still find
time to learn at all.
Many homes have no literature in them—everything comes from TV—yet the schools
neglect the media. Parents want to be supportive and help, but they can’t—yet without
their support, schools cannot make any real difference.
If parents became actively involved and worked with the teachers, our students would
be more successful. Our students need lots of motivation that teachers alone cannot
provide.
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
In some ways, all of the teachers’ comments are correct. There is no denying the dif-
ferent reactions of teachers to the parents with whom they have worked. The honest
differences in teachers’ opinions reflect three perspectives on parent-school relations:
1. Parents care but cannot do much to help the school or their children in
actual learning
2. Parents care but should not help with school learning
3. Parents care and can be of great help if they are shown how to help.
There was no disagreement, however, about the fact that successful parent in-
volvement programs require the teachers’ and the parents’ commitment. There are
usually no formal rewards for teachers or parents for the time and effort required
to plan and conduct learning activities at home. However, both may have feelings
of satisfaction when children make progress in learning.
RESEARCH 125
Many comments stressed the parents’ and students’ needs for time at home that
is free of academic demands; however, an equal number of teachers emphasized
that many students who have trouble in school would be assisted with some struc-
tured daily work at home. Parental assistance that provides extra time for learning
may be one of the few techniques that can bring a slow student up to grade level.
Many teachers believe it is worth a try to develop programs for parents to conduct
at home that will supplement the teachers’ efforts.
Because of an absence of research on the effects of parent involvement, it is im-
possible to assure teachers that certain practices will lead to improved student skills,
improved parent-child exchanges, or improved parent-teacher relations. It is equally
impossible to assure teachers that they can be more successful if they ignore parent
involvement. The differences in teachers’ opinions and the lack of objective evidence
on the debated topics suggest how research can contribute to this important aspect
of education. From the statistical results of our survey (Reading 3.1) and from the
written comments of the teachers, we have identified eight issues that may prompt
new research.
1. Of all types of parent involvement, supervision of learning activities at

home may be the most educationally significant. In contrast to PTA
councils and classroom volunteers that involve relatively few parents,
parent activities at home can involve many or all children’s parents. We
need to know whether and how teachers at different grade levels can
successfully implement parent involvement programs to include all families.
2. Some parents work with their children at home, with or without
teachers’ suggestions. Most parent involvement efforts by teachers focus
on parents who normally would not know what to do to assist their
children with learning activities at home. We need information on the
kinds of tutoring or supervisory skills all parents can learn quickly. We
need to know how effective parents can be during the relatively short,
added “learning time at home” in improving their children’s skills.
3. The attitudes, training, and experiences of individual teachers have a lot
to do with whether they choose to develop parent involvement
programs. However, the attitudes of parents and principals, the needs of
the students, and the assistance the teachers receive from their colleagues
at school may also contribute to the development and success of parent
involvement programs.
4. The role of the parent in learning activities at home is not well defined,
and the benefits or disadvantages from different kinds of parental
activities and approaches are not known. For example, the parent may
act as a tutor, teacher’s monitor, listener, task initiator, reactor, or co-
learner in activities conducted at home. Which parent roles are most
effective for what kinds of situations, skills, and students?
5. Differences in teachers’ opinions about parent involvement techniques
may depend on the skills needed by students of different abilities in the
classroom. Skill building and drill for remediation or for enrichment
126 RESEARCH
require different kinds of learning materials and make different demands
on the teachers’ and parents’ time and energies. Skill building requires
different designs and techniques for students two years behind grade
level and for students on or above grade level. How can parent
involvement programs take into account the special needs of each
student, so that time at home can assist each student’s learning?
6. The teacher’s role is changed when the teacher acts as a manager of
parent involvement. The teacher shares a portion of the teaching
authority when parents are given materials and instructions for
supervising learning activities at home. New behaviors are required of
teachers to coordinate activities for parents, and different reactions to
students are required from teachers in response to activities conducted at
home. What are the changes in the teacher’s role that occur under
different parent involvement techniques?
7. Teachers “intrude” on families’ schedules and activities whenever
homework is given. The older the student, the more homework and the
greater the intrusion on family time. However, if homework is accepted
as an important mechanism for reinforcing classroom instruction, then
homework assignments that involve parents may maximize learning that
can occur during the homework period. Carefully constructed assignments
will not necessarily be seen negatively by parents. These assignments can
be as simple as a weekly spelling drill or as complex as daily lessons in
language or math. We need to know how parent involvement can be
organized so that the responsibilities and goals of teachers, parents, and
students are clear and attainable.
From a different perspective, we need information on how the
experiences and expertise of each parent can productively be included in
teachers’ schedules and curricula. Parents’ skills and ideas may be taught
to their own children at home or introduced to whole classes in school.
In either case, parent-designed lessons and activities might be used
systematically by teachers to extend and enrich the schools’ programs.
8. One of the reasons so many teachers and principals conduct and support
visit-school nights and parents’ conferences is that these activities have
become formal, accepted strategies for parent-teacher exchanges. They
are school-level activities that recur in similar, predictable form in most
schools. In contrast, the techniques of parent involvement in learning
activities at home are classroom-level projects that are developed by
individual teachers. The patterns of exchange for these activities have not
been standardized and so there are no clear expectations.
It is questionable whether the familiar rituals of visit-school night and parent

conferences accomplish more than a polite exchange between parents and teachers.
Techniques for parent involvement in home-learning activities have greater potential
for actively involving parents in important exchanges with the teacher that may
assist their own children’s progress in school. We need to know how teachers can
RESEARCH 127
organize parent involvement so the activities will become as familiar as the tradi-
tional parent-teacher events.
New research on parent involvement should take into account the natural varia-
tion in characteristics of teachers, students, families, schools, and classrooms. Impor-
tant questions on the implementation and effects of parent involvement have been
raised by this exploratory survey of teachers and by the variety of opinions they ex-
pressed. If the problems and possibilities of parent involvement are systematically
studied, research can lead quickly and directly to useful information for teachers.
128 RESEARCH
READING 3.3
School Programs and Teacher Practices of Parent
Involvement in Inner-City Elementary and Middle Schools*
ABSTRACT
This study uses data from 171 teachers in eight inner-city elementary and middle
schools to examine the connections between school programs of parent involve-
ment, teachers’ attitudes, and the practices that teachers use to involve parents of
their own students. Patterns are examined at two levels of schooling (elementary
and middle), in different academic subjects, under various classroom organizations
(self-contained, semi-departmentalized, departmentalized), and under different levels
of shared support for parent involvement by the teachers and significant other
groups. Each of these variables has important implications for the types and
strengths of school programs and teachers’ practices of parent involvement. The re-
sults add to the validation of Epstein’s five types of school and family connections.
The data used in this study were collected in a three-year action research process
with the sampled schools. The process is outlined in terms that any school can fol-
low to improve programs and practices of parent involvement.
INTRODUCTION
An extensive and growing literature documents the importance of school and family
connections for increasing student success in school and for strengthening school
programs. The theory of overlapping spheres of influence of families and schools
on students’ learning and development and on family and school effectiveness (Ep-
stein, 1987a [Reading 2.1]) is supported by a growing number of studies. For ex-
ample, when teachers make parent involvement part of their regular teaching
practice, parents increase their interactions with their children at home, feel more
positive about their abilities to help their children in the elementary grades, and rate
the teachers as better teachers overall, and students improve their attitudes and
achievement (Becker and Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.1]; Epstein, 1986 [Reading 3.4],
1991 [Reading 3.7]).
* By Joyce L. Epstein and Susan L. Dauber. This research was supported by a grant from the U.S. De-
partment of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), and by a National
Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship awarded to the second author. The opinions expressed do not
necessarily reflect the position or policy of the OERI or the NSF, and no official endorsement should be
inferred. We are very grateful to the teachers who participated in the survey and to the principals who
supported the survey as the first step in a school improvement process. An earlier version of this reading
was presented at the 1988 annual meeting of the American Sociological Association and in a technical
report at the Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools, Johns Hopkins University.
RESEARCH 129
Despite increased attention to the topic of parent involvement, few studies have
focused on teachers’ practices of involving parents in “difficult” or “disadvantaged”
inner-city schools. Indeed, a recurring theme in many studies and commentaries is
that less-educated parents cannot or do not want to become involved in their chil-
dren’s education (Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Lareau, 1987). Other research chal-
lenges this generalization by showing that there is wide variation in the nature and
quality of the involvement of parents with less formal education (Clark, 1983; Scott-
Jones, 1987) and that, when teachers help them, parents of all backgrounds can be
involved productively (Dauber and Epstein, 1989; see Reading 3.6; Epstein, 1986).
Even studies that report average differences in involvement based on parent edu-
cation or social class, however, recognize that family practices vary within any group
of parents (Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, and Brissie, 1987; Lareau, 1989; Stevenson
and Baker, 1987; Useem, 1990). Part of the variation among families is due to the
fact that schools vary in how much and how well they inform and involve families.
An earlier large-scale study of elementary teachers, parents, and students showed,
for example, that teachers who were “leaders” in the frequent use of parent involve-
ment did not prejudge less-educated, poor, or single parents. They rated all groups
of parents higher on helpfulness and follow-through on learning activities with their
children at home (Becker and Epstein, 1982; Epstein, 1986, 1990 [Reading 3.5]).
In contrast, teachers who did not frequently involve parents in their children’s edu-
cation made more stereotypical judgments about the involvement and abilities of
less-educated parents, socioeconomically disadvantaged parents, and single parents.
Thus, the attitudes and practices of the teachers, not only the educational, socio-
economic status (SES), or marital status of parents, are important variables for fully
understanding whether and how parents become knowledgeable and successful
partners with schools in their children’s education.
Studies will continue to show that better-educated families are more involved,
on average, in their children’s education until researchers include measures of
teacher practices to involve all parents. Most parents need help to know how to be
productively involved in their children’s education at each grade level. School pro-
grams and teacher practices to organize family and school connections are “equal-
izers” to help families who would not become involved on their own.
FIVE TYPES OF INVOLVEMENT
Earlier studies and reviews suggest that five major types of involvement are part of
schools’ comprehensive programs to share responsibilities with families for the ed-
ucation of their children (Epstein, 1987b).
1. Basic obligations of families include providing for children’s health and

safety, developing parenting skills and child-rearing approaches that prepare
children for school and that maintain healthy child development across the
grades, and building positive home conditions that support school learning
and behavior all across the school years. Schools assist families to develop
130 RESEARCH
the knowledge and skills needed to understand their children at each grade
level through workshops at the school or in other locations, home visitors,
family support programs, and other forms of education, training, and
information giving.
2. Basic obligations of schools include communications with families about
school programs and children’s progress. This includes the memos,
notices, phone calls, report cards, and conferences that most schools
conduct and other innovative communications with parents that some
schools create. Schools vary the forms and frequency of communications
and greatly affect whether the information sent home can be understood
by all families.
3. Involvement at school includes parent and other volunteers who assist
teachers, administrators, and children in classrooms or in other areas of
the school. It also refers to family members who come to school to
support student performances, sports, or other events. Schools can
improve and vary schedules so that more families are able to participate
as volunteers and as audiences. Schools can improve recruitment and
training so that volunteers are more helpful to teachers, students, and
school improvement efforts.
4. Involvement in learning activities at home includes requests and
guidance from teachers for parents to assist their own children at home
on learning activities that are coordinated with the children’s classwork.
Schools assist families in helping their children at home by providing
information on skills required of students to pass each grade. Schools
provide information to families on how to monitor, discuss, and help
with homework and when and how to make decisions about school
programs, activities, and opportunities at each grade level so that all
students can be more successful in school.
5. Involvement in decision making, governance, and advocacy includes
parents and others in the community in participatory roles in the parent-
teacher association/organization (PTA/PTO), advisory councils, Title I
programs, or other committees or groups at the school, district, or state
level. It also refers to parents as activists in independent advocacy groups
in the community. Schools assist by training parent leaders and
representatives in decision-making skills and in ways to communicate
with all of the parents they represent and by providing information
needed by community groups for school improvement activities.
A sixth type of involvement has been suggested as an important
component in schools’ comprehensive programs for involving families
and communities in their children’s education (California State Board of
Education, 1988).
6. Collaboration and exchanges with community organizations include
connections with agencies, businesses, and other groups that share
responsibility for children’s education and future successes. This includes
school programs that provide children and families with access to
RESEARCH 131
community and support services, including after-school care, health
services, and other resources that coordinate these arrangements and
activities to support children’s learning. Schools vary in how much they
know and share about their communities and how much they draw on
community resources to enhance and enrich the curriculum and other
experiences of students.
This type of involvement was not part of the earlier research that helped to iden-
tify the five major types of involvement, nor is it included in the present study. Future
research will determine whether and how this is a separate type of involvement or
whether these collaborations offer strategies for strengthening the five types of
school and family connections by calling on and coordinating community resources
for workshops, communications, volunteers, learning activities at home, and deci-
sion making (Epstein and Scott-Jones, 1988). Other types of involvement and dif-
ferent typologies will be suggested by other researchers and practitioners and will
require study. The typology offered in this reading is designed to be helpful to edu-
cators who are analyzing their schools’ practices and developing new programs. Al-
though the five types are not “pure” and involve some aspects that overlap, most
practices that schools use to involve families in their children’s education fall under
one of the five types.
Schools with programs including the five types of involvement help parents build
home conditions for learning, understand communications from the schools, be-
come productive volunteers at school, share responsibilities in their children’s edu-
cation in learning activities related to the curriculum at home, and include parents’
voices in decisions that affect the school and their children. There are, literally, hun-
dreds of practices that can be selected to implement each type of involvement. Most
practices have not yet been formally evaluated, but the available evidence indicates
that the different types of involvement lead to different outcomes for parents, teach-
ers, and students (Brandt, 1989; Epstein, 1986). (See Reading 5.1 to study sample
practices, challenges, and results for all six types of involvement.)
Research on the typology provides evidence of its validity, and a study of a large
sample of parents using measures of the five types of involvement found moderate
to high internal reliabilities ranging from .58 to .81 (Dauber and Epstein, 1989).
Data from teachers in earlier studies were used to study the design and effects of
types of involvement but did not provide information on whether the five types
were separable. This study uses reports from teachers about the five types of in-
volvement in school programs to further examine the typology.
Earlier studies of parent involvement have focused on one level of schooling, ei-
ther elementary (Becker and Epstein, 1982; Epstein, 1986, 1990, 1991; Hoover-
Dempsey et al., 1987), the middle grades (Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Leitch and
Tangri, 1988; Useem, 1990), or the high school level (Bauch, 1988; Clark, 1983;
Dornbusch and Ritter, 1988; Dornbusch, Ritter, Liederman, Roberts, and Fraleigh,
1987), but studies have not included comparisons across levels of schooling. This
study compares school programs and teachers’ practices of parent involvement in
elementary and middle schools. Dauber and Epstein (1989) present a related study
on the attitudes and practices of the parents in these elementary and middle schools.
132 RESEARCH
METHOD
Data were collected from 171 teachers in five elementary and three middle schools
in Baltimore on the teachers’ attitudes and practices of parent involvement. The
eight schools were selected at random from a set of comparable Title I schools in
economically and educationally disadvantaged neighborhoods to begin a three-year
initiative to improve parent involvement programs and practices.
Teacher representatives for parent involvement from the eight schools were in-
vited to attend a summer workshop. They were paid for their time, were provided
with a background on the topic, helped write questionnaires, received a planning
grant to administer the survey to teachers and to parents, and planned an initial ac-
tivity based on the survey results. The teachers were awarded three years of support
in a series of small grants to design, conduct, help to evaluate, and expand practices
of parent involvement in their schools to increase the achievement and success
of students.
The teacher questionnaire on which this study is based is organized into 10 ques-
tions with many subquestions that obtained 100 pieces of information on teachers’
general attitudes toward parent involvement; teachers’ practices of communicating
with students’ families; use of school and classroom volunteers (including the num-
bers, frequency, tasks, and training of volunteers); strength of school programs on
the five types of parent involvement; importance of specific practices of five types
of parent involvement to the teacher for his or her grade level and subjects taught;
teachers’ expectations of parents; the involvement of hard-to-reach subgroups of
parents; the level of support for parent involvement of the teacher, other school
staff, parents, and community; the characteristics of the student population; class-
room organization; subjects taught; grade level(s); numbers of different students
taught; and years of teaching experience. Open-ended comments about parent in-
volvement practices and problems were also solicited from the teachers.
Two stages of analyses were conducted. First, descriptive statistics were provided
to the teachers, principals, and parents in each school. Each school was given two
profiles, or “Clinical Summaries,” based on the data collected from teachers and
parents. These profiles summarized the strengths and weaknesses of the school on
the five types of parent involvement as perceived by the two groups of respondents
and reported summary statistics for all survey questions (Epstein, 1988; Epstein and
Salinas, 1988). Schools used these data to develop their initial projects to improve
parent involvement programs and practices.
Second, in this study, the data from teachers in the eight schools were combined
for more formal analyses of patterns and connections of teacher attitudes about
parent involvement, school programs, and the actual practices that teachers use at
two levels of schooling (elementary/middle); in different academic subjects; under
three classroom organizations (self-contained, semi-departmentalized, departmental-
ized); and under high or low support by significant other groups for parent involve-
ment. In the next sections we present correlates of strong school programs of the
five types of involvement, add information to validate the typology of five major
types of involvement, discuss the practices of teachers of specific academic subjects,
RESEARCH 133
and demonstrate the importance of a school climate that encourages parent involve-
ment. These analyses provide new information on programs of parent involvement
in inner-city elementary and middle schools. Finally, we outline the process that
these schools are using and that any school could use to improve its connections
with families to benefit students.
RESULTS
Teachers’ General Attitudes about Parent Involvement

Overall, teachers in the inner-city elementary and middle schools in this sample have
strong, positive attitudes about parent involvement. A 10-item scale, scored 1–4 for
negative to positive attitudes on each item, has an average mean score of 3.07 (with
a standard deviation of .32), indicating strong agreement overall and little variation
in teachers’ attitudes. Compared to other teachers, attitudes are more positive for
teachers who teach in self-contained classrooms (correlation coefficient, r = .234)
and for those who perceive high support for parent involvement from their col-
leagues and students’ parents (r = .336). Teachers with more positive attitudes to-
ward parent involvement place more importance than other teachers on such
practices as holding conferences with all students’ parents, communicating with
parents about school programs, and providing parents with both good and bad
reports about students’ progress. More positive attitudes also are positively corre-
lated with more success in involving hard-to-reach parents (r = .383), including em-
ployed parents, parents with less formal education, single parents, parents of older
students, young parents, parents new to the school, and other adults with whom
children live.
Separate Contributions of the Five Types

of Parent Involvement
The items in the questionnaire were designed to measure the five types of involve-
ment described previously. The five types are significantly interrelated, with corre-
lations ranging from r = .303 to r = .569, as shown in Table 3.3. The modest
correlations indicate, however, that the five types also make separate contributions
to comprehensive programs of parent involvement.
The range of coefficients suggests a Guttman scale–like pattern: a cumulative
property such that schools with more difficult components of parent involvement
have the easier ones in place. For example, a strong school program in communi-
cations from school to home (type 2) is least predictive of the other types (range of
r = .303 to .449; range of r2 = 9% to 20%). Because most schools communicate
with families through notices, phone calls, conferences, and similar means, the
power of this type of involvement to predict other types is relatively low. Knowing
a school had a strong program of communication would not help much in predict-
134 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.3 Intercorrelations of Measures of Five Types of Parent Involvement*
Type of Involvement 1 2 3 4 5
1. Parenting skills, child development,
and home environment for learning .378 .482 .569 .467
2. Communications from school to home .341 .449 .303
3. Volunteers at school .561 .519
4. Involvement in learning activities
at home .567
5. Decision making, leadership, and
governance
* All correlations are significant beyond the .001 level. N = 171.
ing whether other types of parent involvement were also in place. By contrast, a
strong school program in learning activities at home (type 4)—perhaps the most
difficult type of parent involvement—is more predictive of the other types (range of
r = .449 to .569; range of r2 = 20% to 32%). That is, if schools are conducting pro-
grams to involve parents in learning activities at home, we could predict with up to
32 percent accuracy that one or more of the other types of involvement also were
in place. The other three types of involvement—in workshops, volunteers, and de-
cision making—are less distinct in their intercorrelations and their predictive pow-
ers. It appears that they are usually added to school programs after communications
practices and before involvement in learning activities at home.
The values show that there is considerable flexibility and unpredictability in
which types of involvement are strongly implemented in schools. We found in this
project, for example, that, with guidance and with small grants to enable teachers to
obtain and use data from teachers and parents, schools proceed in different ways
to build or strengthen parent involvement programs. For example, if schools learn
that parents want this information, they initiate type 4 activities to involve parents
in their children’s learning at home earlier than is typical in the sequence. The data
help us see typical patterns, but the actions taken by individual schools help us un-
derstand that these patterns are not fixed. Schools can take different directions in
program development if they learn about the needs and interests of their families,
students, and teachers.
Other cluster analyses not reported here indicate clear connections between spe-
cific school programs and teachers’ practices of the same type. For example, teach-
ers’ own communication practices correlate significantly with the strength of the
school communication program (r = .154) but not with the strength of the school
volunteer program (r = .058). Teachers’ own volunteer practices correlate signifi-
cantly with the strength of the school volunteer program (r = .390) but not as
strongly with the school communication program (r = .155). Teachers place more
importance on their own practices in the type or types of involvement that are strong
in their school as a whole.
RESEARCH 135
Correlates of Strong School Programs to Involve Parents
Table 3.4 reports the zero-order correlations of the strength of the five types of par-
ent involvement with school level: elementary versus middle schools. Teachers in
elementary schools report significantly stronger programs of parent involvement
than teachers in middle schools on four of the five types of involvement (r = –.212
to r = –.4): parenting and child development, volunteers, learning activities at home,
and decision making. The exception is that elementary and middle school teachers
do not report much difference in their schools’ programs to communicate with par-
ents (r = –.121, not significant). Specific communications practices, however (in-
cluding informal notes, telephone calls, the actual number of children’s families
involved in parent-teacher conferences), are used significantly more often by ele-
mentary grade teachers than by their middle-grade counterparts (r = –.232).
Other analyses not reported here show similar, slightly weaker correlations of
the types of involvement in Table 3.4 with classroom organization (Epstein and
Dauber, 1989). Teachers in self-contained classrooms use significantly more parent
involvement than teachers in departmentalized classes (r = –.155 to r = –.321 for
the different types). School level is, however, the stronger correlate. More elementary
classes are self-contained, and more middle grade classes are departmentalized (r =
.631), with some overlap in semi-departmentalized arrangements. Elementary teach-
ers in self-contained or semi-departmentalized classrooms are more likely than mid-
dle school teachers to have some school programs and some individual practices
that include parents in their children’s education. Still other analyses show that
within elementary schools, the lower the grade level, the more likely the teacher is
to use parent involvement, especially volunteers in the classroom. With considerably
different measures, Stevenson and Baker (1987) show that parents of younger chil-
dren (compared to older students through adolescence) are reported by teachers to
be more involved in meetings and conferences at their children’s schools.
TABLE 3.4 Zero-Order Correlations of Five Types of Parent Involvement with

School Level*
School Level,
How Strong Is This Type of Involvement Elementary (0) vs.
in Your School or in Teacher’s Own Practice? Middle (1)
1. Workshops (school) –.403
2. Communications:
School –.121
Teacher –.232
3. Volunteers (school) –.484
4. Learning activities at home:
School –.343
Teacher –.212
5. Decision making, leadership (school) –.273
* Correlations of .14 are significant at the .05 level; .19 at the .01 level. N = 171.
136 RESEARCH
There were no significant correlations of the types of involvement and the per-
centage of students below average in ability in the teachers’ classrooms. All of the
schools in this sample have high proportions of low-ability students: Approximately
70 percent of the teachers report that more than half of their students are below
average in ability. Teachers with fewer years of experience in these schools have
slightly more communications with their students’ parents (r = –.178) and are in
schools that use more volunteers (r = –.169). Years of teaching experience do not
correlate significantly with teachers’ reports of the strength of their schools’ pro-
grams to involve parents in workshops, home-learning activities, or decision-making
opportunities.
Effects of School Level, Student and Teacher Characteristics,

and Teacher Practices on Parent Involvement Programs
Table 3.5 extends the previous discussion by showing the results of multiple regres-
sion analyses that identify the influence of four variables on the strength of three
types of school programs of parent involvement. The four variables are school level
(coded as elementary = 0 or middle = 1), years of teaching experience, percentage
of students below average in ability, and the importance to the teachers of specific
practices for their own grade levels and students. Data on teachers’ practices were
available for three types of parent involvement: communications from school to
home, volunteers at school, and learning activities at home. Standardized regression
coefficients report the independent effects of each variable, after statistically con-
trolling the other variables in each equation.
The first column of Table 3.5 shows that strong programs of communications
from school to home are not strongly influenced by school level, years of teaching
experience, or percentage of students below average in ability. The strength or weak-
ness of school programs of communications with families is explained mainly by
the teachers’ attitudes and practices of communicating with their own students’
families (standardized regression coefficient ß = .232).
The second column shows that, with other variables statistically taken into account,
strong programs of volunteers at school are explained by school level—more vol-
unteers are used in the elementary grades (ß = –.360); years of teaching experience—
newer teachers are more likely to report that their schools have strong volunteer
programs (ß = –.176); and individual teachers’ practices concerning volunteers—
teachers who use volunteers themselves say that their school volunteer program is
strong (ß = .237).
The third column shows that strong school programs to involve parents in chil-
dren’s learning activities at home are most influenced by school level—elementary
schools are more likely than middle schools to have strong programs of this type of
involvement (ß = –.310). Regardless of level, however, reports of strong school pro-
grams to involve parents in learning activities at home are also explained by teach-
ers’ own emphases on practices that help their students’ parents know how to help
their children with schoolwork at home (ß = .163).
RESEARCH 137
TABLE 3.5 Summary of the Strengths of Three Types of Parent Involvement
How Strong Is This Type of Involvement
at Your School?a
(Standardized Regression Coefficients)
Communications Learning
from School Volunteers Activities
Characteristics and Practices to Homeb at School at Home
School level (elementary/middle) –.104 –.360*** –.310***
Years of teaching experience .003 –.176* .016
Percentage of students below
average ability –.056 –.022 –.124
Importance to teacher of this
type of practicec .232** .237** .163*
R2 .07 .30 .16
N = 171.
a Responses range from 1 = not important, 2 = need to develop, 3 = need to
strengthen, to 4 = already strong.
b Strength of school program of communications includes three items, volunteers
includes two items, and learning activities at home includes two items.
c Teachers reported how important school and family connections were at their own
grade level: communication practices includes five items on conducting formal
conferences with all parents at least once a year, attending evening meetings, and contacts
about students’ report cards and progress; use of volunteers by the teacher includes the
frequency of volunteers in teachers’ classrooms in an average week; learning activities at
home includes nine items on giving information on required skills, providing parents with
ideas on how to talk with and help students on schoolwork; listen to students read and
practice reading, spelling, writing, and social studies skills; and discuss television shows.
* p < .05/.06.
** p < .01.
*** p < .001.
The four variables explain little of the variance in the strength of communication
programs (r 2 = .07), a moderate amount of the variance in the strength of programs
for increasing involvement in learning activities at home (r2 = .16), and a consid-
erable amount of the variance in the strength of programs to involve volunteers
(r 2 = .30).
We know, of course, that level of schooling and associated features affect pro-
grams and practices of family involvement because the influence process cannot go
the other way. However, because these data are cross-sectional—taken at one point
in time—the direction of influence of school programs and teacher practices cannot
be determined. It may be that the importance teachers place on specific practices of
parent involvement at their own grade levels influences their perceptions of the
strength of the programs at their schools. That is, the teachers’ personal attitudes
and practices color their reports of the school as a whole. Or the strength of partic-
ular school programs in communication, use of volunteers, or learning activities at
home may influence teachers to involve students’ parents in these ways. That is, the
schools’ programs affect the practices individual teachers use.
138 RESEARCH
There is evidence from other schools that, when some teachers succeed with new
activities (such as the use of volunteers), other teachers are influenced to use the
same practices, thereby strengthening the school program overall (Vargas, 1990).
Indeed, among the schools in this study, all of these influence processes have been
observed, suggesting that over time school programs and teacher practices change
and improve in concert. Longitudinal data would help document and define this
continuous process in which school programs and teachers’ individual practices in-
fluence each other.
Parent Involvement Practices of

Teachers of Different Subjects
Teachers were asked to check all of the subjects that they taught in an average week.
Analyses of these data show that teachers of the major academic subjects—English/
language arts, reading, math, science, and social studies—tend to stress different
parent involvement practices (Epstein and Dauber, 1989). Teachers of reading (com-
pared to teachers who did not teach reading) place more importance on involving
parents in listening to their children read aloud (r = .141) and on involving parents
as volunteers in their classrooms (r = .138).
Teachers of English/language arts (compared to teachers who did not teach the
subject) emphasize the importance of helping parents become involved in several
types of learning activities at home, including listening to the child read (r = .160),
discussing television shows (r = .164), practicing skills for spelling and other tests
(r = .133), listening to the child’s writing assignments (r = .168), and assigning home-
work that requires parent-child interaction and discussion (r = .143). These teachers
also stress the importance of conferences with all parents (r = .164). The specific
practices of the reading and English teachers encourage parent involvement in lan-
guage and reading skills and help promote students’ success in these subjects. Teach-
ers of reading and English also report stronger and more positive involvement of
parents who are typically “hard to reach,” including less-educated parents, single
parents, young parents, and other adults (not parents) with whom some children
live. In effect, they are more likely than other teachers to use practices to involve
children and all families in subject-specific activities as part of their regular teach-
ing practice.
Teachers of math, science, or social studies (compared to teachers who did not
teach these subjects) do not place great importance on these parent involvement
practices. Compared to other teachers, math teachers are significantly less supportive
of attending evening meetings or activities (r = –.135); science teachers are signifi-
cantly less supportive of informing parents of the skills required to pass their subject
at each grade level (r = –.117); and social studies teachers are significantly less sup-
portive of participating in student-parent-teacher clubs and activities (r = –.148).
Earlier research found that elementary school teachers who frequently involve
parents in learning activities at home are most likely to request involvement in read-
ing or reading-related activities (Becker and Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.1]) and that
RESEARCH 139
these practices have some positive influence on students’ growth in reading scores
(Epstein, 1991 [Reading 3.7]). In the present data from elementary and middle grade
teachers, we see some subject-specific connections between the academic subjects
taught and the teachers’ use or lack of use of particular practices. Teachers of math,
science, and social studies may need even more assistance than other teachers in
preservice and inservice education to understand how to involve parents in their
children’s learning activities in those subjects.
School Climate for Parent Involvement

and Program Strength
Teachers were asked about their own and others’ support for parent involvement
to indicate the climate at their school for supporting school and family connections.
They rated their own level of support (i.e., on a four-point scale of none, weak,
some, or strong) and estimated the level of support for parent involvement of their
principal, other administrators, their teacher colleagues, the parents of students in
the school, and others in the community. “Discrepancy scores” were derived to rep-
resent the differences between the teachers’ own support and their perceptions of
the support of other individuals or groups around them. We hypothesized that
greater discrepancies between teachers and others in the school would be linked to
weaker programs of parent involvement.
Overall, the teachers report that they are similar to their principals in their strong
support for parent involvement. However, they believe that they, as individuals, are
stronger supporters of parent involvement than their teacher-colleagues and much
stronger supporters than the parents or others in the community.
Table 3.6 shows that greater discrepancies between teachers’ beliefs about their
own and parents’ support for involvement occur in schools that have more stu-
dents below average in ability and more departmentalized programs. Teachers in
these schools believe that they are more supportive of involvement than are the
parents. When teachers differ culturally and educationally from their students (as
in schools with many below-average students), or when they teach greater num-
bers of students (as in departmentalized programs), they are less likely to know
the students’ parents and, therefore, more likely to believe that parents are unin-
terested or uninvolved.
The next section of the table shows that greater discrepancies between teachers
and parents are linked to weaker programs of the five major types of parent in-
volvement, with the exception of communications. As noted earlier, just about all
schools conduct some communications with families, regardless of teachers’ per-
sonal attitudes or beliefs. If the teachers believe parents are less supportive of parent
involvement than they are, however, the teachers report that their schools have fewer
workshops (r = –.152), fewer volunteers (r = –.140), fewer methods to involve par-
ents in learning activities at home (r = –.230), and fewer opportunities for decision
making (r = –.132).
140 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.6 Discrepancy Scores: Correlates of Teachers’ Reports of Differences
between Their Own and Parents’ Support for Parent Involvement*
Correlation
Coefficienta
Classroom conditions:
Percentage of students below average +.142b
Number of different students +.172
Self-contained vs. departmentalized +.180
Strength of school program:

Parenting skills, home conditions –.152
Communications from school to home N.S.c
Volunteers at school –.140
Learning activities at home –.230
Participation in decision making –.132
Involvement of hard-to-reach parents:

Working parents –.175
Less-educated parents –.209
Single parents N.S.
Parents of older students –.222
Parents new to the school –.192b
Other adults with whom children live –.200b
* Correlations of .14 are significant at the .05 level; .19 at the .01 level; N.S. = not sig-
nificant. N = 171.
a A (+) correlation suggests that a positive discrepancy score (i.e., teachers’ views of
own support for parent involvement are higher than their views of parents’ support) is as-
sociated with a higher level of the measured variable; a (–) correlation suggests a positive
discrepancy is associated with a lower level of the measured variable.
b Indicates significance when discrepancy is high between self and principal.
c Indicates significance when discrepancy is high between self and colleagues.
The bottom of the table shows that greater discrepancies between teachers’ re-
ports about themselves and parents are linked to less successful connections with
several groups of hard-to-reach parents. If teachers believe that parents are not in-
terested in becoming involved in their children’s schooling, teachers make fewer ef-
forts to contact, inform, and work with them, especially with those parents who are
hard to reach and especially on more difficult types of involvement such as involving
parents in learning activities at home.
Other analyses indicate that discrepancies with principals and colleagues also re-
duce practices of parent involvement, as noted in the table. For example, greater
discrepancy between self (teacher) and principals occurs in schools with more dis-
advantaged students. Also, teachers who think that they and their principal differ
in supporting parent involvement make fewer contacts with hard-to-reach parents.
Greater discrepancy between self and colleagues is linked to weaker school pro-
grams and fewer individual practices of traditional communication with families.
RESEARCH 141
Highly discrepant environments (where teachers believe that they differ in atti-
tudes from others at the school) are less likely to support strong, comprehensive
programs of parent involvement. Less discrepant environments (where teachers see
themselves as more similar to their own school administrators, colleagues, and par-
ents) are more likely to support strong school programs and encourage strong
teacher attitudes and practices.
DISCUSSION
This survey of teachers in inner-city elementary and middle schools offers new in-
formation about the strengths and weaknesses of programs and practices of parent
involvement. We draw the following conclusions from the data.
School Level
Elementary school programs of parent involvement are stronger, more positive, and
more comprehensive than those in the middle grades. This is especially evident for
workshops for parents on parenting skills, child development, and school programs;
volunteers at school; learning activities at home; and involvement in school deci-
sions. One partial exception concerns school programs of communication. Although
teachers in elementary and middle schools report their schools have about equally
strong communication programs or policies, middle grade teachers use fewer specific
communication practices and communicate less often than elementary teachers with
fewer individual families. Parents of middle grade students receive less information
or guidance at the very time they need more information and more guidance on
how to be involved in larger and more complex schools and on new and more com-
plex class schedules and subjects (Useem, 1990). This pattern is changing and will
change more as middle grade schools and teachers increase their understanding of
school and family connections in early adolescence and begin to develop stronger
and more comprehensive programs.
Classroom Organization
Programs of parent involvement are stronger in self-contained classrooms. The or-

ganization of classrooms (e.g., self-contained, semi-departmentalized or teamed,
and departmentalized programs) determines the number of students that are the
teachers’ responsibility and affects the frequency of and reasons for teacher contacts
with students’ parents. Teachers in self-contained classes (mainly in elementary
schools) have fewer students to teach and are more apt to make frequent and di-
verse contacts with parents. They may feel more familiar with a small number of
parents or more fully responsible for the students’ school programs, including
home-learning activities.
142 RESEARCH
Students with many teachers for different subjects could benefit greatly if their
parents knew how to monitor and discuss schoolwork and school decisions with
their children. To adjust for the difficulties of working with large numbers of stu-
dents and families, teachers in middle schools and some elementary schools will
need extra information, staff development, and guidance in efficient and effective
practices that can be used to involve parents of students in departmentalized or
semi-departmentalized programs.
Academic Subjects
Teachers of certain academic subjects—particularly English and reading—use more

practices than teachers of other subjects to involve parents in their children’s edu-
cation. Many of the same techniques used by English and reading teachers could be
used by teachers of any subject (e.g., teachers can ask parents to listen to a child
read something the child wrote or practice skills before quizzes or tests). Teachers
of any subject can design and assign homework in a way that requires students to
interact with a parent about something interesting that they are learning in school.
Support for Parent Involvement
Discrepancy scores show that greater differences between self (teacher) and princi-
pal, self and teacher-colleagues, and, particularly, self and parents are associated
with weaker parent involvement programs and practices and less involvement with
families who are typically hard to reach. Conversely, greater similarities between
self and others are reported by teachers in schools with stronger parent involvement
programs and practices. Teachers who believe that they share similar beliefs with
parents about involvement make more contacts with parents whom other teachers
find hard to reach, conduct more types of activities to involve families, and are less
affected by disadvantaged characteristics of the student population and by different
classroom organizations. The analyses of discrepancy scores suggest that it is im-
portant to build common understanding about shared goals and common support
among teachers, parents, and principals so that teachers’ feelings of isolation or sep-
arateness from others will decrease and school and family partnerships will increase.
Five Types of Involvement
The five major types of parent involvement are related but separable.* In these
schools, type 2 activities (communications from the school to the home) are more
prevalent and, therefore, less predictive of other types of parent involvement programs
* This also applies to the framework of six types of involvement. See Chapter 5.
RESEARCH 143
or practices. In contrast, type 4 activities (involvement in learning activities at home)
are difficult for many teachers to organize and so are implemented in fewer places
and by fewer teachers, usually after other, more standard practices are in place. In-
formation from parents at the schools in this study showed that parents wanted
more information on how to help their own children (Dauber and Epstein, 1989).
Some schools used that information to develop type 4 activities even before strength-
ening other types of involvement. The results support earlier studies that suggest
that schools can invest in different types of involvement to address various needs
and to attain different benefits.
Families in Inner-City Schools
Educators and researchers often view minority families and families of educationally
disadvantaged students in terms of their deficiencies. Often, however, the deficiencies
lie in the schools’ programs. In this sample of eight inner-city, Title I elementary and
middle schools, some schools and, within schools, some teachers have figured out
how to mobilize the support of educationally and economically disadvantaged fam-
ilies. In the three-year action research program, all of the inner-city schools discov-
ered that, regardless of where they started from, they could systematically improve
their practices to involve the families they serve.
Linking School Programs and Teacher Practices
The study demonstrates important linkages between school programs and teachers’
individual practices to involve parents. Although the direction and process of causal-
ity remain to be determined in longitudinal studies, this study provides evidence
that strong school programs in particular types of involvement go hand in hand
with the importance teachers place on the same types of involvement.
Other variables may also influence school programs and teacher practices. In a
study of elementary schools, Hoover-Dempsey et al. (1987) found that teacher effi-
cacy (feeling that one is an effective and capable teacher) is related to the strength
of school programs of parent involvement, including conferences with more parents,
more volunteers, and more interactive homework activities. Although their measure
of teacher efficacy raises some questions because it includes estimates of students’
ability to learn, the conclusion that schools with more confident teachers use more
involvement strategies is provocative. The authors also found that schools with
more confident teachers, on average, report more support from parents.
Another study of parent involvement in elementary schools found that parents
and principals rated teachers higher in overall teaching ability and interpersonal
skills if the teachers frequently used practices of parent involvement (Epstein, 1985
[Reading 4.3], 1986). Teachers’ confidence may be boosted by high ratings and ap-
preciation from parents and administrators that result from the use of more involve-
ment practices and encourage continued and expanded use of these practices.
144 RESEARCH
Studies are needed that press these questions further to increase an understanding
of the links between school programs and individual teachers’ practices across the
grades, in different subjects, and in a variety of school communities. This study is
based on a small sample of schools and teachers selected because of their initially
low and infrequent family and school connections. Despite the somewhat restricted
conditions in these schools, the analyses yield robust and credible results about the
connections of parent involvement with the level of school, subjects, types of in-
volvement, and climate of support. Other studies of these patterns in more varied
sets of schools will help clarify the reported results.
IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPROVING SCHOOL

AND FAMILY CONNECTIONS
The schools in this study were participants in the Baltimore School and Family Con-
nections Project—a long-term process to improve school and family connections to
improve students’ success in school. The process is one that may be followed or
adapted by any school that is not satisfied with its present types or strengths of parent
involvement. In this case, educators work with researchers and a community foun-
dation that makes small grants to teachers to develop more responsive programs and
practices of parent involvement. Small grants can come from other sources, however,
such as district and school funds for school improvement and various federal, state,
and local programs. Small grants that support and recognize teachers’ practices of
parent involvement also have been successful in other projects (Davies, 1990; Kras-
now, 1990). We have learned of several steps that may maximize success.
1. Assess present strengths and weaknesses. Each school needs to identify its own
“starting point” on practices of parent involvement to move ahead with more com-
prehensive and improved programs.
2. Identify hopes, dreams, and goals. How would parents, teachers, students, and
administrators like the school to involve parents three to five years from the starting
point? Rather than looking back at errors or failures in their practices and relation-
ships, we ask the partners in education to look ahead to their goals for the future.
What new goals for parents and administrator practice could be attained?
3. Identify who will have responsibilities for reaching the goals. Over a three-year
period, progress can be made in clear steps, but some individual, team, group, or
committee must be put in charge and supported in its responsibilities to conduct
and supervise specific activities, revise practices, evaluate progress each year, and
expand programs. Comer’s (1988) process of school site management to include
parents emphasizes formal committee structures; our work acknowledges and de-
velops committees and other flexible arrangements such as large and small teams
and groups to design and improve practices. In either case, responsibilities must be
clear, and efforts must be supported.
RESEARCH 145
4. Evaluate implementations and results. It is important for teachers, administrators,
parents, and students who invest time and energy in a new process and activities to
know how well the program is implemented (e.g., are they reaching those they want
to reach?). If programs are successfully implemented, one must evaluate whether
and how well they promote student success or other goals. Based on each year’s
evaluations and reviews, programs may be revised, maintained, or extended to move
toward ever more effective connections with more families.
5. Continue to support program development activities. Parent involvement is a pro-

cess that requires teachers, administrators, parents, students, and others in the school
community to plan, implement, and reflect on their efforts and goals. This takes
time. We found that three years of small grants to teachers provides a minimum
period in which to make a good start to improve some practices, particularly if prin-
cipals exert their leadership to reinforce the concept of partnership with families
and to recognize and extend specific activities. As with any aspect of school effec-
tiveness, however, school and family connections are ongoing investments that re-
quire continuous attention and support.
WHAT QUESTIONS MUST BE ASKED?
The schools in this sample started with surveys of teachers and parents that the teach-
ers helped design. These questionnaires are available for others’ use or adaptation.
There are, however, other ways in which schools can assess where they are starting
from. These include gathering information from panels of teachers, parents, and
students at PTA meetings, grade-level meetings, or other special convocations. Or,
principals may conduct focus groups or breakfast meetings with specially invited
teachers and parents to outline goals and plans for parent involvement. Questions
for panels, focus groups, or discussion groups about their own schools include:
1. Which practices of each of the five types of parent involvement are presently
strong at each grade level? Which are weak? What practices are
particularly important at each grade level? Which practices should change
from grade to grade, and which should be continued?
2. Are our parent involvement practices coherent and coordinated, or are
different groups fragmented and following their own agendas? How are
all families, Title I families, limited English-proficient families, special
education families, and other families who seem hard to reach provided
with information and included in their children’s schools and education
at home?
3. Which families are we reaching, and which are we not yet reaching?
Why are we having problems reaching some families, and what can we
do to help solve problems of communication and relationships?
4. What do we expect of each other? What do teachers expect of families?
What do families expect of teachers and others in the school? What do
146 RESEARCH
students expect their families to be able to do to help them in
appropriate ways at each grade level?
5. How do we want this school to look three years from now in its
practices of the five types of parent involvement? How would we like
parent involvement to work here? What would teachers do? What would
parents do? What would administrators do? What would students do?
What are specific goals that we want to reach at the end of one year, two
years, and three years?
6. How are our students succeeding on important measures of
achievement, attitudes, and other indicators of success? How could
parent involvement help more students reach higher standards and
higher levels of success? Which types of involvement will help students
boost their achievements, accomplishments, attitudes, and behaviors?
7. What steps can we take to reach the three-year goals? Who will be
responsible for developing, implementing, and evaluating each type of
involvement?
8. What costs are associated with the desired improvements? Will staff
development, district resources, and/or school leadership and resources
be needed? Will small grants or other special funds be needed to
implement the programs? How will teachers, parents, and others who
design and conduct activities be supported, rewarded, and recognized?
9. How will we evaluate the implementation and results of our efforts to
improve practices? What results do we think will actually be attained in
one year, two years, and three years, and what indicators, measures, and
observations will we use to learn how we are progressing?
10. Other questions about starting points, plans, goals, responsibilities,
implementations, and evaluations.
Whether questionnaires, telephone surveys, focus groups, or other group discus-

sions are used, each school must gather information to create a profile of present
practices and a coherent plan of action to improve practices in the future.
SUMMARY
Although teachers individually express strong positive attitudes toward parent in-
volvement, most school programs and classroom practices do not support teachers’
beliefs in the importance of school and family partnerships. In this survey most
teachers wanted all parents to fulfill 12 parent involvement responsibilities, ranging
from teaching their children to behave, to knowing what their children are expected
to learn each year, to helping them on those skills. Most schools and teachers have
not yet implemented practices to help families fulfill these responsibilities at each
grade level. Most teachers believe they are stronger supporters of parent involvement
than are the other teachers in the school. This is, of course, logically inconsistent
and indicates that the teachers do not know their colleagues’ attitudes. Teachers say
RESEARCH 147
that parents and others in the community are not strong supporters of parent in-
volvement, but surveys of parents in the same schools contradict the teachers’ be-
liefs about parents (Dauber and Epstein, 1989 [Reading 3.6]). Thus, educators may
create false or exaggerated discrepancies between themselves and others about par-
ent involvement.
As schools in this study found when they assessed the attitudes and aims of their
teachers and parents, more similarities exist than many realize. There is, then, an
important (though often hidden) base of shared goals, interests, and investments
in children’s success on which to build more effective programs of school and fam-
ily connections.
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for action. Sacramento: Author.
Clark, R. (1983). Family life and school achievement: Why poor black children succeed and
fail. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Comer, J. (1988). Educating poor minority children. Scientific American 259(5): 42–48.
inner-city elementary and middle schools. CREMS Report 33. Baltimore: Center for Re-
search on Elementary and Middle Schools, Johns Hopkins University. (Reading 3.6).
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148 RESEARCH
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———. (1989). Home advantage: Social class and parental intervention in elementary edu-
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performance. Child Development 58: 1348–1357.
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Out project in New York City.
RESEARCH 149
READING 3.4
Parents’ Reactions to Teacher Practices
of Parent Involvement*
Teachers have strong opinions about parent involvement. Some believe that they
can be effective only if they obtain parental assistance on learning activities at
home. Others believe that their professional status is in jeopardy if parents are in-
volved in activities that are typically the teachers’ responsibilities. The different
philosophies and beliefs of teachers reflect the two main, opposing theories of
school and family relations.
One perspective emphasizes the inherent incompatibility, competition, and con-
flict between families and schools and supports the separation of the two institutions
(Parsons, 1959; Waller, 1932; Weber, 1947). It assumes that school bureaucracies
and family organizations are directed, respectively, by educators and parents, who
can best fulfill their different goals, roles, and responsibilities independently. Thus,
these distinct goals are achieved most efficiently and effectively when teachers main-
tain their professional, general standards and judgments about the children in their
classrooms and when parents maintain their personal, particularistic standards and
judgments about their children at home.
The opposing perspective emphasizes the coordination, cooperation, and com-
plementarity of schools and families and encourages communication and collabo-
ration between the two institutions. It assumes that schools and families share
responsibilities for the socialization and education of the child. Teachers and parents
are believed to share common goals for children that are achieved most effectively
when teachers and parents work together. These assumptions are based on models
of inter-institutional interactions and ecological designs that emphasize the natural,
nested, necessary connections among individuals, groups, and organizations (Bron-
fenbrenner, 1979; Leichter, 1974; Litwak and Meyer, 1974).
Although teachers may combine these perspectives, they tend to emphasize the
precepts of one theory or the other in organizing their teaching practice. In an earlier
survey of teachers, we found that in some classrooms inter-institutional cooperation
was low. These teachers made few overtures to parents, rarely requesting their help
on learning activities at home. In other classrooms cooperation was high. These
teachers made frequent requests for parental assistance in reinforcing or improving
students’ skills (Becker and Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.1]; Epstein and Becker, 1982
[Reading 3.2]).
* By Joyce L. Epstein. Many thanks go to the teachers, principals, and families who participated in this
survey. I am indebted to my colleague Henry Jay Becker, who shared responsibility for the design and
data collection of the study and offered suggestions on earlier drafts of this reading. Thanks, too, go to
John H. Hollifield and two anonymous reviewers for helpful suggestions. This research was supported
by a grant from the National Institute of Education. The results and opinions of the author do not nec-
essarily reflect the position or policy of the NIE, and no endorsement by the NIE should be inferred.
150 RESEARCH
Teachers’ reports tell only one part of the story. Parents’ reports are needed to verify
and clarify their experiences with teachers’ different practices of parent involvement.
Among the most frequently mentioned expected benefits of parent involvement are
the increased or sustained interest and support of parents in the school programs
and in their child’s progress (Gordon, 1979; Keesling and Melaragno, 1983; Mager,
1980; Morrison, 1978; Rich and Jones, 1977; Robinson, 1979; Sowers, Lang, and
Gowett, 1980). Little research has been done, however, to link specific teachers’
practices with the parents who experience them or to measure differences in atti-
tudes and reactions of parents whose children are in classrooms of teachers with
different philosophies and practices of parent involvement. The data collected for
this study connect the teachers with the parents of their students. I examine parents’
awareness of teachers’ efforts, knowledge about the school program, and evalua-
tions of teachers. The results should provide an understanding of parents’ perspec-
tives on teachers’ practices that emphasize the cooperation or separation of schools
and families.
METHOD
Parents of 1,269 students in 82 first-, third-, and fifth-grade classrooms in Maryland

completed and returned by mail questionnaires on the parent involvement prac-
tices of their children’s teachers, a response rate of 59 percent. The questionnaire,
administered in the spring of 1981, contained items assessing parents’ attitudes to-
ward the schools and teachers, their experiences with different kinds of involvement
and communications with the schools, and their reactions to the teachers’ programs
and practices. The teachers of these parents’ children included 36 “case” teachers
who were identified in an earlier survey as strong supporters and users of parent
involvement in learning activities at home and 46 “control” teachers who, by their
own report, did not emphasize parent involvement but who matched the “case”
teachers in their teaching assignment by grade level, school district, years of teaching
experience, estimated achievement level of the students in their classes, and average
education of their students’ parents. Among the “case” teachers, 17 were recognized
by their principals as especially strong leaders in the use of parent involvement. In
this report, “parent involvement” refers to the frequency of participation by parents
in 12 types of learning activities that teachers request parents to conduct or monitor
at home that support the child’s instructional program at school. Overall, the 82
teachers ranged along a continuum from low to high use of parent involvement.
This continuum is one measure of teachers’ emphasis on the separation or cooper-
ation of schools and families on learning activities.
Table 3.7 describes the characteristics of parents who returned questionnaires.
Families were instructed that the parent most familiar with the child’s school and
teacher should complete the survey. Over 90 percent of the “most knowledgeable”
parents were female. Other background and family characteristics showed a repre-
sentative mix of the families served by Maryland’s schools. Approximately one-
fourth of the parents had some high school education but no diploma, almost
RESEARCH 151
one-third had graduated from high school, about one-fifth had attended some col-
lege, and approximately one-fourth graduated from college or attended graduate
school. About one-fourth of the sample comprised single parents. Two-fifths of the
respondents did not work outside the home, one-fifth worked part-time, and two-
fifths had full-time jobs outside the home. Approximately one-third of the respon-
dents were black.
There were some differences between the parents who responded to the survey and
those who did not. More parents whose children were above average in math
and reading skills in school returned the survey than did parents of children doing
average or below average work in these subjects. Regardless of how children fared ac-
ademically, the response was greater from parents whose children were in the class-
rooms of teachers who were leaders in parent involvement. Mailing back the
questionnaire may be an indicator of parental cooperation on important requests
from the teacher (Becker, 1982).
The differences in return rates from parents had offsetting effects. Parents whose
children were in classrooms of teachers who emphasized parent involvement tended
to be more positive about school than other parents, but parents of high-achieving
students tended to be more critical of school and teachers than other parents. The
small differences in return rates from some parents did not seriously affect the use-
fulness of data from the sizable, diverse sample of parents.
TABLE 3.7 Characteristics of Parents*

Characteristics %
Grade level of children:
K, 1, 2 45
3, 4 27
5, 6 28
Sex:
Female 92
Male 8
Race
White 62
Black 36
Other 2
Highest education completed:
Some high school (or less) 25
High school diploma 28
Some college 20
Bachelor’s degree 10
Some graduate school (or advanced degree) 17
Family structure:
Two-parent home 76
One-parent home 24
Employment:
Not working 39
Part-time work 18
Full-time work 43
* N = 1,269.
152 RESEARCH
Statistical methods were used to take into account the multiple characteristics
of parents, teachers, and students to isolate effects on parents of teacher practices
of parent involvement. The cross-sectional nature of these data prevents us from
drawing conclusions about causal relationships between teacher practices and par-
ents’ reactions and evaluations. Regression techniques, however, yield information
that permits informed guesses about potentially important, independent effects that
should prompt new longitudinal studies.
In this article, I briefly examine parents’ attitudes toward public elementary
schools and their experiences with some common forms of parent involvement and
then focus on parents’ reactions to teacher practices of parent involvement in learn-
ing activities at home. I examine the responses of parents who have different edu-
cational backgrounds and whose children are in classrooms of teachers who differ
in their leadership in the use of parent involvement practices.
RESULTS
Parents’ Attitudes Toward Public Elementary

Schools and Teachers
Parents’ attitudes toward the public elementary schools and teachers were remark-
ably positive. About 90 percent of the parents agreed that their elementary schools
were well run. Almost as many felt comfortable at their child’s school and believed
that they and the teachers had the same goals for the child.
The parents’ clearly positive attitudes seem to contradict recent national reports
that have criticized the curricula, teachers, and standards in the public schools (Na-
tional Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983; National Task Force on Ed-
ucation for Economic Growth, 1983). The reactions of parents in Maryland are
more like the findings of a recent Gallup poll (1983), in which only 9 percent of re-
spondents with children in public schools said that getting good teachers was a
problem, only 9 percent cited parents’ lack of interest, and only 1 percent reported
problems with administrators. Although there are some problems in all schools,
most parents were not concerned about the basic administration of the schools or
with the quality of teachers. They found fewer problems with elementary than with
secondary schools, and they were more positive about the public schools if they sent
their children there (Gallup, 1982, 1983; Goodlad, 1983). Other studies also report
generally positive attitudes of parents of public school children toward the curricu-
lum (Klein, Tye, and Wright, 1979), parent involvement, and homework (Olmsted,
Wetherby, Leler, and Rubin, 1982; Williams, 1983; Zill and Peterson, 1982).
Despite positive attitudes about schools and teachers in general, parents reported
that teachers could do more to involve parents in learning activities at home. Ap-
proximately 58 percent of the parents rarely or never received requests from the
teacher to become involved in learning activities at home. Fewer than 30 percent of
the parents reported that teachers gave them many ideas on how to help their child
in reading and math. They overwhelmingly agreed that teachers should involve
RESEARCH 153
parents in learning activities at home and that homework was useful for their chil-
dren. More than 80 percent of the parents said they could spend more time helping
their children at home if they were shown how to do specific learning activities.
Experiences with Parent Involvement
We look now at several types of parent involvement that the parents experienced.
These include involvement in basic obligations at home, communication from the
school to the home, assistance at the school, and assistance in learning activities
at home.
Involvement in Basic Obligations. The most pervasive form of parent involvement

is the parents’ provision of school supplies needed by their children and general
support and supervision at home. More than 97 percent of the parents in this Mary-
land survey said that their children had the supplies needed for school, and over 90
percent reported that their children had a regular place to do homework. These
management chores are expected by the schools and are accepted as basic respon-
sibilities by almost all parents.
Involvement in School-to-Home Communications. Communication from the

school to the home is sometimes considered “parent involvement” but is usually
“parent information.” All schools send information home to the family about
schedules, report card grades, special events, and emergency procedures. Most of
these activities flow one way, from the school to the home, often with no encour-
agement for communication from parents. Some schools organize and require
teacher-parent conferences with all parents; others hold conferences with some
parents, only on request. A few schools support home visits by teachers or by aides
who serve as liaisons between teachers and parents to inform parents about school
procedures.
Despite the typical profusion of notices from school to home, some parents re-
ceive few communications from teachers. In the Maryland sample, approximately
16 percent of the parents said they received no memos from their child’s teacher,
more than 35 percent had no parent-teacher conference, and approximately 60
percent never spoke to the teacher on the phone, as shown in Table 3.8. It is not
surprising that the more time required for an exchange, the less often that type of
communication occurs, but it is revealing that large numbers of parents are ex-
cluded from many of the traditional forms of communication that link the school
to the home.
Involvement at School. One prevalent form of involvement is parental assistance at

the school: in the classroom as an aide to teachers; in other school locations such
as the cafeteria, library, or playground; or at special events, such as class parties,
trips, or fund-raisers. Although some parents participate, most parents are not active
at school:
154 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.8 Parents Who Never Received Personal Communication from Child’s
Teacher over One Year
Type of Communication %
Memo from teacher 16.4
Talk to teacher before or after school 20.7
Conference with teacher 36.4
Handwritten note from teacher 36.5
Workshop at school 59.0
Called on phone by teacher 59.5
Visited at home by teacher 96.3
• Approximately 70 percent never helped the teacher in the classroom or

on class trips.
• Approximately 70 percent never participated in fund-raising activities
for the school.
• Approximately 88 percent never assisted in the library, cafeteria, or other
school areas.
Even those parents who did become active were involved infrequently. The aver-
age number of days at school per year was:
• 4.1 days helping the teacher and class;

• 7.0 days helping with fund-raising activities; and
• 3.5 days helping in the school cafeteria, offices, or library.
Only about 4 percent of the respondents (51 parents distributed across 82 class-
rooms) were very active, spending over 25 days per year at the school. Many (42
percent) of the parents who were not active at school worked outside the home dur-
ing school hours. Others had small children, family problems, or other activities
that demanded their time. Others (about 12 percent) simply had not been asked to
assist at school. Despite these facts, parent assistance at the school is the type of
parent involvement that most teachers and administrators support (Ogbu, 1974).
Involvement with Learning Activities at Home. A less frequently used form of parent
involvement, but one that reflects the theory of cooperation between schools and
families, is teacher practices that involve all or most parents in learning activities
with their children at home. In this study, teachers ranged from low to high in their
use of this type of parent involvement. Parents were asked about their experiences
with 12 techniques that teachers use to involve parents in learning activities at home.
These were grouped under five categories: (1) techniques that involve reading and
books; (2) techniques that encourage discussions between parents and children; (3)
techniques based on informal activities and games that use common materials at
home; (4) techniques based on formal contracts and supervision among parents,
teachers, and children; and (5) techniques that involve tutoring and teaching the
RESEARCH 155
child in skills and drills. In an earlier survey, teachers rated these techniques as their
most satisfying and successful parent involvement practices (Becker and Epstein,
1982 [Reading 3.1]).
Most Frequent Requests to Parents by Teacher-Leaders. Parents whose children’s

teachers were recognized by their principal as leaders in parent involvement reported
significantly more frequent use of 9 of the 12 parent involvement practices, as shown
in Table 3.9. These included reading aloud or listening to the child read, talking
with the child about the events of the school day, giving spelling or math drills, giv-
ing help on worksheets or workbooks, signing the child’s homework, taking the
child to the library, playing learning games, using things at home to teach, and vis-
iting the classroom to observe teaching techniques. Despite the frequent use of some
activities by some teachers, from one-fourth to two-fifths of the parents never were
asked to conduct the five most frequently used parent involvement activities. On
the three least used practices—borrowing books, entering contracts, and using TV
for learning—there were no significant differences in reports from parents of teach-
ers who were leaders compared with other teachers.
TABLE 3.9 Parents Reporting Frequent Requests for Parent Involvement

Techniques by Teacher-Leaders and Other Teachers (percent)
Parents Reporting
Requests By:
Activity Teacher-Leaders Other Teachers 2 Testa
1. Read aloud to child or listen to

child read 68 51 ***
2. Sign child’s homework 66 52 ***
3. Give spelling or math drills 61 54 *
4. Help with worksheet or work
book lessons 57 47 **
5. Ask child about school day 49 42 *
6. Use things at home to teach child 44 34 **
7. Play games that help child learn 35 28 **
8. Visit classroom to watch how
child is taught 34 25 **
9. Take child to library 26 17 **
10. Borrow books from teacher to
give extra help 21 16
11. Make a formal contract with teacher to
supervise homework or projects 21 19
12. Watch and discuss TV shows with child 15 15
a 2 tests indicate whether parents report more frequent use of parent involvement ac-
tivities by teacher-leaders than by other teachers, with frequency categorized as several
times or often versus never, once, or twice.
* p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
156 RESEARCH
There were basic similarities between the teachers’ reports in an earlier survey
and the parents’ accounts of their experiences with learning activities at home. The
most popular involvement techniques that teachers used (i.e., asking parents to read
aloud with a child, conduct discussions, sign homework) were the ones parents most
frequently experienced. The least popular techniques for teachers (i.e., discuss TV
shows, use formal contracts) were least frequently experienced by parents. Both
teachers’ and parents’ responses suggested that, although infrequently used now,
activities that the teacher designed to use the TV at home may be useful for struc-
turing parent-child discussions and for building children’s listening and speaking
skills. The similarities in parent experiences and teacher practices lend credibility
to the reports of both groups. Parents’ experiences with teacher practices confirm
that some parents are guided by teachers who follow the precepts of theories em-
phasizing the separation of school and family responsibilities, whereas others are
directed toward cooperative efforts on behalf of the children.
Experiences of Parents with Different Educational Backgrounds. Teacher-leaders

whose practices supported cooperation between schools and families reported that
they involved parents with many, average, or few years of formal schooling. Teachers
who were not leaders in parent involvement, whose practices emphasized the sepa-
ration of school and home, reported that parents with little education could not or
would not help their children with learning activities at home (Becker and Epstein,
1982 [Reading 3.1]). We wanted to check the teachers’ reports against the experi-
ences of parents who had different educational backgrounds.
Parents’ reports of their involvement in learning activities at home are shown in
Table 3.10. The top half of the table presents the responses of parents with little
schooling, average schooling, and advanced schooling. The bottom half groups par-
ents by the teachers’ leadership in the use of parent involvement. We see, in the top
panel, that, in general, parents with less formal education reported significantly
more frequent requests from teachers than did parents with average or advanced
education. The bottom panel shows that the differences in reports from parents
with different levels of education were significant only for parents with children
in classrooms of teachers who were not leaders in the use of parent involvement. In
classrooms of teachers who were leaders, parents at all educational levels reported
about equally frequent requests by teachers to conduct learning activities at home.
The same pattern was found in separate analyses of each type of parent involve-
ment activity, including reading, discussions, contracts, informal games, worksheets,
and signing homework. The differences in the reports from low- and high-educated
parents were significant only in classrooms of teachers who were not leaders in
using parent involvement practices.
The reports from parents clarify and extend the earlier information from teach-
ers on their use of parent involvement with differently educated parents. According
to parents, teachers who were leaders in the use of parent involvement practices
established more equitable programs, involving parents regardless of their educa-
tional backgrounds. Teachers who were not leaders in parent involvement did not
try to reach all parents. They may have seen little need to approach parents whose
RESEARCH 157
TABLE 3.10 Parents Reporting Frequent Use by Teachers of 12 Parent
Involvement Techniques, by Parents’ Education and Teachers’ Leadership
% of Parents Reporting Zero, Some
or Many Techniques Used Frequently
Zero Some (1–4) Many (5+)
a
Parent education
High 23 40 37
Average 15 39 46
Low 16 30 54
2 = 25.98; p < .34 (N.S.)b
Parent education/teacher leadershipa

High/leader 6 42 52
High/not leader 25 40 35
Average/leader 9 35 56
Average/not leader 17 40 43
Low/leader 18 26 56
Low/not leader 17 31 52
2 (teacher leader) = 4.55; p < .34 (N.S.)b
2 (teacher not leader) = 18.45; p < .001b
a Low education includes parents with some high school education (N = 240); average
education includes parents with a high school diploma (N = 462); high education includes
parents with at least some college education and beyond (N = 543).
b 2 tests were conducted to determine the independence or association of parents’ edu-
cation with reports of teacher requests for frequent parent involvement for all parents,
parents with children in classrooms of teacher-leaders, and parents with children in class-
rooms of teachers who were not leaders. Parents’ reports were independent of their edu-
cation only in teacher-leaders’ classrooms.
children were doing well in school or parents who helped their children at home
without directions from the teacher. Children of parents with less formal education
often do less well in school than other children, need more help at home, and have
parents who do not know how to help without guidance from the teacher. Teachers
may ask these parents to assist their children at home, even when the teachers be-
lieve that these parents will not be fully successful in their efforts (Valentine and
Stark, 1979).
It could be that parents with less formal education agree more often with survey
questions and that the patterns of parents’ reports about the frequency of requests
reflect response bias associated with educational level. This explanation would be
plausible if we looked only at the general reports from parents by educational level.
However, in the classrooms of teacher-leaders, parents of all educational levels re-
ported about equal frequency of teachers’ requests for involvement, an unbiased
pattern of responses.
158 RESEARCH
Effects of Involvement on Parents
Does it matter to parents whether teachers’ practices emphasize separation or co-

operation with families? There is little research on whether teachers’ efforts have
any measurable effects on the parents who are involved. It has been left up to the
teacher to decide—often in the absence of information—whether to invest time in
parent involvement practices.
Regression analyses were conducted to determine whether teacher leadership af-
fected parents’ reactions to teachers’ efforts and parents’ evaluations of teachers’
merits. The analyses included other variables that have been found to influence
teacher practices of parent involvement: three measures of the teaching situation:
grade level, teacher quality as rated by the principal, and teacher education (highest
degree); two measures of student characteristics: classroom performance in reading
and math and racial composition of the class; and two characteristics of parents:
educational level and extent of parent involvement at the school. Because more ac-
tive parents, those with more formal education, and parents of more advanced stu-
dents may pressure teachers to use more parent involvement, these variables are
taken into account in the statistical analyses, and their effects on parent reactions
are examined. Although these cross-sectional data do not show causality, this model
is used to identify potentially important independent effects of teacher practices on
parent reactions that can be reexamined in longitudinal studies.
Table 3.11 summarizes how teacher practices of parent involvement affected par-
ents’ awareness of teachers’ policies, knowledge of the child’s program, and evalu-
ations of teachers’ merits. We compare the effects on parents of three measures of
teacher leadership: (1) teachers’ reputations as leaders in parent involvement (from
principals’ ratings); (2) parents’ consensus (at the classroom level) that the teacher
is a frequent user of the 12 techniques of parent involvement; and (3) parents’ con-
sensus (at the classroom level) that the teacher frequently communicates with par-
ents by note, phone, memo, conference, or conversation at school. On each of these
measures, teacher practices fall along a continuum from low to high interaction and
cooperation with families. Table 3.12 should be read in conjunction with Table 3.11
and contains corresponding statistics of the contribution of each of the three measures
of teacher leadership to the explained variance of each measure of parent reactions.
Parents’ Awareness of Teacher Practices
Three items measured parents’ awareness of teachers’ practices. Parents were

asked whether the teacher worked hard at getting parents excited about helping
their child at home, whether they received most ideas for home learning from the
teacher, and whether the teacher made it clear that they should help their child
with homework.
Efforts of Teachers. All three measures of teacher leadership had independent effects
on parents’ estimates of teachers’ efforts, as shown in column 1 of Table 3.11. Of
RESEARCH 159
the three measures, teachers’ frequent use of learning activities at home had the
most dramatic impact (ß = .695) on parents’ reports that teachers work hard to in-
terest and excite them in helping their children at home.
In Table 3.12, rows 1–3 inform us about how the measures of teacher leader-
ship and the other variables in the regression model explain—uniquely and in
combination—parents’ reports that the teacher works hard to involve parents.
The figures in the far right-hand column show that routine communications from
the teacher to the family explained 9 percent of the variance after all other variables
in the model were accounted for. The other variables—especially grade level, racial
composition, and parents’ education—contributed more than 40 percent of the ex-
plained variance after routine communications were accounted for.
The figures in the middle column of rows 1–3 indicate that parents’ actual expe-
riences with learning activities at home explained 18 percent of the variance in re-
ports that the teacher works hard, after all other variables were accounted for. Other
variables in the model added little information (4 percent of the explained variance)
after teacher practices were taken into account.
The facts from Tables 3.11 and 3.12 reveal a strong link between parents’ actual
experiences with teacher practices of parent involvement and parents’ awareness that
the teacher works hard to interest and excite parents in their children’s education.
Ideas from Teachers. Parents received most ideas for home-learning activities from
teachers who were rated by principals or by parents as leaders in parent involvement
practices, as shown in column 2 of Table 3.11. Teachers’ use of home learning activities
(ß = .787) was a more important mechanism for obtaining ideas from teachers than
was the teacher’s reputation for leadership in parent involvement (ß = .268) or the
teacher’s use of other, general types of school-to-home communications (ß = .216).
The corresponding rows 4–6 of Table 3.12 show how the three measures of
teacher leadership explain parents’ receipt of ideas for home learning activities. The
variance that teacher practices of parent involvement explained (23 percent) was
from four to eight times the variance explained by the other measures of teacher
leadership, after all other variables were taken into account.
Encouragement from Teachers. Parents believed they should help when teachers fre-
quently asked them to help (ß = .603). Neither the teachers’ reputations as leaders
(ß = .081) nor routine communications (ß = .150) significantly affected parents’ be-
liefs that they should help their child on school activities at home.
In Table 3.12, rows 7–9 display the dramatic differences in the contributions of
the three measures of teacher leadership to the explained variance in parents’ beliefs
that they should help at home. Teachers’ practices explained 14 percent of the variance
after all other variables were accounted for. The other variables added only 9 percent
to parents’ beliefs that they should help after teacher practices of parent involvement
in learning activities were accounted for. In contrast, the other variables contributed
42–54 percent to the explained variance of beliefs that parents should help after
routine communications or teacher reputation were accounted for.
160 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.11 Effects on Parents’ Reactions and Evaluations of Three Measures of Teacher Leadership in Parent Involvement at
Classroom Level (Standardized Regression Coefficients)*
Parents’ Reactions Parents’ Evaluations
Parents Know
Teacher Works Teacher Gives Parents Think More about Positive
Measure of Hard to Interest Many Ideas They Should School Interpersonal Excellence of
Teacher Leadership Parents to Parents Help Program Skills Teaching Skills
Reputation as a leadera .243** .268* .081 .065 .251* .274*
Parents’ (classroom) reports
of teacher’s use of parent
involvement .695** .787** .603** .406** .712** .728**
Parents’ (classroom) reports
of teacher’s use of other
communication .356** .216 .150 .231* .373** .581**
Other consistently Grade, Raceb, Gradeb, Parent Grade, Race, Grade, Raceb,
significant variables Parent education educationb Parent educationb Parent education
*N = 82. Standardized regression coefficients are reported so that comparisons of effects across measures can be made. Effects model in-
cluded these independent variables all at the classroom level: grade level, principal rating of teacher overall quality; teacher’s highest degree
(measures of the teaching situation); performance level of students, racial composition of students (measures of student population); parents’
education composition, degree of parent activity at school (measures of parent factors).
a Reputation is the confirmation by principals of the teachers’ leadership in the frequent use of parent involvement practices.
b Not a significant variable when parents’ agreement with teachers is the measure of teacher’s leadership.
* Significant at the .05 level.
** Significant at or beyond the .01 level.
161
162
TABLE 3.12 Contribution of Three Measures of Teacher Leadership to Explained Variance in
Parents’ Reactions and Evaluations*
% of Variance Explained by:
Teacher’s Parents’ (Classroom) Parents’ (Classroom)
Reputation as Reports of Teacher Reports of Teacher
Leader in Use of Parent Use of Other
Parents’ Reactions and Evaluations Row R2 a Parent Involvement Involvement Communication
Teacher works hard to interest and excite parents 1 R2(a) 11 69 20
2 R2(b) 5 18 9
3 R2(c) 49 4 43
Teacher gives many ideas to parents 4 R2(a) 8 30 10
5 R2(b) 6 23 3
6 R2(c) 18 13 13
Parents think they should help 7 R2(a) 2 60 15
8 R2(b) 1 14 2
9 R2(c) 54 9 42
Parents know more about child’s program 10 R2(a) 2 43 17
11 R2(b) 0 6 3
12 R2(c) 42 7 30
Parents’ ratings of teacher’s interpersonal skills 13 R2(a) 6 9 12
14 R2(b) 6 19 10
15 R2(c) 9 20 7
Parents’ ratings of excellence of teaching skills 16 R2(a) 10 22 28
17 R2(b) 7 20 24
18 R2(c) 14 16 13
* Equations included the following independent variables, all at the classroom level: measure of teacher leadership in parent in-
volvement; grade level, teacher overall quality, teacher’s highest degree (measures of the teaching situation); performance level of stu-
dents, racial composition of students (measures of student population); parents’ education composition, degree of parent activity at
school (measures of parent factors).
a R2(a) refers to the explained variance of the measure of teacher leadership before any other independent variables are entered in
the equation. R2(b) refers to the explained variance of the measure of teacher leadership after all other independent variables are en-
tered in the equation. R2(c) refers to the explained variance of all other independent variables after the measure of teacher leadership
in parent involvement is entered in the equation. R2(a) + (c) equals the total variance explained.
Effects on Parents’ Knowledge about School
Parents feel competent when they know what the school is doing, can help their
children through the program, or can request changes to improve activities. But
many parents do not understand the instructional program and cannot act in the
child’s interest as an advocate or mediator between the school and the family.
In this survey, parents reported whether they “understood more this year than
[they] did last year about what [their] child is being taught in school.” Parents in-
creased their understanding about school most when the teacher frequently used
parent involvement practices (ß = .406) and when the teacher frequently communi-
cated with the family (ß = .231), as reported in Table 3.11, column 4. Principals’
estimates of teacher leadership did not affect parents’ knowledge about the instruc-
tional program (ß = .065).
Rows 10–12 in Table 3.12 show that 6 percent of the variance in improved par-
ent understanding about school instruction was explained uniquely by parents’ ex-
periences with teacher practices of parent involvement, after all other measures were
accounted for. In contrast, little was uniquely explained by other types of school-
to-home communications (3 percent) or the reputation of the teacher (0 percent).
Parents of children in lower grades, in predominantly black classes, and in classes
with predominantly less-formally-educated parents also reported that they under-
stood more about the school program than they had in prior years. It is reasonable
that parents with younger children or with less formal education themselves need
more information than do other parents about instructional programs. The findings
also reflect teachers’ efforts to reach and teach parents of young students, educa-
tionally disadvantaged students, or other high-risk students. Rubin, Olmsted,
Szegda, Wetherby, and Williams (1983) found that mothers in urban areas who were
involved in activities at school or with a home visitor changed most in their behavior
toward their children and in their opinions about themselves. Intervention programs
often make special efforts to reach low-achieving children and less-formally-educated
parents to involve them in learning activities at home (Safran and Moles, 1980).
What is important in our findings is that teachers’ frequent use of parent involve-
ment practices improved parents’ knowledge about their child’s instructional pro-
gram, after the grade level, racial composition, and parent education composition
of the classroom were taken into account. Also, teachers’ use of these practices mit-
igated the disadvantages typically associated with race, social class, and grade level.
The Importance of Grade Level
The most consistently important variable in these analyses of parents’ reactions to

teacher practices was the grade level of the student. Parents with children in lower
elementary grades reported significantly more frequent teacher use of parent in-
volvement, more frequent communications from school to family, and more frequent
participation at the school. Certain practices occurred more frequently at the lower
grade levels: reading aloud or listening to the child read, giving spelling or math drills,
and playing learning games. Other techniques were used more with older children:
RESEARCH 163
entering contracts and signing homework. Still others were used about equally with
children at all grade levels: discussing school with children at home.
Parents with children in grades 1, 3, and 5 felt differently about their participa-
tion in parent involvement activities. Parents of older elementary children more fre-
quently said that they did not have enough training to help their children in reading
and math activities at home. They reported that they helped their children but that
they felt less confident about their help. This expressed inadequacy was significant
even after parent education was taken into account. There was, then, less use by
teachers and less self-confidence of parents in helping children in the upper grades.
Compared with parents of first or third graders, fewer parents of fifth grade stu-
dents said that the teacher worked hard to involve parents or gave them many ideas
for home-learning activities. It may be more difficult for teachers to involve parents
of older students in learning activities because the abilities and needs of children in
the upper grades are more diversified and the academic content is more complex.
The data show, however, that when teachers of any grade level involve parents fre-
quently in home-learning activities, they can positively affect the parents’ awareness
of the teachers’ efforts and knowledge about the school program.
Effects on Parents’ Evaluations of Teachers’ Merits
Parents evaluated teachers on two dimensions, interpersonal skills and professional

merit. Parents were asked to judge the quality of their interpersonal contacts with
the teacher by rating five positive characteristics (cooperation, friendliness, respect,
trust, and warmth) and five negative characteristics (conflict, misunderstanding,
distance, lack of concern, and tenseness). An index was constructed of the number
of positive minus the number of negative ratings. Parents were also asked to rate
the teacher on overall teaching quality on a six-point scale from poor to outstand-
ing. The last two columns of Table 3.11 indicate that all three measures of teacher
leadership—teachers’ reputations, parents’ experiences with frequent use of
teacher practices of parent involvement, and parents’ reports of other school-to-
home communications—had significant positive effects on parental ratings of teach-
ers’ interpersonal skills and professional merit. Most dramatically, parents gave
high marks to teachers for interpersonal skills (ß = .712) and overall teaching quality
(ß = .728) if the teachers frequently used parent involvement practices.
In Table 3.12, rows 13–15 report that teacher practices of parent involvement
added 19 percent to the explained variance in parents’ ratings of interpersonal skills
after all other variables in the model were taken into account, more than three
times the unique contribution of teachers’ reputational leadership and about twice
the contribution of routine school-to-home communications with parents. The fig-
ures in rows 16–18 indicate that teachers’ practices and other kinds of communi-
cations are about equally important, explaining 20–24 percent of the variance in
parents’ ratings of overall teaching quality.
These findings suggest that, in general, teacher practices of parent involvement
maximize cooperation and minimize antagonism between teachers and parents and
164 RESEARCH
enhance the teachers’ professional standing from the parents’ perspective. Most par-
ents (94 percent) disagreed with the statement that “it is not the teacher’s business”
to show parents how to help their child learn at home. When teachers frequently
used home-learning activities, parents rated them as more skillful teachers. Because
these analyses are based on classroom-level averages from reports of the parents of
all children in the classroom, the results do not reflect personal favoritism in the re-
lationships of a few parents and teachers.
The analyses reported in Tables 3.11 and 3.12 treated each of the three measures
of teacher leadership in separate equations. In other analyses, the measures were
considered simultaneously to determine whether teacher practices of parent involve-
ment continued to affect parents’ reactions and evaluations, after other school-
to-home communications were taken into account. For each measure of awareness
of teachers’ efforts, improved parental knowledge, and ratings of teachers’ merits,
the positive effects of parent involvement practices continued after school-to-home
communications were accounted for. In contrast, except for the ratings of overall
merit, the positive effects of school-to-home communications disappeared after the
teachers’ actual classroom practices of parent involvement were taken into account.
Although communications from school to home are important, they do not have as
consistently strong links to parent reactions as practices of parent involvement in
learning activities at home.
In other analyses, we found that parent activity at the school did not significantly
affect parents’ reactions to the school program or evaluations of the teachers’ merits
(Epstein, 1984). Involvement of some parents at the school requires a different in-
vestment from teachers from involvement of all parents in learning activities at
home. Involvement of parents at school may help teachers or administrators fulfill
their teaching and other duties, but it does not affect most parents’ attitudes toward
and reactions to the school or teacher.
This survey of parents revealed some important facts about parents’ attitudes to-
ward public elementary schools and reactions to teachers’ practices of parent
involvement.
Facts
Parents of children in Maryland’s elementary schools had, in general, positive at-

titudes about their public elementary schools and teachers. They believed the
schools were generally well-run, comfortable places for parents to visit and assist
and that the goals of the teachers were similar to the goals that the parents had for
their children.
Despite generally positive attitudes, parents believed the schools could do more
to involve them in learning activities to help their children at home.
RESEARCH 165
Surprisingly large numbers of parents were excluded from some of the most basic,
traditional communications from the school, such as specific memos, conversations,
phone calls, or conferences with teachers about their child’s progress, problems, or
programs in school.
Few parents were involved at school. A few parents in a classroom sometimes
assisted the teacher, but the number of active parents at school did not affect the at-
titudes or knowledge of all of the parents who were not—and often could not be—
active at the school.
Parents’ education did not explain their experiences with parent involvement un-
less teacher practices were taken into account. In the classrooms of teachers who
were leaders in the use of parent involvement, parents at all educational levels said
they were frequently involved in learning activities at home. In other teachers’ class-
rooms, parents with less formal schooling reported more frequent requests than did
other parents to help their child at home. Teacher-leaders conducted more equitable
programs, reaching all or most parents as part of their teaching philosophy and in-
structional strategy. Other teachers did not as often involve parents with more for-
mal education. Their selective use of parent involvement, however, was more often
built on negative expectations of a parent’s and, possibly, a child’s ability to succeed.
Fewer and fewer teachers helped parents become involved as the students ad-
vanced through the elementary grades. Thus, parents’ repertoires of helping skills
are not developed and improved over the school years, and they tend to taper off
or disappear as the child progresses through school.
Parents were aware of and responded positively to teachers’ efforts to involve
them in learning activities at home. Parents with children in the classrooms of teach-
ers who built parent involvement into their regular teaching practice were more
aware of teachers’ efforts, received more ideas from teachers, knew more about
their child’s instructional program, and rated the teachers higher in interpersonal
skills and overall teaching quality. Teachers’ practices had consistently strong and
positive effects on parent reactions to the school program and on parent evaluations
of teachers’ merits for parents at all educational levels, net of all other variables.
Teacher practices of parent involvement had more dramatic positive links to par-
ents’ reactions than general school-to-home communications or parent assistance
at the school.
Implications for Parents and Teachers
What do these research findings mean to teachers’ policies and practices of parent
involvement? We found interesting differences in whether parents thought the
teacher wanted them to help their children (i.e., that they should help), whether they
thought they had enough training to help their children in reading and math (i.e.,
that they could help), whether they actually spent time assisting and supervising
homework and learning activities at home (i.e., that they do help), and whether they
said they could spend more time helping their children at home (i.e., that they could
help if given directions by the teacher).
166 RESEARCH
Parents think they should help if the teachers give them learning activities to do
at home. Other kinds of communications, from teachers’ and principals’ ratings of
teachers’ reputations, did not make parents think that they should help with home-
learning activities.
Parents’ feelings that they can help (i.e., that they have adequate training to help
their children with reading and math) are based primarily on their own education
and their children’s grade level. More parents said they could help if they had more
education or if their children were in the lower elementary grades where parents
needed less specialized knowledge to help the children.
Despite differences in parents’ feelings about their ability to help, most parents
do help. Only 8 percent of the parents reported they never helped their child with
reading and math skills during the school year, whether or not they were asked to
do so by the teacher. Over 85 percent of the parents spent 15 minutes or more help-
ing their children on homework activities when asked to do so by the teacher. Most
parents reported, also, that they could help more (up to 44 minutes, on the average)
if the teacher showed them what to do.
The differences in whether parents believe they should help, can help, do help,
and could help suggest strategies for organizing programs of parent involvement.
For example, if teachers want parents to think that they should help, then they must
demonstrate this with an active program of parent involvement in learning activities
at home. Teachers may design or select daily or weekly activities for parents to do
with their children at home. These may be skills individualized for each student’s
needs, general skills for review and practice, or special activities that extend learning.
If teachers want parents to feel confident that they can help, they (and the school
administrators) must organize and conduct workshops for parents on how to help
in reading, math, and other subjects. With or without workshops, teachers need ma-
terials that are clear and easy to follow to prove quickly to parents that they can
help. As Ogbu (1974) points out, parents’ lack of knowledge does not mean lack of
interest. Workshops or special instruction may be less necessary with well-educated
parents who feel confident about helping their children with reading and math and
who readily ask teachers questions about how to help (Litwak and Meyer, 1974).
Parents of younger children tend to feel that they can help, but the parents of older
students (including many well-educated parents) may need clear and sequential
guidance from teachers. Special assistance to build and maintain confidence of par-
ents with children in the upper elementary grades is especially important.
Because many parents do help whether or not they are asked, teachers who are
not already using parent involvement techniques should consider how to mobilize
this available resource more effectively. Because parents say they could help more if
shown how, teachers need to consider ways to organize home-learning activities
to help more parents make productive use of the time they could spend helping
their children.
Teachers can work as individuals, with colleagues on grade-level teams, or in
other groups to develop trial programs to increase parents’ involvement in learning
activities at home, improve parents’ understanding of the school program, and en-
courage home-learning activities that build on the common goals parents and
RESEARCH 167
teachers hold. Basic features of these programs should include clear objectives of
short- or long-term activities, clear instructions for parents, and information that
tells parents how the activity fits into the teacher’s instructional program. Procedures
should be devised that permit parents to call or contact the teacher or some other
knowledgeable representative to ask questions about how to help or to comment
on the child’s progress or problems with the activity. Systematic follow-up of par-
ents’ efforts must occur to determine whether the activities were completed and
how successfully. There should be opportunities for parents to suggest activities or
changes in the parent involvement techniques.
When teachers use parent involvement activities, are they fulfilling or shirking
responsibility? Grasping at brass rings or grasping at straws? Displaying strengths
or displaying weakness? These findings suggest that from the parents’ perspective,
teachers’ use of parent involvement in learning activities at home is a teaching
strength. Frequent use of parent involvement results in larger collections of ideas
for parents to use at home, increased understanding by parents of school programs,
and higher ratings of teacher quality.
Ideas about the opposing theories of school and family relations have most often
been discussed from the school’s or teacher’s point of view. This study contributes
an interpretation of school and family relations from the parents’ perspective. Par-
ents’ reports did not reflect deep conflict and incompatibility between the schools
and families. On the contrary, they responded favorably to programs that stressed
the cooperation of schools and families to help their children succeed in school.
Teachers who included the family in the children’s education were recognized by
parents for their efforts and were rated higher than other teachers on interpersonal
and teaching skills. Parents’ reports suggest that teachers control the flow of infor-
mation to parents. By limiting communications and collaborative activities, teachers
reinforce the boundaries that separate the two institutions.
The message from parents is that almost all parents can be involved in learning
activities at home. The message for teachers is that many parents help their children,
with or without the teacher’s instruction or assistance, and many would benefit from
directions and ideas from the teacher that could be useful for the child’s progress in
school. These results from this study raise many questions for new research at the
elementary and secondary levels on the benefits and disadvantages for parents,
teachers, and students of cooperation or separation of families and schools.
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170 RESEARCH
READING 3.5
Single Parents and the Schools:
Effects of Marital Status on Parent
and Teacher Interactions*
INTRODUCTION
The one-parent home is one of the major family arrangements of schoolchildren

today. Over 15 million children live in one-parent homes, most in mother-only
homes and most as a result of separation or divorce. From a total of about 62 mil-
lion children overall, the number in one-parent homes is an important and growing
subgroup of children in the country. Each year over 1 million children under the age
of 18 have parents who divorce. In the United States in 1986, 25 percent of the
households with children under 18—about one in four—were single-parent homes
(U.S. House of Representatives, 1986).** Membership in one-parent homes is greater
for black children, with approximately half of all black children under 18 years old
in one-parent homes (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982). It is estimated that more
than 50 percent of all children born after 1980 will live with only one parent for at
least three school years before reaching the age of 18. Most will live in poor,
female-headed households (Furstenburg, Nord, Peterson, and Zill, 1983; Garbarino,
1982; Glick, 1979; Masnick and Bane, 1980).
In earlier times, single-parent homes were atypical; now they are common. This
contrast raises many questions about the effects of single-parent homes on the mem-
bers of the family. Much has been written about single parents, their children, their
numbers, and their problems, but little research has focused on how single parents
and their children fit into other social institutions that were designed to serve “tra-
ditional” families. When children are in school, the family and school are inexorably
linked. Because of this linkage, changes that occur in families must be accommo-
dated by responsive changes in schools.
* By Joyce L. Epstein. This research was supported by Grant NIE-G-83-0002 from the National Insti-
tute of Education (now the Office of Educational Research and Improvement) of the U.S. Department
of Education. The opinions expressed by the author do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of
the OERI, and no official endorsement by the agency should be inferred. An earlier version of the paper
was presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association in 1984. The author is
grateful to Henry Jay Becker, John Hollifield, Linda Gottfredson, and Gary Natriello for their helpful
comments on earlier drafts. Originally published in M. T. Hallinan, D. M. Klein, and J. Glass, eds., Change
in Societal Institutions (New York: Plenum, 1990), 91–121. Reprinted with permission.
** In 2009, the statistics were similar, with 25 percent of children in single-parent homes (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2009).
RESEARCH 171
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
Schools and families are overlapping spheres of influence on student learning and
development (Epstein, 1987 [Reading 2.1]). The model of overlapping spheres of
influence recognizes that there are some practices that schools and families conduct
separately but there are other practices that can best be conducted as partners. This
view is in contrast to a long-standing alternative perspective that emphasizes the
separateness of these institutions.
An Emphasis on Separateness
One perspective on institutions and their relationships emphasizes the importance

of their separate contributions to society. This view assumes, for example, that
school bureaucracies and family organizations are most efficient and effective when
their leaders maintain independent goals, standards, and activities (Parsons, 1959;
Waller, 1932; Weber, 1947). Institutions that are separate and nonoverlapping give
little consideration to the ideas or histories of the other groups, or to their common
or interlocking aims or goals, until there are problems or trouble. This is, in effect,
a “conflict resolution” model, requiring interventions and interactions only when
necessary to solve serious problems.
An Emphasis on Overlapping Spheres of Influence
A social-organizational perspective is offered as the basis for research on schools

and families (Epstein, 1987) and other inter-institutional connections that influence
the education of children (Epstein, 1989). In this model, the key, proximate envi-
ronments that educate and socialize children are shown as spheres of influence that
can, by design, overlap more or less in their goals, practices, messages, and resources
for students. Major “forces” are considered in the model, including (1) time, to ac-
count for changes in the ages and grade levels of students and the influence of the
historic period, and (2) the philosophies, policies, and practices of each institution.
These forces affect the nature and extent of “overlap” of families and schools. The
model integrates and extends the ecological approach developed by Bronfenbrenner
(1979); the educational insights of Leichter (1974); the sociological studies of
schools and communities of Litwak and Meyer (1974); the theory of institutions
and individuals of Coleman (1974); and a long tradition of sociological research
on school and family environments (Coleman et al., 1966; Epstein and McPartland,
1979; McDill and Rigsby, 1973; and others).
The model of overlapping spheres of influence recognizes the interlocking histo-
ries of institutions that educate and socialize children and the changing and accu-
mulating skills of the individuals in them as the basis for studying connections that
can benefit children’s learning and development. This, in effect, is a “conflict pre-
vention” model in which institutions invest resources in shared goals (such as stu-
172 RESEARCH
dent success) to prevent or reduce tensions and problems that could require later,
more costly treatment.
These two theoretical perspectives are reflected in the practices of two types of
teachers and may influence their interactions with single and married parents. Some
teachers believe that families and schools have different responsibilities that can
best be accomplished separately and independently. These teachers may make
greater distinctions in their opinions about the effectiveness of single and married
parents if they view single parents as lacking the resources needed to carry out fam-
ily responsibilities. Other teachers believe families and schools overlap in their in-
terests and share responsibilities for the education and socialization of their children.
They may make fewer distinctions between single and married parents if they view
all parents as important contributors to their children’s education.
Opinions differ about whether schools and teachers should be informed about
parents’ marital status or changes in family structure. Some argue that teachers are
biased against children from one-parent homes. They suggest that teachers nega-
tively label children of divorced or separated parents, explain children’s school prob-
lems in terms of the family living arrangement rather than in terms of their own
teaching practices or the children’s individual needs, or assume parental inadequa-
cies before the facts about parents’ skills are known (Hetherington, Camara, and
Featherman, 1981; Laosa, 1983; Lightfoot, 1978; Ogbu, 1974; Santrock and Tracy,
1978; Zill, 1983). This view sets schools and families apart as separate spheres of
influence, with families expected to cope on their own with changes and problems.
Others argue that schools should be informed about parental separation or di-
vorce because teachers provide stability and support to children during the initial
period of family disruption, can be more sensitive to children’s situations when dis-
cussing families, and can organize special services such as after-school care for chil-
dren that may be needed by single parents and working mothers (Bernard, 1984).
This view brings schools and families together, as overlapping spheres of influence
with both institutions working together to help children cope and succeed even dur-
ing times of family changes and stress.
The discrepant opinions of how much families should inform schools about fam-
ily circumstances are each supported by parents’ accounts of experiences with
teacher bias or with teacher understanding and assistance (Carew and Lightfoot,
1979; Clay, 1981; Keniston et al., 1977; National Public Radio, 1980; Snow, 1982).
There are few facts from research, however, about whether and how teachers re-
spond to students in differently structured families or about how single parents per-
ceive, react to, and become involved with their children’s schools and teachers.
Many early studies of single parents and some recent ones are based on a “deficit
theory” of family functioning. One major underlying assumption of this work is
that the number of parents at home is the key variable for understanding effective
parenting and children’s success. That is, two parents are always better than one.
For example, research based on the “confluence” model argues that crucial intellec-
tual resources are lacking when the father is absent from the home (Zajonc, 1976).
This theory asserts that the father is the family member with the highest intelligence
and is the educational leader of the family. This is a mechanical theory that has not
RESEARCH 173
been well supported in research. It establishes an unequivocal bias against one-parent
homes, putting mothers in a fixed and forced subordinate position, discounting
the roles most mothers play in encouraging their children’s education, and ignoring
the roles of schools in guiding family activities that concern school skills.
Other research on single parents based on their deficiencies assumes that one-
parent homes are unstable, uncaring, and lacking in emotional and academic sup-
port or strong role models for students’ school success. The number of parents at
home is the measure used as a proxy for numerous alleged weaknesses of the one-
parent home. Studies that include the number of parents as the only explanatory
variable establish a theoretical bias against one-parent homes, without allowing for
alternative explanations.
An alternative view focuses more on the strengths and potentials of families, with
attention to the activities and practices of families of any size or structure. The un-
derlying assumption of these studies is that the quality of family practices and pro-
cesses explains more about parental effectiveness than marital status or the number
of parents at home (Barton, 1981; Blanchard and Biller, 1971; Dokecki and
Maroney, 1983; Hetherington and Camara, 1984; Marotz-Bader, Adams, Bueche,
Munro, and Munro, 1979; Shinn, 1978).
The change from a “deficit model” to a “strengths model” has led to more
thoughtful studies of children and parents in one- and two-parent homes. Models
improved in small steps, from the simple, mechanistic theories of the impact of the
number of parents in the home on student achievement or behavior to only slightly
more complex theories that added family socioeconomic status (SES) as another ex-
planatory variable. Researchers recognized that because low education and low in-
come often accompany single-parent status, it is necessary to measure these family
conditions as well as marital status so that negative effects due to SES or education
are not attributed falsely to single-parent status (Barton, 1981; Kelly, North, and
Zingle, 1965; Milne, Myers, Rosenthal, and Ginsburg, 1986; Svanum, Bringle,
and McLaughlin, 1982). For example, children from well-educated, middle-class,
one-parent homes often perform as well as similar children from two-parent homes.
The improvements in knowledge gained from added measures of social class were
not enough, however, to clarify the inconsistent results across studies of the effects
of marital status on parent behavior and student achievement. Two relatively stable
status variables—marital status and socioeconomic status—do not adequately rep-
resent the dynamics of family life that contribute to student achievement or success
in school (Hanson and Ginsburg, 1986). Even studies of family contacts with the
schools (Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Garfinkle and McLanahan, 1986; Kurdek
and Blisk, 1983; Milne et al., 1986; Zill, 1983) have ignored the roles of teachers
in increasing or reducing differences in parent and student behavior in differently
structured families. A comprehensive review by Newberger, Melnicoe, and New-
berger (1986) calls for studies of the many factors that may ameliorate and explain
the negative conditions of one-parent homes.
The present study looks at some potentially important variables that allow
schools to change to meet the changing needs and conditions of families. We use
data from teachers and parents to examine family and school connections in one-
174 RESEARCH
and two-parent homes. We focus on the children’s living arrangements that affect
the day-to-day communications and interactions between schools and families and
compare single and married parents’ reports of the frequency of teacher requests
for parent involvement. We look next at teachers’ reports of the quality of involve-
ment of the single and married parents of their students and the teachers’ reports
of the quality of the homework completed by children from one- and two-parent
homes. We also examine other similarities and differences among single and married
parents concerning their children’s education.
This study asks the following questions: Do single and married parents differ in
their perceptions of teacher practices of parent involvement? Are teachers’ percep-
tions of parents and children influenced by family living arrangements? How does
marital status relate to other family and school connections? How do teachers’ prac-
tices reflect the two theoretical perspectives that emphasize separateness or overlap
of families and schools? To address these questions, we introduce, first, a simple
model that improves upon earlier research on single parents by accounting for mar-
ital status, parent education, and teacher leadership to study parent-teacher exchanges
and evaluations. We then test a more complete model that places marital status,
parent education, and teachers’ practices of parent involvement in a fuller social
context with other characteristics of the school and family.
This exploration includes many measures of family structure and processes, stu-
dent characteristics, and school and classroom structures and processes. The inde-
pendent variables, introduced as they are needed in different analyses, include family
size, race, and parent education; student grade level, classroom ability, and behavior
in class; teacher leadership in parent involvement, teaching experience, and overall
teaching quality; and specific teacher-parent interactions about the child as a student.
Unlike earlier research that often used “special problem” samples to study single-
parent families (Shinn, 1978), this is a purposely stratified sample of a normal pop-
ulation of teachers in grades 1, 3, and 5 in public schools in the state of Maryland
and the parents and students in their classes (Becker and Epstein, 1982b [Reading
3.1]). Importantly, the data from teachers, parents, and students are linked so that
particular teachers’ practices can be connected with the parents and students in
those teachers’ classrooms (Epstein, 1986 [Reading 3.4], 1991 [Reading 3.7]). Few
previous studies measured the behavior and attitudes of single parents about the
schools their children attend (Clay, 1981), and none linked the teachers’ and parents’
practices and evaluations of each other.
SAMPLE, VARIABLES, AND APPROACHES
Surveys of teachers, principals, parents, and students in sixteen Maryland school

districts were conducted in 1980 and 1981. Approximately 3,700 first-, third-, and
fifth-grade teachers and their principals in 600 schools were surveyed (Becker
and Epstein, 1982b; Epstein and Becker, 1982 [Reading 3.2]). From the original
sample, 82 teachers were selected who varied in their use of parent involvement in
learning activities at home. They were matched by school district, grade level, years
RESEARCH 175
of teaching experience, and characteristics of their student populations. Among the
teachers, 17 were confirmed by their principals as strong leaders in the use of parent
involvement activities. In all, the 82 teachers ranged along a useful continuum from
high to low use of parent involvement, with the “confirmed leaders” making the
most concerted use of parent involvement in learning activities at home.
Data were obtained on the achievements and behaviors of the students in the 82
classrooms. The parents of the children in the 82 teachers’ classrooms were surveyed
about their attitudes toward and experiences with parent involvement. In all, 1,269
parents responded to a questionnaire by mail, a response rate of 59 percent. Of
these, 24 percent were single parents, close to the national average of 22 percent at
that time (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982).
We requested that the parent complete the survey who was most familiar with
the child’s school and teacher. More than 90 percent of the respondents were female,
and virtually all of the single-parent respondents were female. Thus, the research
provided a sizable, useful sample of single and married mothers whose children
were in the classrooms of teachers who differed in their use of practices to involve
parents in their children’s education.
The categories of one-parent home and single parent come from the parents’ re-
ports that only one parent lives at home with the child. We prefer the terms single-
parent home, one-parent home, or mother-only/father-only home to describe the
living arrangements of schoolchildren, rather than the pejorative terms broken
home, broken family, or even single-parent family. A single-parent home or a two-
parent home may or may not be “broken” by marital, economic, or emotional con-
ditions (Engan-Barker, 1986; Kamerman and Hayes, 1982). To determine if a family
is “broken” requires clear and sensitive measures in addition to the structure of liv-
ing arrangements.
A child in a single-parent home may have contact with two parents, although
only one parent lives at home when the child leaves for and returns from school.
The data do not include information on the cause, choice, or duration of single-
parent status, nor can we identify calm or troubled relations in two-parent homes.
Our sample does not permit us to study one-parent homes where the father is the
custodial parent or the parent most knowledgeable about the child’s schooling.
These are important characteristics of families that should be included in new stud-
ies of family and school effects (Bane, 1976; Eiduson, 1982; Furstenburg and Seltzer,
1983; Shinn, 1978; Zill, 1983).
Parent involvement refers to 12 techniques that teachers used to organize parental
assistance at home, including reading, discussions, informal learning games, formal
contracts, drill and practice of basic skills, and other monitoring or tutoring activ-
ities. For example, the most popular teachers’ practices included asking parents to
read to their child or listen to the child read, using books or workbooks borrowed
from the school to help children learn or practice needed skills, discussing school-
work at home, and using materials found at home to teach needed skills. Eight other
activities were also used by teachers to establish parents at home as partners with
the teacher to help students do better in school. The activities, patterns of teacher
use, effects on parents, and effects on student achievements are discussed fully in
Readings 3.1, 3.2, 3.4, and 3.7 and in other publications (Becker and Epstein,
176 RESEARCH
1982a, b; Epstein and Becker, 1982; Epstein, 1986; Epstein, 1991). Parent involve-
ment in learning activities at home is a complex, difficult type of teacher-parent
partnership (Leler, 1983), but these practices include more parents and have greater
positive impact than other forms of parent involvement that occur at the school
building (see Epstein, 1986). Involvement in learning activities at home is the type
of involvement that most parents would like the schools to increase and improve
across the grades (Dauber and Epstein, 1989 [Reading 3.6]; Epstein, 1990).
Characteristics of Parents
Table 3.13 shows the characteristics of the single and married parents in the sample.
There are several important differences. Significantly more single parents are black,
reside in the city, have fewer years of formal schooling, work full-time, or have one
child. The single and married parents are about equally represented by children in
the three elementary school grades (1, 3, and 5) in the study and in the classroom
of teachers who were confirmed by their principals as leaders in the use of parent
involvement. These characteristics of the Maryland sample are similar to those ex-
pected from a national sample of single parents.
We use mothers’ education rather than both parents’ education, or either parent’s
occupation, to minimize missing or incomparable data for one- and two-parent
homes. Mothers’ education has traditionally been used as an indicator of family SES
(Sewell and Hauser, 1975). As others have noted, mother’s education may be more
pertinent than other measures for studying family influences on children’s school be-
haviors or as an indicator of a parent’s familiarity with school organizations and
procedures (Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Milne et al., 1986). In one-parent homes
especially, mother’s education may be a more important and accurate indicator of
school-like activities at home than other occupational or economic indicators.
RESULTS: PARENTS’ REPORTS OF TEACHERS’

PRACTICES OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Parents were asked to report how often their child’s teacher requested their involve-
ment in the 12 home-learning activities described previously. Parents’ reports of
teachers’ requests ranged from 0 to 12 frequently used activities, with a mean score
of 4.1 and a standard deviation of 3.4. Table 3.14 shows how single and married
parents’ reports differed by the formal educational level of the parents and by the
teachers’ leadership in parent involvement. The mean scores and tests of compar-
isons in the first column of the table show that, compared to married parents, single
parents reported significantly more requests from teachers to assist with learning
activities at home (4.80 vs. 3.76). The figures in the second column indicate that
among single parents, high- and low-educated single parents reported about equally
frequent requests from teachers for parent involvement. Among married parents,
however, less-educated married parents reported more frequent requests from teach-
ers for parent involvement than did more-educated married parents (4.16 vs. 3.30).
RESEARCH 177
TABLE 3.13 Characteristics of Single and Married Parents
Single Parents Married Parents
(N = 273) (N = 862)
Percentage Percentage
Respondents Respondents
Racea
White 35.9 73.2
Black 64.1 26.8
Residencea
City 57.1 27.7
County/suburb 42.9 72.3
Parent educationa
Some high school (or less) 27.1 15.2
High school diploma 32.2 38.4
Some college 28.1 22.6
Bachelor’s degree 4.8 10.5
Some graduate school (or more) 7.8 13.3
Employmenta
No work outside home 33.1 40.4
Part-time work 11.3 21.4
Full-time work 55.6 38.2
Family sizea
0 siblings 24.9 11.7
1–2 siblings 58.3 71.9
3–4 siblings 15.0 14.2
Over 4 siblings 1.8 2.2
Extended family (other adults) 23.8 10.2
Grade level of child

Grade 1 41.8 38.3
Grade 3 27.8 26.9
Grade 5 30.4 34.8
Teacher leadership in parent involvement

Confirmed leader 27.5 20.4
Not confirmed leader 72.5 79.6
a Chi-square tests yield significant differences in proportions for single and married
parents beyond the .001 level.
In the third column, the measure of teacher leadership adds important informa-
tion about the experiences of parents. Single and married parents with children in
the classrooms of teachers who were confirmed by their principals as leaders in par-
ent involvement reported more requests than parents whose children’s teachers were
not leaders in parent involvement. The differences were especially great between
married parents in teacher-leader and nonleader classrooms.
178 RESEARCH
Other comparisons noted in column 4 of Table 3.14 reveal differences in single
and married parents’ reports about teachers who were not leaders in parent involve-
ment. Highly educated single parents of students in these teachers’ classrooms re-
ported significantly more requests than did highly educated married parents (4.47
vs. 3.04). Less formally educated single parents reported significantly more requests
than less formally educated married parents (4.73 vs. 3.97).
If we looked only at the differences in involvement by marital status and educa-
tional levels in columns 1 and 2 of Table 3.14, we would miss the important link
between families and schools due to teachers’ practices, reported in column 3. There
are two important patterns of results in Table 3.14:
1. Single parents, regardless of their educational level, report more requests

from teachers than do married parents to be involved in learning activities
at home.
2. According to parents, teachers who are confirmed leaders in parent
involvement make more equal requests of all parents, regardless of
education and marital status, whereas other, nonleader teachers ask more
of single and low-educated parents.
It is not enough, then, to measure only marital status or parent education to ex-
plain parents’ behavior concerning their children. Research on single parents and
the schools must also take into account teachers’ practices concerning parents.
Table 3.15 extends the inquiry by introducing other variables that may explain
the simple patterns in Table 3.14. The first line of Table 3.15 reports the independent
effects of the three variables—marital status, mothers’ education, and teachers’ prac-
tices of parent involvement—that were introduced previously. With the other two
variables statistically controlled, single parents, less-educated parents, and parents
whose children are in the classrooms of teachers who were leaders report receiving
more requests from teachers for their involvement with their children in learning
activities at home.
The second line of the table introduces other characteristics of the family, student,
and teacher that previous research suggests may also affect parents’, teachers’, and
students’ interactions and evaluations of each other. Race clearly helps to explain
the effect of single-parent status on parents’ reports of teachers’ practices. More
black parents head one-parent homes in this sample (as in the nation), and black
parents report receiving more requests for parent involvement than do white par-
ents, regardless of marital status. These results reflect the practices of the urban dis-
trict in which most of the black parents in this sample reside. Teachers in the urban
district reported that they used more parent involvement practices (Becker and Ep-
stein, 1982a), and the parents’ responses verify the teachers’ reports. Teachers tend
to reach out to parents when children need extra help. The results also may indicate
a continuing trend for black parents to let teachers know that they want to be in-
volved in their children’s education (Lightfoot, 1978).
The regression coefficients in line 2 of Table 3.15 show that six variables in
addition to race have significant independent effects on parents’ reports of their
RESEARCH 179
180
TABLE 3.14 Parents’ Reports of Frequency of Teachers’ Use of Parent Involvement (12 Techniques)
(Means, Standard Deviations, and Test Statistics from Multiple Comparisons of Mean Scores of Single vs. Married,
Low- vs. High-Educated Parents, and Parents of Children in Classrooms of Confirmed Leader vs. Nonleader Teacher
in Parent Involvement)
Teacher Leadership Other Significant
Family Structure Parent Educationa in Parent Involvement Mean Score Comparisons
Parents’ reports x
4.80* x
4.87 x
5.22 Single vs. married, low education
of teachers’ Single s.d 3.53 Low s.d. 3.42 Confirmed s.d. 3.50 in nonleader classroom
use of 12 parent N (246) N (144) leader N (41) (
x = 4.73* vs. 3.97)
parent x
4.73
involvement Nonleader s.d. 3.39
techniques N (103)
x
4.70 x
5.28 Single vs. married, high education
High s.d. 3.70 Confirmed s.d. 3.52 in nonleader classroom
N (102) leader N (29) (
x = 4.47* vs. 3.04)
x
4.47
Nonleader s.d. 3.77
N (73)
x
3.76 x
4.16* x
4.76* Low vs. high education, married
Married s.d. 3.23 Low s.d. 3.30 Confirmed s.d. 3.24 parents, in nonleader classroom
parent N (801) N (433) leader N (103) (
x = 3.97* vs. 3.04)
x
3.97
Nonleader s.d. 3.30
N (330)
x
3.30 x
4.63*
High s.d. 3.08 Confirmed s.d. 3.04
N (368) leader N (60)
x
3.04
Nonleader s.d. 3.03
N (308)
a Parent education is high if the respondent attended or graduated from post-secondary school; low if parent attended or graduated
from high school only.
* T-test significant at or beyond the .05 level.
experiences with teachers’ practices of parent involvement. Parents report signifi-
cantly more frequent requests for involvement from teachers if they have less formal
education (PARED), have younger children (GRADE), have children whose teachers
are leaders in parent involvement (TCHLDR), or whose teachers use specific strate-
gies to build close family-school relationships. These interpersonal practices are:
Parent feels comfortable and welcomed at school (PARCOMF); parent reports that
teacher knows child’s individual learning needs (TKNOCH); and teacher talks to
parent about how to help the child at home (TALKHLP). Separate analyses show
that these variables are about equally important for black and white parents.
The percentage of variance explained in parents’ reports of teachers’ requests for
their involvement improved markedly—from 5 to 30 percent—when we added de-
tailed information on the actual practices that bring schools and families together.
It is important, too, that even with teacher-parent interpersonal practices accounted
for, teacher leadership in the use of specific practices continues to significantly affect
parents’ reports of their experiences with learning activities at home.
In previous research, the limited focus on marital status veiled the importance of
other variables that influence parents’ interactions with their children and their chil-
dren’s schools. Single and married parents’ reports about their experiences with par-
ent involvement are influenced by many family and school factors, not simply by
the categorical label of marital status.
Single and married parents’ reports about what teachers ask them to do at home
are one indicator of their treatment by the schools. The next two sections explore
teachers’ evaluations of single and married parents’ abilities to conduct the requested
activities and the quality of the homework that their children do.
TEACHERS’ REPORTS OF SINGLE AND MARRIED PARENTS’

HELPFULNESS AND FOLLOW-THROUGH
Parents’ marital status is believed to influence teachers’ opinions of parents and

their children. Teachers were asked to rate the helpfulness and follow-through on
home-learning activities of the parents of each student and the quality of homework
completed by each student. In contrast to the laboratory study of Santrock and Tracy
(1978), which asked teachers to rate hypothetical children from one- and two-parent
homes, our questions were designed not to call teachers’ attention to the students’
living arrangements when the teachers rated parents and students. We were inter-
ested in whether, in a natural environment, teachers’ evaluations were affected by
parent marital status (identified by the parent) or other family characteristics and
practices. It is likely that elementary school teachers are aware of family living
arrangements from information provided by parents on emergency cards each year,
from informal exchanges with parents or children about their families, or from dis-
cussions with other teachers. However, our method for collecting information did
not ask teachers to base their evaluations on the explicit criteria of the children’s
living arrangements.
RESEARCH 181
182
TABLE 3.15 Effects of Measures of Family, Student, and Teacher Characteristics on Parents’ Reports about
Teacher Practices of Parent Involvement
FAMSTRa PARED TCHLDR PARWORK RACE SEX ACH DISC GRADE YEARST TQUAL PARCOMF TKNOCH TALKHLP R2
Initial model –.116*b –.108* .126* .048

Full model –.006 –.102* .071* .046 –.238* –.029 –.055 .003 –.114* .053 .072* .071* .238* .211* .286
(–.138)c (–.133) (.141) (.047) (–.306) (–.039) (–.134) (.020) (–.195) (–.029) (.130) (.114) (.328) (.296)
a Variables are FAMSTR = one- or two-parent homes; PARED = schooling from less than high school (0) to graduate school (5); TCHLDR = teacher’s
leadership or lack of parent involvement confirmed by principal (0–4); PARWORK = no work (0) or work (1) outside home by parent; RACE = black (0)
or white (1); SEX = male (0) or female (1); ACH = reading and math skills ranked by teacher (0–6); DISC = low (–1) or high (+1) discipline problems;
GRADE = student’s grade in school management (0–4); YEARST = years of teaching experience; TQUAL = principal rating of teacher overall quality;
PARCOMF = parent feeling comfortable and welcome at school (1–4); TKNOCH = parent report that teacher knows child’s individual learning needs
(1–4); TALKHLP = teacher talked to parent about how to help child at home (0/1). The outcome “parents’ reports” refers to the number and frequency of
teacher requests for up to 12 techniques to involve parents in learning activities at home.
b Standardized regression coefficients are reported. N = 1,135.
c Zero-order correlations are in parentheses.
* Indicates coefficient is significant at or beyond the .01 level.
Table 3.16 presents teachers’ evaluations of the quality of involvement of single
and married parents. The ratings of parent helpfulness and follow-through on learn-
ing activities at home ranged from +1 to –1, with a mean of .18 and a standard de-
viation of .70, indicating that, on average, parents were perceived as neither
particularly helpful nor inept, but more were helpful (35 percent) than not (17 per-
cent). The comparisons in the first column of Table 3.16 show that teachers rated
married parents significantly higher than single parents on helpfulness and follow-
through on home-learning activities. The second column shows that single and mar-
ried parents with more formal education received higher ratings from teachers on
helpfulness. The difference in ratings was significant between low- versus high-
educated married parents (.267 vs. .437) and single versus married high-educated
parents (.302 vs. .437).
The third column offers important information about how teachers’ practices
affected their evaluations of parents’ helpfulness. Teachers who were leaders in the
use of parent involvement practices rated single parents with less formal education
significantly higher in helpfulness and follow-through at home than did teachers
who were not leaders in parent involvement (.366 vs. .102). The same pattern ap-
peared for teachers’ ratings of single, highly educated parents (.483 vs. .234). Mar-
ried parents with less formal education were considered less responsible assistants
than more-educated married parents, regardless of the teachers’ leadership in the
use of parent involvement.
If we had not included teachers’ practices in our comparisons, we would conclude
that, regardless of education, teachers rate single parents as less cooperative and
less reliable than married parents in assisting their children at home. What we see
instead is that teachers’ own practices of parent involvement influence their ratings
of the quality of parental assistance. Teachers’ frequent use of parent involvement
practices reduces or eliminates the teachers’ differential evaluations of single and
married parents.
Table 3.17 presents the results of the initial and the better specified models. The
regression analyses summarized in the table show, as did the previous tables of
simple mean scores, that there are significant independent effects of marital status,
parents’ education, and teacher leadership in parent involvement on teachers’ ratings
of their students’ parents on helpfulness and follow-through at home. Although
each variable has significant, independent effects, the three-variable model explains
only 4 percent of the variance in teachers’ reports of parent helpfulness.
On the second line of the table, other measures of family, student, and teacher
characteristics that have been found important in other research on family-school
connections are added to the basic model. These variables increase the explained
variance to 23 percent. Most dramatically, student achievement levels and behavior
in school affect how teachers evaluate the students’ parents. Teachers rate parents
more positively if their children are high achievers or well behaved in school. Chil-
dren may be successful in school because their parents help them at home, parents
may give more help to children who are good students and easy to assist, or good
students may be assumed by teachers to have good parents as part of a school/home
“halo” effect.
RESEARCH 183
Teachers of younger children and more experienced teachers tend to rate parents
higher in helpfulness and follow-through than do other teachers. Teachers of the
lower elementary grades tend to use more parent involvement techniques, and more
experienced teachers may be more aware and appreciative of how the efforts of
parents supplement the efforts of teachers (Becker and Epstein, 1982a, b). Although
race was not an important variable overall for explaining teachers’ ratings of parent
helpfulness, separate analyses of black and white parents revealed that marital status
remained a modest but significant influence on the teachers’ ratings of white parents
but not of black parents. White, single parents were rated lower in helpfulness and
follow-through than white, married parents, with all other variables in the model
statistically controlled. White, single parents may be the most distinct group in
terms of their marital status because proportionately more white than black parents
are married.
These analyses show that it is mainly the characteristics and needs of students—
not the simple category of parental marital status—that best explain teachers’ eval-
uations of parents. However, teachers’ leadership remained an important influence
on their ratings of parents, even after all other variables were statistically taken into
account. Teachers who frequently use parent involvement techniques in their regular
teaching practice acknowledge the help they receive and view single and married
parents in a more positive light than do other teachers. When teachers involve par-
ents in their children’s schoolwork on a regular basis, creating more family and
school “overlap,” they tend to report that the amount and quality of help from single
parents is comparable to that of married parents. When teachers use frequent ac-
tivities as part of their teaching practice, they help parents build better skills to assist
their children at home. At the same time, these activities may help teachers develop
more positive expectations and appreciation of parents. Teachers who keep schools
and families more separate and do not make parents part of their regular teaching
practice tend to promote the stereotype of single parents. They rate single parents’
assistance and follow-through on learning activities at home lower in quality and
quantity than that provided by married parents.
TEACHERS’ REPORTS OF THE QUALITY OF HOMEWORK BY

CHILDREN FROM ONE- AND TWO-PARENT HOMES
Teachers were asked to rate the quality of homework completed by each of their
students. Researchers identified the children from one- and two-parent homes from
data provided by parents. Teachers identified the students who were homework
“stars” and homework “problems.” Scores on the quality of homework ranged from
+1 to –1, with a mean of –.01 and a standard deviation of .64, indicating that, on
average, students were neither particularly outstanding nor inferior, with about
equal numbers of homework stars (20 percent) and homework problems (21 per-
cent). Teachers’ ratings of children’s homework are shown in Table 3.18 according
to children’s living arrangements in one- or two-parent homes, parents’ education,
and their teachers’ leadership in the use of parent involvement.
184 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.16 Teachers’ Estimates of the Quality of Parents’ Responses to Requests for Involvement
(Means, Standard Deviations, and Test Statistics from Multiple Comparisons of Mean Scores of Single vs. Married,
Low- vs. High-Educated Parents, and Parents of Children in Classrooms of Confirmed Leader vs. Nonleader Teacher
in Parent Involvement)
Family Structure Parent Educationa in Parent Involvement Comparison of Means
Teachers’ x
.227 x
.174 x
.366* Single vs. married, low education
estimates Single s.d. .712 Low s.d. .733 Confirmed s.d. .733 (
x = .302 vs. .437*)
of parents’ parent N (255) N (149) leader N (41)
helpfulness x
.102 Single vs. married, low education
Nonleader s.d. .723 in nonleader classroom
N (108) (
x = .102 vs. .260*)
x
.302 x
.483* Single vs. married, high education
High s.d. .679 Confirmed s.d. .738 in nonleader classroom
N (106) leader N (29) (
x = .234 vs. .436*)
x
.234 Low vs. high education, married,
Nonleader s.d. .647 in nonleader classroom
N (77) (
x = .260 vs. .436*)
x
.346* x
.267* x
.291
Married s.d. .660 Low s.d. .693 Confirmed s.d. .736
parent N (813) N (438) leader N (103)
x
.260
Nonleader s.d. .680
N (335)
x
.437* x
.444
High s.d. .608 Confirmed s.d. .690
N (375) leader N (63)
x
.436
Nonleader s.d. .591
N (312)
185
186
TABLE 3.17 Effects of Measures of Family, Student, and Teacher Characteristics on Teachers’ Reports about Parent Helpfulness
and Follow-Through on Learning Activities at Home
Initial model .072*b .131* .135* .039

Full model .042 .049* .136* .014 –.034* –.044 –.343 .205 –.099* .104 –.009* .041* .029* .056* .226
(.081)c (.131) (.121) (.027) (.039) (–.025) (.365) (–.256) (–.079) (.079) (.051) (.092) (.069) (.050)
The first column of Table 3.18 shows that students from two-parent homes were
more often rated as “homework stars” and were less often viewed as “homework
problems” than were students from one-parent homes. The measures in the second
column show that these ratings were linked to parent education. Children whose
mothers had little formal education were rated lower in the quality of their home-
work than other children in one-parent homes (.057 vs. –.101 for more- vs. less-
educated mothers) and in two-parent homes (.157 vs. .050). Family socioeconomic
status in column 2 of Table 3.18 helps to explain teachers’ evaluations of children
in one- and two-parent homes, as has been reported before (Barton, 1981; Laosa
and Sigel, 1982; Scott-Jones, 1983).
Teachers’ practices of parent involvement are taken into account in column 3 of
the table. Teachers who were not leaders in parent involvement held significantly
lower opinions of the quality of homework of children from single-parent homes
than of those from married-parent homes, at both levels of parent education. The
results suggest that children from less-educated, single-parent families face disad-
vantages in school that may be exacerbated by teachers’ lack of leadership in orga-
nizing parent involvement in learning activities at home.
If estimates of homework quality reflect student achievement in general, children
from one- and two-parent homes in teacher-leader classrooms should have more
similar grades and achievement test scores, after other important characteristics are
taken into account. In classrooms of teachers who are not leaders in parent involve-
ment, children from one-parent homes may do less well than children from two-
parent homes in their report card grades and other school achievements.
The regression analyses in Table 3.19 show how teachers’ ratings of the quality of
students’ homework are influenced by other parent, teacher, and student characteris-
tics. On the first line of the table, the familiar three-variable model shows that marital
status and parent education have significant independent effects on teacher ratings of
student homework. Students from one-parent homes or whose parents have less for-
mal education are given lower ratings on homework quality. Teacher leadership in
parent involvement is not a significant independent influence on teachers’ ratings of
students, after the other variables are accounted for. The basic model, however, ex-
plains only 2 percent of the variance in teacher ratings of student homework.
The second line of Table 3.19 shows that 24 percent of the variance in teacher rat-
ings of student homework is explained by other measures. The most important vari-
ables are the work students do in class and their classroom behavior. Brighter
students—whatever their behavior or other characteristics—were rated higher on the
quality of their homework, and well-behaved students—whatever their ability or other
characteristics—were given higher ratings on homework quality. Black students were
rated significantly higher in homework quality, after achievement level and behavior
were taken into account. Even with these highly influential variables taken into ac-
count, the quality of homework of students from two-parent homes was still rated
slightly higher by some teachers than that of students from one-parent homes.
Several researchers have questioned whether teachers base children’s grades and
other ratings on criteria other than performance and whether their ratings reflect
bias against children from single-parent homes (Barton, 1981; Boyd and Parish,
RESEARCH 187
188
TABLE 3.18 Teachers’ Estimates of the Quality of Children’s Homework Completion
(Means, Standard Deviations, and Test Statistics from Multiple Comparisons of Mean Scores by Family Structure,
Family Education, and Teacher Leadership in Parent Involvement)
Family Structure Parent Educationa in Parent Involvement Comparison of Means
Teachers’ x
–.035 x
–.101 x
.073* Single vs. married, low education
estimates Single s.d. .604 Low s.d. .601 Confirmed s.d. .648 (x
= .101 vs. .050*)
of students’ parent N (255) N(149) leader N (41)
homework x
–.167 Single vs. married, low education
completion Nonleader s.d. .572 in nonleader classroom
N (108) (x = –.167 vs. .045*)
x
.057* x
.207*
N (106) leader N (29)
x
.001
Nonleader s.d. .585
N (77)
x
.346* x
.050* x
.068
Married s.d. .660 Low s.d. .640 Confirmed s.d. .630
parent N (813) N(438) leader N (103)
x
.045
Nonleader s.d. .644
N (335)
x
.157* x
.254
N(375) leader N (63)
x
.138
Nonleader s.d. .587
N (312)
TABLE 3.19 Effects of Family, Student, and Teacher Characteristics on Teacher’s Ratings of Children on Their Homework Completion
Initial model .085*b .106* .039 .021

Full model .068* .022 .042 –.024 –.107* .058 .392* .183* –.007* .050* –.038 –.024 .058* .055* .236
(.097)c (.114) (.026) (–.005) (.007) (.132) (.412) (–.259) (.001) (.035) (.021) (–.005) (.105) (.018)
189
1985; Hammond, 1979; Lightfoot, 1978). Our data show that teachers base their
judgments about the quality of children’s homework mainly on the performance of
the children, rather than on other unrelated criteria. There is little bias evident
against children in one-parent homes. When they do occur, biased reports are more
likely by teachers who have less contact with parents. If teachers do not ask for and
guide parent involvement, single parents and their children are assumed to be less
qualified than married parents and their children.
The simple lines of inquiry in Tables 3.14, 3.16, and 3.18 suggest that there may
be important statistical interactions of marital status, parent education, and teach-
ers’ leadership in parent involvement in their effects on school and family commu-
nications. For example, when we graph the mean scores in these tables (not shown
here), we see that teacher leadership matters more in determining teachers’ ratings
of single parents’ helpfulness and follow-through on learning activities with their
children at home and on their ratings of the homework quality of children in one-
parent homes. Parent education matters more for married parents on how teachers
rate parents’ helpfulness and children’s homework. New research is needed on the
consequences for student learning of these potentially important interactions.
The full models in Tables 3.15, 3.17, and 3.19 reveal other important patterns.
Parents’ reports of teachers’ practices of parent involvement are influenced by several
characteristics of students, teachers, parents, and family-school communications.
Teachers’ reports of parents are influenced especially by the teachers’ interactions
with the child in school. It often is said that children are reflections of their parents,
but it also seems to work the other way. Parents are evaluated, in part, on the
basis of their children’s success and behavior in school. Teachers’ reports of children
are mainly determined by the children’s schoolwork. However, even after achieve-
ment level is taken into account, some teachers report that children from one-parent
homes have more trouble completing homework than do children from two-parent
homes. The analyses show clearly that the ratings that parents and teachers give
each other are significantly affected by teachers’ philosophies and practices of par-
ent involvement.
On a related theme, in the full model we also found that whether or not mothers
worked outside the home had no important effect on parents’ reports about teach-
ers, teachers’ reports about parents, or teachers’ reports about the quality of chil-
dren’s homework.
PARENTS’ AWARENESS, KNOWLEDGE, AND

EVALUATIONS OF TEACHERS
Are single and married parents equally aware of their children’s instructional pro-
gram? Is marital status an important variable for explaining parental receptivity to
teachers’ requests to help their children? Epstein (1986) shows that teachers’ prac-
tices influenced parental reactions to their children’s teachers and schools. In this
reading, we examine whether single and married parents react differently to teach-
ers’ efforts to involve and inform parents.
190 RESEARCH
The exploration of previous analyses shows that marital status had no significant
effect on whether parents think the child’s teacher works hard to get parents “in-
terested and excited about helping at home.” Rather, frequent experience with teach-
ers’ requests to become involved in learning activities at home had a strong effect
on parent awareness of the teacher’s efforts. Other variables—less formal education
of parents, parents’ belief that teachers know the individual needs of their children,
and teachers’ direct conversations with parents about helping their own child at
home—also had significant, independent effects on parents’ awareness of teachers’
efforts to involve parents.
Similarly, teachers’ frequent requests for parent involvement in learning activities
at home—not marital status—had strong effects on single and married parents’ re-
ports that they get many ideas from teachers about how to help at home; the teacher
thinks parents should help at home; they know more about the child’s instructional
program than they did in previous years; and the teacher has positive interpersonal
skills and high teaching quality.
OTHER REPORTS ABOUT SCHOOL FROM

SINGLE AND MARRIED PARENTS
Other data collected from parents also help explain some of the results reported in
the previous tables.
Single parents reported significantly more often than married parents that they spent
more time assisting their children with homework but still did not have the “time
and energy” to do what they believed the teacher expected. Single parents felt more
pressure from teachers to become involved in their children’s learning activities. It
may be that their children required or demanded more attention or needed more
help to stay on grade level. Or it may be that parents who were separated, divorced,
or never married felt keenly their responsibility for their children and the demands
on their time. Single parents divide their time among many responsibilities for fam-
ily, work, and leisure that are shared in many two-parent homes (Glasser and
Navarre, 1965; Shinn, 1978).
Requests from teachers for parents to help with home-learning activities may make
more of an impression on and may be more stressful for single parents (McAdoo,
1981). Our data show, however, that single parents respond successfully to teachers
who involve all parents as part of their regular teaching practice. Like other parents,
single parents who were frequently involved by the teacher felt that they increased
their knowledge about the child’s instructional program. Indeed, teachers who or-
ganize and guide home-learning activities may especially help single parents make
efficient and effective use of often limited time. When teachers convey uniform ex-
pectations and guidance for involvement by all parents, single parents receive an im-
portant message about their continuing responsibility in their children’s education.
Married parents spent significantly more days in the school as volunteers, as class-
room helpers, and at PTA meetings than did single parents. Teachers may be more
RESEARCH 191
positive toward parents whom they meet and work with in the school building
and classroom. These positive feelings may influence some teachers’ ratings of the
quality of parental assistance at home. An important fact, however, is that the teacher-
leaders—whose philosophy and practices emphasized parent involvement at home—
did not give significantly lower ratings to single parents or less-educated parents on
their helpfulness or follow-through on home-learning activities, despite those par-
ents’ lower involvement at the school building. Because many single parents work
full- or part-time during the school day or have other demands on their time that
keep them away from school, it is important for teachers to emphasize practices
that involve all parents with their children’s education at home. If all involvement
occurs during school hours, single parents and working parents are excluded from
school activities.
There were several measures on which there were no significant differences in the
reports of single and married parents. Some common beliefs about single and married
parents were not supported statistically. For example, single and married parents
gave similar evaluations of the overall quality of their children’s teachers, the extent
to which the teacher shares the parents’ goals for their child, their child’s eagerness
to talk about school, their child’s level of tenseness about homework activities, the
appropriateness of the amount and kinds of homework that their children’s teachers
assigned, and the frequency of most communications (e.g., notes, phone calls, and
memos) from the school to the home. These findings support Snow’s (1982) con-
clusion that single and married parents had similar contacts with teachers and sim-
ilar evaluations of teachers, and that socioeconomic status was more predictive than
marital status of parents’ contacts with teachers. We show, however, that the SES is
not the most important variable. Rather, school and family communications of sev-
eral types reduce or eliminate the importance of marital status and SES.
Marital status is not significantly related to the severity of discipline problems in
class. The belief that children from one-parent homes tend to be disruptive in school
may be one of the “myths” that has been perpetuated from earlier studies based on
“special problem” populations and from studies that did not include measures of
student, family, and teacher characteristics and practices—all of which are more im-
portant influences than marital status on children’s classroom behavior. In our study,
children’s disciplinary problems in the classroom are significantly correlated nega-
tively with gender (r = –.262), academic achievement (r = –.147), and whether the
child likes to talk about school at home (r = –.124), as might be expected. Male stu-
dents, low-achieving students, and those who do not like to talk about school or
homework with their parents are more likely than other students to be disciplinary
problems in class. But parents’ marital status is not significantly associated with be-
havior problems in class (r = –.056).
Marital status is not correlated with parents’ willingness to help at home, feeling
welcome at the school, or reports that someone at home reads regularly with the
child. Indeed, single and married parents are remarkably positive about the general
quality of their children’s elementary schools and teachers (see Epstein, 1986). As
in earlier reports by Eiduson (1982), Keniston et al. (1977), and Sanick and Maudlin
192 RESEARCH
(1986), our survey shows that, like married parents, single parents are concerned
about their children’s education, work with their children, and are generally positive
about their children’s elementary schools and teachers.
Researchers have contributed three types of information on single parents. First,

descriptive reports offer statistics about single parents and their children. Many re-
ports have focused on the dramatic increase over the years in the prevalence of single
parents; the number of children in single-parent homes; racial differences in marital
patterns; and the economic disparities of single- versus two-parent homes, especially
single-mother homes versus other family arrangements (Bane, 1976; Cherlin, 1981;
Newberger et al., 1986; Weitzman, 1985). It is important to continue to document
and monitor the trends in separation and divorce, the numbers of children affected,
and the emergence and increase of special cases such as teenage single parents (Mott
Foundation, 1981) and never-married parents (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982).
Second, analytic studies of the effects of family structure on children or parents
go beyond descriptive statistics to consider family conditions and processes that affect
family members. Research of this type has measured a range of family-life variables,
such as socioeconomic status, family history, family practices, and attitudes such as
parental commitment to their children (Adams, 1982; Bane, 1976; Epstein, 1983;
Furstenburg et al., 1983; Marjoribanks, 1979; Svanum et al., 1982; Zill, 1983).
These studies increase our understanding of the dynamics of family life under dif-
ferent social and economic conditions.
Third, integrative, ecological studies of the effects of family structure on children
and parents go beyond the boundaries of family conditions to include other insti-
tutions that affect family members (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Epstein, 1987; Leichter,
1974; Litwak and Meyer, 1974; Santrock and Tracy, 1978). These studies show that
effects of family structure are, in large part, explained by other variables, including
teachers’ practices of parent involvement and other measures of family and school
interaction.
The present study contributes new knowledge based on data from parents and
teachers about single parents and their children’s schools.
1. Single parents are not a single group. Single parents are highly diverse in their
education, family size, family resources, occupational status, confidence in their abil-
ity to help their children, and other family practices that concern their children. The
diversity in single-parent homes means that we cannot fully understand families by
measuring only the simple category of marital status.
2. There is diversity in teachers’ practices that concern families. Some teachers’ phi-
losophies and practices lead them toward more positive attitudes about single parents
and about how all parents can assist the teacher as knowledgeable partners in their
children’s education. Some teachers’ practices exemplify the theory that families and
RESEARCH 193
schools are overlapping spheres of influence for children, whereas other teachers’
practices exemplify the belief that families and schools are better off when teachers
and parents conduct separate and different activities.
Some teachers involve all or most parents successfully. Other teachers demand
more but expect less of single parents and their children. Single parents’ abilities to
help their children may be affected by the teachers’ abilities to inform and direct
parents about productive activities for parent involvement at home.
Santrock and Tracy (1978) found that teachers rated hypothetical children from
two-parent homes higher on positive traits and lower on negative traits than chil-
dren from one-parent homes. Levine (1982) reported that teachers had lower ex-
pectations for children from one-parent homes. In actual school settings, we found
that teachers differed in their evaluations of children from one- and two-parent
homes. Teachers tend to rate children from one-parent homes lower on the quality
of their homework, and teachers who were not leaders made even greater distinc-
tions between children from one- and two-parent homes.
3. Teacher leadership, not parent marital status, influenced parents’ knowledge

about the school program and the teachers’ efforts. Single and married parents
whose children were in the classrooms of teachers who were leaders in parent in-
volvement were more aware of teachers’ efforts in parent involvement, improved
their understanding of their children’s school programs, and rated teachers’ inter-
personal and teaching skills higher than did parents of children in other teachers’
classrooms. Evidence has been accumulating in many studies that daily practices
are more important than static measures of family structure for understanding chil-
dren’s experiences. This has often been interpreted to refer to practices that parents
might conduct on their own. However, parent involvement in school is not the par-
ents’ responsibility alone. Contexts influence practice. Kriesberg (1967) found a
neighborhood effect on parents’ practices. He noted that disadvantaged single moth-
ers in middle-class neighborhoods gave more educational support to their children
than similar mothers in poor neighborhoods. Our study reports a school effect on
parents’ practices. Teachers’ practices that support and guide parents boost the in-
volvement of all parents, including single parents—the same parents that other
teachers believe cannot or will not help their children.
4. Research on single parents and their children must include measures of family
and school structure and processes that affect the interactions of parents, teachers,
and students. Marital status will look more important than it is unless studies in-
clude measures of teachers’ practices. In this study, teachers’ approaches to parent
involvement; other teacher, parent, and student characteristics; and specific family-
school communications were more important and more manipulable variables than
marital status or mother’s education for explaining parents’ and teachers’ evalua-
tions of each other. Studies of school and family connections must go beyond simple
structural labels such as marital status and education and include measures of the
practices and attitudes of parents, teachers, and students. During the school years,
it is necessary to measure the characteristics of all overlapping institutions that in-
194 RESEARCH
fluence student behavior and particularly the family and the school. This is especially
true for particular outcomes such as student learning and development or parental
understanding and practices concerning their children as students.
5. Schools’ interactions with families need to change because families are changing.
Teachers must consider how they perceive and interact with single parents to min-
imize bias and maximize the support that all parents give their children. Family
members may recover relatively rapidly from the disruption caused by divorce or
separation (Bane, 1976; Hetherington, Cox, and Cox, 1978; Zill, 1983). But teach-
ers who favor traditional families may have difficulty dealing with families who dif-
fer from their “ideal.” Some administrators and teachers still consider the primary,
two-parent family as the model by which other families should be judged (Bernard,
1984). The primary family—two natural parents and their children—may be an
ideal type, but it is no longer the “typical” family for all school-aged children. In
1980, 63 percent of white children and 27 percent of black children lived in primary
families; 14 percent of all white children and 43 percent of all black children lived
in one-parent homes with their mothers.* Most of the others lived in “blended”
families in which at least one parent had remarried (Hernandez and Meyers, 1986).
Demographic trends indicate that the one-parent home will be “the new norm” be-
cause over half of all children will live in a one-parent home for some of their school
years. During that time, teachers’ practices to assist and involve all parents can help
reduce single parents’ stress about their children’s well-being and help children’s
learning and attitudes about school and homework.
Schools need to change their understanding of single parents to better meet the
parents’ concerns and children’s needs. Most suggestions about how the school
should assist single parents and their children focus on providing psychological ser-
vices, family therapy, discussion groups, or individual counseling for children who
experience divorce in their families (Brown, 1980). Although discussion or therapy
sessions may help children adjust to family disruptions, this study suggests that a
more important general direction is to assist all parents in how to help their children
at home in ways that will improve their children’s success in school. This includes
helping parents make productive use of small amounts of time at home for school-
related skills, activities, and decisions.
School policies and practices can minimize or exaggerate the importance of
family structure. Although school practices cannot solve the serious social and eco-
nomic problems that single parents often face, our data show that teachers play a
pivotal role in the lives of children from one-parent homes and in their parents’
lives as well.
* In 2009, about 80 percent of white children, 45 percent of black children, and 65 percent of Hispanic
children lived in two-parent homes (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009).
RESEARCH 195
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RESEARCH 199
READING 3.6
Parents’ Attitudes and Practices of Involvement
in Inner-City Elementary and Middle Schools*
Parent involvement—or school and family connections—is a component of effective
schools that deserves special consideration because it contributes to successful family
environments and more successful students. Research conducted for nearly 25 years
has shown convincingly that parent involvement is important for children’s learning,
attitudes about school, and aspirations. Children are more successful students at all
grade levels if their parents participate at school and encourage education and learn-
ing at home, whatever the educational background or social class of their parents.
Most research on parent involvement has focused on parents who become in-
volved on their own, without connecting parents’ actions to the practices of their
children’s teachers. Some research on parent involvement conducted in the late
1980s asks more crucial questions by focusing on the actions of the schools: Can
schools successfully involve all parents in their children’s education, especially those
parents who would not become involved on their own? How can schools involve par-
ents whose children are at risk of failing in school? If schools involve all parents
in important ways, are there measurable benefits to students, parents, and teach-
ing practice?
From research we have learned that schools’ programs and teachers’ practices
to involve parents have important positive effects on parents’ abilities to help their
children across the grades; on parents’ ratings of teachers’ skills and teaching qual-
ity; on teachers’ opinions about parents’ abilities to help their children with school-
work at home; on students’ attitudes about school, homework, and the similarity
of their school and family; and on students’ reading achievement (Becker and Ep-
stein, 1982 [Reading 3.1]; Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.9], 1986 [Reading 3.4], 1991
[Reading 3.7]; Epstein and Dauber, 1991 [Reading 3.3]).
However, few studies focused on schools with large populations of educationally
disadvantaged students or hard-to-reach parents (Epstein, 1988a). A recurring theme
in some studies is that less-educated parents do not want to or cannot become in-
volved in their children’s education (Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Lareau, 1987).
However, other research challenges this assumption by showing that some teachers
successfully involve parents of the most disadvantaged students in important ways
(Clark, 1983; Comer, 1980; Epstein, 1990 [Reading 3.5]; Epstein and Dauber, 1991;
* By Susan L. Dauber and Joyce L. Epstein. The research was supported by grants from the U.S. De-
partment of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), and by a National
Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship awarded to the first author. The opinions expressed do not
necessarily reflect the position or policy of the OERI or the NSF, and no official endorsements should be
inferred. The authors, listed alphabetically, shared responsibility for this chapter. We are grateful to the
parents who participated in the survey and to the teachers and principals who conducted the survey as
the first step in a school improvement process. Reprinted with permission. From N. Chavkin, ed., Families
and Schools in a Pluralistic Society (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 53–71.
200 RESEARCH
Rich, Van Dien, and Mattox, 1979; Rubin, Olmsted, Szegda, Wetherby, and Williams,
1983; Scott-Jones, 1987).
Earlier studies of teachers and parents focused on one level of schooling, either
elementary schools (see Becker and Epstein, 1982; Epstein, 1986, 1990, 1991); mid-
dle or junior high schools (Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Leitch and Tangri, 1988);
or high schools (Bauch, 1988; Clark, 1983; Dornbusch and Ritter, 1988). This study
used comparable data from two levels of schooling: elementary and middle grades.
The study asked inner-city parents in economically disadvantaged communities how
they are involved or want to be involved and how family involvement differs in the
elementary and middle grades.
STUDY DESIGN
Eight Title I schools in the Baltimore area were involved in an “action research”
program in cooperation with a local foundation. The Fund for Educational Excel-
lence in Baltimore made small grants directly to schools to help teachers increase
and improve parent involvement. Teacher representatives for parent involvement
from the eight schools attended a two-day summer workshop on school and family
connections. They helped design questionnaires for teaches and parents (Epstein
and Becker, 1990) for use in each school to identify where schools are starting from
on five major types of parent involvement (Epstein, 1987). The teachers were pro-
vided with small planning grants to help them distribute and collect the surveys.
Each school was given nontechnical “clinical summaries” of the data from teach-
ers and from parents to help them understand their strengths and weaknesses in
parent involvement (Epstein, 1988b; Epstein and Salinas, 1988). The schools used
the data to develop action plans for improving parent involvement programs and
practices. The teachers who are directing the projects are supported by small grants
($1,000) each year to cover expenses to implement and evaluate the activities they
designed.
Data from 171 teachers in these schools on their attitudes and practices of parent
involvement were reported in a separate paper (see Epstein and Dauber, 1991 [Read-
ing 3.3]). The data from teachers showed that:
• Teachers generally agreed that parent involvement is important for

student success and teacher effectiveness.
• Teachers were more sure about what they wanted from parents than
about what they wanted to do for parents. Almost all teachers reported
that they expected all parents to fulfill 12 responsibilities, ranging from
teaching their children to behave, to knowing what children are
expected to learn each year, to helping their children with homework.
Few teachers, however, had comprehensive programs to help parents
attain these skills.
• Elementary school practices were stronger, more positive, and more
comprehensive than those in the middle grades.
RESEARCH 201
• The individual teacher was a key, but not the only, factor in building
strong school programs. Analyses of “discrepancy scores” showed that
perceived similarities between self and principal, self and teacher-
colleagues, and self and parents were significantly associated with the
strength of schools’ parent involvement programs. Programs and
practices were stronger in schools where teachers perceived that they,
their colleagues, and parents all felt strongly about the importance of
parent involvement.
The reports about parent involvement from teachers in inner-city elementary and
middle schools are important but tell only half the story about what is happening
in any school. Data from parents are needed to understand fully where schools are
starting from and their potential for improving parent involvement practices. This
reading combines the data from the parents in all eight schools to study the present
practices and patterns of parent involvement in inner-city elementary and middle
grades. We examine parents’ reports of their attitudes about their children’s schools,
their practices at home, their perceptions of how the schools presently involve par-
ents, and their wishes or preferences for actions and programs by the schools.
The questionnaires included more than 75 items of information on parent atti-
tudes toward their children’s school; the school subjects that parents want to know
more about; how frequently the parents are involved in different ways in their chil-
dren’s education; how well school programs and teacher practices inform and in-
volve them in their children’s education; what workshop topics they would select; the
times of day that parents prefer meetings or conferences at school to take place;
how much time their children spend on homework and whether the parents help;
and background information about parents’ education, work, and family size.
Parents responded in large numbers to the opportunity to give their opinions about
their involvement and school practices. More than 50 percent of the parents in each
school returned the questionnaires (N = 2,317), a respectable rate of return given that
no follow-ups were possible because of school schedules and budget constraints.
The eight Title I inner-city schools, five elementary and three middle schools, were
selected at random from sets of similar Title I schools that serve children and families
who live in public housing projects, rental homes and apartments, and privately
owned homes in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods. Table 3.20 outlines
the characteristics of the parent population. Although parents of both elementary-
and middle-grade students are well represented, the sample includes almost twice
as many single parents as the national average, more parents without high school
diplomas, and larger family sizes than in the general population.
It is possible, of course, that the 50 percent who did not respond are among the
least involved or lowest in literacy. They include parents whose children did not bring
the questionnaires home or did not return them, parents who chose not to answer
questionnaires, or parents who cannot read well enough to answer the questions.
The surveys were written, rewritten, and tested for use in Title I schools. More than
30 percent of the parents who returned the surveys did not complete high school;
more than 40 percent are single parents. Thus, despite some under-representation
202 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.20 Characteristics of the Sample of Parents*
Percent
Elementary school parents (N = 1,135) 49.0
Middle school parents (N = 1,182) 51.0
Single parents 43.4
Working outside home (full- or part-time) 63.7
Did not complete high school 31.0

Completed high school 40.6
Beyond high school 28.3
Average family size (adults and children) 4.4
Parent rating of student ability:

Top student 7.6
Good student 32.4
Average/OK student 35.2
Fair student 21.8
Poor student 3.0
* N = 2,317.
of the most educationally disadvantaged families in these schools, the sample is

highly diverse and highly representative of the schools.
Despite some limitations of the sample, this study offers unique comparable data
from parents with children in elementary and middle schools. Indeed, because of
the educational and economic disadvantages of the sample, we can put questions
of parent involvement to a stringent test.
MEASURES
Parents’ Reports of Their Involvement

Parents rated the frequency of their involvement in conducting 18 different practices
included under five major types of parent involvement: parenting and supervising
at home, communicating with the school, volunteering at the school, conducting
learning activities at home, and participating in PTA or parent leadership activities.
The main measures of parents’ practices are:
Parent Involvement at the School (PINVSCH)—a five-item measure of the

frequency of helping (never, not yet, one to two times, many times) at
the school building.
Parent Involvement with Homework (PINVHW)—a five-item measure of
the frequency of assisting and monitoring homework.
Parent Involvement in Reading Activities at Home (PINVREAD)—a four-
item measure of the frequency of parent help to students in reading.
RESEARCH 203
Total Parent Involvement (PINVIOT)—an 18-item measure of the frequency
of parents’ use of all types of parent involvement at home and school,
including the 14 items in the three scales listed previously and four other
items on games, chores, and trips that involve parents and children in
communication and learning activities at home.
Parents’ Reports of Schools’ Practices to Involve Parents
Parents rated their children’s schools on whether and how well the schools conduct
nine parent involvement practices. The activities include the five types of parent in-
volvement, ranging from the school telling parents how the child is doing in school
to giving parents ideas of how to help at home. The main measures of school prac-
tices as reported by parents are:
School Practices to Communicate with Parents and Involve Them at School

(SCHCOMMPI)—a five-item measure of how well the school
communicates with parents to provide information about school
programs and activities.
School Practices to Involve Parents at Home (SCHHOMEPI)—a four-item
measure of how well the school contacts and guides parents to help their
own children at home.
Total School Program to Involve Parents (SCHTOTPI)—a nine-item measure
of the extent to which the school contacts and guides parents to involve
them in their children’s education at home and at school.
TABLE 3.21 Measures of Parent Involvement and Attitudes

Mean Reliability
Parent Involvement at the School (PINVSCH) 5 items 2.36 .69
Parent Involvement with Homework (PIVHW) 5 items 3.54 .63
Parent Involvement in Reading Activities at
Home (PINVREAD) 4 items 3.00 .58
Total Parent Involvement (PINVTOT) 18 items 3.07 .81
Parent Attitudes about the School (PATT) 6 items 3.29 .75
School Practices to Communicate with Parents

and Involve Them at School (SCHCOMMPI) 5 items 2.35 .71
School Practices to Involve Parents at Home

(SCHHOMPI) 4 items 2.04 .81
Total School Program to Involve Parents
(SCHTOTPI) 9 items 2.21 .81
204 RESEARCH
Other measures are:
Parent Attitudes about the School (PATT)—a six-item measure of the quality
of the child’s school.
Family Background Measures—Parent Education, Marital Status, Family
Size, Parent Work outside the Home, and Parent Ratings of Student Ability.
The several scales of parents’ reports of their practices, the schools’ practices to
involve them, and their attitudes toward their children’s school have modest to high
reliabilities. These are reported in Table 3.21.
EFFECTS ON PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Table 3.22 summarizes analyses of the effects of parent and student characteristics,
school level, and school practices to involve families on parents’ reported involve-
ment at school and at home. The four columns of the table report the variables that
significantly explain parent involvement at school (column 1); at home on home-
work (column 2); at home on reading in particular (column 3); and on total parent
involvement at school, with homework, with reading, and in all activities (column 4).
Level of Schooling (Elementary or Middle School)
School level has strong independent effects on all measures of involvement reported
by parents. Parents of children in the elementary grades are more involved than par-
ents of children in the middle grades. According to the parents’ reports, elementary
school teachers do more and do better to involve parents in their children’s educa-
tion at school (ß = –.13), at home with homework (ß = –.14), with reading activities
at home (ß = –.08), and with all types of involvement (ß = –.16).
Within middle schools, parents of sixth and seventh graders are more likely to be
involved in their children’s education at home. Parents of eighth graders are more in-
volved at the school building. Because these data were collected early in the school
year, parents of sixth graders were still relatively new to the school and may not have
been included in the small core of parent volunteers in middle schools. Sixth-grade
students may be more apt to ask for help at home if they are still unsure of themselves
in a new school setting. Older students (eighth graders) may feel that they are more
knowledgeable than their parents about schoolwork and school decisions.
Family Characteristics
In all cases, parents who are better educated are more involved at school and at
home than parents who are less educated. Other family characteristics affect differ-
ent types of involvement. Parents with fewer children are more involved with their
RESEARCH 205
TABLE 3.22 Effects on Extent of Parents’ Involvement of School Level,
Family Characteristics, and Reported Teacher Practices to Involve Parents
Extent of Involvement Reported by Parents:
At Home At Home Total
At on on Reading Parent
School Homework Skills Involvement
(ß = standardized beta coefficient)a, b
(ß) (ß) (ß) (ß)
School level
(elementary/middle) –.13 –.14 –.08 –.16
Parents’ education .11 .08 .13 .13
Family size NS –.07 –.06 –.07
Parent works outside home –.06 NS NS NS
Rating of student ability .06 .10 .15 .13
Teacher practices to involve
parentsc at school .27
at home .18 .16
Overall .30
N 1,447 1,489 1,512 1,248
R2 .14 .09 .08 .18
a Listwise regression analyses are reported to eliminate all cases with missing data. This
procedure was checked with pairwise procedures that add about 300 cases to analyses.
The results were all but identical.
b All reported coefficients are significant at or beyond the .05 level; coefficients of .10
or more are particularly important.
c Each equation includes the parents’ reports of teachers’ practices that most directly
link to the type of involvement of the parents. That is, school practices that include asking
the parent to come to school are used in the equation to explain parents’ involvement at
school; school practices that guide parents in how to help at home are used in the equa-
tion to explain parents’ involvement at home on homework and reading skills; and the
sum of all school practices is used in the equation to explain parents’ total involvement.
children at home (ß = –.07), but family size is not a significant factor for explaining
parent involvement at school. Parents who work are significantly less likely to par-
ticipate at the school building (ß = –.06), but working outside the home is not a
significant predictor of involvement at home. Marital status had no significant ef-
fects on the extent of involvement either at school or at home. These results confirm
other reports at the elementary level (see Epstein, 1986) and at the middle level
(Muller, 1991).
Student Characteristics
In all analyses, parents were more involved in their children’s education if the chil-
dren were better students. These cross-sectional data cannot be interpreted to mean
that students whose parents are involved become better students. However, the re-
206 RESEARCH
sults of earlier studies that used fall-to-spring test scores over one school year suggest
that teachers’ practices to involve parents in reading resulted in greater reading gains
for children in those teachers’ classrooms (Epstein, 1991). Parents whose children
are doing well or are doing better in school are more likely to do more to ensure
their children’s continued success.
School Programs and Teachers’ Practices
The strongest and most consistent predictors of parent involvement at school and
at home are the specific school programs and teacher practices that encourage
and guide parent involvement. Regardless of parent education, family size, student
ability, or school level (elementary or middle school), parents are more likely to be-
come partners in their children’s education if they perceive that the schools have
strong practices to involve parents at school (ß = .27), at home with homework
(ß = .18), and at home with reading activities (ß = .16). The sum of all nine school
practices has the strongest effect on parents’ total involvement (ß = .30) after all
other factors have been statistically controlled.
When parents believe the schools are doing little to involve them, they report doing
little at home. When parents perceive that the school is doing many things to involve
them, they are more involved in their children’s education at school and at home.
The schools’ practices, not just family characteristics, make a difference in whether
parents become involved in and feel informed about their children’s education.
CLASSROOM-LEVEL REPORTS OF SCHOOL PRACTICES
Individual parents in one teacher’s class may view the teacher’s practices from a per-
sonal perspective. For example, one parent may receive special advice from a teacher
about how to help a child at home or become involved at school. Or all parents of
students in a classroom may report the teacher’s practices similarly if they recognize
that the teacher’s regular practice is to involve all parents. We checked to see how
individual parent reports compared to the reports of other parents in the same class-
room. We can begin to understand whether parent involvement is a phenomeno-
logical process or a general classroom process by examining how parents of entire
classrooms of students report the teacher’s requests for involvement.
In this sample, only parents of children in the elementary grades could be iden-
tified by classroom for aggregated reports. The 1,135 parents of children in 86 class-
rooms provided assessments of school practices to inform and involve parents. An
average or “consensus” score was calculated for each classroom and merged with
the individual parent records.
Individual reports were significantly and positively correlated with the reports
of other parents in the classroom (between r = .28 and r = .44). The highest agree-
ment among parents came on the parents’ reports about the amount of time that
their children spend on homework (r = .44). Individual and aggregate scores were
RESEARCH 207
TABLE 3.23 Comparison of Effects of Individual-Level and Classroom-Level
Reports of Teacher Practices to Involve Parents (Elementary School Level Only)
Extent of Involvement Reported by Parents:
At Home At Home Total
At on on Reading Parent
School Homework Skills Involvement
(ß = standardized beta coefficient)a, b
(ß) (ß) (ß) (ß)
Individual parent’s report of
teacher practicesb .28 .20 .16 .33
Classroom parents’
consensus about teacher
practices, individual
parent’s background with
variables controlledb, c .07 NS NS .13
Classroom parents’
consensus about teacher
practices, aggregate parent
background with variables
controlledb, d .22 .24 .14 .27
a Listwise regression for these analyses include from 603 to 782 cases for elementary
school parents, depending on the type of involvement measured. The same background
variables are statistically controlled as shown in Table 3.15.
b Linked measures of teachers’ practices (as shown in Table 3.15) are used in these
analyses.
c Aggregate reports from all parents in a classroom about teachers’ practices of parent
involvement are used instead of an individual’s report.
d Aggregate reports about teacher practices of parent involvement from all parents in a
classroom, including aggregate family background variables.
correlated slightly lower on whether the teacher guides parents on how to help with
homework (r = .32).
Parents also were in high agreement about the overall quality of their children’s
school. The correlation was +.38 between an average parent’s report that a school
was good or poor and the reports of all the parents in the same classroom. The
modest but significant correlations suggest that there is agreement about school
and teacher practices to involve parents. The figures also show considerable vari-
ation in the interpretations of teacher practices by individual parents in the same
classroom.
Classroom averages of parents’ reports may be more objective measures than
one parent’s report of a teacher’s practices. We compare the effects of the classroom-
level and individual-level measures on parents’ practices in Table 3.23. The first line
shows the individual effects; the second line shows the effects on parent involvement
of the classroom aggregate measures of teachers’ practices. On all types of involve-
ment, the individual reports have stronger effects than the aggregated reports on
208 RESEARCH
parents’ practices at school and at home. Line 2 substitutes the average of the par-
ents’ reports for that classroom, but retains the parents’ individual background vari-
ables. This analysis uses the aggregate report as an alternative “truth” about the
teacher’s practices as if all parents received and interpreted the same information
about involvement from the teacher. The results in lines 1 and 2 can be viewed as
providing a “range of effects,” with the “truth” somewhere between the two coeffi-
cients. Line 3 is a classroom analysis. It uses the average reports of all parents in a
classroom about teacher practices and the average family background variables.
These effects are highly consistent with the individual analyses. Importantly, they
show that when classroom agreement about specific teachers’ practices is high, in-
dividual parents tend to respond with those practices at home.
The differences raise two questions for future studies: How accurately does any
one parent report a teacher’s practices? Do teachers treat all parents in a classroom
similarly to involve them at school and at home? The coefficients in Table 3.23 sug-
gest that despite some consensus about teachers’ practices among parents in a class,
there is considerable evidence of individual interpretation of teacher practices and
the translation of those practices into parent practices. All parents of children in a
classroom may not be treated the same by a teacher, and they may not interpret
messages, requests, and opportunities in the same way. The strongest effects on par-
ent involvement at school and at home are demonstrated by parents who personally
understand and act on the teacher’s practices that encourage their involvement.
We believe that in strong or “improving” schools, the correspondence between
one parent’s report and those of all other parents in the class should increase over
time. This would indicate that parents were becoming increasingly similar in how
they perceived and understood the teacher’s practices. There would, of course, al-
ways be some differences in individual responses to requests for involvement.
STUDENT TIME ON HOMEWORK AND PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Helping with homework is one common and important means by which parents be-
come involved in what their children are learning in school. We asked parents several
questions about their children’s homework practices and their own involvement in
homework activities. Table 3.24 shows comparisons of homework activities of ele-
mentary and middle school students and the help they receive from parents. Ac-
cording to parents:
• Middle school students spend more time doing homework on an average

night than do elementary students.
• Parents of elementary school children help their children for more
minutes and feel more able to help with reading and math than do
parents of middle school students.
• Parents of children at both levels of school say they could help more (up
to 45–50 minutes, on average) if the teacher guided them in how to help
at home.
RESEARCH 209
• Parents of children at both levels of school say they have time to help on
weekends. Often, students are not assigned homework on weekends,
when many parents have more time to interact with their children.
• More parents of elementary school students than parents of middle
school students report that their children’s schools and teachers have
good programs that guide them in how to help at home to check their
child’s homework. Even at the elementary level, only 35 percent of the
parents think their school “does well” on this. At the middle level, only
25 percent believe their school does well to help them know what to do.
• More parents of elementary school students than parents of middle
school students report that their child likes to talk about school at home.
But even at the elementary level, many parents, close to 40 percent, do
not think that their children really enjoy such discussions.
Other data (not reported in Table 3.24) indicate that parents with more formal
education say that their children spend more time on homework. These parents may
be more aware of the homework that their children have to do, the parents may make
sure the children do all of their homework, or the children may be in classrooms
where the teachers give more homework. Parents with less formal education say
they could help more if the teachers told them how to help. Those with more edu-
cation may believe they are already helping enough or that they are already receiving
good information from the teacher on how to help.
Table 3.25 reports the results of multiple-regression analyses conducted to de-
termine the factors that affect how much time parents spend monitoring, assisting,
or otherwise helping their children with homework. As noted, level of schooling af-
fects the amount of time parents spend helping at home. With all other variables
statistically controlled, parents of elementary students spend more time helping on
homework (ß = –.18). Regardless of school level, parents help for more minutes if
their children spend more time on homework. Alternative explanations are that
when parents help, it takes students more time to do their homework, or parents
help when their children have a lot of homework assigned by the teacher.
Parents’ education, family size, and marital status—all indicators of family social
class and social structure—are not significantly associated with the amount of time
parents help with homework. Parents who work outside the home spend fewer min-
utes helping their children than do other parents. Parents whose children need the
most help in schoolwork (rated by parents as “fair” or “poor” students) spend more
minutes helping with homework (ß = –.08). Other analyses show that this is espe-
cially true in the elementary grades. Parents of struggling students may believe that
if they give their children extra help on homework, the students have a chance to
succeed in school. By the middle grades, parents who rate their children as “poor”
students do not help their children as much as parents of “average” students. In the
middle grades, parents may feel they are not able to help their academically weak
children without special guidance from teachers about how to help. Parents of top
students do not help for as many minutes in the middle grades, in part because the
210 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.24 Parents’ Reports about Homework
School Level
Elementary Middle
(N = 1,135) (N = 1,182)
Average time on homework 30–35 min. 35–40 min.
Average time parent helps 30–35 25–30
% Strongly agree they are able to help with reading 75.9 67.1
% Strongly agree they are able to help with math 71.8 55.4
Average time parent could help if teacher gave
information 45–50 min. 45–50 min.
% Have time to help on weekends 95.3 91.9
% Report school explains how to check child’s
homework 35.7 25.0
% Strongly agree child should get more homework 40.0 35.6
% Strongly agree child likes to talk about school at
home 62.4 45.3
TABLE 3.25 Effects on Minutes Parents Help with Homework of School Level,
Family Characteristics, Students’ Homework Time, and Teachers’ Practices to
Involve Parents in Homework
ßa, b
School level (elementary or middle) –.18
Students’ homework time .51
Parent education NS
Family size NS
Single parent NS
Parent works outside home –.08
Rating of student ability –.08
Teachers’ practices to guide parent help on homework .10
N 1,560
R2 .28
a Standardized beta coefficients for listwise regression analyses are reported.
b All reported coefficients are significant at or beyond the .05 level; coefficients of .10
are particularly important.
students do not need or ask for assistance and in part because teachers do not guide
parents’ involvement.
Other analyses show that in the middle grades, struggling students spend the least
amount of time on homework. Thus, there is less investment in homework time by
middle-grade students who are academically weak, less investment in helping be-
havior by parents of these students, and less investment by middle-grade teachers
in informing parents about how to help their children at this level.
Even after all family and student characteristics are statistically accounted for,
there is a significant, positive, and important effect of teachers’ reported practices
RESEARCH 211
to guide parents in how to help their children with homework (ß = .10). Teachers
who more often conduct practices that involve families influence parents to spend
more time with their children on homework. The variables in these analyses ex-
plain about 28 percent of the variance in the amount of time parents spend helping
on homework.
There is an interesting contrast between Tables 3.22 and 3.25 concerning parent
involvement at home with homework. Table 3.22 shows that parents with more
formal education and parents of more successful students report that they are in-
volved in more and different ways of helping at home with homework. Table 3.25
reports that parents of weaker or academically struggling students spend more min-
utes helping their children on an average night. Types of help and time spent helping
are different indicators of involvement. It may be that, over time, many different
ways of helping and more minutes spent helping lead to more success for students
on schoolwork.
The different patterns suggest that students’ different needs are being addressed
by parents. Students who need more help take more minutes of their parents’ time.
Students who are better students may require different kinds of assistance. The im-
portant similarity between the two tables is that the specific practices of teachers to
guide parents in how to help at home increase the types of help parents say they
give and the time they give to help their children.
DISCUSSION
Several other findings from the data regarding inner-city parents increase our un-
derstanding of parent involvement in children’s education in the elementary and
middle grades:
• Most parents believe that their children attend a good school and that
the teachers care about their children, and the parents feel welcome at
the school. However, there is considerable variation in these attitudes,
with many parents unhappy or unsure about the quality of schools and
teachers. Interestingly, parents’ attitudes about the quality of their
children’s school are more highly correlated with the school’s practices
to involve parents (.346) than with the parents’ practices of involvement
(.157). Parents who become involved at home and at school say that the
school has a positive climate. Even more so, parents who believe that the
school is actively working to involve them say that the school is a good
one. This connection supports earlier findings that parents give teachers
higher ratings when teachers frequently involve parents in their
children’s education (Epstein, 1985 [Reading 4.3], 1986).
• Parents report little involvement at the school building. Many parents
work full-time or part-time and cannot come to the school during the
school day. Others report that they have not been asked by the school to
become volunteers, but would like to be.
212 RESEARCH
• Parents in all the schools in this sample are emphatic about wanting the
school and teachers to advise them about how to help their children at
home at each grade level. Parents believe that the schools need to
strengthen practices such as giving parents specific information on their
children’s major academic subjects and what their children are expected
to learn each year.
• Parents of young children and parents with more formal education
conduct more activities at home that support their children’s schooling.
• Parents who were guided by teachers on how to help at home spent
more minutes helping with homework than other parents.
• In many schools, parents are asked to come to the building for
workshops. An interesting sidelight in these data is that in all eight
schools, elementary and middle, parents’ top request for workshop
topics was “How to Help My Child Develop His/Her Special Talents.”
Across the schools, from 57 to 68 percent of parents checked that topic
(average 61 percent). By contrast, an average of 54 percent were
interested in workshops on helping children take tests, and an average of
45 percent checked interest in discipline and control of children.
• Inner-city parents need information and assistance to help develop the
special qualities they see in their children. Time and resources to develop
talent may be as important as time for homework for helping children’s
self-esteem and commitment to learning. The parents’ requests for help
from the schools on the topic of developing children’s special talents are
important calls for action, along with their requests for schools to
increase information on how to help on homework.
Most important for policy and practice, parents’ level of involvement is directly
linked to the specific practices of the school that encourage involvement at school
and guide parents in how to help at home. The data are clear that the schools’ prac-
tices to inform and involve parents are more important than parent education, fam-
ily size, marital status, and even grade level in determining whether inner-city
parents stay involved with their children’s education through the middle grades.
Although teachers in these urban Title I schools reported that most parents are
not involved and do not want to be (see Epstein and Dauber, 1991), parents of stu-
dents in the same schools tell a different story. They say that they are involved with
their children but that they need more and better information from teachers about
how to help at home. Parents and teachers have different perspectives that must
be recognized and taken into account in developing activities to improve parent
involvement.
Earlier research showed that some of the strongest immediate effects of teachers’
practices of parent involvement are on parents’ attitudes and behaviors (see Epstein,
1986). This study suggests that the same is true for inner-city parents. Parents are
more involved at school and at home when they perceive that the schools have
strong programs that encourage parent involvement. The implication is that all
schools, including inner-city schools, can develop more comprehensive programs of
RESEARCH 213
parent involvement to help more families become knowledgeable partners in their
children’s education.
In these schools the survey data were used to help the schools plan three-year
programs to improve their parent involvement practices to meet the needs and re-
quests of the parents and the hopes of the teachers for stronger partnerships. The
data served as Time 1, the starting point, for a longitudinal study of the impact of
three years of work to improve practices. In this and in other research, the next ques-
tions must deal with the results of efforts to improve school and family partnerships.
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volvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. Elementary School Journal 91:
289–303. (Reading 3.3).
214 RESEARCH
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Rich, D., J. Van Dien, and B. Mattox. (1979). Families as educators for their own children.
In R. Brandt (Ed.), Partners: Parents and schools (pp. 26–40). Alexandria, VA: Association
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Rubin, R. I., P. P. Olmsted, M. J. Szegda, M. J. Wetherby, and D. S. Williams. (1983). Long-
term effects of parent education on follow-through program participation. Paper presented
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RESEARCH 215
READING 3.7
Effects on Student Achievement of Teachers’
Practices of Parent Involvement*
ABSTRACT
This study uses longitudinal data from 293 third- and fifth-grade students in Balti-
more City who took the California Achievement Test (CAT) in the fall and spring
of the 1980–1981 school year. The students were in the classrooms of 14 teachers
who varied in their use of techniques to involve parents in learning activities at
home. With data from parents, students, and teachers, we examine the effects over
time of teachers’ practices of parent involvement on student achievement test scores.
INTRODUCTION
Social science research on school and family environments has documented the im-
portance for student development and achievement of family conditions and prac-
tices of parent involvement in school (Clausen, 1966; Coleman et al., 1966; Epstein,
1983; Heyns, 1978; Leichter, 1974; Marjoribanks, 1979; Mayeske, 1973; McDill
and Rigsby, 1973; Gordon, 1979; Henderson, 1987; Sinclair, 1980). There is con-
sistent evidence that parents’ encouragement, activities, interest at home, and par-
ticipation at school affect their children’s achievement, even after the students’
ability and family socioeconomic status are taken into account. Students gain in
personal and academic development if their families emphasize schooling, let their
children know they do, and do so continually over the school years.
The earlier research considers family practices that vary naturally in the study
samples. It recognizes that in any population some parents become involved in their
children’s education, based on their own knowledge about school and their ability
to guide and encourage their children. This study examines parent involvement that
results from teachers’ efforts to involve more parents in their children’s education,
not just those who would become involved on their own. We want to know what
* By Joyce L. Epstein. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1984 annual meeting of
the American Educational Research Association. The author is grateful to Henry Jay Becker and Doris
Entwisle for their helpful comments and suggestions and to others who reviewed or reacted to earlier
drafts. Many thanks to the teachers, principals, families, and students who contributed to this study.
This research was supported by grants from the Department of Education Office of Educational Re-
search and Improvement. The results and improvements do not necessarily reflect the position or policy
of the OERI. Originally published in S. Silvern, ed., Advances in Reading/Language Research, vol. 5:
Literacy Through Family, Community, and School Interaction (Greenwich, CT: JAI, 1991), 261–276.
Reprinted with permission.
216 RESEARCH
happens if we change the expected variation among families to increase the number
of parents who can knowledgeably assist their children to improve or maintain their
academic skills. We need to know: Are there ways to increase the number of parents
who become involved in their children’s learning activities at home? If teachers and
administrators take the responsibility to involve all parents, are there measurable
effects on student achievement test scores and other important school outcomes?
Over the years there have been many programs and practices designed to increase
home-school cooperation to improve students’ academic skills and attitudes or par-
ents’ attitudes (Collins, Moles, and Cross, 1982). Few programs or practices, how-
ever, have been systematically evaluated for their effects on students. Tidwell (1980)
describes positive effects on parents, although the data to evaluate Los Angeles’s
“Project AHEAD” were admittedly poor. Gotts (1980) reports small effects on
“adaptability to school” for children in family-school preschool programs. Cochran
(1986) describes a preschool program designed to “empower” parents, but the link-
ages in the model to the children’s schools and teachers’ practices are weak. Rich
and Jones (1977) present important early evidence suggesting that extra learning
time at home produces gains in early elementary students’ reading scores equivalent
to those made by students under more expensive “pull-out” programs in schools.
The data, statistical controls, and methods of analysis in these studies, however,
were seriously limited. Gordon (1979) reviews several studies and unpublished dis-
sertations suggesting that there are generally positive effects of the programs on
parents and on young children, but the measures of parent involvement in these
studies are incomplete and the connections to schools and instructional programs
are unmeasured.
Several Follow-Through models emphasized parent involvement at school and
at home (Rivlin and Timpane, 1975), but in all cases the effects of the parent in-
volvement components were poorly measured. The most reliable data and consistent
results from the Follow-Through studies seem to be effects on parents’ attitudes
and parent-teacher relations. (See the exchange in the Harvard Educational Review
by Anderson, St. Pierre, Proper, and Stebbins, 1978; Hodges, 1978; Wisler, Burnes,
and Iwamoto, 1978.) Other studies and commentaries suggest that direct contact
of parents with their own children on learning activities at home (as opposed to the
contact of a few parents in the school building) should have important consequences
for student achievement and other outcomes such as school attendance and class-
room behavior (Comer, 1980; Gillum, Schooley, and Novak, 1977; Rich, Van Dien,
and Mattox, 1979).
Previous studies did not link specific teachers’ practices with their own students
and parents, and there was little information on characteristics of the teachers, par-
ents, or students for even cursory controls on other influences on achievement. Few
studies focused on upper elementary school or older students. Overall, there is little
“hard” data that address the question of whether teachers’ practices of parent in-
volvement directly influence student achievement (Olmsted, Wetherby, Leler, and
Rubin, 1982). This study begins to fill some of the gaps in the earlier work by fo-
cusing on the effect of teacher practices of parent involvement on gains in reading
and math achievement test scores over one school year.
RESEARCH 217
DATA AND APPROACH
We use longitudinal data from 293 third- and fifth-grade students in Baltimore City
who took the California Achievement Test (CAT) in the fall and spring of the 1980–
1981 school year. The full study involved many districts in the state of Maryland,
but only one district administered fall and spring achievement test scores to permit
analyses of change in math and reading scores over one school year.
The students were in the classrooms of 14 teachers who varied in their emphases
on parent involvement. The continuum ranged from “confirmed leaders”—teachers
who reported frequent use of parent involvement in learning activities at home and
who were confirmed by their principals as leaders in these practices—to infrequent
users, to confirmed nonusers of parent involvement in learning activities at home—
teachers who reported, and whose principals confirmed, their lack of emphasis on
parent involvement (see Becker and Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.1]). The parents of
students in these teachers’ classrooms were surveyed about their reactions to and
experiences with teacher practices of parent involvement (see Epstein, 1986 [Read-
ing 3.4]). The data link teacher practices to the families’ responses and to the
achievement of students, and enable us to analyze the consequences of teachers’
uses of instructional strategies that emphasize parent involvement at home.
Several types of variables that theoretically could influence change in achievement
scores are included in the analyses: student and family background (sex, race, and
grade level of students, parent education, and students’ fall achievement test scores),
teachers’ characteristics and practices (overall teaching quality as rated by the prin-
cipal, years of experience, and teachers’ and principals’ reports of the teachers’ lead-
ership in parent involvement), parent reactions (parents’ reports of teacher requests
for involvement and parents’ rating of the quality of homework assigned by the
teacher), and student effort (teachers’ rating of the quality of homework completed
by the students). The variables are described in detail in Becker and Epstein (1982)
and Epstein (1985 [Reading 4.3], 1986, 1990 [Reading 3.5]). Multiple regression
analysis is used to identify the important independent effects of these variables on
gains in reading and math achievement. We are especially interested in whether
teacher practices of parent involvement affect reading and math achievement, after
the other potentially influential variables are taken into account.
We use students’ residual gain scores as our measure of growth or change over
the school year. Because earlier family and school factors influenced prior student
achievement, we must statistically control the students’ initial, fall achievement test
scores that reflect the earlier influences. Then we examine the effects of the ongoing
teachers’ practices on change in reading and math skills over the school year in our
study. As Richards (1975, 1976) showed, changes in scores over a reasonable inter-
val, such as a school year, measure school impact and individual growth as accu-
rately as other methods (Cronbach and Furby, 1970). Changes in scores also have
the conceptual advantage of giving a clear picture of growth from pretest to posttest.
Ideally, we would like to have more measures of teachers’ classroom practices. It
may be, for example, that teachers who frequently use parent involvement strategies
also differ from infrequent users or nonusers in their other classroom activities and
218 RESEARCH
instructional methods. In this study we control for differences in teachers’ quality
and approaches by taking into account principals’ ratings of the teachers’ skills, in-
cluding their preparation of lessons, knowledge of subject, classroom discipline, and
creativity. We focus, then, on the effects of teacher practices of parent involvement,
net of overall teacher quality. Although new studies of parent involvement and
achievement may add other measures of specific teacher practices, our statistical
controls on teacher quality and early student achievement greatly strengthen the
models, measures, and methods used in previous studies.
RESULTS
Effects on Change in Reading Achievement
Table 3.26 shows the significant correlates of gains in reading achievement and the
results of the regression analysis to identify the significant, independent effects of
these variables on achievement gains. The variables were entered in four steps to il-
lustrate the type, magnitude, and persistence of influence. Line 1 of the table shows
the effects on change in reading scores of initial or starting characteristics of students
and teachers: the students’ initial, fall reading scores and the overall quality of the
teacher as rated by the principal. Students with lower reading scores in the fall make
greater gains by the spring than do other students (ß = –.259). This effect is partly a
“regression to the mean” but is also partly a consequence of the room to change and
the need to change. Students who are initially low may be able to move their scores
more easily than those who are at or near the “ceiling” in a range of scores, and, we
assume, they and their teachers are working to improve the students’ basic skills. The
positive effect of teacher quality (ß = +.157) shows that, independent of students’
starting scores, teachers whose principals give them high ratings in classroom man-
agement, control, instructional effectiveness, and creativity help students make greater
gains in reading than do teachers who receive lower ratings for teaching quality. These
two variables explain 10 percent of the variance in change in reading scores.
Line 2 of the table reports that teacher leadership in parent involvement in learn-
ing activities at home positively and significantly influences change in reading
achievement, adding about 4 percent to the variance explained by the initial char-
acteristics of students and teachers.
Line 3 of the table takes into account two measures of parental resources and
responses. Parents with more formal education and parents who report that they
have learned more this year than they knew previously about their child’s in-
structional program positively influence change in the reading achievement of
their children.
Thus, we see that student gains in reading achievement are influenced by parents
who usually help their children (i.e., those with more formal education) and, im-
portantly, parents who are helped to help their children (i.e., those whose children’s
teachers involve parents in learning activities at home to increase their knowledge
RESEARCH 219
220
TABLE 3.26 Influence on Change in Reading Achievement Test Scores from Fall to Spring*
Leadership in Parent Knows Student
Initial Reading Overall Quality Parent Parent More This Year Homework
Variables Added Score (Fall) of Teacher Involvement Education Than Before Quality R2
1. Student and Teacher
(Starting) Characteristics –.259 .157 .105
2. Teacher Leadership in
Parent Involvement at Home –.243 .201 .193 .141
3. Parent Resources and
Response to Involvement –.275 .164 .171 .185 .153 .185
4. Homework Completion
Quality –.330 .138 .128 .162 .122 .193 .216
5. (Zero-order Correlation (–.285) (.200) (.162) (.092) (.191) (.186)
with Reading Achievement)
* Achievement test scores are fall and spring scores (percentiles) on the Reading Subtest of the California Achievement Tests for 293
third- and fifth-grade students. Standardized regression coefficients are reported. In this table, all unstandardized coefficients are twice
their standard errors.
about the school program). An additional 4 percent of the variance is explained by
these parental characteristics.
Teachers rated their students as homework stars, homework problems, or as nei-
ther stars nor problems. We see in line 4 of the table that students who complete
their homework well gain more in reading achievement than do other students.
When homework quality is added to the equation in Table 3.26, its effects on
achievement are clearly important, and the effects of teachers’ practices and parents’
responses decrease slightly but remain significant. This indicates not only the gen-
erally robust importance of these variables but also the crucial contribution of stu-
dents’ investments in schoolwork for improving their own achievement.
Although many factors influence learning, we were especially interested in
whether teachers’ practices of involving parents have persistent, independent effects
on student achievement. We see that teachers’ leadership in parent involvement in
learning activities at home contributes independently to positive change in reading
achievement from fall to spring, even after teacher quality, students’ initial achieve-
ment, parents’ education, parents’ improved understanding of the school program,
and the quality of students’ homework are taken into account. Indeed, the influence
of teachers’ practices of parent involvement may be even more important than the
coefficient suggests, because improved parents’ understanding and better homework
quality are also influenced by these practices (Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.9], 1986).
Effects on Change in Math Achievement
Table 3.27 tells a different story about change in math achievement scores. Again,
all variables are included in this analysis that are significantly correlated with
change in math achievement. We also include teachers’ leadership in parent in-
volvement, despite its low correlation, to compare its effects on math with those
reported for reading.
Line 1 of Table 3.27 shows that students who start with lower math scores in
the fall change more in math skills over the school year. In part this reflects regres-
sion to the mean, but also, as in reading, slower students with more room to change
and greater need to change make greater gains by spring than do students who score
well. Students also gain more if they have relatively new, recently trained teachers,
or if they are in the younger grades (i.e., here, grade 3 rather than grade 5). It may
be that making progress in math is easier for students in the lower grades, where
teachers tend to help students master basic skills and do not stress the swift coverage
and competitive knowledge of more advanced math topics. Younger students and
their teachers may be able to improve needed math skills more easily than can older
students who have, with each passing year, more skills to cover and more ground
to make up if they have fallen behind. The overall quality of the teacher, as rated by
the principal, is a significant correlate of students’ growth in math but does not have
an independent influence on change in math achievement after other measures
of student and teacher characteristics are accounted for. The four characteristics of
students and teachers shown in line 1 of the table explain approximately 25 percent
of the variance in math gains.
RESEARCH 221
222
TABLE 3.27 Influence on Change in Math Achievement Test Scores from Fall to Spring1
Years of Leadership in Homework
Initial Math Overall Quality Teaching Grade Parent Not Busy
Variables Added Score (Fall) of Teachers Experience Level Involvement Work R2
1. Student and Teacher (Starting)
Characteristics –.349* –.038 –.152* –.266* .253
2. Teacher Leadership in Parent
Involvement at Home –.348* –.047 –.148* –.277* –.028 .254
3. Assigned Homework Quality –.334* –.047 –.146* –.258* –.025 .104‡ .264
4. (Zero-order Correlation with (–.428) (.131) (–.151) (.326) (.040) (.216)
Math Achievement)
1
Achievement test scores are fall and spring scores (percentiles) on mathematics subtest of the California Achievement Tests for 293
third- and fifth-grade students. Standardized regression coefficients are reported.
* Indicates unstandardized coefficient is at least twice its standard error.
‡ Indicates coefficient is approaching twice its standard error.
Line 2 of the table shows that teachers’ leadership in the use of parent involve-
ment is not an important variable for understanding change in math scores. In con-
trast to its influence on reading achievement gains in Table 3.26, teachers’ parent
involvement practices are neither correlated with math gains nor significantly af-
fected by other variables in this model.
Line 3 of the table suggests that parents’ reports that teachers assign purposeful
homework (not busy work) have a small, positive effect on change in math achieve-
ment, but explains only an additional 1 percent of the variance in math gains. This
measure may reflect a combination of parents’ awareness of their children’s math
work, the parents’ general acceptance of their children’s school programs, better
quality of the teachers’ decisions about homework assignments, and the students’
interest and investment of time at home on their homework. New research should
look into these components of homework assignments by teachers, as well as aspects
of homework completion by students discussed in Table 3.26.
Comparing Effects on Change in Reading and Math Scores
Table 3.28 shows a common model consisting of variables from Tables 3.26 and
3.27 used to compare effects on changes in reading and math achievement. Two
variables—student sex and race—have been added to Table 3.28 even though they
lack a significant zero-order correlation with the dependent measure. We include
them here to show that although sex and race are usually of interest in studies of
reading and math achievement, they are not important explanatory variables for
students’ growth over the school year. The table presents the standardized regres-
sion coefficients and identifies the independent influences of the variables on
change in reading and math over one school year. We have arranged the variables
to focus on student and family background factors, teacher characteristics, and
home-learning activities.
The top section of the table focuses attention on student and family background
variables. As in the earlier tables, we see that initial (fall) scores influence change in
both reading and math scores: Students who initially have low scores change more
from fall to spring. Neither sex nor race of students influences changes in scores in
either subject. Parent education and grade level are important independent influ-
ences, but for different subjects. Parents with more formal education independently
influence positive change in reading scores, but parents’ education is not an impor-
tant influence on students’ math gains. Younger students (in grade 3) make greater
gains in math than do students in grade 5, but grade level is not an important inde-
pendent influence on change in reading achievement.
The middle section of the table presents the variables in the model that concern
the teachers’ background and skills. The two variables have important independent
effects, but on different subjects. Overall teacher quality—the reputational index
based on principals’ ratings of four instruction and management skills—influences
change in students’ reading scores but not math. More recent teacher training (re-
flected in fewer years of teaching) promotes greater gains in math but does not in-
fluence change in reading.
RESEARCH 223
224
TABLE 3.28 Comparing a Common Model of Effects on Change in Reading and Math Scores
Change in Reading Achievement Change in Math Achievement
Variables Measures ß (r) ß (r)
Student and Family Sex .048 (.022) .009 (.050)
Background Grade Level –.053 (–.222) –.247* (–.326)
Parent Education .170* (.092) .067 (–.024)
Race .068 (–.004) .088 (.022)
Fall Score‡ –.294* (–.285) –.357* (–.427)
Teacher Skills and Overall Quality of Teacher .175* (.200) –.033 (.131)
Experience Years of Teaching Experience –.004 (–.026) –.152* (–.151)
Home-Learning Teacher Leadership Involving

Activities Parents in Learning Activities
at Home .144* (.162) –.037 (.040)
Homework Not Busy Work .028 (.072) .109* (.216)
R2 .173 .274
NOTES: ß = Standardized regression coefficients.
(r) = Zero-order correlations.
N = 293.
* Indicates unstandardized coefficient is at least twice its standard error.
‡ Fall score is the initial reading score in the analysis of change in reading achievement, and the initial math score in the analysis of
change in math achievement.
The bottom section of the table focuses attention on two types of home-learning
activities. Teacher leadership in the use of parent involvement in learning activities
at home has a positive influence on change in reading scores, but not in math scores.
Parents’ reports of pertinent homework assignments influence positive change in
students’ math scores, but not reading scores.
The common model explains 17 percent of the change in students’ reading scores
compared to 27 percent of the variance in the change in math scores. The different
explanatory power of the model is due mainly to the impact of low initial scores
and younger grade level on growth in math skills. Table 3.26 shows more variance
explained (about 22 percent) in change in reading achievement because the equation
included parents’ increased understanding of their children’s instructional program
and the quality of students’ completed homework, two measures that are, in part,
explained by teachers’ practices of parent involvement and that, in part, boost read-
ing achievement.
DISCUSSION
Why do teachers’ practices of parent involvement influence change in reading but

not math scores? Why should changes in reading and math achievement test scores
be influenced by different variables? And what do these patterns mean for under-
standing parent involvement and student achievement?
We have some clues about these questions from other data collected from the
teachers and parents in the study. For example, teachers report that reading activities
are their most frequently used and most satisfying parent involvement practices,
and principals report that they encourage teachers to involve parents in reading ac-
tivities more than in other subjects (see Becker and Epstein, 1982). Parents report
that they receive most requests for assistance on reading-related activities at home
(see Epstein, 1986). It appears that these emphases on parent involvement in reading
have real consequences for improving students’ reading achievement. There is little
reason to expect that these practices would have direct and immediate effects on
students’ math skills. This would require teachers’ sequential and coordinated prac-
tices to involve parents in math activities.
More parents of fifth-grade students feel that they do not have enough training
to help their children with reading and math skills at home (Epstein, 1984). Their
feelings of inadequacy may be more serious about math. Teachers of older students
have fewer parent volunteers in their classes and give less guidance to parents in how
to help their children at home. Teachers may need to give more help to parents of
older children so that they understand what to discuss about school and how to as-
sist, guide, and monitor their children in reading, math, and other subjects at home.
Table 3.29 shows that there was dramatic improvement in reading and math
scores for third- and fifth-grade city students in this sample from fall to spring. But
our analyses suggest that the dramatic changes in reading and math scores are at-
tributable to different factors. Gains in reading achievement are influenced sharply
by several sources, including the teachers’ leadership in parent involvement, the
RESEARCH 225
TABLE 3.29 Third- and Fifth-Grade City Students’ Reading and Math Scores
Fall 1980 Spring 1981
Reading achievement scores
Mean 38.60 50.69
Standard deviation (25.51) (25.20)
Math achievement scores

Mean 43.75 57.46
Standard deviation (25.70) (24.74)
teachers’ overall quality of instruction, the students’ need to improve, the quality
of the students’ homework, the parents’ education, and the parents’ improved
knowledge about the school program.
Gains in math achievement may have more to do with the grade level, methods
of teaching math, and traditional homework assignments. Recently trained teachers
may be more responsive to current pressures to increase attention to math and to
ensure mastery of basic skills in the early grades. In present practice, few teachers
ask parents to become involved in math activities at home, but most teachers assign
math homework. When parents see that homework is pertinent and purposeful, the
students make important math gains.
Previous research shows consistently that school effects are stronger for math
achievement than for reading or language arts achievement. Here, we see one ex-
planation for that finding. Some teachers help families help their children practice
reading: listening to the child read, reading aloud to the child, borrowing books to
use at home, and other reading-related practices (see Becker and Epstein, 1982).
More formally educated parents independently influence their children’s growth in
reading skills. These would be the parents who usually are involved in their chil-
dren’s education. More important, after parent education is taken into account,
teacher practices of parent involvement help families become informed and involved,
and they influence students’ reading skills.
There are many important questions raised by the findings of this study that need
to be answered in new research. For example, how do teachers implement their par-
ent involvement programs to get all or most parents involved? What happens to
students’ achievements and attitudes if their parents will not or cannot help their
children even when the teacher requests and guides parent involvement? There are
many real and difficult problems that must be solved for teachers to successfully
use parent involvement in learning activities at home. These questions will be best
answered by studies of the implementation and evaluation of well-designed and
well-planned procedures, including the teachers’ goals for parent involvement, the
orientation of parents, and the management and follow-up of learning activities
at home.
Teachers can take new directions to make stronger connections with the family.
The Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) process helps teachers improve
their own approaches to parent involvement and to improve the parents’ skills with
226 RESEARCH
their children at all grade levels (Epstein, 1987; Epstein, Salinas, and Jackson, 1995
[see Chapter 6]). The TIPS process includes math and science models and prototypic
activities for the elementary grades and language arts and science/health models,
and prototype activities for the middle grades that may enable teachers to assist
parents and students in becoming involved as knowledgeable partners in learning
activities at home in other subjects, as well as in reading.
For some teachers, the “bottom line” for their decisions about whether to use
parent involvement practices rests with the documentation of effects on students.
This study finds significant effects on changes in reading achievement from fall to
spring for children in the classrooms of teachers who are leaders in the use of parent
involvement practices. Additional studies with longitudinal achievement test scores
in specific subjects, with more specific measures of teacher practices of parent in-
volvement and with data from parents on their responses to teachers’ requests, are
needed to verify and support these results.
Although this study adds to an understanding of linkages between practices of
parent involvement and student achievement in specific subjects, there are some se-
rious limitations that should be addressed in new research. For example, the sample
includes only urban schools and large numbers of African American families. Future
studies will want to focus on other populations and various communities to check
the generalizability of the findings.
Another issue is the lack of specificity of the practices of involving parents. In
this study, we can identify only the overall effects of multiple practices that almost
exclusively involve parents in reading activities at home. Because educators need to
choose among many practices, we need a more clearly defined menu of specific read-
ing involvement practices and their associated effects on reading achievement, as
well as information on specific practices to involve parents in other subjects and
their effects on student achievement in those subjects.
These data do not account for prior differences in the involvement of the families
in the study and the practices of earlier teachers to involve families that may cumu-
latively affect student achievement. A full complement would include longitudinal
measures of parents’ involvement, teachers’ practices, and student outcomes over
more than one school year.
Also, teachers who use frequent practices of parent involvement may differ from
other teachers in the ways in which they influence student achievement. Although
this study statistically controls teacher “quality” using principals’ ratings of teachers’
classroom organization, management, and pedagogical approaches, this measure
does not necessarily capture all of the important differences in teacher attitudes,
classroom activities, teacher-student relations, and other factors that also may affect
student achievement gains. More comprehensive measures of teacher practices
would strengthen analyses and clarify the contribution to achievement gains of
teachers’ practices to involve all families.
Despite its limitations, this study contributes new information on the subject-
specific connections of teacher-guided parent involvement, parent responses and in-
teraction with their children, students’ investments in the quality of their own work,
and achievement gains. It supports and extends the studies of Rich and Jones (1977);
RESEARCH 227
Walberg, Bole, and Waxman (1980); Tizard, Schofield, and Hewison (1982); and
others reviewed by Henderson (1987) that suggest that teachers’ strong implemen-
tation of parent involvement and parents’ responsive involvement with their chil-
dren at home on schoolwork should increase student achievement, even in families
with little formal education. The results of this study reveal the need for even more
comprehensive and longitudinal inquiries on specific linkages of practices to involve
parents and their effects on students. The study also emphasizes the importance
of including school and family environments and their connections on the agenda
of new research in reading and language arts.
Lightfoot (1978) and Scott-Jones (1987) caution against too great expectations
of the effects of parent involvement on academic or social outcomes. Their concerns
are important. It is not the parents’ responsibility to teach their children new skills in
the school curriculum or to take over the teachers’ job. However, teachers and par-
ents share a responsibility to their children to monitor and understand their progress
in school. This includes assisting students to master the skills needed to pass each
grade and to feel good about themselves as learners. Our evidence on reading
achievement gains suggests that teachers can help more parents understand how to
help their children when questions arise at home about schoolwork. Most parents
report that they want teachers to tell them that it is all right to help their children
and to explain how to use time at home productively to work toward school goals
(see Epstein, 1986). Parents are one available but untapped and undirected resource
that teachers can mobilize to help more children master and maintain needed skills
for school, but this requires teachers’ leadership in organizing, evaluating, and con-
tinually building their parent involvement practices.
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230 RESEARCH
READING 3.8
Homework Practices, Achievements, and
Behaviors of Elementary School Students*
ABSTRACT
Data from 82 teachers and 1,021 students and their parents are used to explore the
correlates of homework activities and elementary school students’ achievements
and behaviors in school. Six groups of variables that concern homework are exam-
ined: homework time, homework appropriateness, student attitudes, teacher prac-
tices of parent involvement in learning activities at home, parent abilities and
resources, and other student and family background variables.
Results suggest that at the elementary school level, students with low achievement
in reading and math spend more time doing homework, have more minutes of par-
ent help, and have parents who receive more frequent requests from teachers to help
at home. Questions are raised about the design of homework, the involvement of
families, and the need for research that builds on the reported correlates.
INTRODUCTION
Homework is considered one of the most important practices for establishing a suc-
cessful academic environment in high school. Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore (1982)
concluded that homework and discipline were two features of private schools that
made them more successful learning environments than public schools. The impli-
cation is that if public schools assigned more homework, their students would learn
more, and the schools would be more effective.
This prescription may be too simple. The notion that more is better may not be
true for all students, in all subjects, at all skill levels, and at all grade levels. Indeed, if
more homework is assigned than can be completed, or if inappropriate homework is
assigned, then home assignments may be counterproductive for student achievement.
Most research on the effects of homework has been conducted at the secondary
school level. Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, and Ouston (1979) included three items
about homework in their report on secondary school effects. They reported that the
assignment of homework by teachers and the completion of homework by students
were positively associated with student academic performance and school behavior.
* By Joyce L. Epstein. This work was supported by grants from the U.S. Department of Education,
Office of Educational Research and Improvement. The opinions are the author’s and do not necessarily
reflect the policies or positions of OERI. Earlier versions of this paper were included in ERS Information
Folio: Homework (Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service, 1987, 1990) and in the first edition of
this volume, 2001.
RESEARCH 231
They found that schools in which teachers gave frequent, substantial homework as-
signments had better student outcomes than did schools in which teachers assigned
little homework. It is important to note, however, that their cross-sectional data
were reported only as zero-order correlations, and could mean that schools with
good, hardworking students had diligent teachers who assigned more homework
more often.
Similarly, a National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) study of stu-
dents’ mathematics skills showed that among 10,000 17-year-olds, good students
did about 10 hours of homework and watched about 5 hours of TV per week. Poor
students often received no homework and varied in the amount of TV they watched
(Yeary, 1978).
Keith (1982) conducted an important study of the effects of homework on the
achievement of secondary school students. Using data collected in the High School
and Beyond (HSB) survey, he found a significant, positive effect of homework on
high school grades (path coefficient = .192). Race, family background, ability, and
school program (i.e., track) were statistically controlled, providing a rigorous analy-
sis of cross-sectional data. He also showed an interesting linear relationship between
hours of homework per week and school grades for students at three ability levels.
The grades of low-ability students who did 10 hours of homework or more per
week were as good as the grades of high-ability students who did no homework.
Keith’s findings suggest that students’ personal commitments to school and home-
work may have positive consequences for students at all levels of ability.
The extant studies of homework, based on limited data, leave many questions
unanswered. They yield mixed results, with some showing positive results from
homework and others showing no results or negative correlations (Austin, 1978;
Gray and Allison, 1971). Little is known about why or how homework is associated
with student achievement, behavior, attendance, or attitudes. We need to under-
stand why homework is assigned, whether it is appropriate in quantity and quality,
and how it is structured to fit into teaching and reteaching skills in the classroom.
It is important to determine if there are measurable effects on students of homework
time, habits, completion, and assistance or support from parents and peers.
We also need to examine homework policies and practices at the elementary
school level, because the achievements of young students largely determine the abil-
ity group or curriculum track they enter in middle and high schools. Homework
could be important if it were shown to help more elementary students attain skills
that are needed for success in the middle grades. Also, we need to understand
parental involvement as a feature of homework, including whether parental assis-
tance helps students who need the most help and whether and how these interac-
tions affect parent-child relationships.
PURPOSES OF HOMEWORK
From the literature, I have identified 10 reasons that homework is assigned to students.
Some are more defensible than others. The 10 Ps, or purposes, of homework are:
232 RESEARCH
Practice: Increase speed, mastery, and maintenance of skills.
Preparation: Ensure readiness for the next class; complete activities and
assignments started in class.
Participation: Increase the involvement of each student with learning tasks
to increase the immediacy and enjoyment of learning.
Personal Development: Build student responsibility, perseverance, time
management, self-confidence, and feelings of accomplishment; also
develop and recognize students’ talents in skills that may not be taught
in class; extension and enrichment activities.
Parent-Child Relations: Establish communications between parent and child
on the importance of schoolwork, homework, and learning; demonstrate
applications of schoolwork to real-life situations and experiences;
promote parental awareness of and support for students’ work and
progress.
Parent-Teacher Communication: Enable teachers to inform and involve
families in children’s curricular activities and enable parents to know
what topics are being taught and how their children are progressing.
Peer Interactions: Encourage students to work together on assignments or
projects, to motivate and learn from each other.
Policy: Fulfill directives from administrators at the district or school level for
prescribed amounts of homework per day or week.
Public Relations: Demonstrate to the public that the school has rigorous
standards for serious work, including homework. Also, productive
interactions with the public may be designed as student-community
homework assignments.
Punishment: Correct problems in conduct or productivity (not a defensible
purpose).
All but the last purpose for homework are valid and important, although most
teachers say that the main reason they assign homework is to give students time to
practice skills learned in class (see Becker and Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.1], and see
Chapter 6 for more on the purposes and on improving the homework process).
Homework for Practice and Preparation
Homework enables students to practice skills, increase the ease with which skills
can be used, and increase understanding of how and when to use the skills. Garner
(1978) studied 400 fifth-, eighth-, and tenth-grade students. He measured both class
time and homework time for specific subjects to establish exposure or total time in
and out of school allocated to specific subjects. He found greater variation in home-
work than in class time for math and language arts. For example, almost one-third
of the fifth-grade students in his sample had approximately eight hours’ more total
exposure to language arts skills and activities than the rest of the students, or
more than one extra day per week for learning and using language arts. Older students
RESEARCH 233
received more homework than did younger students. At the tenth-grade level, one-
half hour of homework in math extended class time by 75 percent for more math
learning. Even at the fifth-grade level, 25 minutes of math homework added half
again the time of a typical math class period for learning, reviewing, or practicing
math. In Garner’s study, high-ability students were given more homework and class
time, especially at the high school level. Garner’s findings point to the potential value
of well-planned use of homework time to extend learning time and to give time to
practice skills.
Homework for Participation
Homework increases individual participation in lessons. In many classrooms, only

a few children participate frequently and “carry the class,” while other children pas-
sively absorb information or not. By contrast, homework requires each student to
participate actively and continually by reading, thinking, and recording ideas and
answers on paper and by making decisions about how to complete the work. Home-
work is a structured opportunity for students to take control of their learning and
thinking. At home, students control the amount of time they need to learn something
and the number of consultations with others (including parents and peers) to make
discoveries or to receive support for academic work. Students make self-assessments
on the quality of their work and may compare their self-assessments with their
teachers’ marks or grades on homework completed.
Homework for Personal Development
Some teachers assign homework to help students take responsibility for school-
work. Students must record the assignment, create a schedule to do the work, finish
it, store it in their notebooks, and bring it to school when it is due. Homework
may be designed to help students build “study skills”; follow directions; and in-
crease perseverance, neatness, and completeness as they take responsibility for their
own work.
Homework for Parent-Child Relations and

Parent-Teacher Communications
Sometimes homework is the only form of serious communication about school and
learning between parents and school-age children. Children may need help in fol-
lowing directions, remembering and interpreting what was learned in school, re-
learning information that was misunderstood or incompletely learned, and deciding
whether their approach and presentation will be acceptable to the teacher.
Homework provides a reason for parents and children to exchange information,
facts, and attitudes about school. Maertens and Johnston (1972) found that students
234 RESEARCH
who had homework assignments and who received immediate or delayed feedback
from parents had better mastery of math skills than did students who received no
homework.
Homework provides a reasonable, feasible way for teachers to communicate
regularly with all families about what their children are learning in school and
how their children’s skills are progressing. Parents see, via homework assignments,
how their children write, think, and execute an assignment. Teachers sometimes as-
sign homework so that parents will not be surprised by their children’s report card
grades that reflect the quality of classwork.
There are important questions for new studies to ask about parent involvement
in learning activities at home. For example: How can teachers advise all parents on
how to monitor, check, and interact with children on homework? What practices
help teachers guide parents to help when students have specific learning weaknesses
and needs? If parents are guided in how to help at home, how can teachers and re-
searchers measure if students improve in homework quality and achievement?
Homework for Peer Interactions
Homework may be designed to encourage students to work with each other on as-
signments and projects. Students may check each other’s math, listen to and edit
stories, explore their community, and engage in other exchanges and activities to
learn from and with one another. Assignments may enable pairs or small groups of
students to combine their talents in art, music, writing, drama, and other skills.
Homework as School Policy
Homework may be assigned to comply with district or school directives that a cer-
tain amount of homework must be given to all students on a certain number of days
each week. Surveys of parents indicate that they have time to interact with and help
their children on weekends (see Epstein, 1986 [Reading 3.4]), but schools often as-
sign homework only on weekdays. Homework policies should be reviewed from
year to year, with input from teachers, parents, and students to ensure that homework
is designed to meet various positive purposes, including family-friendly schedules
for parent-child interactions.
Homework as Public Relations
Homework is sometimes assigned to fulfill public expectations for rigorous demands

for high student achievement. If parents and the public believe that a “good school”
is one that gives homework, then educators may assign homework to meet this stan-
dard for school organization.
RESEARCH 235
Homework as Punishment
Some teachers have assigned homework to punish students for lack of attention or
for poor behavior in school. This includes the infamous assignments to write “I
must not chew gum in school,” or 500 words on appropriate behavior, or other re-
minders of school standards for behavior. These assignments focus on improving
behavior more than on building academic skills, and produce embarrassment more
than mastery. It is generally believed that punishment is an inappropriate purpose
for homework. There are no known studies of the effects of punishing assignments
on students.
The 10 purposes of homework require different homework designs. It is clear
that not all desired outcomes for students will result from just any assignment. That
is, assigning minutes or more minutes of homework will not necessarily produce
greater achievement, better study habits, more positive attitudes about school, better
connections of teachers and parents, more positive interactions of parent and child,
or any other single desired outcome.
Thus, in research on homework, the outcome or result measured should be di-
rectly related to the purpose and design of homework. For example, if the stated
purpose of homework is public relations, then the outcome measured should con-
cern the understanding and attitudes of parents or the public. If the purpose is im-
proved basic skills, then the homework should focus on specific skills, and studies
should measure how those skills are affected by doing or not doing homework. If
teachers, administrators, and parents define several purposes simultaneously, then
multiple measures of results will be needed to determine whether any or all purposes
are met.
For some purposes, the design of homework—how it is structured, introduced,
and followed up—may be as important as its topic or content. Keshock (1976) re-
ported that when college science homework was graded and counted as part of the
course grade, homework performance improved, but test scores did not. Also, in a
Los Angeles PUSH-EXCEL program, students were asked to work uninterrupted
from 7:00 to 9:00 P.M. on home-learning activities. This requirement improved
homework behaviors, but reports were not available on whether achievement im-
proved (Yeary, 1978).
Using data from the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement (IEA), Wolf (1979) reported that homework time was important for
specific academic subjects. He reported significant correlations between homework
in science and literature and achievement in those subjects at the school and indi-
vidual student levels. However, in regression analyses that accounted for family
background and instructional program (or curriculum track), variables were entered
in blocks, making it impossible to pinpoint the independent effects on achievement
of homework compared to other instructional variables. The results show only that
good students do more homework than do poor students in science and literature.
The important point from this research, however, is that homework in one subject
may affect outcomes in that subject only and may not have a general effect on
achievement test scores or on other student attitudes and behaviors.
236 RESEARCH
DATA AND APPROACH
In this study, the following information about homework was collected from each
source involved in the homework process.
Data from Teachers
Teacher data included homework policies of the school and district, the amount of
homework assigned, subjects of homework, the purpose of homework, attitudes
and policies about parental help with or corrections of homework, the policy of re-
quiring parents to sign homework, estimates of students who complete homework,
nominations of students who have problems with homework or who are homework
“stars,” and use of class time to check or correct homework.
Data from Principals
Principal data included district and school policies, procedures to check teachers’
homework assignments, and attitudes about whether parents should help with
homework.
Data from Parents
Parent information included reports of the amount of time the child spends on
homework, parents’ understanding of teachers’ policies on parental help on home-
work, evaluation of appropriate level of difficulty of the child’s homework, the
child’s understanding and completion of homework, and communications with
the teacher about homework.
Data from Students
Student information included the amount of homework assigned and completed,

weekend homework, habits of doing homework, help at home on homework, par-
ents’ knowledge of homework assignments, problems and completion of homework,
the appropriate level of challenge in homework, attitudes about homework, and
written comments.
Surveys of teachers, principals, parents, and students in 16 Maryland school dis-
tricts were conducted in 1980 and 1981. Approximately 3,700 first-, third-, and
fifth-grade teachers and their principals in 600 schools were surveyed (see Becker
and Epstein, 1982 [Reading 3.2]; Epstein and Becker, 1982 [Reading 3.2]). From
the original sample, 36 teachers were identified who strongly emphasized parent
involvement in learning activities at home. These “case” teachers were selected at
RESEARCH 237
random from a stratified sample of leaders in parent involvement to represent the
three grade levels; urban, suburban, and rural districts; socioeconomic conditions
of the communities in the state; and teachers’ education, experience, and teaching
conditions. Forty-six “comparison” teachers were then matched to the case teachers
on the same selection criteria, but these teachers were not leaders in their use of
parent involvement in learning activities at home.
The case and comparison teachers and their principals were interviewed at length
about instructional practices in general and parent involvement practices and lead-
ership. The parents of the children in the 82 teachers’ classrooms were surveyed
about their attitudes toward and experiences with parent involvement. In all, 1,269
parents responded by mail to the survey, a response rate of 59 percent. Approxi-
mately 600 fifth-grade students were surveyed about their homework activities. This
report uses data from parents and teachers to explore the correlates of homework
activities and student achievements and behaviors in school.
EXPLORATORY ANALYSES
In this study, selected data from teachers, principals, students, and parents were ex-
plored to learn more about how homework assignments and home-school interactions
were linked to student achievements and behaviors. Table 3.30 presents six sets of
variables on homework and their zero-order correlations with reading and math
achievements, homework performance, and classroom behavior. The six sets of se-
lected variables and their scoring are described below.
Homework Time. Minutes spent per day is a 5-point score from no homework to
one hour or more; minutes parent helps or could help per day is an 8-point score
from no minutes to one hour or more.
Homework Quality. Appropriate amount and difficulty are 3-point scores from too
easy to too difficult, and too little to too much; appropriate purpose is a 4-point
score of parent disagreement that homework is just busy work (scored negatively).
Student Attitudes. Parent assessment of whether the child likes to talk about school
and homework and whether the child is tense about homework (scored negatively)
are 4-point scores from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Teacher Practices. Parents reported the frequency of use of 12 practices of parent

involvement, including reading, discussion, informal activities, formal contracts,
signing homework, tutoring, and drill and practice. Parents’ reports that the teacher
thinks parents should help, and reports that they receive many ideas from the teacher,
are 4-point scores from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Parents agreed or dis-
agreed that the teacher talked to them directly about their child’s homework, need
for parental help at home, or classroom behavior. Ratings by parents or principals
on the overall quality of the teacher are 6-point scores from poor to outstanding.
238 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.30 Homework Variables as Correlates of Student Achievements
and Behaviorsa, b
Student Measures
Achievements Behaviors Mean/S.D.
Homework Homework Discipline
Reading Math Star Problem Problem
1. Homework Time
Minutes spent –.108 –.052 .081 .000 –.011 3.00/1.25
Minutes parent helps –.180 –.195 –.010 .070 .134 26.32/15.40
Minutes parent
could help –.042 –.077 .090 –.137 .045 43.84/17.34
2. Homework Quality
Appropriate amount .019 –.033 –.075 .030 .041 2.16/0.53
Appropriate difficulty .032 .025 –.021 .012 .053 2.07/0.40
Appropriate purpose .047 .025 .045 .009 .012 3.61/0.72
3. Student Attitudes
Likes to talk about
school and
homework .131 .117 .140 –.132 –.124 3.35/0.93
Not tense about
homework .179 .141 .074 –.119 –.032 2.90/1.16
4. Teacher Practices
Frequent requests
for parent
involvement –.137 –.123 .054 .043 .020 3.98/3.36
Teacher thinks
parents should
help –.187 –.172 –.025 .013 –.007 2.20/0.82
Parent receives ideas
from teacher –.061 –.077 .063 .019 –.042 2.44/1.17
Teacher talked to
parent about:
(a) Homework –.087 –.137 –.070 .118 .012 0.18/0.38
(b) Parent help at
home –.132 –.110 .018 –.008 –.032 0.22/0.42
(c) Behavior –.055 –.072 –.012 .061 .275 0.46/0.50
Parent rating of
teacher quality .060 .093 .105 –.026 –.077 3.76/1.19
Principal rating of
teacher quality .113 .093 –.044 –.085 .003 2.52/1.04
5. Parent Abilities
and Resources
Parent education .196 .238 .027 –.100 –.057 2.60/1.23
Confidence in ability
to help .140 .166 .085 –.073 –.034 3.12/1.11
Educational items
at home .238 .262 .071 –.105 –.136 4.67/2.53
Number of books
at home .161 .192 .060 –.095 –.078 3.97/1.20
Regular place for
homework –.043 –.056 –.053 .080 .019 1.09/0.29
(continues) 239
TABLE 3.30 (continued)
Student Measures
Achievements Behaviors Mean/S.D.
Homework Homework Discipline
Reading Math Star Problem Problem
6. Other Student and
and Family Factors
Sex (Female) .093 .033 .129 –.075 –.201 1.50/0.50
Race (White) .083 .155 –.015 –.005 –.064 0.64/0.48
Residence (City) –.043 –.146 .008 –.018 .034 0.35/0.48
Two-parent home .057 .142 .085 –.066 –.056 1.76/0.43
Mother works –.018 .021 .015 .027 –.019 0.61/0.49
Hours TV –.053 –.082 .009 .003 .057 2.36/1.17
Parent expectations
for education .316 .308 .090 –.137 –.082 2.39/1.13
Grade level –.002 .045 .033 .036 –.015 2.89/1.70
a N = 1,021 students whose parents participated in the survey for whom information
on classroom achievements and behavior was provided by the teacher.
b Correlations of .08 or higher are significant at or beyond the .01 level.
Parent Abilities and Resources. Parent education is a 6-point score from less than
high school to graduate school; confidence in ability is a 4-point score from strongly
agree to strongly disagree that they have enough training to help the child in reading
and math. Educational items is a checklist of 10 items that students may use at home
for homework, including a ruler, dictionary, globe, and others. Number of books at
home is a 5-point score ranging from fewer than 10 to more than 100 books. Reg-
ular place for homework is a single item of agreement or disagreement.
Other Student and Family Factors. Sex of student is scored female = 1, male = 0;
race is scored white = 1, black = 0; residence is scored 1 = city, 0 = suburb/rural;
family structure is scored 1 or 2 for one or two parents home, 1 or 0 for mother
works or does not work outside the home, hours of TV per day ranging from none
to 5 or more hours; parent expectations for child’s education is a 4-point score from
finish high school to finish graduate school; and grade level refers to the student’s
grade, 1, 3, or 5.
RESULTS: HOMEWORK PRACTICES AND

STUDENT SKILLS AND BEHAVIOR
Homework Time
Section 1 of Table 3.30 shows how three measures of homework time correlate with
student achievements and behaviors. The three measures are the average number
of minutes spent by the child on homework per day; the average number of min-
240 RESEARCH
utes the parent helps the child in response to teacher requests; and the number of
minutes the parent could help if shown how to do so.
Time spent doing homework ranged from none (13 percent) to 15 minutes (21
percent), 30 minutes (36 percent), 45 minutes (13 percent), or one hour or more
(17 percent). Parents helped on the average of 25 minutes per night when asked to
do so by teachers but said they could help about 45 minutes per night if the teacher
showed them how to help.
The relationships between homework time and parent help on student achieve-
ments in reading and math are negative. That is, students with lower achievement
in reading and math spend more time on homework and get more help from par-
ents. The negative relationships may indicate that teachers are reaching out to parents
to obtain extra help for children who need additional learning time and/or that par-
ents who recognize their children’s weaknesses are trying to help on their own. This
probability is supported by the fact that parents of children who are deemed home-
work and discipline “problems” spend more time helping their children than do
other parents. Children who are doing well in school spend less time and need less
help from parents than do weaker students.
The right side of the table in section 1 shows the associations of homework time
and school-related behaviors. Teachers consider children who do more homework
as homework “stars.” Parents of homework stars say they could spend more time
assisting their children. The parents of students who are homework and discipline
“problems” already spend more time than do other parents assisting their children.
These data should not be interpreted to mean that if more time is spent on home-
work and more help is given, student achievement will decline. This is a good ex-
ample of the inadequacy, indeed inappropriateness, of correlations to address
questions of effects on students. These cross-sectional data simply tell what associ-
ations of variables exist, not whether one variable leads to or causes the other.
The patterns reported here are, however, indicative of some well-known facts
about elementary school students and their homework. First, at the elementary
school level, all students are likely to be assigned the same homework. The same
assignment—such as learning 20 spelling words or completing 10 math problems—
may take some students longer than others to complete. Students who have prob-
lems learning in school need to spend more time on an assignment to understand
what other children master in class and complete quickly at home. Also, teachers
may ask parents to see that their elementary school children finish their work,
even if they do not ask the parents to help the child with needed skills. Thus,
slower students may spend more time on homework, and parents will spend more
time monitoring or helping students who need more time to learn or complete
their work.
Homework Quality
Section 2 of Table 3.30 features three measures of parents’ estimates of the appro-
priateness and value of the homework their children receive. There are no significant
correlations of these measures with achievements or behaviors. One reason for this
RESEARCH 241
is the lack of variation in the parents’ ratings. Approximately 92 percent of the par-
ents agreed that homework was not busy work, 90 percent said that the child’s
homework was the appropriate level of difficulty, and 78 percent thought the child
received the right amount of homework. Because parents of successful and unsuc-
cessful students generally agreed about the value and appropriateness of homework,
these variables do not explain differences in student skills, homework completion,
or classroom behavior.
Student Attitudes
Section 3 explores relationships of student attitudes toward homework with student

achievement and behaviors. Children who like to talk about school and homework
with a parent have higher reading and math skills and are more often considered
homework stars. Children who do not like to talk about school and homework are
more apt to be homework and discipline problems. Also, children who are not tense
about homework are higher achievers and less likely to be identified as having home-
work problems.
In this sample, close to 20 percent of the elementary school students do not like
to talk about school with their parents, and 35 percent say they are tense when
working with their parents on homework. These attitudes and behaviors may be
early warning signs of more serious problems of commitment to schoolwork. Teach-
ers may be able to help parents learn how to help their children build confidence
and positive attitudes about school and homework. Positive attitudes toward school
are good indicators of day-to-day success in school, commitment to school goals,
and the likelihood of staying in school, even if they do not directly relate to high
achievement (see Reading 3.9). Here we see, however, that a very specific behavior—
talking about school and homework at home—is correlated with reading and math
achievement and with successful actions and behaviors.
Teacher Practices
Section 4 includes measures of teacher practices of parent involvement concerning

homework. The correlations indicate that teachers make more requests of parents
whose children achieve at lower levels. These results support the information re-
ported in section 1 that parents spend more time with children who need more help,
and suggest that parent time is given in response to requests from teachers.
The data indicate that homework and discipline problems are addressed through
specific communications with parents. Teachers talk directly with parents about
homework activities if the students are identified as having homework problems
(r = .118), and teachers talk directly with parents about school behavior if students
are identified as having discipline problems (r = .275). Teacher practices of parent
involvement are more highly and consistently correlated with student achievement,
showing clearly that teachers reach out especially when they need parents’ help with
students whose math and reading skills are low.
242 RESEARCH
Parents say they receive more frequent requests, more messages that they should
help, and more direct communications from teachers about how to help at home
when their children are low in reading and math skills. Principals and parents, how-
ever, rate teachers higher in overall teaching quality when students are high in
achievement, and parents give higher ratings to teachers if their children are home-
work stars.
Parent Abilities and Resources
Section 5 of the table examines five family resources that may aid student achievement
and behavior. Four measures are significantly and positively correlated with reading
and math skills: parent education, parental confidence about ability to help in read-
ing and math, educational items in the home, and books in the home. When these re-
sources are lacking at home, children are more likely to have homework problems.
Having a regular place for homework is not highly associated with achievement
or behavior. Others have also reported that a regular place for homework is not as
important as a regular habit of completion, regardless of where homework is done
(McCutcheon, 1983). In these data, however, the lack of importance of the variable
is probably due to the lack of variation in the responses, with about 91 percent of
the families reporting that the children have a regular place for doing homework.
Other Student and Family Factors
Section 6 shows the association of other student and family factors that are believed
to affect homework activities, achievements, and behaviors. There are strong corre-
lations of race (white), location (non-city residence), and two parents at home with
higher math skills, but not with reading skills. Female students tend to have higher
reading scores and are more often viewed as homework stars, whereas males are
more often labeled discipline problems.
Parental educational expectations for children are strongly associated with higher
reading and math achievement, more homework stars, and fewer homework and
discipline problems. Even more than socioeconomic status variables, parents’ ex-
pectations are positively associated with student achievement. Parents’ expectations
are, in part, based on students’ history of high achievement, good work, and good
behavior. Thus, parents’ expectations reported at one point in time reflect their chil-
dren’s prior tests, report card grades, homework assignments, and other parent-
child and parent-teacher interactions. Parents have higher expectations for students
who are achieving and behaving well in school.
Some family variables are less important than might be expected from popular
opinion. Hours of TV watched per day are not highly correlated with reading or math
skills and not at all correlated with being a homework star or having school-linked
problems. There is no significant association of the mother working outside the
home with reading or math achievements, homework completion, or classroom be-
havior. Student achievement and behavior are not significantly affected by grade
RESEARCH 243
level. There are high- and low-achieving students, and well- and poorly behaved
students, at all grade levels.
Several intriguing patterns emerge from the six groups of variables reviewed in Table
3.30 to guide future studies.
Reading and Math Skills
Low achievement is associated with more time spent doing homework, more min-
utes of parent help, and more frequent requests from teachers for parent involve-
ment in learning activities at home. The significant negative associations indicate
that in the elementary school parents are asked to assist children who need more
help. At this level of schooling, not much homework is assigned per night, and
students who have trouble with the work can work a little longer to complete the
assignment.
By the time students are in high school, much more homework is given, and more
is given to brighter students. Poor students in high school tend not to work very
long on what they do not understand and typically do not expect and may not want
their parents’ help. Most middle and high school teachers do not ask parents to
help with or even monitor students’ homework. These patterns are particularly in-
teresting for what they might mean for improving homework designs, assignment,
and connections with families.
Homework and Classroom Behavior
Parents report spending more time helping children who teachers say are discipline
and homework problems. The parents of other children say they could spend more
time helping their children at home, if they were shown how to do so. There is a
supply of untapped parental assistance available to teachers that may be especially
useful in improving the skills of average and below-average students who could do
better with additional time and well-guided attention.
One important correlate of homework and discipline problems is the lack of ed-
ucational trappings at home (e.g., books, rulers, globes, dictionaries, art supplies).
Teachers who seek parental help in solving student homework and discipline prob-
lems may need to find ways (perhaps including connections to business partners) to
make educational resources available for use at home.
244 RESEARCH
Importance of Positive Attitudes and Exchanges
about Schoolwork and Homework
Children who like to talk about school and homework with their parents and are
less tense about their work tend to be good students, homework stars, and well be-
haved in class. Children who are tense when working with their parents on home-
work activities are more often homework problems. Yet children with achievement
and discipline problems are those whose parents are spending more minutes helping
at home. It is pretty clear that parents of children who have problems in school re-
quire guidance on how to help their children at home, or ineffective teaching at
home could redouble the school problems.
Homework is a manipulable variable. Teachers and administrators control
whether to assign homework and how much homework to assign. They design ac-
tivities that encourage or prevent parental involvement in learning activities that
students bring home.
Need for Full Analyses and Longitudinal Data
This study provides a base on which to build. It also shows that a simple association
of homework time (assigned or spent) and student achievement is not enough to
understand if or when homework is important for effective teaching and learning.
The array of correlates makes it clear that future research must include multivariate
analyses that take into account the variables from sections 5 and 6 of Table 3.30 of
family resources and family and student factors that affect achievements and be-
haviors. The correlates are an important start for understanding the independent
effects of homework time, quality, attitudes, and parent involvement on achievement
and behavior.
The bottom line concerning homework is whether time spent pays off for im-
proving and maintaining school achievement, homework completion, and other
school attitudes and behaviors. This question is particularly important for students
who need extra time and extra help to learn basic and advanced skills. Future studies
will need longitudinal data to learn whether achievement and behavior improve
when students put in time on homework and when they are monitored and assisted
by their families. More broadly, new measurement models will be needed to study
the complexities underlying homework design, assignment, completion, follow-up,
and interactions with families.
The relationships of homework time, achievements, and behaviors at the elemen-
tary school level are important because they differ markedly from relationships re-
ported for secondary school students. Younger students and their families are more
responsive to school demands for mastering basic skills, and the children and their
parents spend more time working on needed skills.
Somewhere between the elementary and middle grades, the philosophies and
practices of teachers, students, and parents change. In the upper grades, brighter
students tend to spend more time on homework, and many slower students stop
RESEARCH 245
doing homework altogether. In many cases, teachers in middle and high schools as-
sign more homework to brighter students because they expect it will be done. Many
parents in middle and high schools stop monitoring homework, especially if they
are not given information about homework policies or how to work with their ado-
lescents. There are many interesting questions for future research on the differences
in the amount of time slower and brighter students spend on homework in the ele-
mentary and secondary grades, and why these patterns occur.
REFERENCES
Austin, J. D. (1978). Homework research in mathematics. School Science and Mathematics

78: 115–121.
Becker, H. J., and J. L. Epstein. (1982, November). Parent involvement: A study of teacher
practices. Elementary School Journal 83: 85–102. (Reading 3.1).
Coleman, J. S., T. Hoffer, and S. Kilgore. (1982). High school achievement. New York: Basic
Books.
Epstein, J. L. (1986). Parents’ reactions to teacher practices of parent involvement. Elementary
Garner, W. T. (1978). Linking school resources to educational outcomes: The role of home-
work. Teachers College Research Bulletin 19: 1–10.
Gray, R. F., and D. E. Allison. (1971). An experimental study of the relationship of home-
work to pupil success in computation with fractions. School Science and Mathematics
71: 339–346.
Keith, T. Z. (1982). Time spent on homework and high school grades: A large-sample path
analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 74: 248–253.
Keshock, E. G. (1976). The relative value of optional and mandatory homework. Teaching
Method News 8: 3–32.
Maertens, N., and J. Johnston. (1972). Effects of arithmetic homework on the attitudes and
achievements of fourth, fifth, and sixth grade pupils. School Science and Mathematics 72:
117–126.
McCutcheon, G. (1983). How does homework influence the curriculum? Paper presented at
the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association in Montreal.
Rutter, M., B. Maughan, P. Mortimer, and J. Ouston. (1979). Fifteen thousand hours: Sec-
ondary schools and their effects on children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wolf, R. M. (1979). Achievement in the United States. In H. J. Walberg (Ed.), Educational
environments and effects (pp. 313–330). Berkeley: McCutchan.
Yeary, E. E. (1978). What about homework? Today’s Education (September–October): 80–82.
246 RESEARCH
READING 3.9
Student Reactions to Teachers’
Practices of Parent Involvement*
Decades of studies indicate that home environments and family involvement in ed-
ucation are important for student success in school (Coleman et al., 1966; Epstein,
1984; Leichter, 1974; Marjoribanks, 1979; Mayeske, 1973; McDill and Rigsby,
1973). The evidence is clear that parental encouragement and involvement at school
and at home boost children’s achievement, even after student ability and family so-
cioeconomic status are taken into account.
However, not all families get involved in school-related activities or show interest
in their children’s work (Lightfoot, 1978). It is important to learn what would hap-
pen if schools took steps to engage all parents, not just those who become involved
on their own. Another crucial question is: What do students think about parent in-
volvement? Ironically, although students are ultimately responsible for their own
education, they are rarely consulted for ideas about how to improve their schools,
or about how they, their teachers, and their families might best work together to
enhance student success in school (Epstein, 1981). This study explores (1) what stu-
dents know and say about home-school connections and (2) the results of students’
experiences with family involvement on their school attitudes and behaviors.
STUDY BACKGROUND
Research shows that teachers vary in the extent to which they use different practices
and strategies to involve parents in learning activities at home (see Becker and Ep-
stein, 1982 [Reading 3.1]; Epstein and Becker, 1982 [Reading 3.2]). In a survey of
3,700 first-, third-, and fifth-grade teachers, some reported a high emphasis on par-
ent involvement (“case” teachers), and some reported average or low emphasis on
parent involvement (“comparison” teachers).
A sample of 30 case and 30 comparison teachers was matched on characteristics
of their teaching situation, including grade level, city or county, district, socio-
economic status of the children taught, and type of teaching assignment. Additional
data were collected in extended interviews with the case and comparison teachers
and with their principals, surveys were administered to parents of these teachers’
students, and surveys were obtained from fifth-grade students in case and compar-
ison teachers’ classes. The case and comparison teachers also provided data on their
students’ achievements, school behaviors, and homework completion patterns.
School records were culled for third- and fifth-grade students’ achievement test
scores. This study focuses on 390 fifth-grade students in the matched classrooms of
nine case and nine comparison teachers.
* By Joyce L. Epstein. (2001). This research was supported by grants from the U.S. Department of
Education/OERI. The results and opinions do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of OERI.
RESEARCH 247
Few previous studies of family involvement focus on upper elementary school-
age children. Several researchers and program developers report evidence from sev-
eral completed studies and unpublished dissertations suggesting generally positive
effects of the programs on parents and students (Comer, 1980; Gordon, 1979; Hen-
derson, 1981; Rich, Van Dien, and Mattox, 1979). However, most studies are un-
even and their measures of parent involvement are incomplete.
One study of 764 sixth-grade students by Benson, Medrich, and Buckley (1980)
is interesting, even though it does not focus on teachers’ practices of parent involve-
ment on school-related activities. The researchers examined the natural variation
in how parents spend time with their children at home in everyday interactions such
as eating dinner together, in cultural enrichment activities, in participation at school,
and in setting rules for their children. They looked at the relationship of parents’
time and student achievement for students from low, middle, and high SES families.
They found that family time in cultural and other activities positively influenced the
achievement of students from all socioeconomic levels, but especially students from
high and middle SES families. The results illustrate, again, how the self-initiated
activities of some families are advantageous to their children.
In the present study, data from fifth-grade students are explored to determine if
teachers’ practices of parent involvement and reports of parents’ assistance differ
among students in case and comparison teachers’ classes. The next sections give an
overview of the data collected from students, principals, and teachers, and the results
of analyses of the effects of multiple measures of parent involvement and support
on student attitudes and school behaviors.
DATA
Surveys were collected from 390 fifth-grade students in case and comparison teachers’
classrooms. The surveys asked students about their homework assignments, home-
work completion, parents’ help at home, attitudes about school and homework, suc-
cess in school, behavior, college plans, and open-ended comments about homework
activities. In most classes the teachers administered the short, anonymous surveys and
collected them in mailing envelopes that were returned directly to the researchers.
In one district, local regulations required students to obtain individual, signed
parental permission slips to take surveys in class. The timing of the study in the
spring of 1981 made it risky to wait for signed permission slips. Teachers did not
have time to distribute and collect permission slips, then administer the surveys,
when they were concluding tests and other end-of-year activities. In this set of class-
rooms, student surveys were included with the parents’ surveys and were completed
by the students at home and mailed back to the researchers.
In the school-administered settings, the response rate of students was from 90 to
100 percent, depending on number of children present the day of the survey. In the
home-administered settings, the response rate averaged about 50 percent. The lower
response rate of home-administered surveys reflects the parents’ responses to the
survey, parents’ decisions to give the student survey to their children, and children’s
248 RESEARCH
willingness to complete the survey at home. These obstacles highlight the benefits
of conducting no-risk surveys of students as part of standard school and district
evaluations of their own programs.
Independent Variables
Multiple Measures of Parent Involvement. Multiple measures of teachers’ practices

of parental involvement were collected from teachers, principals, and students.
These included teachers’ reports of their parental involvement practices; teachers’
ratings of parents who are “helpful” to their children on school activities at home;
principals’ ratings of teachers’ leadership in involving parents; students’ estimates
of the frequency of assignments from teachers that request parent involvement at
home; and students’ estimates of the extent of parental awareness and support of
homework activities.
Because no single measure is perfect, multiple indicators of the construct of parent
involvement were used to try to correct for measurement problems and check for
consistent patterns of effects of parent involvement on students’ achievements and
behaviors. For example, teachers’ reports of their parental involvement practices
were collected one year before the survey of students was conducted. Principals may
not be fully aware of how much and how well their teachers involved parents with
students at home. Students’ estimates of teachers’ practices and parental support
were obtained from a limited number of questions in a short survey. Teachers’ esti-
mates of parents who were helpful at home were based on different degrees of con-
tact with the parents of the students in their classes.
Each of these measures, used alone, would raise doubts about the effects of parent
involvement. By contrast, patterns of results from more than one measure should
provide more credible and convincing information about positive, negative, or no
effects of involvement on student achievements and behaviors.
Other Explanatory Variables. Student gender, race, location of school in city or sub-
urb, student ability (i.e., ratings of low, average, and high ability provided by teach-
ers), and the general quality of teachers’ skills (i.e., quality of lessons, knowledge,
creativity, and discipline) are used as statistical controls in regression analysis. These
variables have been found to affect student outcomes and teaching effectiveness,
and, therefore, must be taken into account in estimates of effects on students of
teachers’ practices of parent involvement.
Dependent Variables
Just as multiple measures of parent involvement were used to identify patterns of

effects, this study incorporates a variety of dependent variables from the student
surveys and teachers’ reports to identify patterns of effects of involvement on indi-
cators of student success or problems in school. The dependent variables include:
RESEARCH 249
• Two measures of student attitudes: Two items on attitudes toward
homework (i.e., Homework is a waste of time; I learn a lot from
homework) and five items of student satisfaction with school (Epstein,
1981).
• One measure of home-school similarity: Three items (i.e., My parent is a
teacher; I learn important things at home; School teaches what my
family wants me to learn).
• One measure of extra schoolwork done at home: Two items (i.e., I do
weekend projects assigned by my teacher; I complete work on weekends
on my own).
• One measure of teacher-family exchanges: Two items (i.e., My teacher
knows my family; If I am in trouble, my teacher lets my family know).
• One measure of student homework habits: Two items (i.e., I do my
homework at the same time; I do my homework in the same place).
• One measure of parent support: Four items (i.e., My parent reminds me
to do my homework; My parent knows when I need help with
homework; My parent knows when my homework is finished; My
parent knows when I have done a good job with homework).
• Teacher estimates of student behavior, including the identification of
students who are homework stars, homework problems, and discipline
problems.
RESULTS
Table 3.31 shows the background characteristics of students in the case and com-
parison teachers’ classrooms, along with teachers’ ratings of student and parent
qualities and principals’ ratings of teachers. In case teachers’ classrooms, there were
fewer males and more females, fewer white and more black students, and more stu-
dents with average reading and math abilities. These characteristics are statistically
controlled in all analyses of effects of teacher practices of parent involvement on
the dependent variables.
Teachers were asked to nominate as many of their children as fit a set of de-
scriptors: “homework star,” “homework problem,” and “discipline problem.” The
teachers also nominated families who were “helpful” or who typically provided
“no follow-through” on homework and home-learning activities. More students
in case teachers’ classrooms were nominated as homework stars, and fewer were
considered discipline problems, than in comparison teachers’ classrooms. About
equal numbers were homework problems. More students in case teachers’ class-
rooms had parents whom teachers considered “helpful,” and fewer parents
showed “no follow-through,” than in comparison teachers’ classrooms. Overall,
the raw data suggest that case teachers had more positive estimates of more of
their students and families on homework and home-school connections than did
the comparison teachers, reflecting and confirming the case teachers’ emphasis on
family involvement.
250 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.31 Summary of Student Characteristics, Teacher Characteristics, and
Student Opinions in Nine Case and Nine Control (Matched) Fifth-Grade
Teachers’ Classrooms
% Students in % Students in
Case Teachers’ Comparison Teachers’
Student Background Classrooms Classrooms
Characteristics N = 199 N = 191
Male 41 56
Female 59 44
White 46 55
Black 54 45
Urban 53 52
Other 47 48
Reading ability
Low 11 9
Middle 54 49
High 35 40
Math ability
Low 14 26
Middle 48 34
High 35 40
Teachers’ evaluations of
student behaviors and family
support for parent involvement
Homework star 30 20
Homework problem 19 19
Discipline problem 11 18
Helpful parents 56 20
No follow-through by parent 12 17
Principals’ estimates of
teachers’ qualities and
excellent teaching skills (i.e., quality of
lessons, knowledge, creativity, discipline) 51 45
Student Attitudes and Behaviors
Table 3.32 summarizes the effects of the indicators of parent involvement and sup-
port on students’ attitudes about school, homework, and home-school connections.
Five measures of parent involvement and support derived from data from teachers,
principals, and students are featured. The columns are labeled Case/Comparison
Teachers (an indicator based on teachers’ reports of the extent of practices of
parental involvement); Helpful Parents (from a checklist from teachers of parents’
helpfulness and follow-through); Teacher Practices to Involve Parents at Home
(from principals’ ratings); Homework That Involves Parents; and Parent Awareness
RESEARCH 251
and Support (two reports from students on the kinds of homework they receive and
their interactions with parents on homework).
Each dependent variable is regressed, separately, on each of the parent involve-
ment measures along with student background characteristics (gender, race, reading
and math abilities), school location (urban/suburban), and teacher quality. With
these potentially important influences statistically controlled, we can look at the ef-
fects of parent involvement practices on student outcomes. Table 3.32 reports the
standardized regression coefficient (ß) and, for significant associations, the test sta-
tistic (F). The last column of the table lists other explanatory variables that signifi-
cantly affect students’ attitudes and behaviors.
Student Attitudes. The first row shows that student attitudes toward school are pos-
itively and significantly influenced by four of the five parent involvement measures
provided by teachers, principals, and students. Students have more positive attitudes
about school if they report that their parents are aware of and are involved in help-
ing with homework, if their teachers rate the parents as helpful, and if principals
report that the teacher works to involve families at home. Student attitudes toward
homework, in the second row of the table, also are significantly more positive when
students say their teachers assign interactive homework and their parents are aware
of and involved with them on homework.
Gender and race also influence attitudes toward school and homework. Female
students and African American students have more positive attitudes than do other
students, with all other background and ability measures statistically controlled. In-
terestingly, student reading and math abilities do not significantly influence student
attitudes, echoing earlier evidence that achievement and attitudes about school are
not necessarily highly related measures (Epstein, 1981).
Student Reports of Home-School Connections. The middle three rows of Table 3.32
indicate that student interactions with parents at home about homework affect their
beliefs that their home and school are similar and that their teacher knows their family.
Student beliefs about strong home-school connections are explained by all five indi-
cators of parent involvement from teachers, principals, and the students themselves.
Student ability and teacher quality also affect beliefs about home-school connec-
tions. Students with high reading and math abilities, and those with excellent teach-
ers as rated by principals, also are more likely to see their home and school as more
similar and their teachers and parents in closer communication.
Parent involvement indicators are less powerfully linked to student reports that
their teacher would inform their family if they were in trouble in school, in part be-
cause there is less variation on this measure. Most students believe that their teachers
would, indeed, contact their parents about trouble in school.
Homework Habits. The last four rows of Table 3.32 reveal that students’ knowledge
and reports about their own experiences at home are the best predictors of their
homework habits. Students are more likely to do their homework at the same time
and in the same place if they frequently interact with parents and if parents are aware
252 RESEARCH
TABLE 3.32 Summary of Analyses of Effects of Multiple Measures of Parent Involvement on Multiple Measures of Student
Attitudes and Behavior*
Homework That Which Other
Case/Comparison Teacher Practices Involves Parents Parent Awareness Variables Are
Parent Involvement Teachers Helpful Parents to Involve Parents at Home and Support Significant
Surveys Checklist Rating Scale Survey Survey
Measure: (Teachers) (Teachers) (Principals) (Students) (Students)
ß (F) ß (F) ß (F) ß (F) ß (F)
Attitudes toward .028 .083 (4.19) .151 (11.40) .235 (33.31) .139 (12.94) Female, Black
school R2 .293 .301 .318 .364 .323
Attitudes toward .047 –.013 –.032 .218 (27.71) .149 (14.58) Female, Black
homework R2 .266 .253 .255 .233 .293
Home-school .040 –.044 .153 (11.01) .198 (21.86) .142 (12.68) Not City
similarities R2 .167 .177 .216 .251 .222 High Ability
Teacher knows .073 (3.21) .219 (28.59) .153 (11.05) .158 (13.89) .099 (6.10) Not City, High
Ability,
family R2 .198 .280 .229 .238 .211 Teacher Quality
Teacher informs .055 .092 (4.85) .040 –.029 .079 (3.85) Female, Black
family if trouble R2 .177 .180 .161 .159 .175
Do homework –.043 .024 .091 (3.82) .142 (10.94) .108 (7.22) None
at the same time R2 .110 .118 .140 .176 .158
Do homework .058 .015 .027 .139 (10.45) .136 (11.40) None
in the same place R2 .110 .087 .091 .156 .161
Assigned weekend .143 (12.55) .057 .018 .110 (6.74) .033 White, City,
homework R2 .251 .229 .223 .245 .225 High Ability
Do homework .068 .059 .071 .157 (14.08) .165 (18.03) Female, Black,
on weekend R2 .263 .255 .256 .289 .298 Not Urban
*Data from teachers, principals, and students, with gender, race, ability, location, and teacher quality controlled. N = 390.
253
of their work. These homework habits are not explained by any of the other variables
used in the equations, such as student gender, race, ability, and teacher quality.
Teachers’ practices of parent involvement are, however, significantly linked to
student reports that they are assigned homework on weekends. Teachers who fre-
quently involve parents in learning activities at home are more likely to take ad-
vantage of available weekend time to encourage these interactions. Students say
they do more homework on the weekend when their parents support their work.
Suburban students and those with high reading and math abilities are more likely
than other students to see similarities between home and school, think the teacher
knows their family, and have teachers who assign weekend homework, net of all
other student and school characteristics. These analyses indicate, however, that if
parent involvement is activated by teachers and experienced at home, students in
any neighborhood and with low or high academic skills report strong family and
school connections and do their homework whenever assigned, including weekends.
Overall, more than half (25) of the 45 tests of effects of the five measures of parental
involvement on nine student behaviors and attitudes were significant. Many were
not only significant, but also were strong and educationally important, even after
other highly influential student ability, family background, and school and teacher
characteristics were taken into account. Although gender, race, location, teacher qual-
ity, and student ability were sometimes important, these explanatory variables did
not extinguish the positive effects of teachers’ efforts to involve families and parent
support at home on student attitudes and behaviors.
Two cross-cutting patterns in Table 3.32 are worthy of note. First, the most con-
sistent positive effects on all nine measures of student attitudes and behaviors are
linked to students’ reports of having assignments that encourage interactions at
home, and their recognition of parental awareness, support, and involvement. Sec-
ond, the most consistent effect across the five measures of parent involvement from
students, teachers, and principals is on student reports that the “teacher knows my
family.” Students are significantly more likely to say their teacher knows the family
when their teachers report that they frequently involve parents; the teachers see par-
ents as helpful; the principals recognize that teachers are working to involve families;
and the students themselves say that their parents are aware of and engaged in
homework activities.
The use of multiple measures of involvement, multiple reporters, and multiple
measures of student attitudes and behaviors strengthens any single result reported
in Table 3.32. Principals’ views of teachers’ skills in involving parents, teachers’ re-
ports of their practices of involvement, and their views of parents are important in-
dicators of home-school connections. In this study, students’ reports add significantly
to an understanding of parent involvement. The data suggest that when their fam-
ilies are involved with them on school matters, students are significantly more likely
to develop attitudes and conduct activities that will keep them in the students’ role
254 RESEARCH
and on a successful path through school. At the same time, had only student reports
been included, the self-reports might be considered distorted or inflated by self-
interests. By including confirmatory reports from teachers and principals, the effects
of parent involvement on student attitudes and homework habits are more clear
and more credible than in the past.
Where do these results lead? Positive attitudes about school and homework and
good homework habits are likely to help students stay in school, even if they are
not the top or most academically successful students. Students are more likely to be
successful in school if they see their parents as teachers, hear that their families want
them to learn what their teachers teach at school, and say that the things they learn
at home are important.
There is a growing consensus among educators that parents must play a more
active role in their children’s education. It is believed that parent involvement assists
educators’ efforts to help individual students attain basic skills and reach high aca-
demic standards. It is expected that if schools systematically and equitably informed
and involved all parents, many more students would see that their families and teach-
ers have similar goals for high achievement and good behavior in school and ex-
pectations for completing homework at home. This study suggests that parents’
influence may be most powerful when they communicate directly with their chil-
dren, so that students experience interactions, conversations, and activities at home
that clearly translate parental interest in their work into students’ positive attitudes
and commitment to their work.
Studies of students at all grade levels are needed to check and confirm the results
reported here. In particular, studies should explore the long-term results of family
involvement and positive student attitudes, behaviors, and investments on student
achievement and graduation from high school. Data on direct links among teacher
practices, parent responses, student experiences, and ultimately, student grades and
achievement test scores are needed to extend understanding of the benefits for stu-
dents of well-organized and equitable home-school connections.
REFERENCES
Benson, C., E. Medrich, and S. Buckley. (1980). A new view of school efficiency: Household
time contributions to school achievement. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), School finance policies and
practices—the 1980s: A decade of conflict (pp. 169–204). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
Coleman, J. S., et al. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, DC: U.S. Gov-
ernment Printing Office.
Epstein, J. L. (Ed.). (1981). The quality of school life. Lexington, MA.: Lexington Books.
———. (1984). A longitudinal study of school and family effects on student development. In
S. A. Mednick, M. Harway, and K. Finello (Eds.), Handbook of longitudinal research, Vol. 1
(pp. 381–397). New York: Praeger.
Epstein, J. L., and H. J. Becker. (1982). Teacher practices of parent involvement: Problem and
possibilities. Elementary School Journal 83: 103–113. (Reading 3.2).
RESEARCH 255
Henderson, A. (Ed.). (1981). Parent participation—student achievement: The evidence grows.
Columbia, MD: National Committee for Citizens in Education.
Basic Books.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Mayeske, G. W. (1973). A study of the achievement of our nation’s students. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Rich, D., J. Van Dien, and B. Mattox. (1979). Families as educators of their own children. In
R. Brandt (Ed.), Partners: Parents and schools (pp. 26–40). Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervisors and Curriculum Development.
256 RESEARCH
The comments in this section extend and update the content of the readings in this
chapter. Main concepts and results are summarized and used to promote discussions
and debates. Questions and activities are provided for class discussion and homework
assignments. They may suggest other exercises, field activities, or research projects.
MAIN CONCEPTS
Key Results
The results and issues reported in the readings in this chapter provide a base on
which to build new research on school, family, and community partnerships and use-
ful approaches in practice. Three important results, introduced in Chapter 2 and fea-
tured in this chapter, deserve particular attention because they changed the way we
study and develop programs of partnership.
1. School and teacher programs and practices of partnership influence

whether and which families become involved in their children’s education
and schools.
2. School programs and practices of partnership increase teachers’
awareness and appreciation of family assistance and reduce teachers’
stereotypes of nontraditional families as uncaring and uninvolved.
3. Subject-specific activities that involve families with their children in learning
activities at home help to increase student achievement in specific subjects.
COMMENT
School Practices Influence Family Involvement

(Featured Result Number 1)
In an early study, Baker and Stevenson (1986) reported interesting results about the
connections of parents’ knowledge or beliefs about involvement and their actions.
Their data indicated that almost all parents (including those with more and less for-
mal education) have similar knowledge about the importance of involvement in
their children’s education and about ways they might become involved. However,
parents with more formal education were more likely to translate their knowledge
into actions for and with their children.
This result looks, at first, like a simple story of social class differences. Parents
with more formal education are better able to translate knowledge into action.
However, the readings in this chapter cast Baker and Stevenson’s results and other
RESEARCH 257
studies in a different light. Data from parents, teachers, and students show that
schools’ programs and practices help parents with less formal education to more
successfully put their knowledge to work. Good information and guidance from
school principals, teachers, counselors, and other parents help all parents translate
their knowledge about the importance of involvement into actions in working with
the schools and with their children.
Although family background variables are important, they are not the only ex-
planation for which parents influence their children’s learning and development.
The nature and quality of teachers’ and administrators’ practices to involve families
are as important as or more important than family background variables such as
race or ethnicity, social class, marital status, parental education, and mother’s work
status for determining whether and how parents become involved in their children’s
education. Family practices of involvement are also as important as or more impor-
tant than family background variables for determining whether and how students
progress and succeed in school.
Surveys of parents reveal that their activities and conversations about school with
children at home are directly influenced by the types of practices that schools con-
duct to involve parents. That is, if schools invest in practices to involve families,
most or all parents respond by taking part in those practices, including parents who
might not have otherwise become involved on their own.
Surveys of teachers reveal a related result. Teachers’ classroom practices to involve
their students’ families are strengthened when their schools’ programs for involving
families are strong. When teachers know that other teachers and administrators in
their schools and districts place high importance on involving families, they conduct
more activities to involve their own students’ families. Thus:
• Families do more when schools guide their involvement.

• Teachers do more when others in their schools and districts share a
commitment to practices of involvement.
• Family behavior (what families do) is as powerful as or more powerful
than family characteristics (what families are) in influencing their
children’s schoolwork and success.
These results should encourage educators to develop comprehensive, schoolwide

programs to reach out to inform and involve all families, including those who might
not otherwise become involved on their own.
ACTIVITY
Classroom Debate and Discussion
A. Create a panel to debate the following resolution: Resolved: What families

do is more important than what families are.
258 RESEARCH
1. Explain the distinction between family characteristics and family
behaviors.
2. Take one side of this debate. Prepare your main argument in a
paragraph or two.
3. Imagine your adversary in the debate. Prepare a paragraph or two
taking that position.
4. Discuss or debate this issue in class.
B. Why is it important for schools to develop programs and implement
practices to involve families in different ways, rather than simply to
expect or demand that families get more involved? Give at least one idea
of why such programs and practices are important:
1. for the school as a whole
2. for an individual teacher, student, family, and for the community
C. Why is it important for all families to know every year that their schools
and all teachers will:
1. provide useful information about school programs and children’s
progress?
2. ask for and use information from them about their children?
3. create a climate of partnership as children progress through the
grades?
D. Give one idea why C1, C2, and C3 are particularly important to one of
the following:
1. a family with an excellent student
2. a family with a failing student
3. a family of a student with special needs
COMMENT
Teachers Who Involve Parents Rate Them

More Positively and Are Less Likely to Stereotype
Nontraditional Families (Featured Result Number 2)
Practices of partnership assist teachers as well as parents. For example, when they
work to involve all parents, teachers gain a greater understanding of parents’ inter-
ests in and potential for assisting their children. Teachers who frequently involve
families in their children’s education rate single and married parents, low-income
and middle-income parents, and more and less formally educated parents more pos-
itively and more equally in helpfulness and follow-through with their children at
home. By contrast, teachers who do not frequently involve families give more stereo-
typic ratings to single parents, poor parents, and those with less formal education,
marking them lower in helpfulness and follow-through than other parents.
RESEARCH 259
1. a. Why do you think teachers who involve families more frequently give
more positive ratings to all families?
b. Why do you think teachers who do not involve families frequently
are more likely to stereotype single parents, poor parents, or those
with less formal education?
2. What other group(s) of families or students might these two types of
teachers treat or rate differently? Explain your ideas.
3. Labels create stereotypes because they ignore important variations in
family practices. That is, not all families in any category behave the same
way. As stated in Reading 3.5, “Single parents are not a single group.”
a. How do labels such as single parent, working mom, welfare family,
and less-educated parents affect school, family, and community
partnerships?
b. How do labels such as illegitimate child, latchkey child, and poor
student affect students in school and the roles the students play in
school, family, and community partnerships?
c. How would you revise the labels listed in (A) and (B) to improve the
wording of the descriptors and correct any distortions that they
create?
4. a. How are the following phrases defined statistically and colloquially?
(1) nontraditional family
(2) traditionally uninvolved family
(3) traditionally underserved family
b. Justify or refute each of the above three terms as they relate to
employed mothers, single parents, and parents with less formal
education. Should these families be included in one or more of the
categories listed above?
c. How do you think the three phrases affect school, family, and
community partnerships?
5. Reading 3.6 reports data from a sample of parents who, some educators
and researchers believe, are not involved in their children’s education.
Reexamine the data reported in Reading 3.6.
a. Select and identify two results that indicate whether parents in inner-
city schools are involved or wish to be involved in their children’s
education.
b. Explain why each of the two results you selected is important for
understanding parents of elementary- and middle-grade students in
inner-city schools.
260 RESEARCH
COMMENT
There Are Subject-Specific Links between

Family Involvement and Student Achievement
(Featured Result Number 3)
Practices to involve families at home in interactions with their children about a spe-
cific subject are likely to affect student achievement in that subject. In the study re-
ported in Reading 3.7, data connected teacher practices, parent responses, and
student achievement over one year. We learned that:
• Teachers’ practices to involve parents in learning activities at home were

mainly limited to reading, English, or related activities. Also, principals
encouraged teachers to involve parents in reading and related skills.
• Parents reported more involvement in reading activities.
• Students improved reading scores more from fall to spring if their
teachers frequently involved parents in reading-related learning activities
at home, but the students’ math scores were not affected.
The data indicate that when parents are involved in reading, students respond
by focusing on and completing more reading activities at home. This may lead to
greater attention, motivation, and success in reading in school.
The data from this study suggest that practices of partnership may be purposely
designed to help boost student achievement in specific subjects. There also were
some important related findings. Family involvement in one subject will not neces-
sarily benefit the child in another subject. Family involvement in activities at home
may not benefit students at all unless the activities are well designed, well imple-
mented, and accompanied by excellent teaching every day in school.
Updated Resource: Surveys of Teachers, Parents, and Students
The early surveys of teachers, parents, and students about patterns of parental in-
volvement and schools’ partnership programs have been updated. The question-
naires and information on the internal reliability of scales used in various studies
are available for researchers, graduate students, and others conducting studies on
related topics. Options include:
Epstein, J. L., L. Connors-Tadros, and K. C. Salinas. (1993). High School and Family Part-
nerships: Surveys for Teachers, Parents, and Students in High School. Baltimore: Center on
School, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johns Hopkins University.
Epstein, J. L., and K. C. Salinas. (1993). Surveys and Summaries: Questionnaires for Teachers
and Parents in the Elementary and Middle Grades. Baltimore: Center on School, Family,
and Community Partnerships, Johns Hopkins University.
RESEARCH 261
Sheldon, S. B., and J. L. Epstein. (2007). Parent Survey on Family and Community Involve-
ment in the Elementary and Middle Grades. Baltimore: Center on School, Family, and
Community Partnerships, Johns Hopkins University.
———. (2007). Student Survey on Family and Community Involvement in the Elementary
and Middle Grades. Baltimore: Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships,
Johns Hopkins University.
The measures and materials are described on the website http://www.partner

shipschools.org in the section “Publications and Products.”
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Interview a Parent/Quick Survey
When the study in Reading 3.7 was conducted, most teachers in the elementary
grades asked parents to become involved in reading more than other subjects. Find
out whether this is still true.
A. Interview one parent of an elementary school student. Identify whether

you are interviewing a mother, father, or other family member and the
grade level of the child. Note any other factors about the family or
community that you think may influence responses. Ask:
1. Does your child’s teacher ask you to become involved with your
child on homework?
2. If YES, ask:
a. In which subjects?
b. If more than one subject is mentioned, check: In which subject
are you most often asked to be involved?
3. If NO, ask:
a. Do you and your child work together on any subject or skills at
home?
b. If so, in which subject most of all?
B. Document your questions and the responses. Write a paragraph
summarizing what you learned from the parent you interviewed.
C. Optional class activity: Discuss the responses to these interviews in class.
Do the results of your classmates’ interviews suggest that there is more
parent involvement in reading/English, as we found in the original study,
or is there evidence of other patterns of subject-specific involvement?
262 RESEARCH
COMMENT
What Is and What Might Be
Research helps identify “what is” and “what might be” in school practices to involve
families. An average score on a scale or measure tells what usually is, whereas the
variance of a scale or measure helps point to what might be. Of course, variations
in scores are higher and lower, better and worse than the average score. For example,
studies indicate that some teachers go far beyond average in conducting many ac-
tivities to involve all students’ families. Other teachers conduct far fewer involve-
ment activities than the average.
The variation in practices of partnership is often more interesting than the aver-
age. Within a state, a district, and even a school, teachers’ and administrators’ ap-
proaches to families vary. Some educators conduct many activities to inform and
involve all families; others have not yet thought about how to integrate partnerships
into their work as professional educators. The teachers and administrators who
have already developed effective partnerships help researchers and other educators
identify and study what might be possible in all schools. Those who avoid commu-
nicating with families help inform the field about problems that must be solved.
Reading 3.2 presents ideas from both groups of teachers.
Select two challenges that teachers in Reading 3.2 described as “barriers” to parent
involvement.
Example: One challenge discussed in Reading 3.2 is that telephoning parents
takes time. To meet this challenge, you might think about organizing a schedule to
guide teachers about whom to call, how often to call, how to mix positive messages
with calls about problems, how to get help from volunteers in making certain kinds
of calls, how to supplement phone calls with other communications, and other so-
lutions. You may use this challenge as one of your answers, or select two different
challenges from Reading 3.2.
1. State the two challenges that you selected.

2. Outline at least two important issues that need to be resolved to meet
each challenge.
3. List at least one activity that might be implemented to address the issues
you outlined to meet each challenge.
4. Share the challenges, issues, and solutions in class. Examine the activities
suggested for their feasibility, sensitivity to families’ situations, and likely
success.
5. Optional class activity: Collect the most promising ideas for a resource
notebook or an electronic idea file on school, family, and community
partnerships for use in schools or for researchable topics.
RESEARCH 263
COMMENT
Discrepancy Scores
Data in Reading 3.3 indicate that, on average, teachers are more likely to support
the involvement of families if they think that other teachers and administrators in
their schools have similar beliefs and goals about the importance of parent and com-
munity involvement. They also are more likely to conduct activities to involve their
students’ families if their school has a well-organized program of school, family,
and community partnerships. By contrast, if they think that their colleagues do not
support parent involvement, teachers are less likely to implement many practices
themselves. In some schools, however, you will find outliers: teachers who are leaders
in involving families, even if no other teachers do so.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Interview on Patterns of Collegial Support
A. Interview one school-based educator about his or her practices and school
experiences to involve families and communities to see which model—the
group-support process or the individual-leader phenomenon—seems to be
working in the school. The educator may be a teacher, principal, counselor,
or other specialist at a preschool or elementary, middle, or high school.
Identify the school level and position of the person you interview. Ask:
1. At your school, does the power of the group influence practices to
involve or avoid parents, or does each individual teacher decide
whether and how to involve parents? Explain.
2. Do most teachers conduct the same kinds of activities, or do
individual leaders do more and better activities with parents than
most other teachers? Explain.
3. What is one example of a practice that all teachers in the school
conduct with all or most families?
4. What is one example of a particularly good practice that only one or
two teachers conduct with the families of their students?
5. Are formal plans written each year outlining all of the activities to
involve parents and communities in the school at each grade level? If
so, who writes these plans? If not, how are activities scheduled?
B. Add at least one question of your own about group or individual
approaches to involve parents or communities.
C. Document your questions and the responses.
D. Write a paragraph summarizing what you learned or questions raised in
this interview.
264 RESEARCH
COMMENT
Diverse and Changing Families
For the past several decades, families have been changing structures and diversify-
ing functions. There are more single parents, blended families, gay and lesbian par-
ents, and other family forms than in the past. There are more families with two
parents employed and single parents working outside the home. Some fathers are
at home while mothers work outside the home. Some parents are unemployed. Some
families are homeless or in temporary shelters. Some families are highly mobile,
moving frequently to new homes, schools, and communities.
Families will continue to vary in structure, composition, and situation. Nevertheless,
just about all families send their children to school with high hopes for their success
and happiness.
The results of the studies in Readings 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6 suggest that some parents
(e.g., single parents and parents with less formal education) are less involved in
their children’s education unless they receive good information and guidance from
the schools.
Many parents—single and married—work full-time or part-time during the day,

evening, or night. Employed mothers and fathers have limited time for meetings and
events at the school building. These realities should affect the variety and schedule
of activities to involve families at school or at home across the grades.
1. Describe two activities that would permit parents who are employed
during the school day to participate at the school building.
2. Describe two activities that would permit parents who are employed at
night to participate at the school building.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Parent Interviews about Work and Family
A. Interview two single mothers (i.e., separated, divorced, widowed, or never

married) or two married mothers who are employed full-time outside the
home about the ways in which they are involved in the education of their
school-aged children.
B. Before your interviews, write three questions that you will ask both
interviewees about involvement in their children’s education at home
and at school and whether or how their children’s schools welcome and
guide their involvement.
RESEARCH 265
C. Identify whether you are interviewing single or married mothers. Note
the school and grade level of one child in the family and other factors
that you think may influence responses to questions about parent
involvement (e.g., parents’ education; occupation; race/ethnicity; total
number of children at home; urban, suburban, or rural community; or
other factors).
D. List the questions you ask and the responses of each interviewee.
E. Summarize the results of the two interviews. Respond to the following
questions:
1. How are the two individuals you interviewed alike and different in
their patterns of involvement at home and at school?
2. What do you think are some reasons for the similar or different
patterns of involvement?
F. Is the information that you obtained representative or not representative
of the views that would be obtained from a random sample of 100 single
mothers or married and employed mothers? Explain.
G. Optional class activity: See how increasing the sample affects the results
and conclusions of individual interviews. In class, combine and
summarize the data from all interviews with single mothers. Then,
combine and summarize the data from all interviews with married
mothers. Discuss the full set of results:
1. In what ways are the combined data more useful than the individual
reports? Which results might be important in school practice?
2. Which results raise questions that should be studied further?
COMMENT
Partnerships with Diverse and Changing Families
Families not only differ in form and function (see Reading 3.5), but they change
from one year to the next. Single parents marry, married parents divorce, employed
parents become unemployed, unemployed mothers start to work outside the home,
and so forth. However they change, families still are responsible for their children
and share responsibilities with schools for their children’s education and develop-
ment. Families that face stressful changes are more likely to remain partners with
schools if administrators and teachers understand how to involve families who are
in transition.
1. List two school, family, and community partnership activities that you
believe are appropriate and important for all families to conduct, regardless
of how families differ or how they change.
266 RESEARCH
a. Explain why these activities are important for all families to
conduct.
b. Explain one way in which schools could help families with each of
the activities that you listed.
2. List one school, family, and community partnership activity that needs to
be tailored for (a) single parents, (b) employed parents, and (c) parents
who separate, divorce, or remarry to feel comfortable about participating.
Describe how and why you would tailor or adapt the activity you listed
for these three groups.
COMMENT
One-Parent Homes but Two-Parent Families
Some students live with one parent, and the other parent lives nearby. Many non-
resident parents (usually fathers) would like to be more active in their children’s ed-
ucation. Some nonresident parents have joint custody of their children and expect
to be fully involved in their education, but the school may officially record the ad-
dress of only one parent. Many nonresident parents would appreciate information
and invitations from the school to become more involved. Studies suggest that chil-
dren whose nonresident fathers are involved in their schooling are more likely to
like school, do well in school, and participate in extracurricular activities than are
children in one-parent homes whose nonresident fathers are uninvolved.
Some children have no contact with their nonresident parent. These students
may be particularly sensitive to questions or school activities that refer to “your
parents.”
Depending on their situations, students may appreciate options to communicate
with one or both parents or other relatives to involve important adults in their lives
and in their school activities and experiences. These complex topics of how schools
understand and interact with families that are differently structured require system-
atic study and innovative school and classroom practices.
ACTIVITY
Review or Interview
A. Identify a level of schooling that interests you. Use your experience or

interview a teacher or school administrator to address these questions:
1. What is your school’s policy about providing information or
invitations to nonresident parents?
2. What is your school’s policy about vocabulary referring to a parent
or parents:
RESEARCH 267
• in memos or other communications to the home?
• in activities in class?
B. Write a short critique of the policies that are described. Is each one a
good policy? Why or why not? If no policy exists, draft a short,
workable policy statement on whether and how to provide information
and invitations to nonresident parents.
C. Optional follow-up activity: Interview one nonresident parent of a
school-age child to learn if and how he or she is presently involved in
a child’s school and education. Identify whether this parent has joint
custody of the youngster.
1. Write at least five questions for your interview. Include one on the
changes in school policies or practices concerning nonresident
parents this individual would recommend.
2. Record your questions and document the responses you obtain.
COMMENT
Students Who Live with One Parent
In Reading 3.5, teachers’ practices made a difference in whether single and married
parents were productive partners with the schools in their children’s education. This
result reinforces the importance of measuring school and family practices simulta-
neously to understand what parents do and whether they are assisted to become in-
volved by the programs and practices at their children’s schools. Without attention
to the schools’ efforts, many studies distort the desires and abilities of all families
to be productively involved in their children’s education.
A study of Midwestern youth in one- and two-parent homes concluded that, on
average, kids do better in two-parent homes, but some students in single-parent
families thrive, and some in two-parent homes do not. Family structure does not
fully determine or explain children’s and adolescents’ well-being.
What matters most, regardless of family structure, is what happens within the
family (Benson, 1993). For example, adolescents in single-parent homes are much
less at risk of failing or getting in trouble in school if they report that their families
are involved in their schooling, provide social support, and monitor other aspects
of their lives. Examine the chart on the next page (Benson, 1993).
What Percent of Successful and Unsuccessful Students

in One-Parent Homes Are Supported by Their Families
in Different Ways?
As shown in the chart, higher percentages of adolescents in single-parent homes
who “thrive” in school (i.e., achieve well, have high aspirations, do homework, stay
268 RESEARCH
Percent of Students Who Report
Students in Family support Parent Parental Discipline at
one-parent for education involvement in standards home
homes schooling
Of students 64 29 85 60
who thrive:
Of students 34 18 47 41
who do not
thrive:
out of trouble) report that they receive support and guidance from an involved par-
ent at home, compared with students who do not thrive in school (i.e., have aca-
demic or behavior problems). Another way to say this is that more students from
single-parent families who are successful in school report having strong parental
support, standards, discipline, and involvement.
Saying that some single parents are involved in their children’s education while
others are not is important, but not surprising. Many studies conducted in the
United States and other nations show that in all kinds of families, some parents
are involved, and others are not. Regardless of family structure, children of involved
parents are more likely to succeed in school in many different ways. Reading 3.5
adds evidence that when teachers implement activities to involve all families, more
single parents become involved in their children’s education across the grades. Then,
their children have a better chance of succeeding in school.
1. In the chart, which variable—family support, involvement, standards, or

discipline—do you think presents the most important contrasting
percentages for students in one-parent homes who thrive compared with
those who do not thrive?
a. Identify the variable and percentages you will discuss.
b. Explain why you think the percentages reported for that variable are
important.
2. Write two questions that you would like to ask the students who were
in Benson’s study to better understand the family and school
circumstances that contributed to the results in the chart. State your
two questions, and explain why each is important for understanding the
variables in the chart.
3. Use at least two examples from Reading 3.5 to discuss this statement:
Family involvement and support in one-parent and two-parent homes is
partly determined by school practices.
RESEARCH 269
COMMENT
Who Is Hard to Reach?
Who are the hard-to-reach parents? In some ways, some of the time, every family
is hard to reach. Parents who work outside the home may be hard to reach. Parents
who are at a distance from the school may be hard to reach. Fathers may be hard
to reach. Young parents, teen parents, older parents, parents of older children, par-
ents with less formal education, those who do not speak English, single parents,
stepparents, noncustodial parents, and foster parents may be hard to reach. In some
cases parents with advanced education or great wealth also may be hard to reach.
Some families fit more than one of these descriptors and may be particularly hard
to reach.
Not all schools have the same hard-to-reach families. Some schools have figured
out how to contact and involve families who seem unreachable at other schools.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Reaching Hard-to-Reach Parents
A. Interview one teacher or administrator from two different schools. Identify

the positions of your interviewees, their school or grade levels, and
important characteristics of their students, families, or communities. Ask:
1. Who are the hard-to-reach parents in your school?
2. Why are they hard to reach?
3. What strategies have been used at your school to try to reach one or
more of the groups of families that you listed?
B. Add at least one question of your own.
C. List the questions you ask and the responses.
D. Write a paragraph on the similarities or differences in the responses of
educators from the two schools—and possible reasons.
E. Optional class activity: Share and compare ideas with others in the class.
Identify useful strategies for reaching hard-to-reach parents.
COMMENT
Paired Data from Teachers and Parents
Readings 3.1 and 3.4 are “paired” with data from teachers and parents from the
same schools, respectively, in a statewide sample of urban, suburban, and rural
270 RESEARCH
schools. Data in Readings 3.3 and 3.6 also are “paired” with data from teachers
and parents from the same schools in a sample of urban elementary and middle
schools. The data from these studies reveal common themes and important contrasts
among teachers and parents. For example, most teachers think parents are not in-
volved in their children’s education, whereas most parents report they are involved—
or try to be—often without guidance or assistance from the school or from their
children’s teachers.
As another example, almost all teachers (more than 90 percent) say they held
conferences with parents, but 36 percent of the parents say they never had a con-
ference with their child’s teacher. These discrepancies must be discussed, explained,
and addressed for parents and teachers to understand each other’s work and their
common interests in children.
1. How can the reports from 90 percent of teachers and 36 percent of parents
about parent-teacher conferences both be true?
2. What are the implications of these contrasting results for improving the
way in which parent-teacher conferences are organized, scheduled, and
counted?
3. Read one pair of readings (3.1 and 3.4 or 3.3 and 3.6).
a. Identify one set of results (not those discussed above) that indicate
that parents and teachers, on average, view things similarly or
differently.
b. Explain how the similar or different results that you identified might
affect school, family, and community partnerships.
COMMENT
Teachers as Parents
Despite the fact that most teachers are parents, data from many surveys show that
teachers misunderstand what most parents try to do at home. Many teachers blame
parents for their lack of involvement, despite the teachers’ knowledge of how hard
it is to stay informed and involved in their own children’s education from year to
year. It may be that teachers characterize all parents according to their worst expe-
riences with families, rather than according to their best experiences. Determine if
this is true through the following field experience.
RESEARCH 271
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Interview Teachers Who Are and Are Not Parents
A. Interview one teacher who is a parent of a school-age child and one teacher
who is not a parent. Write their responses to the following questions:
1. As a teacher, what is your best experience with a parent?
2. As a teacher, what is your worst experience with a parent?
3. How would you describe the involvement of most parents of the
students you teach?
B. Add a question of your own for these teachers.
C. Ask the teacher who is a parent:
1. In what grade level is your oldest school-age child?
2. How easy or difficult is it for you to be involved at this child’s school?
3. How easy or difficult is it for you to be involved with this child at home?
4. How much information or guidance do you get from this child’s
school and teacher to help you be productively involved?
D. Add a question of your own for this teacher.
E. Summarize what you learned from the two teachers you interviewed.
Include the following reflections as well as other ideas:
1. From the first set of questions, how were the teachers’ assessments
of most parents influenced by their best and worst experiences?
2. From the second set of questions, how did the teacher’s role as an
educator affect interactions with his or her own child’s teacher(s)?
How did the teacher’s role as an educator affect interactions with the
child at home?
COMMENT
Student Achievement and Family Involvement
Reading 3.7 uses gain scores to measure achievement (i.e., how much a student
grows over one year), after accounting for initial skills. There are some typical or
expected patterns in these data. For example, students who start with lower scores
make greater gains over one year.
There are statistical reasons for this result. One technical explanation is a general
“regression to the mean,” which suggests that, by chance and human nature, poor
students will, on occasion, score higher than they did before. Similarly, good students
will, on occasion, score lower than they did before. It may be more than chance or
naturally occurring corrections, however, when measures are made after one year’s
time. For example, students who start out lower in skills have more “room to grow,”
whereas students who start with high scores near the ceiling or top of a range of
scores will not be able to show as much positive growth or change. They may be
working hard simply to maintain their high scores.
272 RESEARCH
There also are substantive reasons why students with low scores may gain more
in one year than students with high scores. For example, schoolwork may be easier
at the lower levels, making it possible for students to jump ahead more quickly from
low starting points, once they are motivated to work. Or schools may promote stu-
dent learning with innovative and responsive curricula and instructional methods
that enable slower students to make progress and brighter students to maintain their
skills. These alternative, complex, statistical, and substantive issues need to be sorted
out in research on the effects of family involvement on student achievement.
The data in Reading 3.7 suggest that gains in reading and math by students in
urban elementary schools are influenced by different characteristics of parents, stu-
dents, and teachers. Examine the following summary chart of results from that study.
SUMMARY CHART
Factors Influencing Gains in Reading and

Math in the Elementary Grades
1. Select one result in the summary chart that surprised you, and explain why.
2. Explain how the result you selected might affect school, family, and
3. If you were studying student progress in reading or math, what is one
additional variable that you would measure to clarify the results in the
summary chart? Explain why you think the variable you selected might
be important.
Factors that affect gains in reading Factors that affect gains in math
• Initial reading scores—low scoring • Initial math scores—low scoring math

reading students gain more students gain more
• Parent education —
— • Younger grade levels
• High quality rating of teacher —
— • Recency of teacher training
• Teacher use of learning activities at (Family involvement in reading does not

home (in reading) affect gains in math test scores)
— • Parent reports of high quality homework
RESEARCH 273
COMMENT
Giving Credit Where Credit Is Due
One intriguing result of the analyses of data from the study reported in Reading
3.8 is that teachers tend to evaluate parents based on their children’s achievement.
Parents of students who were homework “stars” were viewed more positively by
teachers than were parents of students who had homework or discipline problems.
Parents of homework stars were rated significantly more helpful than other parents.
By contrast, parents of children who had trouble with homework or who behaved
badly in school were rated significantly lower in helpfulness and follow-through
than were other parents.
Teachers’ Ratings
of Parents’
Student Ability/Behavior Helpfulness and Follow-Through
ß (F)
Homework Star .225 (35.76)
R2 .47
Homework Problem – .146 (14.02)
R2 .38
Discipline Problem – .110 (7.54)
R2 .33
NOTE: This figure uses the same control variables as Table 3.32.
FIGURE 3.5 Teachers’ Ratings of Parents’ Helpfulness and Follow-Through
Parents make similar assessments of teachers. Table 3.30 shows that parents rate
teachers higher in quality if their children are homework stars and if their children
are doing well in math. Use these results and your experiences to answer the fol-
lowing questions.
274 RESEARCH
1. Are students high achievers because their parents help them, or are parents
helpful because their students are high achievers? Give one example of
how each of these causal patterns could be true.
2. Do students have trouble in school because their parents are not involved,
or do parents disengage because their children have trouble in school?
Give one example of how each of these causal patterns could be true.
3. Are teachers more effective because their students are high achievers, or
are children high achievers because they have better teachers? Give one
example of how each of these causal patterns could be true.
4. Optional: Discuss these issues in class. What are the implications of the
examples for research on the effects of family involvement on student
achievement?
COMMENT
Studying and Improving Homework
Homework is a strategy that can be designed to motivate students, increase learning,

involve families, and improve teaching (Cooper and Valentine, 2001; see also Read-
ing 6.1). For too long, however, homework has been studied as an either/or, more/
less variable. Many studies still focus only on the number of minutes or hours of
homework that are assigned or spent. The debates about minutes of homework miss
important distinctions between assigning more homework and designing better
homework. There is a difference between focusing on time spent on homework and
the complex issues of the purpose, content, and form of homework.
After reviewing more than two dozen U.S. and international studies of homework
and its effects on students, I developed a model for studying, understanding, dis-
cussing, and improving homework. This model (see Figure 3.6) shows an extensive
set of variables that could be measured to more fully study and understand the de-
sign and effects of homework on student learning, teacher effectiveness, and family
understanding and involvement in children’s education.
Variables in the Model
The chart on pp. 277–280 shows examples of variables for each section of the con-
ceptual model. Some or all of these or related variables may be included in a meas-
urement model to study the background, design, and effects of homework on
students, teaching practice, and family practice. Of course, no single study of home-
work can include all of these variables, but studies may select variables that make
sense in well-specified theoretical and measurement models.
RESEARCH 275
276
1. Student and 8. Effects on
Family Teaching
Background  Practice 

2. Teacher 4. Classroom 5. Homework 6. Homework 7. Homework  10. Effects on
Background  Organization  Assignments  Completion  Returns and  Student
and Classwork Follow-up  Learning and
Development

3. School  9. Effects on 
Organization Family
and Policy Practice
1
Variables at one point in time may create two-way and continuous-influence arrows in longitudinal designs, creating a conceptual and measurement
“loop” for studying the effects of homework over time.
FIGURE 3.6 Research Model for Studying Effects of Homework1

Examples of Variables that May Be Addressed in Studies of the Nature and Effects of
Homework
1. Student and Family Background

Gender
Race/ethnicity
Parent education
Other family socioeconomic status (SES) indicators, e.g.:
• Occupation
• Income
• Family size
Student program/curriculum track/ability group
Student personality variables affecting homework completion, e.g.:
• Self-concept of ability
• Locus of control
• Diligence, persistence
• Neatness
• Creativity
Student prior or starting achievement
Student prior or starting attitudes about school, homework
Peer/friendship group homework patterns
Student part-time work hours/schedule
Home conditions supporting learning, e.g.:
• Place for homework
• Time for homework
• Supplies for homework
• Resources for learning (e.g., books, newspapers, art materials)
Climate and support for homework, e.g.:
• Interruptions
• Competing responsibilities
• Interactions
• Final check
Parental knowledge about school and classroom
Parental connections with school and teachers
Community resources/library/museums
2. Teacher Background and Practice

Education
Teaching experience
Quality of teaching
Subject specialization
Attitudes toward students
Philosophy and attitudes about homework
Practices of family and community involvement
3. School Organization and Policy

Grade span
Program definition, e.g.:
• Magnet
• Charter
• Other special school program
Community characteristics
Aggregate student/family population characteristics
District, school, and classroom homework policies
Standards for homework
Supervision of teachers’ lessons and homework
Articulation of feeder and receiver schools (continues)
277
(continued)
4. Classroom Organization and Classwork

Grade level
Subject
Teacher planning time
Interdisciplinary connections across subjects
Classroom organization, e.g., TARGET structures of:
• Task
• Authority
• Reward
• Grouping
• Evaluation
• Time to organize classwork
Plan for homework in instruction
Classroom behavior, discipline
External interruptions
5. Assigning Homework (by Teacher)

Amount and time expected
Frequency
Design/form/novelty/diversity/level of interest
Clarity
Coordination with curriculum
Coordination with student ability, e.g.:
• Group/individual ability
• Common/individualized assignments
Content:
• Review
• Remediation
• Critical thinking
• Creative thinking
• Enrichment, extension of skills
• Completion of classwork
Purpose:
• Practice and mastery of knowledge/skills
• Preparation for new lesson
• Participation, enjoyment of learning
• Parent involvement:
 Parent-child communication, interaction
 Parent-teacher communications
• Peer interactions
• Public relations
• Policy
Alternative assignments, extra credit assignments
Makeup assignments due to absence
After-school activities
Parents’ roles in identifying issues for homework assignments
Students’ roles in identifying issues for homework assignments
6. Completing Homework (by Student)

Time spent:
• On assigned homework
• On unassigned homework
Location:
• In-school time for homework
• After-school place for homework
278
Level of interest in subject, topic
Use of special skills or talents
Parent support, monitoring, assistance
Parent pressure, conflict, avoidance
Parent communications with teachers, e.g.:
• Daily homework log
• Computerized messages
• Required signature
Competing activities for time at home, e.g.:
• Chores
• TV
• Internet
• Part-time work
• Sports or talents
• Other lessons
• Responsibilities
Availability of peers for interactions, and extent of interactions of friends/class-
mates/siblings by telephone, in the neighborhood, and other ways
7. Returning and Following up on Homework (by Teacher)

Timing of return
Frequency of collection, checking
Feedback, e.g.:
• Correction
• Evaluation
• Tally
• Grade
• Comment
Follow-up to redo/resubmit assignment
Role of parent after return
Rewards/penalties/consequences for student
Class time, other school time, after-school time to make up work
Homework part of report card grade
Extra homework assignments
Notification of parents
8. Effects on Student Learning and Development

Completion rate, quantity
Completion quality, accuracy, creativity
Improved learning:
• Readiness for next lesson
• Classroom subject tests
• Report card grades
• Achievement test scores
Improved behavior and attitudes toward:
• School
• Subjects
• Homework
• Learning
• Teachers
Attendance:
• Motivation to learn and to work as a student
• Willingness to work to improve
• Continued enrollment in school
• Selection of advanced courses (continued)
279
(continued)
• Self-control/discipline
• Positive self-concept of ability
9. Effects on Teaching Practice

Organization of instructional time:
• Pace of lessons
• Homework as segment of instructional time
Introduction of homework, questions from students
Follow-up of homework, extension, enrichment
Design of homework and remedial instruction or assignments for individuals
Communications with parents and students
Attention to community and family conditions, interests, talents, and resources
10. Effects on Family Practice

Organization of home environment to support student homework
Frequency of interactions with child on homework
Content of interactions with child on homework
Quality of interactions with child on homework
Parent attitudes:
• About quality of school, teacher(s)
• About responsiveness of school and teacher(s) to child
• Importance of instructional program for preparing child for future
• Understanding of what child is learning in school
Quality of communications with teachers
Support for school program
ACTIVITY
Variables that Affect Homework and Learning
Photocopy and complete the chart in Figure 3.7, or create it on your computer.
A. Select a grade level and a school subject that interest you.

B. In the chart on the next page, list one variable that interests you from
each section of the model given above. For each variable, describe one
problem that the variable may cause in the design, conduct, or results of
homework and one solution for correcting the problem to improve the
homework process. An example for a School Organization and Policy
variable is shown at the top of the chart.
Grade level selected: _________________
Subject selected: _________________
280 RESEARCH
VARIABLE ONE PROBLEM ONE POSSIBLE SOLUTION
from homework model caused by the design, to the problem that would
conduct, or results of improve the design, conduct,
homework or results of homework
EXAMPLE VARIABLE EXAMPLE PROBLEM EXAMPLE SOLUTION

School Organization and Teacher’s homework policy Homework policy should be
Policy—District, school, and is not clear to all students provided in written and
classroom homework and parents. other forms and discussed
policies with all students and parents.
1. Student and family

background
2. Teacher background,
practice
3. School organization and

policy
4. Classroom organization
and classwork
5. Assigning homework
6. Completing homework
7. Returning and following

up homework
8. Effects on teaching
practice
9. Effects on family practice
10. Effects on student learn-

ing and development
FIGURE 3.7 Variables that Affect Homework Design and Completion
Homework is not cost free. There are investments that students, teachers, and par-
ents make for students to complete homework. For example, it “costs” teachers
planning time to design homework that will be assigned to students. The investments
in homework should yield benefits for students, teachers, and parents. Identify one
cost and one benefit of homework for each group listed in the chart on the next
page. Include one reason why you think each of your listings is a cost or a benefit.
RESEARCH 281
Homework Why is this a Homework Why is this a
Cost cost? Benefit benefit?
Teachers
Students
Parents/
Families
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Interview Students about Homework

Reading 3.8 uses data from teachers, principals, parents, and students to better un-
derstand homework and its links with student achievement and behavior.
A. Interview two students who are in different grade levels.

B. Audio-record or take notes on the students’ responses to the following.
Ask:
1. What is the best homework assignment that you remember?
2. What is the worst homework assignment that you remember?
C. For the best and worst examples, ask:
1. Describe the homework assignment you remember.
2. Do you remember the purpose of this homework?
3. About how long did this homework take you to complete?
4. Did a lesson in class lead to the homework, or did the homework
lead to a lesson later on? Or was this just a separate activity?
5. Did you show this homework to a parent, friend, or someone else?
6. What made the assignment especially good/especially bad?
D. Also check each student’s age, gender, and grade level, and ask each
student:
1. General attitude about school: Do you like school a lot, a little, not
much, or not at all?
2. Average grades: Do you get mostly As, Bs, Cs, Ds, or Fs in school?
E. Summarize the students’ responses. Write a reflective paragraph on
whether the students’ reactions to homework were thoughtful or un-
informed. Did the students’ reactions have any implications for teachers’
designs of good homework? Do you see any connections between the
students’ experiences or ideas about homework with the students’ age,
grade level, gender, attitude about school, or report card grades?
282 RESEARCH
F. Optional class activity: Combine the data collected by all students in the
class. Analyze one or more connection between the interviewed students’
attitudes about homework with their grade level (or report card grades or
attitudes about school).
Most studies of homework indicate that, regardless of their starting skills, if students
do their homework, they are more likely to improve their skills and do better in
school than similar students who do not do their homework. One interesting result
discussed in Reading 3.8 is that in the elementary grades struggling students spend
more time than do advanced students completing their homework. By the middle
and high school grades, data indicate that advanced students spend more time on
homework than do slower students.
1. Do you think it is possible to design homework that will encourage middle

and high school students at all ability levels to spend the time they need to
complete their homework? Explain.
2. Optional class activity: Discuss these ideas in class. Identify the most
interesting ideas for improving the design and assignment of homework
in middle and high schools to encourage all students to complete their
assignments regardless of their ability levels.
ACTIVITY
Reading to Understand Homework
A. Early and recent research on homework adds information to the data

presented in Readings 3.8 and 3.9. Select an article, chapter, or book
from the following list, or select another recent research report on
homework, and answer the questions on the next page.
Balli, S. J. (1998). When mom and dad help: Student reflections on parent involvement
with homework. Journal of Research and Development in Education 31: 142–146.
Cooper, H. (1989). Homework. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Cooper, H., and J. C. Valentine. (2001). Using research to answer practical questions
about homework. Educational Psychologist 36: 143–154.
Corno, L., and J. Xu. (2004). Homework as the job of childhood. Theory into Practice
43: 227–233.
Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., A. C. Battiato, J. M. Walker, R. P. Reed, J. M. Dejong, and K.
P. Jones. (2001). Parental involvement in homework. Educational Psychologist 36:
195–209.
Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., O. C. Bassler, and R. Burow. (1995). Parents’ reported in-
volvement in students’ homework: Strategies and practices. Elementary School Jour-
nal 95: 435–450.
RESEARCH 283
Hyde, J. S., N. M., Else-Quest, M. W. Alibali, E. Knuth, and T. Romberg. (2006). Math-
ematics in the home: Homework practices and mother-child interactions doing
mathematics. Journal of Mathematical Behavior 25: 136–152.
Keith, T. Z., and V. A. Cool. (1992). Testing models of school learning: Effects of qual-
ity of instruction, motivation, academic coursework, and homework on academic
achievement. School Psychology Quarterly 7: 207–226.
MetLife. (2007). The MetLife survey of the American teacher: The homework expe-
rience. New York: MetLife, Inc.
Patall, E. A., H. Cooper, and J. C. Robinson. (2008). Parent involvement in homework:
A research synthesis. Review of Educational Research 78: 1039–1104.
Van Voorhis, F. L. (In press). Adding families to the homework equation: A longitudi-
nal study of mathematics achievement. Education and Urban Society.
———. (2003). Interactive homework in middle school: Effects on family involvement
and students’ science achievement. Journal of Educational Research 96: 323–339.
Villas Boas, A. (1998). The effects of parental involvement in homework on student
achievement in Portugal and Luxembourg. Childhood Education 74: 367–371.
Xu, J. (2004). Family help and homework management in urban and rural secondary
schools. Teachers College Record 106: 1786–1803.
B. Answer the following questions about the article, chapter, or book that
you selected:
1. List the title, author(s), date, and place of publication.
2. Identify three important variables that are discussed or analyzed in
the publication you selected. Tell where you would place each of
these variables in the 10 sections of Figure 3.6.
3. Identify one main result of the study you selected. Explain whether
and how this result increases an understanding of the design and
effects of homework.
COMMENT
Paired Data from Parents

and Students on Homework
Reports from parents and students in Readings 3.8 and 3.9 suggest that weekends
are underused as time for interactive homework. Parents overwhelmingly report
that they have time on weekends to talk with their children about school and to
help with homework. Students complete more homework and extra work on week-
ends if their teachers frequently involve their families in learning activities at home.
Some schools give no homework on weekends as a matter of policy. Yet weekends
may provide family-friendly time for students to talk with someone at home about
something interesting they are learning in class and about important decisions they
must make about schoolwork and activities.
284 RESEARCH
1. Identify a grade level that interests you.

2. Make a chart summarizing one pro and one con argument from the
perspective of a teacher, parent, and student in the grade level you
selected on the following:
a. Assigning homework to students on weekends.
b. Assigning homework on weekends that requires students to talk
with a parent or other family member about something interesting
they are learning in class or about a school-linked decision.
3. Write a paragraph from your point of view about assigning homework
on weekends in the grade level you selected.
4. An important result described in Reading 3.8 is that children who like to
talk about school at home complete more homework and have higher
academic skills than students who do not talk about school at home. This
finding raises two “chicken or egg” questions:
• Which came first, doing well in school or talking about school at
home?
• Which came first, doing poorly in school or not talking about
school at home?
These questions require longitudinal studies to monitor changes in skills over time,
but you can begin to explore these issues by discussing the following questions:
A. For the grade level you selected, describe two ways in which children show
their distress or anxiety about homework.
B. For the grade level you selected, give one idea of how a teacher might:
1. Design homework assignments that minimize distress and anxiety.
2. Encourage children and parents to talk about schoolwork at home.
C. Which do you think comes first, doing well in school or talking about
school at home? Discuss or write a paragraph about one activity that links
home and school that might lead students on the positive path you selected.
D. Which do you think comes first, doing poorly in school or not talking
about school at home? Discuss or write a paragraph about one activity
that links home and school that might lead students on the negative path
you selected.
CROSSCUTTING THEMES
Three quite different themes cut across the readings in this chapter:
1. Partnerships change across school levels as students mature and as school

programs increase in complexity.
RESEARCH 285
2. Partnerships are affected by the school authority and decision-making
structures.
3. Researchers must use multiple measures to study the nature and effects of
The following comments and questions will help you explore these crosscutting
themes.
COMMENT
Grade Level and Academic Subject Differences
The theory of overlapping spheres of influence assumes that school, family, and
community responsibilities and activities will change over time across grade levels
and from teacher to teacher. The readings in this chapter document that on average,
elementary schools involve families more than do middle schools. In most middle
schools, teachers give less information to parents, and parents report less involve-
ment in their children’s education than in the younger grades. Reading 3.6 reports,
however, that parents of middle-grade students want to be as informed and involved
as parents of younger children, although they require different information and
must conduct different interactions with their early adolescent children.
The data also reveal differences in practices among teachers of different subjects.
Reading 3.1 shows that teachers were most comfortable in the early grades involv-
ing parents in reading and reading-related activities at home. Data in Reading 3.3
show that reading and English teachers involved families more than other teachers,
even in the middle grades.
The data about what is typical or normative in the elementary and middle grades
raise many questions about the age-appropriate family and community involvement
activities that could or should be conducted across the grades and by teachers of
different subjects.
1. Give examples from the readings and your experiences to address the
following questions. (Optional: Interview a teacher, parent, or student about
these questions. Identify your source, the grade level, and the responses.)
a. How do school, family, and community partnerships presently
change from one grade level to the next? Provide two examples.
b. How do school, family, and community partnerships presently vary
in different school subjects? Provide two examples.
c. How do partnership activities presently change from the beginning
to the end of the same school year? Provide two examples.
286 RESEARCH
d. How are communications from home to school affected when
children move to a new school (e.g., in the middle of the year, at the
start of a new school year, or when they graduate to the next level of
schooling)? Provide two examples.
2. Use the results reported in the readings in this chapter and your own
ideas to discuss:
a. Should the nature (design of practices, activities, subject matter) of
involvement change as children move from the elementary to the
middle grades? Provide two examples that support your view.
b. Should the extent (time, number of activities) of involvement change
in the elementary and middle grades? Provide two examples that
support your views.
COMMENT
Transitions to New Schools and New Grade Levels
Parents, teachers, and students must create new partnerships every year. Parents
often are unsure about what is expected by their children’s new teachers or how to
help their children in new grade levels or new schools. Teachers are unfamiliar with
most new students and families who enter their classes each year. Among many un-
knowns, students are unaware of whether and how their new teachers will keep
families informed and involved about school programs and students’ progress. For
these and other reasons, commitments to school, family, and community partner-
ships must be renewed every year.
Data show dramatic declines in involvement after each transition to new levels
of schooling (i.e., from preschool to elementary school, from elementary to middle
school, and from middle to high school). Also, if students transfer to new schools
during the school year, families are often uninformed about the school and how to
become involved. Educators must have ways to welcome and connect with entering
students and their families whenever they arrive at school.
Transitions are risky but important and exciting points of change and promise
in students’ lives. Appropriate and important school, family, and community part-
nerships should minimize problems and maximize success for students at points of
transition.
1. Select a school transition that interests you (e.g., preschool to elementary

school, elementary to middle school, middle to high school, or high school
to postsecondary education/training). Think about students and their
families entering a new school at the transition point that you selected.
RESEARCH 287
a. Identify or design and describe one activity that would help students
and parents make a successful transition to the new level of
schooling that you selected.
b. Identify or design and describe one activity that would give the
teachers and administrators the information they need about
the children and families who are making a transition to the new
level of schooling that you selected.
2. Select a grade level that interests you. Think about students and their
families entering a new grade level within their present school (not a
transition to a new school).
a. Identify or design and describe one activity that could be
implemented at the start of a new school year to give parents the
information they need to help their children make a successful
transition to the grade level that you selected.
b. Identify or design and describe one activity that could be
implemented at the start of a new school year to give the teachers
and administrators the information they need to make a good start
with students and their families in the grade level you selected.
3. Optional class activity: Share and critique examples of activities to
involve families at points of transition from school to school and from
grade to grade. Add the most promising examples to a resource notebook
or electronic idea file for use in practice or for research and development.
COMMENT
Student Mobility
A study of the effects of family mobility indicates that elementary school students
in two-parent homes who move up to seven times experience no more academic or
behavioral problems than students who do not move. However, even one move in-
creases the academic and behavioral problems of elementary school students in
other family arrangements, such as mother-only, step-, or blended families, and other
family forms (Tucker, Marx, and Long, 1998). The researchers statistically ac-
counted for many family characteristics (such as parent education, income, and re-
cency and distance of moves) to explore the effects of diverse family arrangements
and the number of family moves on students’ success in school.
Two variables missing from the study should be included in new research. First,
it is important to know whether the children had academic or behavior problems
before they moved, to determine whether mobility and family arrangements are re-
sponsible for academic and behavioral problems. Second, it is important to know
what schools do to welcome and orient new students and their families with useful
information on school policies and parent involvement. Some school practices may
reduce the stress of moving to a new community by integrating new students and
families into the school community.
288 RESEARCH
Research is needed on whether and how schools with comprehensive programs
of school, family, and community partnerships intervene to reduce the risks of mo-
bility to student success in school, especially in single-parent homes, stepparent fam-
ilies, or blended families. A related study indicates that students in military families
are not particularly affected when a parent is deployed as part of military duty
(TDY—temporary duty assignments) (Thompson, 1998). In this study, one influen-
tial variable was parental satisfaction with the school’s efforts to help students cope
with the TDY. Some students are relatively resilient when their families move or
when parents are temporarily absent, particularly if the school and community offer
helpful information and support during turbulent times.
If schools are aware of stressful family situations and take action to assist stu-
dents and their families, student achievement and behavior may not be as negatively
affected as when families and students are left on their own to adjust to new schools
and changes in family life.
1. In studies of effects of mobility on student success in school, why is it

important to know whether schools conduct practices to welcome, inform,
and involve families at school and at home?
2. Why might these partnership practices be particularly important to
single parents in new neighborhoods and schools?
3. In studies of effects of mobility on student success in school, why is it
important for researchers to measure whether youngsters were good or
poor students, well or poorly behaved prior to the move from one school
to another?
COMMENT
The Authority Structure
School, family, and community partnerships are part of the authority structure of
schools (see comment on authority and control in Chapter 2). The authority struc-
ture is defined, in part, by who participates in school decisions; how families are in-
formed and involved in their children’s education; and how often and why students,
families, educators, and others in the community interact.
The distribution and definition of power are altered by the way teachers, ad-
ministrators, parents, and others in communities think about, talk about, and act
to share responsibilities for education. Decisions about schools may be shared on
any or all topics, including school organization; management; staffing; curriculum;
student motivation; instructional methods; annual evaluations and recognition of
teachers, administrators, and students; school climate; and specific policies and
programs.
RESEARCH 289
Use the articles and comments in this chapter to support your responses to the fol-
lowing questions:
1. Teacher authority. Is teacher and administrator authority more like a pie

or an empire?
a. How do you view a teacher’s authority? Is it like a pie: If some
authority is shared with families, there is less of the authority pie
left, and, therefore, the teacher loses power? Or is it like an empire:
If some authority is shared and alliances are made with families, the
teacher gains power, influence, and effectiveness? Or do you view the
effects of partnerships on a teacher’s authority in some other way?
b. Explain your ideas.
c. Discuss the above questions, substituting “principal” for “teacher.”
Does the substitution affect your response? Why or why not?
2. Family influence. Is family influence on children weakened or enhanced
when children go to school?
a. How do you view the effects of school, family, and community
partnerships on the influence families have to socialize, educate,
motivate, and encourage their children? Do partnerships weaken
and diffuse family authority and influence because teachers and
others educate and socialize children? Or do partnerships strengthen
and enhance family influence by providing parents with information
and opportunities to interact with their children and educators
about school decisions and school life? Or do you view the effects of
partnerships on families’ authority and influence in some other way?
3. Student independence. Is student independence boosted or delayed by
school, family, and community partnerships?
a. How do you view the effects of school, family, and community
partnerships on student self-direction and independence? Do
partnerships act as a catalyst through which parents, teachers, and
others guide students toward greater independence? Or do
partnerships act as an inhibitor, with collaborative activities delaying
independence and keeping students dependent for too long on
teachers, parents, or others? Or do you view the effects of
partnerships on student independence in some other way?
290 RESEARCH
COMMENT
Using Multiple Measures, Reporters, and Methods to

Understand Family Involvement and Student Outcomes
Several readings in this chapter report multiple measures to study school, family,
and community partnerships. The studies include (1) two or more measures from
the same reporter, (2) two or more reporters on similar or related measures, or (3)
multiple measures and multiple reporters. These techniques may produce consistent
or inconsistent patterns of results that instantly confirm or dispute conclusions.
For example, in one study we identified teacher-leaders by using two measures,
one from teachers’ self-reports about their partnership practices and one from prin-
cipals’ ratings of the same teachers’ practices. The principals’ ratings confirmed or
refuted teachers’ self-reports on the extent to which they involved families of their
students. The measures were cross-checked to identify concordant cases of teachers
who were confirmed leaders who were particularly effective in their connections
with families. The multiple measures created a better, more reliable independent
variable of “teacher-leaders” than either measure could do alone.
As another example, in Reading 3.9, multiple measures were used to determine
if reports about the level of family involvement from students, teachers, and princi-
pals produced consistent effects on students’ attitudes, behaviors, and experiences.
In this study, perspectives of different reporters at home and at school supported
the conclusion that family involvement was linked to positive attitudes and higher
student productivity.
1. Why might a researcher want to use two, three, or more measures of the
same concept from the same reporter? Describe one problem that is solved
and one problem that is created by this method of inquiry.
2. Why might a researcher want to obtain information from two or more
reporters on the same concept? Describe one problem that is solved and
one problem that is created by this method of inquiry.
3. Research on family and community involvement may be conducted
using many different methods of data collection and analyses. There is
no one right way to study partnerships. Various methods contribute
different kinds of information to increase understanding and to raise
new questions for future studies. For example, Readings 3.1 and 3.2
present quantitative analyses of survey data and qualitative analyses of
teachers’ comments, respectively.
a. What do quantitative analyses of survey research (Reading 3.1)
contribute that cannot be learned only by observations or
“testimonies” about programs?
b. What do the personal comments of teachers (Reading 3.2) contribute
that cannot be learned from quantitative analyses of survey data?
RESEARCH 291
COMMENT
Effects of Partnerships on Students
Studies of effects on students of school, family, and community partnerships have

increased and improved over time (Jeynes, 2005). Most early research did not con-
trol for students’ prior skills when studying whether family involvement increased
student achievement. When prior skills are omitted from such analyses, the results
mainly indicate that high-achieving students have families who are involved or that
families are involved when students are high achieving.
Also, most early research did not account for what schools do to involve families
in various ways. When school programs and teacher practices are omitted from such
analyses, results mainly indicate that some families become involved on their own
and that their children benefit from self-initiated family involvement.
Thus, information on students’ prior skills and on the nature and quality of
school programs and teacher practices of partnership is needed to fully answer ques-
tions about whether family involvement increases the achievement of students with
initially different skill levels.
Analyses in Reading 3.7 statistically control for students’ prior skills, teacher qual-
ity, and other variables that affect learning to identify the independent effects on stu-
dents’ standardized achievement test scores of teacher practices of involving families.
The data link teachers’ practices, parents’ responses, and children’s achievements.
If you see studies—early or new—that do not account for students’ starting skills
or behaviors, or for schools’ practices to involve all families, you should be wary of
claims that family involvement increases student achievement or other positive re-
sults. Such studies may be showing only that good students usually have parents
who are more involved at school and at home.
Similarly, you should be wary of correlational results from cross-sectional or an-
ecdotal data that show that family involvement links to poor achievement or problem
behavior. This pattern—reported in Reading 3.8—may simply indicate that slower
students require extra help at a particular point in time. The help they receive will
vary in quality and may or may not have a positive impact on the problem at hand.
Researchers need well-specified measurement models and data that include stu-
dents’ starting skills to identify whether and how family involvement affects students’
skills, achievement test scores, or behavior. Quantitative and qualitative studies must
account for these complexities to address such questions as the following: Do
school, family, and community partnerships lead to better achievement or other pos-
itive results for all students? If students need and receive help from school, home,
and the community, do they improve their skills or attitudes?
292 RESEARCH
ACTIVITY
Hypothetical Study
Choose question A or B, according to your interests.
A. Students in Lincoln Elementary School start the fifth grade with very
different reading and math skills and with different histories of family
involvement. The fifth graders are placed in three classrooms with teachers
who differ in how much and how well they involve parents in reading and
math. Suppose Lincoln Elementary School has set goals that all fifth
graders will move on to middle school with at least sixth-grade reading
and math skills. Two of many possible research questions linked to school,
family, and community partnerships are:
• Do students have higher math and/or reading skills if their parents
are involved in their education at school and at home?
• Do more students graduate with at least sixth-grade math and/or
reading skills if their teachers conduct activities to involve all families
with their children in these subjects?
How might you study these topics to help Lincoln Elementary School
learn whether and how well it is reaching its reading and math goals?
1. Select one of the bulleted questions above that interests you.

2. There are many methods to use to address these questions. Outline the
steps for studying the question that you selected. How many teachers,
students, and families will be involved in your hypothetical study and
in what ways? How many months or years will your study take?
3. List three major variables that you would include in your study and
explain why each variable is important.
B. Students enter Roosevelt High School in the ninth grade with very
different reading, math, and other skills and with different histories of
family involvement. Each ninth grader has several teachers who have not
done much in the past to involve students’ parents at school or in
students’ learning activities and school decisions at home. Suppose
Roosevelt High School has set a goal that at least 90 percent of all
students who enter ninth grade will graduate from high school on time
(in four years). Two of many possible research questions linked to
school, family, and community partnerships are:
• Do entering students with similar backgrounds complete grade
12 and graduate from high school on time if their families are
involved in their education at school and at home?
• If students fail one or more courses in grade 9, how are they helped
by their school, family, and community to get back on the path to
high school graduation? How successful are these students?
RESEARCH 293
How might you study these topics to help Roosevelt High School
learn whether or how well it is reaching its graduation goal?
1. Select one of the bulleted questions above that interests you.

2. There are many methods to use to address these questions. Outline
how you might go about studying the question that you selected.
How many teachers and students will be involved in your
hypothetical study of Roosevelt High School? How many families
will be included, and in what ways? How many months or years will
your study take?
3. List three major variables that you would include in your study and
explain why each variable is important.
C. Optional class activity:
1. Share and discuss the designs of the hypothetical studies of Lincoln
Elementary School and Roosevelt High School and the variables that
students selected for their studies. Consider: Are the study
procedures clear? Are the variables essential? If the proposed study
were conducted, would the selected question be clearly addressed?
2. Discuss: Are the questions about fifth graders in Lincoln and high
school students in Roosevelt equally easy to study? Explain your ideas.
COMMENT
Importance of Reading Original Research
Although literature reviews, syntheses, meta-analyses, annotated bibliographies, and

other summaries (such as Reading 2.2) provide useful overviews of a field or topic,
they do not replace original research. Syntheses of research ask you to accept the
reviewers’ interpretations of large numbers of studies. They provide an efficient way
to scan a field, but you also need to read original research to learn how an individual
researcher conducts and reports a study. By reading original research (e.g., the read-
ings in this chapter), you can consider:
• Are the sample and data adequate?

• Are the methods credible?
• Do the results add new knowledge to the field?
• What debatable issues are raised?
• What new questions should be studied to extend, confirm, or contest the
reported results?
By reading original research, you should be able to frame your own studies more
successfully or judge and select the most promising approaches for educational
practice.
294 RESEARCH
ACTIVITY
Reading Original Research
A. Select and read one original research article or book chapter—not a review
or synthesis—on the effects of school, family, and community partnerships
on students, teachers, administrators, or parents. The work may be a
quantitative or qualitative study.
You may choose one reading in this chapter, a reference reported in
this chapter, an article or chapter of original research in a book listed
below, or one of the listed articles or chapters. Or you may select a
recent article or chapter on your own.
Choose one chapter reporting an original research study in one of

these books:
Booth, A., and J. Dunn (Eds.). (1996). Family-school links: How do they affect edu-
cational outcomes. Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bryk, A. S. and B. Schneider. (2002). Trust in schools: A core resource for improve-
ment. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Chavkin, N., (Eds.). (1993). Families and schools in a pluralistic society. Albany: State
University of New York Press.
Deslandes, R., (Eds.). (2009). International perspectives on contexts, communities and
evaluated innovative practices: Family-school-community partnerships. New York:
Routledge.
Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Berkeley: Univer-
sity of California Press.
Or choose one of the following articles:
Catsambis, S., and A. A. Beveridge. (2001). Does neighborhood matter? Family, neigh-
borhood, and school influences on eighth grade math achievement. Sociological
Focus 34: 435–457.
Grolnick, W. S., C. Benjet, C. O. Kurowski, and N. H. Apostoleris. (1997). Predicators
of parent involvement in children’s schooling. Journal of Educational Psychology
89: 538–548.
Heymann, S. J., and A. Earle. (2000). Low-income parents: How do working condi-
tions affect their opportunity to help school-age children at risk? American Educa-
tional Research Journal 37: 833–848.
Hill, N. E. (2004). Parent academic involvement as related to school behavior, achieve-
ment, and aspirations: Demographic variations across adolescence. Child Develop-
ment 75: 1491–1509.
Ho, E. S., and J. D. Willms. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade
achievement. Sociology of Education 69: 126–141.
Lee, V. E., and R. G. Croninger. (1994). The relative importance of home and school
in development of literacy skills for middle-grade students. American Journal of Ed-
ucation 102: 286–329.
Lonigan, C. J., and G. J. Whitehurst. (1998). Relative efficacy of parent and teacher
involvement in a shared-reading intervention for preschool children from low-
income backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 13: 263–290.
RESEARCH 295
Lopez, G. R., J. D. Scribner, and K. Mahitivanichcha. (2001). Redefining parent in-
volvement: Lessons from high-performing migrant-impacted schools. American Ed-
ucational Research Journal 38: 253–288.
McBride, B. A., S. H. Schoppe-Sullivan, and H. Moon-Ho. (2005). The mediating role
of fathers’ school involvement on student achievement. Journal of Applied Devel-
opmental Psychology 26: 201–216.
Reynolds, A. J. and M. Clements. (2005). Parental involvement and children’s school
success. In E. Patrikakou et al. (Eds.), School-family partnerships for student success
(pp. 109–127). New York: Teachers College Press.
Sheldon, S. B. (2003). Linking school-family-community partnerships in urban ele-
mentary schools to student achievement on state tests. Urban Review 35: 149–165.
B. Answer the following questions about the article, chapter, or book that
you selected.
1. List the full bibliographic information of the publication you
selected.
2. In one or two paragraphs, summarize the main questions and main
results of the study.
3. Describe in a sentence or two:
a. Were the sample and data adequate?
b. Were the variables clear and measures reliable?
c. In studies measuring student outcomes (e.g., achievement,
behavior, attendance), were the measures of parental
involvement theoretically linked to the outcome of interest?
d. Were the analyses and results convincing?
e. How did this study contribute to the knowledge base on school,
family, and community partnerships?
C. Write two questions that you think should be studied to follow up on the
results of the publication that you reviewed.
REFERENCES
Benson, P. (1993, June). The troubled journey, and youth in single parent families. Source
(Search Institute) 9(2): 1–3.
Cooper, H., and J. C. Valentine. (2001). Educational Psychologist: Special Issue on Home-
work 36(2).
Jeynes, W. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement to urban elemen-
tary school student academic achievement. Urban Education 40: 237–269.
Thompson, E. K. (1998). The effects of military deployment on children’s adjustment at
school. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Tucker, C. J., J. Marx, and L. Long. (1998). Moving on: Residential mobility and children’s
school lives. Sociology of Education 71: 111–129.
296 RESEARCH
PART TWO
Applying Research
on School, Family,
and Community
Partnerships
4
Policy Implications
P OLICIES AT THE FEDERAL, STATE, DISTRICT, AND SCHOOL levels increasingly in-
clude goals for school, family, and community partnerships. Importantly, leg-
islation and guidelines are beginning to go beyond broad objectives for
“parental involvement” by including explicit requirements and commitments for
states, districts, and schools to develop effective partnership programs.
The trend—too slow, but encouraging—is to provide leadership and finances at
state, district, and school levels to enable every school to create stronger connections
with families, businesses, community agencies, and other groups in ways that benefit
students. The trend is too slow because most state and district leaders have not es-
tablished strong leadership and sustainable programs of family and community in-
volvement. Most have not assigned the staff and budgets needed to conduct state
and district leadership activities that guide and support all preschools and elementary,
middle, and high schools in planning and implementing comprehensive, goal-linked
partnership programs that engage all families and help all students succeed in school.
At the state level, there have been too few incentives for action and too few con-
sequences for inaction from state boards and state leaders to encourage all districts
and their schools to develop policies and enact programs that engage families in
productive ways at all grade levels. Similarly, in most districts, neither incentives
nor consequences from superintendents and school boards are pressing and guiding
all school principals to establish official committees of educators and parents who
share responsibilities for organizing and maintaining comprehensive, goal-linked,
site-based partnership programs.
These deficiencies in leadership and organization reflect a general lack of will to
translate strong rhetoric and broad policy statements on the importance of family
and community involvement into viable programs and practices of partnership. The
absence of incentives and consequences allows too many superintendents and prin-
cipals to put partnership programs on the back burner, instead of placing school,
family, and community connections front and center as an essential ingredient of
school improvement. Too many leaders still view parental involvement as their
personal agenda, rather than as a topic for shared leadership with a committee
299
structure that could make a seemingly overwhelming topic into one that is man-
ageable and successful.
The trend is encouraging, however, because over the past few years increasing
numbers of states, districts, and schools have written policies and guidelines, iden-
tified leaders for partnerships, mobilized leadership teams, planned their work to
improve over time, and started to implement partnership programs that mobilize
family and community involvement in ways that support student learning and de-
velopment. The knowledge gained from these efforts should help other states, dis-
tricts, and schools take similar actions to involve all families and communities in
their children’s education.
STATES
Some states are actively developing and improving their leadership and programs
that support districts and schools in their work on partnerships. A few have estab-
lished permanent bureaus, offices, or departments of school, family, and community
partnerships with directors, coordinators, and facilitators as experts on involvement.
At this writing, over 20 state departments of education have joined the National
Network of Partnership Schools (NNPS) at Johns Hopkins University to work on
this agenda. These states have a designated leader whose responsibility is to inform,
encourage, and assist districts and schools throughout the state to develop plans,
programs, and practices of family and community involvement for increasing stu-
dent success in school.
The investments and efforts of state leaders for partnerships vary, however, in
quality, intensity, and duration. State departments of education are complex orga-
nizations with leaders who change frequently, with offices that overlap in responsi-
bilities and operate at a distance from their districts and schools.
Some state leaders are guiding districts and schools to improve their partnership
programs. State leadership activities include writing state goals and policies, pro-
viding federal and state funding and targeted grants for partnerships, providing
professional development and ongoing training on partnership program develop-
ment, conducting conferences, sharing best practices, evaluating work and progress,
and recognizing and rewarding excellent practices. Examples of state leadership are
discussed in the readings, comments, and activities in this chapter.
Nevertheless, too few of the 50 states have designated offices and leaders charged
with increasing partnership program development in the districts and their schools
in the state. Too few state leaders have long-term plans for partnerships or line-item
budgets to support state experts who actively guide districts and schools to involve
all families in their children’s education. Too few state leaders have organized their
work in ways that integrate family and community involvement agendas across de-
partments. Efforts remain fragmented in most states, with many different offices con-
ducting aspects of family and community involvement. Without clear leadership for
partnerships, state departments of education cannot guide all districts and all schools
to plan and implement programs that involve more families in more productive ways.
300 POLICY IMPLICATIONS

DISTRICTS
Some districts in all states are implementing policies to help schools improve con-
nections with students’ families and communities. With or without state guidance
and financial support, most districts are responding to federal requirements for Title
I funds that mandate policies, plans, and programs of family and community in-
volvement. Some districts not only write policies on partnerships, but also have ex-
pert leaders who guide and support all preschools and elementary, middle, and high
schools to improve the quality of their programs of family and community involve-
ment for student success.
At this writing, over 150 districts are members of the National Network of Part-
nership Schools (NNPS) at Johns Hopkins University. They have identified a leader
for partnerships and use research-based approaches to build capacities in all schools
to conduct goal-linked partnership programs so that families and communities sup-
port student success in school. Some districts are moving swiftly and surely on this
agenda; others lag. The work in leading districts will help other districts learn how
to develop and maintain effective district-level leadership and school-based part-
nership programs.
Still, too few of about 14,000 public school districts in the United States are en-
gaged in systematic efforts to develop, implement, evaluate, and continually improve
their programs of school, family, and community partnerships. Most districts still
need to identify professional staff to serve as leaders for partnerships, allocate ade-
quate budgets, establish clear structures, and follow feasible processes to help all
preschools and elementary, middle, and high schools to organize and improve their
school-based partnership programs.
Noteworthy efforts by district leaders include allocating federal, state, and local
funds for site-based partnership program development; providing ongoing staff de-
velopment for school teams focused on family and community involvement and other
educators to keep improving their programs; enabling schools to share best practices;
and evaluating school-based programs. Even in very small districts, superintendents,
school boards, principals, and lead teachers can support the development of part-
nership programs in their schools. Ultimately, every school must have the capacity
to plan, implement, and continually improve its own partnership program.
SCHOOLS
Just about all schools conduct some activities to inform and involve parents in their
children’s education. Indeed, all schools that receive Title I funds are required to en-
gage parents in productive ways. Not all schools—Title I or otherwise—plan their
programs systematically, link the involvement activities to school goals for student
success, or evaluate the quality and progress of their efforts.
At this writing, over 1,200 schools located in more than 30 states are members
of the National Network of Partnership Schools (NNPS) at Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity. They aim to use research-based approaches to establish programs of family and
POLICY IMPLICATIONS 301

community involvement that create a positive school climate and that help students
improve skills and attitudes in reading, math, and other subjects; attendance; be-
havior; postsecondary planning; and other outcomes. Not all schools in NNPS, how-
ever, proceed at the same pace. The work of leading schools is helping to identify
essential and effective components of partnership programs and should help other
schools understand the new directions needed to improve their programs of family
and community involvement.
There are, however, over 98,000 public and 35,000 private elementary and sec-
ondary schools in the country. Too few of these schools have an organized commit-
tee of educators and parents dedicated to guiding the school to plan, implement,
evaluate, and continually improve its program and practices of family and commu-
nity involvement in ways that support all students’ learning, development, and suc-
cess in school.
FEDERAL PROGRAMS
In the 1990s, the U.S. Department of Education and Secretary of Education Richard
Riley shined a spotlight on school, family, and community partnerships. The de-
partment framed a vision, supported research and development, published reports,
conducted traditional and satellite conferences, and contributed to a national con-
versation about improving the connections of home, school, and community.
Attention waned to some extent after 2002, when federal programs focused nar-
rowly on test scores and emphasized parents’ options to change schools that did not
meet test-score targets. Some officials lost sight of the importance of family and com-
munity involvement as a mechanism for organizing successful schools and increasing
student learning. Even when partnership programs were not emphasized, federal re-
quirements for research-based parent involvement programs were written into the No
Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in Section 1118 and in other sections of the law. These
regulations—many based on results of research and improved in each reauthorization
of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)—influenced the development
of partnership programs in some states, districts, and schools, as described above.
For more than 50 years, federal policies have guided educators, families, busi-
nesses, and other community groups to improve parental involvement in education.
These include Head Start policies in the 1960s, family leave policies, Title I regula-
tions in one form or another since the mid-1960s, Even Start legislation, Goals 2000
targets, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Improving America’s
Schools Act (IASA)—which preceded NCLB as the renewed version of ESEA—
and other laws and guidelines from the departments of Education, Labor, Health
and Human Services, Commerce, and Justice.
Although federal policies and related funds to improve schools and to increase
parental involvement have been continuous, the emphases at any point in time re-
flected the politics of education. As a result, there is little coherence across federal
laws from different departments and no clear way to evaluate progress or problems
in federally funded programs of family and community involvement. At this writing,
for example, NCLB’s Section 1118 requires states, districts, and schools to meet im-

portant requirements that could result in well-planned partnership programs in
every school. All kinds of “monitoring” are conducted to see if programs meet the
federal guidelines, but checklists cannot gauge the quality of partnership programs,
the equity of outreach to all families, whether and how programs and results im-
prove from year to year, or how local leaders should strengthen weak programs.
Federal laws are too distant from districts, schools, and families to serve as the
main guide for developing permanent partnership programs. Rather, federal guide-
lines must be interpreted by state, district, and school leaders. Their policies and
practices must integrate multiple funding streams for family involvement for general
education programs, special education, homeless education, drug abuse prevention,
health improvement, and other programs to produce a unified partnership program
in every district and in every school that is open to evaluation and improvement.
SUMMARY
Leadership and research-based actions at all levels—federal, state, district, and

school—are needed to enable all schools to improve their partnership programs.
The main work of school, family, and community partnerships occurs at the school
level where principals, teachers, parents, and students meet daily. Federal, state, and
district policies, funds, and professional development will be most valuable if they
guide educators, parents, students, and community members to work together to
implement effective school-based programs that welcome, respect, inform, and in-
volve all families in ways that support student learning and success in school.
Federal, state, and district policies and actions should be reviewed and revised
periodically to ensure that they encompass the latest, proven approaches. Leadership
goes beyond checking for compliance with federal or state rules. Leadership includes
ongoing assistance to evaluate progress and to continually improve plans, involve
more families, and increase students’ success in school. School policies must be
judged on whether they enable teachers, families, and others in the community to
work effectively together—as an action team—on behalf of the children they share
(see Chapters 5, 6, and 7).
This chapter includes a short reading outlining useful state policies and several
examples of state and district policies that are consistent with the theory, research,
and framework for school, family, and community partnerships presented in this
volume. The examples show how education leaders are beginning to (1) correct
vague goals for parental involvement by using the vocabulary of school, family, and
community partnerships; (2) identify the six major types of involvement to link
practices of partnership to school improvement goals; (3) provide staff development
to school action teams of principals, teachers, parents, and others; and (4) offer in-
centives and recognition for innovative and effective programs and practices.
This chapter also includes one reading that reports the results of research on
whether and how well districts are addressing requirements for parental involvement
in federal policy—NCLB. Taken together, the readings and activities in this chapter
introduce you to viable policies for school, family, and community partnerships and
to research on challenging policy questions.

READING 4.1
Parent Involvement:
State Education Agencies Should Lead the Way*
Words about the importance of parent involvement are meaningless without financial
and technical support.
ABSTRACT
Parent involvement is on everyone’s list of practices to make schools more effective,

to help families create more positive learning environments, to reduce the risk of
student failure, and to increase student success. Although most state education agen-
cies have policies on parental involvement, there still is little financial support for
leadership, programs, and actions needed to improve school programs, teachers’
practices, and parents’ understanding of ways to become involved in their children’s
education. This reading draws from research on school and family partnerships to
outline actions needed at the state level to improve programs to involve families in
every school.
OVERVIEW
One major finding from the research reported in Chapter 3 is that teacher leader-
ship, outreach, and involvement activities—not parent education, marital status, or
other background variables—made a difference in whether parents improved their
knowledge about the school and actions to help their children, and whether children
improved their reading scores. Because teachers and administrators play key roles
in including or excluding parents from their children’s education, state policies and
actions should aim to improve district-level and school-level leaders’ capabilities to
conduct parent involvement programs and practices that make a difference for stu-
dent success in class.
STATE SUPPORT OF PARENT INVOLVEMENT
State policies, bylaws, guidelines, and funds for educational programs strongly influ-
ence district and school leadership, teaching practice, and community support. These
policies can either recognize or ignore the connections between educational and so-
cializing institutions in a child’s life—the family, the school, and the community.
* By Joyce L. Epstein. Article updated 2010. An earlier version of this article was published in Com-
munity Education Journal 14, no. 4 (1987): 4–10.

State programs that address the needs of all families for useful information and
involvement in their children’s education give something back to families and citi-
zens for their education tax dollars. Parent involvement in a sequential, continuing
program from preschool through high school is one important factor for reducing
students’ school failure and dropping out, and increasing the probability of students’
graduating from high school. The quality of family and school connections all
through school can dramatically affect the students’ futures and determine whether
they become dependent on or contribute to the state. Programs through high school
that support family and community involvement and parent-child interactions about
school may be the most beneficial investments that can be made at the state, district,
and school levels to prevent more costly social and educational problems.
PARENT INVOLVEMENT AND CHOICE
In the mid-1980s, the National Governors’ Association Task Force on Parent In-
volvement and Choice focused a great deal of attention on the pros and cons of
increasing parents’ choices of the schools their children attend, especially choices
among public schools with different programs. However, after the choice of schools
is made—even if children attend their neighborhood schools—parents and educa-
tors must choose whether or not to emphasize parental involvement. Important
family and school connections start with the choice of or assignment to schools and
continue when teachers, parents, and students interact on a daily basis.
Students make many decisions each year. Their choices of programs, courses, ac-
tivities, opportunities, and special services affect their futures. Parents need to be
involved as knowledgeable partners in these decisions. They must understand how
the school system works; the goals and programs of the schools their children at-
tend; the options and consequences of decisions that concern their children each
school year; the course objectives and requirements for a passing grade; how teach-
ers define success and grade progress; the programs that are available to their chil-
dren before and after school, on weekends, and on Saturdays; and how their
children may participate in those programs.
Some parents have the information and experience they need to guide their chil-
dren through the elementary and secondary grades and into postsecondary school-
ing or work. Other parents—most parents—need and want information from
teachers and administrators about how to help their children make key decisions
and how to guide students’ in learning activities. This is true in all schools—public,
charter, or private; religious or secular; chosen or assigned—at all levels of schooling.
Even today, there is much discussion about parent involvement in the choice of
schools for their children, but too little attention paid to the importance of parent
involvement after the choice of schools is made. The strongest influences on part-
nership programs will come from districts and schools, but state departments of ed-
ucation, governor’s offices, and other state programs can and should establish
policies and take action to encourage and support district and school leaders to im-
prove their programs and practices of family and community involvement.

STATE LEADERSHIP FOR PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Research suggests that the following policies and actions at the state level will help
districts and schools improve programs and practices of school, family, and com-
munity partnerships and help to produce better academic and behavioral results for
more students.
1. Write a policy that outlines the state’s commitment to research-based and goal-
oriented programs of school, family, and community partnerships. An official policy
should recognize the importance of family and community involvement and the
need for well-planned partnership programs in districts and schools. The policy
should make explicit the state’s perspectives, expectations, and services that will
support research-based programs in districts and schools. A strong state policy
will recognize leadership at the district level and action-oriented teams of teachers,
parents, administrators, and others at the school level to plan, implement, evaluate,
and sustain partnership programs linked to school improvement goals. The policy
should call educators’ attention to the six types of involvement that can be acti-
vated to inform and engage all families in more ways to support student learning
and development.
It is not enough to mandate only parent advisory councils, or only parent-teacher
organizations, or only parent volunteers at the school building. These activities typ-
ically involve only a small number of parents and have little impact on helping all
parents monitor and guide their children’s education at all grade levels. Other types
of involvement must be implemented, including effective parent-teacher and parent-
teacher-student conferences with all parents, parent involvement in learning activi-
ties at home, and connections with the community. All children benefit if their
parents are knowledgeable about school programs and students’ options, and if
their parents are knowledgeable partners with teachers in their education.
A state policy must be clear and comprehensive, but also flexible and responsive.
Good policies recognize that districts and schools in the state have different starting
points in their practices of partnerships and serve diverse populations of parents
and students. An official policy on school, family, and community partnerships
should be accompanied by “enactments” that specify the services that the state will
provide to help every district and every school implement the policy. The following
are some activities that states may select to support the implementation of a policy
on school, family, and community partnerships.
2. Establish an office or department with an expert leader and adequate staff to

facilitate the development and continuous improvement of programs of school,
family, and community partnerships. Every state should have a director of school, fam-
ily, and community partnerships who is an expert on partnership program develop-
ment and who is known as the “go to” leader on partnership program development
for the state. This leader not only will continue to increase his or her knowledge
and skills for state-level leadership on partnerships, but also will increase awareness,
develop knowledge, and encourage the actions of colleagues in the state department

of education and in districts and schools in the state. Interdepartmental connections
with colleagues will help state leaders for partnerships strengthen their programs
and improve outreach to districts and schools in the state.
3. Write an annual Leadership Action Plan for Partnerships. To be effective, state

leaders for partnerships must write a Leadership Action Plan that outlines and
schedules the activities they will conduct each year to promote and support school,
family, and community partnerships at the state level and with districts and schools.
Research and field work reveal six leadership strategies for state and district lead-
ers that will be represented in activities selected to match the state’s policy context
and education goals. A strong state plan for partnerships will include activities to
create awareness, align program and policy, guide learning and program develop-
ment, share knowledge, celebrate milestones, document progress, and evaluate out-
comes of partnership programs (Epstein et al., 2009). The actions discussed in this
section will help state leaders fulfill these six leadership strategies.
4. Identify funds for state-level leadership on school, family, and community part-
nerships to cover staff and program costs. State leaders must have a budget for
partnership program development that covers staff salaries, training programs, small
grants for partnership projects, conferences to share best practices, evaluation stud-
ies, and/or other selected activities in the Leadership Action Plan for Partnerships.
A line item in the state education budget stabilizes support for leadership on part-
nerships, for state-level activities, and for the work state leaders do with districts
and schools.
The most effective parent involvement programs and practices are conducted at
the school level—where the students and families are located. State grants to dis-
tricts that are, then, channeled to schools can help to increase the number and qual-
ity of school-based programs to involve all families—including those typically hard
to reach—in their children’s education. State funds also might be used to provide
sabbaticals or summer salaries for district and school leaders to develop and adapt
materials to improve outreach to all families and effective practices.
There are potentially important connections between state funds and the quality
of partnership programs and practices in districts and schools. In most districts and
schools, funds are needed to translate materials for parents who do not speak or
read English, support interpreters at parent-teacher meetings, and develop effective
practices to involve special populations of single parents, young parents, parents of
children with special needs, and other groups that need specialized support. State
funds can be used to develop, test, and disseminate approaches and materials that
districts and schools can use or adapt to reach targeted populations of parents and
community groups. (Also see discussions and activities on funding for programs of
family and community involvement on pp. 362–368).
5. Conduct ongoing inservice education on partnerships. State leaders for partner-

ships should provide or support others to provide inservice education on beginning
and advanced topics for developing programs of school, family, and community

partnerships. Well-organized inservice education will outline scheduled dates for
professional development for district leaders to prepare them for their work on part-
nerships and advance their skills over time. Other inservice activities help state, dis-
trict, and school professionals continually improve their knowledge and their
programs of partnerships.
6. Collect, assess, and help leaders improve district policies on partnerships and the
organization of district leadership for partnership program development. Some fed-
eral policies (e.g., Title I in ESEA) and some state policies ask state leaders to collect
and monitor districts’ policies on parental involvement and related practices to
gauge compliance with requirements for funding. It is not enough, however, to col-
lect and rate policies or plans as “in” or “out” of compliance. State leaders must
also guide district leaders to continually improve their leadership and programs that
fulfill state policy requirements. This means that state leaders themselves must be
up-to-date on research and resources that will help district and school leaders im-
plement effective programs of family and community involvement that support stu-
dent success in school.
7. Evaluate teachers and administrators for their work on partnerships. State boards
of education should provide guidelines for districts to evaluate the quality of efforts
to conduct and improve family and community involvement in educators’ annual
or periodic evaluations. This component of professional work should be included
in the evaluations of district superintendents, district-level leaders for partnerships,
school principals, teachers, counselors, and instructional aides. Although these pro-
fessional evaluations are conducted at the district and school levels, state leaders
may assist with information, templates, and examples of rigorous yet reasonable
evaluations of educators’ competencies on leadership for partnerships and on part-
nership program development and improvement.
8. Support a master teacher, lead teacher, or other career ladder program to build a
cadre of district and school-based specialists in organizing, evaluating, and improv-
ing programs of family and community involvement. In a national survey, teachers
reported strong interest in developing leadership skills that enable them to be more
active participants in school improvement activities in their schools and in their dis-
tricts (MetLife, 2010). States may support innovative plans to improve the status
of teachers in this “hybrid” role of teacher and leader of an area for school reform.
Some professional development programs prepare teachers to become subject
matter specialists or “coaches” to assist other teachers in a school or within a dis-
trict. It also is possible to prepare and promote teachers who are specialists in school,
family, and community partnerships. For example, teachers who are chairs or co-
chairs of schools’ Action Teams for Partnerships tend to become expert in organizing
effective partnership programs. They not only lead their own schools’ work on
partnerships but also may climb a career ladder to become district-level leaders for
partnerships who guide other school-based teams to develop their programs of fam-
ily and community involvement. State support of career ladder programs may pro-
vide financial support, planning time, or other recognition for teacher leaders.

9. Develop partnership tools or products. State leaders for partnerships not only
use available tools and guidelines to develop their partnership programs but also
develop and customize tools to meet the needs and goals of schools, families, and
students in their locations. Leaders create brochures, calendars, newsletters, periodic
communiqués, translations of information and materials for families with limited
English skills, websites, summaries of research results, and other publications and
products. Districts and schools must solve various challenges (e.g., in involving fa-
thers, in engaging families who do not speak or read English, in welcoming new
families to the community, in explaining state assessments, and many other topics)
as they improve their partnership programs. State leaders for partnership can help
by developing “tailor-able tools” that district leaders and school teams can use or
adapt to engage all families in ways that support their children’s success in school.
10. Encourage business, industry, and other community connections to strengthen

school, family, and community partnerships. Some businesses have policies that per-
mit and encourage employees who are parents to become involved in their children’s
education and attend parent-teacher conferences. Some businesses have policies that
enable all employees, with or without school-age children, to volunteer time to assist
local schools. State leaders may work with legislators, business leaders, and com-
munity groups to draft legislation or develop other incentives (e.g., tax incentives,
tax credits, preferred status, or other types of recognition for businesses) that en-
courage businesses to support family and community involvement in schools. State
leaders also may encourage business, industry, university, and community leaders
to establish day care programs for young children, summer and vacation programs
for school-age students, and information centers on child and adolescent develop-
ment for employees who are parents, and they may recognize organizations that
conduct these family-friendly and student-support activities. See the discussion and
activities on support by business and industry for family and community involve-
ment of employees on pp. 376–378.
11. Establish an advisory committee so that state education leaders hear from par-
ents and the community about partnerships and other educational issues. Each state
should have an advisory committee with representatives of key stakeholders that
meets on a regular schedule with the state superintendent of schools and/or the
office on partnerships. The members of the advisory committee should represent
the diverse population of students and families served in the state. They will repre-
sent varied perspectives on how state leaders can strengthen family and community
involvement in all districts and schools.
12. Establish a website, library, clearinghouse, and/or dissemination center for re-
search on partnerships, promising practices of family and community involvement,
and useful materials and resources. State offices for family and community involve-
ment may collect and disseminate information on partnerships and share best prac-
tices on a website, in family resource centers, and in other convenient locations. State
leaders can use new technologies to collect and share summaries of research results
on partnerships; effective approaches for organizing partnership programs; teachers’

practices for involving parents in conferences, homework, and extracurricular and
other activities; tools to evaluate the quality and progress of partnership programs;
forms and technologies for communicating with parents; information on child and
adolescent development and parenting strategies; and other information and mate-
rials. The materials developed at the state level may be tailored and disseminated by
district leaders in forms useful to educators, parents, and the public in their areas.
13. Support requirements for preservice and advanced education to prepare new
teachers and administrators to conduct excellent partnership programs. State leaders
should support legislation for state certification that requires future teachers and ad-
ministrators to take at least one course on how to conduct an effective program of
school, family, and community partnerships. State grants and other awards should
support state colleges and universities in developing preservice and advanced courses
on family and community involvement for future teachers and administrators. The
content must go beyond coverage of traditional communications with families (e.g.,
parent-teacher conferences) to include education for future educators on how to plan,
implement, evaluate, and improve outreach to parents and results for students.
Currently, in most states, future teachers, principals, counselors, and other ad-
ministrators are not required to obtain and demonstrate knowledge and skills on
developing effective and sustainable programs of family and community involve-
ment linked to school improvement goals for student success in school (see Chapter
1 for an overview). Yet every educator entering a school or classroom must work
every day with children and their families. Future teachers’ abilities to implement
home and school connections are as critical to their success as their abilities to teach
reading or manage classrooms. Future principals, too, need to know how to guide
teams of educators, parents, and community partners to work together to develop
an effective school-based program of family and community involvement.
14. Support research and evaluation on the quality and effects of programs and
practices of school, family, and community partnerships. State leaders should collect
and analyze data to learn whether and how well state level partnership programs
are working and how districts and schools improve the quality, outreach, and results
of partnership programs over time. Or state leaders should arrange for periodic ex-
ternal evaluations of these activities.
Educators know that what gets measured gets done. Many educators will continue
to consider parental involvement “extra stuff” or “fluff” until there is clear account-
ability for partnership programs. This includes clarity on what data to collect to learn
if district leaders are effectively guiding schools to develop goal-linked partnership
programs and whether and how school teams are organizing effective programs to
involve all families in ways that support student learning and development.
Measures must be made of current involvement activities, quality of implementa-
tion, extent of outreach to families and community partners, responses from families
and community partners, and, ultimately, results for students. Some documentation
is relatively simple, such as gathering district policies and providing feedback on
these documents. Other evaluations are complex, such as collecting longitudinal data

to study whether the quality of school partnership programs affects student atten-
dance, achievement, and behavior over time (Epstein et al., 2009).
DISCUSSION
The policies and actions outlined in this chapter require leadership, time, funds, and
commitments for the long term. State departments of education that establish these
four requirements will have more successful and sustainable programs of school,
family, and community partnerships.
Funding is particularly important, not only to support the state leaders for part-
nerships, but also for the investments in teacher training, evaluation studies, and
the other activities discussed above. Funds for state leaders should be ensured for
an extended period of time (just as funds support curricular improvements) to de-
velop state leaders’ expertise on partnerships and to help district and school leaders
improve and sustain their programs of family and community involvement that con-
tribute to student success in school. Funds to increase the number and quality of
partnership programs in districts and schools in the state are likely to be returned
to the state in the form of better-informed parents, more successful students, more
effective teachers, fewer student failures, higher graduation rates, and fewer de-
mands on other state and local resources for expensive social services when the stu-
dents are adolescents and young adults.
Parent involvement is not the parents’ responsibility alone. Nor is it the state’s,
district’s, or school’s responsibility alone. Parent involvement is everybody’s job but
nobody’s job until a structure is put in place to support it. Without financial and
technical support from state education agencies, words about the importance of
parent involvement are meaningless. State policies—the words—are necessary but
not sufficient for enabling all districts and schools to develop strong programs of
family and community involvement. Policies that are unfunded and unsupported
will be unwelcome and ineffective.
In sum, state leaders have important responsibilities for developing and continu-
ally improving their knowledge, skills, and activities of school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships. They also must take steps to facilitate the knowledge and skills of
district leaders and school-based Action Teams for Partnerships so that every ele-
mentary, middle, and high school is able to develop its own program of partnership.
REFERENCES
Epstein, J. L. (2009). District and State Leadership for School, Family, and Community Part-
nerships. In J. L. Epstein et al., School, family, and community partnerships: Your handbook
for action (3rd ed.; pp. 235–273). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
MetLife. (2010). Survey of American teachers: Collaborating for student success, part 3, teach-
ing as a career. New York: Author.

READING 4.2
Sample State and District Policies on School,
Family, and Community Partnerships*
Three state policies from California, Connecticut, and Wisconsin and three district
policies from Buffalo, New York, Middletown, Connecticut, and Saint Paul, Min-
nesota, are included in this chapter. The policies were selected because they are
thoughtfully written, research-based, and comprehensive and because they include
administrative commitments to help schools enact the policies. The policies call for
well-planned programs that reach out to involve all parents, *3 with district leaders
and school-based teams to organize and plan programs that use the framework of
six types of involvement and recognize work done well. The words and emphases
of these policies may help other states and districts to develop simple yet responsive
policies and enactments on school, family, and community partnerships.
Having a good policy is the first step on the path to partnerships. The featured
policies should not be interpreted to mean that these states and districts have com-
pleted their work or fulfilled their policies. Indeed, all of the states and districts
noted here still have a great deal of work to do to help all schools develop and sus-
tain comprehensive programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
STATE POLICIES: CALIFORNIA, CONNECTICUT, AND WISCONSIN

California State Board of Education Policy
Subject: Parent Involvement in the Education of Their Children
Introduction
A critical dimension of effective schooling is parent involvement: Research has

shown conclusively, that parent involvement at home in their children’s education
improves student achievement. Furthermore, when parents are involved at school,
their children go farther in school and they go to better schools.
From research studies to date, we have learned the following important facts:
1. Families provide the primary educational environment.

2. Parent involvement in their children’s education improves student
achievement.
* The term parent refers to any caregiver who assumes responsibility for nurturing and caring for chil-
dren, including parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, foster parents, stepparents, guardians, etc. Some ed-
ucators and researchers use the terms parent involvement, family involvement, family engagement, and
related terms. In my view, these terms focused on parents’ behaviors are embedded in the overarching
goal of developing excellent programs of school, family, and community partnerships that increase stu-
dent learning and success in school.

3. Parent involvement is most effective when it is comprehensive,
supportive, long-lasting and well-planned.
4. The benefits of parent involvement are not limited to early childhood or the
elementary level; there are continuing positive effects through high school.
5. Involving parents in supporting their children’s education at home is not
enough. To ensure the quality of schools as institutions serving the
community, parents must be involved at all levels in the schools.
6. Children from low-income and culturally and racially diverse families
have the most to gain when schools involve parents. The extent of parent
involvement in a child’s education is more important to student success
than family income or education.
7. We cannot look at the school and the home in isolation from one
another; families and schools need to collaborate to help children adjust
to the world of school. This is particularly critical for children from
families with different cultural and language backgrounds.
Schools that undertake and support strong comprehensive parent involvement

efforts are more likely to produce students who perform better than identical schools
that do not involve parents. Schools that have strong linkages with and respond to
the needs of the communities they serve, have students that perform better than
schools that don’t. Children who have parents who help them at home and stay in
touch with the school, do better academically than children of similar aptitude and
family background whose parents are not involved. The inescapable fact is that
consistently high levels of student success are more likely to occur with long-term
comprehensive parent involvement in schools.
The California State Board of Education recognizes that a child’s education is a
responsibility shared by school and family during the entire period the child spends
in school. Although parents come to the schools with diverse cultural backgrounds,
primary languages, and needs, they overwhelmingly want their children to be suc-
cessful in school. School districts and schools, in collaboration with parents, teach-
ers, students and administrators, must establish and develop efforts that enhance
parent involvement and reflect the needs of students and families in the communities
which they serve.
To support the mission of California schools to educate all students effectively,
schools and parents must work together as knowledgeable partners. All of the grade
level reforms, Here they come: Ready or Not!, It’s Elementary, Caught in the Middle,
Second to None, and other major initiatives such as Healthy Start (SB 620) and
School Restructuring (SB 1274), emphasize parent and community involvement
in school restructuring. The reform efforts support school-based shared decision-
making at the school site that includes all stakeholders, including teachers, admin-
istrators, students, parents and other community members.
The State Board of Education will continue to support, through the California
Department of Education, assistance to school districts and schools in developing
strong comprehensive parent involvement. Comprehensive means that parents are
involved at all grade levels in a variety of roles. The efforts should be designed to:

1. Help parents develop parenting skills to meet the basic obligations of
family life and foster conditions at home, which emphasize the importance
of education and learning.
2. Promote two-way (school-to-home and home-to-school) communication
about school programs and students’ progress.
3. Involve parents, with appropriate training, in instructional and support
roles at the school and in other locations that help the school and
students reach stated goals, objectives and standards.
4. Provide parents with strategies and techniques for assisting their children
with learning activities at home that support and extend the school’s
instructional program.
5. Prepare parents to actively participate in school decision making and
develop their leadership skills in governance and advocacy.
6. Provide parents with skills to access community and support services that
strengthen school programs, family practices, and student learning and
development.
These six types of parent involvement roles require a coordinated school-wide

effort that has the support of parents, teachers, students and administrators at each
school site. Furthermore, research indicates that home-school collaboration is most
likely to happen if schools take the initiative to encourage, guide and genuinely wel-
come parents into the partnership. Professional development for teachers and ad-
ministrators on how to build such a partnership is essential.
The issue of parent involvement in the education of their children is much larger
than improving student achievement. It is central to our democracy that parents
and citizens participate in the governing of public institutions. Parent involvement
is fundamental to a healthy system of public education.
ADOPTED JANUARY 14, 1989; UPDATED SEPTEMBER 9, 1994
Connecticut State Board of Education

Adopts a Definition of School-Family-Community
Public Act 97-290, Section 14, requires each local and regional board of education
to “develop, adopt, and implement written policies and procedures to encourage
parent-teacher communication. These policies and procedures may include monthly
newsletters, required regular contact with all parents, flexible parent-teacher confer-
ence, drop in hours for parents, home visits, and the use of technology such as home-
work hot lines to allow parents to check on their children’s assignments and students
to get assistance if needed.” The state law went into effect September 1, 1998.
In 1997 and again in 2009, the Connecticut State Board of Education issued a
Position Statement on School-Family-Community Partnerships for Student Success
to guide state, district, and school leaders, parents, and the public to understand
and implement the short policy statement. Following is the most recent version of
the statement:

The Connecticut State Board of Education believes education is a shared responsibility
throughout a student’s life from birth to adulthood. Families, school staff and com-
munity members make important contributions to student success and the best results
come when all three work together as equal partners. The purpose of these three-way
partnerships is to support students’ success in school and through life.
A Definition of School-Family-Community
Partnerships
The State Board of Education endorses a research-based definition of school-family-

community partnerships that can be applied to policies and practices across the
state that result in student success.
School-family-community partnerships are:
• A shared responsibility with schools and other community

organizations committed to engaging families in meaningful, culturally
respectful ways as well as families actively supporting their children’s
learning and development;
• Continuous across a student’s life, beginning in infancy and extending
through college and career preparation programs; and
• Carried out everywhere that children learn including homes, early
childhood education programs, schools, after-school programs, faith-
based institutions, playgrounds, and community settings.
Taken together, this definition supports the creation of pathways to partnerships

that honor the dynamic, multiple and complementary ways that children learn and
grow. Family engagement is everything family members do to support their chil-
dren’s learning, guide them through a complex school system, advocate for them
when problems arise, and collaborate with educators and community groups to
achieve more equitable and effective learning opportunities. The terms parent or
family are intended to mean a natural, adoptive or foster parent, or other adult serv-
ing as a parent, such as a close relative, legal or educational guardian and/or a com-
munity or agency advocate.
As students become older and more mature, they should and will take increasing
responsibility for their learning. Nevertheless, they will need support from the adults
in their lives throughout their educational careers.
A Comprehensive Approach
In order to encourage a comprehensive approach to school-family-community part-

nerships, the Board recommends that school districts develop programs addressing
each of the following six standards:

1. Parent education. Identify and prioritize as needed, secondary school completion
options and English language learning services for parents of school age children.
Support the family’s essential role in encouraging children’s learning at every age
and in developing positive parent-child relationships.
2. Communicating and creating a welcoming climate. Promote ongoing, clear,

meaningful, and two-way communication about school programs and student learn-
ing, and develop personal relationships among school staff, families, students and
community members.
3. Volunteering. Involve families in instruction and support, both in and out of

school, and in creating a family-friendly atmosphere at school.
4. Supporting learning at home. Involve families in learning and enrichment activ-

ities at home and in the community that are linked to academic standards.
5. Decision-making and advocacy. Provide opportunities for families to develop

and strengthen their leadership roles in school decisions, especially those related to
student performance and school improvement.
6. Collaborating with community. Provide coordinated access to community re-

sources, serve as a resource to the community and offer opportunities for commu-
nity service.
To be effective, these standards of engagement should be connected to the goals

of the school district’s improvement planning, and designed to engage students and
families in strengthening specific knowledge and skills identified as needing work
by assessment data. Parent and community engagement that is linked to student
learning has a greater effect on achievement than more general involvement.
Characteristics of Successful
School-Family-Community Partnerships
The State Board of Education recognizes that school-family-community partnerships

must focus on activities that are linked to children’s learning. They also must reflect
the many ways in which families, community organizations, and school staff engage
with and support one another, from promoting family literacy, to improving schools
and advocating for greater educational quality and opportunity.
Successful partnerships are as varied as their local communities, yet they share
certain common characteristics. Effective partnerships are:
1. Respectful. All partners develop relationships that recognize, respect and build
on the diverse strengths, talents, needs, and interests of families and students.

2. Inclusive. Staff reach out to all families, especially those who are culturally di-
verse or have low levels of income. They examine their assumptions and come to
know and learn from families as individuals. All families are honored and valued
as partners in their children’s education.
3. Flexible. Partnerships are tailored to all stages of a student’s educational career,

and offer a variety of times, locations and opportunities for participation.
4. Democratic. Families and young people are equal partners with staff, together
constructing programs, policies and information. Leadership is open to families,
students and other partners.
5. Systematic. Partnerships focus on student achievement and help families and

community members understand what students are learning and what the district’s
standards for successful performance mean for different ages and grade levels.
Benefits of High-Quality School-Family-Community

Partnership Programs
Research shows that well-planned partnerships among families, school and com-
munity members can make a powerful contribution to greater student success. No
matter what their income or background, students with involved families tend to
have higher grades and test scores, better attendance, and higher rates of homework
completion. They enroll in more challenging classes, have better social skills and
behavior, and are more likely to graduate and go on to college.
Families and schools also benefit. Families engaged in partnerships have a greater
sense of efficacy, stronger social ties and are more likely to continue their own ed-
ucation. Teachers report greater job satisfaction when they work with families, and
families who are more involved hold more positive views of teachers and schools.
Increased involvement develops feelings of ownership, resulting in greater family
and community support for public education.
The State Board of Education understands that it takes more than engaged fam-
ilies and communities to sustain high student achievement. High-performing schools
have many characteristics, including high standards and expectations for student
learning, effective school leadership as well as high quality curriculum and instruc-
tion. Research also shows, however, that successful schools also have strong ties
with families and their community. An effective program of school-family-community
partnerships is a critical support students require to realize their potential, and one
essential step toward eliminating our state’s achievement gaps.
ADOPTED: NOVEMBER 4, 2009

SUPPLEMENT TO POSITION STATEMENT,
NOVEMBER 2009
The Connecticut State Board of Education in its 2009 Position Statement on School-
Family-Community Partnerships for Student Success calls for a shared responsibility
among three equal partners to support students’ success in school and through life.
This document is intended to offer additional guidance to the Position Statement.
To develop effective school-family-community partnership programs, state, dis-
trict and school leaders, along with parents, community leaders and students, must
identify goals for their collaboration. Each member of the team has an important
role to play and unique contributions to make to the partnership.
State Department of Education Responsibilities
Develop and promote school-family-community partnership programs that con-

tribute to success for all students.
• Provide resources and technical assistance to school districts to help

them implement programs of partnership, in accordance with this policy
statement. This leadership includes promoting the six standards of
family engagement and the full involvement of all major partners.
• Expand the message from a focus on parenting to emphasize the shared
responsibility of families, schools and communities to create pathways
for family engagement to support student achievement.
• Hold public forums, summits and other meetings to solicit ideas from
parents, educators and others about how families, schools and
communities can work together to support student learning.
Coordinate and strengthen the family and community engagement components

of all major state and federal programs.
• Identify all state and federal programs that have family and community
engagement requirements and assess their implementation and
effectiveness.
• Collect and disseminate information about current research, best
practice and model policies and programs.
School Districts’ Responsibilities
Create a culture of partnership.
• The district must make family engagement a priority, set clear goals for
school-family-community partnerships that all schools are expected to
meet and monitor progress on those goals.

• The school board should establish policies that support partnerships,
such as making school facilities available to the community and families
and creating roles for businesses and community organizations.
• Connect school-family-community partnerships directly to the district’s
improvement initiative.
• The district should designate a senior level administrator responsible for
school-family-community partnerships to provide leadership for
program implementation, coordination and accountability.
• The district should guide all schools to develop and implement a
systematic and effective plan for engaging families in improving student
achievement that aligns with school and district improvement plans.
Organize district resources to create a structure of support so that all schools

can and will establish and sustain strong partnerships.
• The district should develop structures to implement fully the six

standards of family engagement and monitor progress to determine
which practices produce the best results.
• The district should provide training and support for teachers,
administrators, other staff members and families in developing
partnership skills, especially understanding and appreciating diversity,
developing skills to work with people from different backgrounds and
linking programs and activities to student learning.
• The district should provide learning and development opportunities for
families such as parent leadership and advocacy training, adult
education, literacy and English language instruction so that parents may
be full partners in their children’s education.
• The district should prioritize engagement of parents of school age
children who may need English as a Second Language program and high
school completion programs such as GED test preparation.
Schools’ Responsibilities
Welcome all family and community members to the school.
• The principal should consistently demonstrate commitment to families

and expect and support all staff to create a respectful, inclusive and
family-friendly environment.
• School staff should make every effort to build trusting, relevant
relationships among families, staff and community members.
Engage families and community members in a systematic way to help the school
meet its student achievement goals.

• All family engagement programs and activities should be linked to
student learning so that families can understand what their children are
learning in class and gain skills to help them at home.
• Teachers should learn and practice effective, research-based strategies
linking family engagement to student success.
Communicate regularly with families about student learning.
• The school should use many two-way pathways for communication, in

everyday language that is translated into families’ home languages.
• Schools should make it easy for any family to communicate with
teachers, the principal and other administrators.
Encourage families to be advocates for their own and others’ children, to

ensure that students are treated fairly and have access to meaningful learning
opportunities.
• Give families information about how the school system works and how
to raise questions or concerns.
• Give families information and support to monitor their children’s
progress and guide them toward their goals, including college.
• Promote opportunities for families to take part in learning and
development programs related to leadership, advocacy and adult
education including literacy and English language instruction.
Make families and school staff equal partners in decisions that affect children
and families.
• A school council or other decision-making group should include

families and give them a voice in major decisions, including principal
selection.
• Every school should have a strong, broad-based parent organization that
can advocate on behalf of families and children.
Collaborate with community organizations to connect students, families and staff

to expand learning opportunities, community services and civic participation.
• School staff should work closely with community organizations,

businesses and institutes of higher education to make resources available
and turn the school into a hub of community life.

Families’ Responsibilities
Create a home environment that promotes learning and holds children to high
expectations.
• Engage in family reading activities and support homework. Emphasize

the value of education and hard work. Talk to children about school and
help them think about and plan for their future.
Build a relationship with children’s teachers.
• Let teachers know families want to work with them as a partner to

ensure children’s success. Ask teachers to keep families informed about
children’s progress.
Take advantage of the opportunities the school and district provide.
• Join the parent organization and seek out ways to contribute at home or
at school. Attend meetings and get to know school staff.
• Engage in parent leadership and family literacy programs that build
parents’ own skills and knowledge.
Make sure children go to school every day and closely monitor how they are
doing in school.
• If a child is struggling or falling behind, contact the teacher or a

counselor and insist on getting help.
• Make sure children are taking challenging classes or programs. Ask
teachers or counselors for help if children need it to succeed. Learn about
what students must do to graduate on time and be ready for college.
Community Leaders’ Responsibilities
Work with the district to create community schools that provide integrated family
support services.
• Survey families and staff at each school to find out their interests and
needs. Respond by mapping the assets in the community, building
upon existing resources and co-locating social and health services in
schools.
Form a network of organizations that can partner with schools to strengthen

families and support student success.

• Community members and employees can: serve as volunteers, role
models and mentors; give students individual attention; and demonstrate
the value the community places on education. Businesses can sponsor
partnership activities and encourage employees to play an active role.
Libraries, museums, colleges and cultural agencies can reduce fees and
make special programs available for families.
Students’ Responsibilities
(as developmentally appropriate)
Take responsibility for learning.
• Students are entitled to a free public education and should take full
advantage, asking for help when needed.
• Take initiative to find and explore new areas of learning that are of
personal interest.
Form a student organization at school.
• Let the teachers and principal know what is working well in the school
and how it could be better.
Join the school improvement team.
• Ask the principal and teachers for student-led conferences where

students can display work, explain what has been learned and discuss
what students want and will need to learn.
Plan for your future and think carefully about goals in life.
• Discuss ideas with family, teachers, counselors and other adults. Find out
how to reach those goals.
ADOPTED: NOVEMBER 4, 2009
Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction

Policy on Family-School-Community Partnerships
The Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (DPI) recognizes that parents and
families are a child’s first and most important teachers. When children enter school,
the responsibility for their learning is shared by the schools, families, communities,
and the children themselves.

Further, the DPI believes that:
• All children deserve to grow up in nurturing, healthy, and safe learning

environments in which families are supported in their roles and
responsibilities;
• Families of all cultures, languages, and incomes care deeply about their
children’s success; and
• Family-school-community collaboration and partnerships benefit all
children.
Successful family-school-community partnerships include the following goals:
• Communication between home and school is regular, two-way, and

meaningful.
• Responsible parenting, quality teaching, and caring communities are
promoted and supported.
• Families and the community play a key role in helping students learn.
• School staff provide a welcoming environment for parents and other
community members and seek their support.
• Parents participate in advocacy and decisions, including budget and
curriculum, that affect children and families at the local, district, and
state levels.
• Community resources are made available to strengthen school programs,
family practices, and student learning, and community partners
participate in helping schools meet their learning goals.
To meet its mission that all school-age children have access to quality educational
programs that meet high standards of excellence, the DPI provides leadership and
resources to enable communities, schools, and families, including students, to work
as knowledgeable partners. Therefore, the DPI:
• Educates and expects its staff to promote family-school-community

partnerships and community collaborations;
• Is responsive to parents and other citizens who contact the DPI for help
or to offer suggestions;
• Encourages school leaders to create a respectful, safe, and caring school
climate welcoming family and community participation;
• Promotes and supports education and training for educators, families,
and other citizens to develop and maintain partnerships and
collaborations for life-long learning; and
• Promotes schools and communities that work together to improve
student learning and citizenship development.
APPROVED: APRIL 28, 2004

School District Policies:
Buffalo (NY), Middletown (CT), and Saint Paul (MN)
Buffalo Public Schools
Parent Involvement Policy 3170
2008
Subject: Parent Involvement Policy
Parent Involvement Beliefs
The Buffalo Public Schools believes that education is a partnership among the student,
parent/guardian, school, and community. The academic achievement and success of
our students depend on the actions, relationships, and strengths of these partnerships.
Students, who are at the center of the partnerships, have unique skills, talents,
and learning styles and are ultimately accountable for their own academic achieve-
ment. Parents and families provide their children with the foundation of their values,
including educational values, responsibilities, expectations, rules for home/school
environment, and aspirations. Parents are the primary providers in preparing their
children for school readiness and academic success. Parents’ knowledge of their chil-
dren’s unique histories, traditions, life experiences, and learning experiences are im-
portant to their success. Parents also share knowledge about community resources
and challenges, both of which are valuable and critical to their child’s progress. The
educational responsibility for our students is shared by the parents, district, schools,
and community.
Parent Involvement Framework
In 1999, the Buffalo Public Schools adopted the framework of the National Net-
work of Partnership Schools, a research-based model of parent involvement de-
signed by Dr. Joyce Epstein of Johns Hopkins University. The Buffalo Chapter of
this Partnership assists our schools in developing comprehensive programs of school,
family, and community partnerships as part of their efforts to increase parent in-
volvement. This model is based on the following six types of parental involvement:
1. Parenting. Assist families with parenting and child-rearing skills, understanding

child and adolescent development, and setting home conditions that support chil-
dren as students at each grade level.
2. Communicating. Communicate with families about programs and student’s

progress through effective school-to-home and home-to-school communication.
3. Volunteering. Improve recruitment, training work, and schedules to involve fam-

ilies as volunteers and audiences at the school or in other locations to support stu-
dents and school programs.

4. Student Learning at Home. Involve families with their children in learning ac-
tivities at home, including homework and other curriculum-related activities and
decisions.
5. Decision Making. Include families as participants in school decisions, gover-

nance, and advocacy through PTO/PTA, school councils, committees, and other par-
ent organizations.
6. Collaborating With the Community. Coordinate resources and services for fam-
ilies, students, and the school with businesses, agencies, and other groups, and pro-
vide services to the community.
District Responsibilities/Expectations
To successfully implement the District’s beliefs in parent involvement, support will

be comprised of, but not limited to the following:
1. Continuing to foster a network of sharing among schools through the

Buffalo Chapter of the National Network of Partnership Schools
framework.
2. Providing a budget allocation to support district and school parental
involvement initiatives.
3. Establishing a parent organization in every school.
4. Hiring a parent facilitator in every school.
5. Disseminating information relevant to student achievement and parents’
rights through community meetings, telephone contact, and individual
schools.
6. Providing for parent participation on all district decision-making teams.
7. Supporting a District Parent Center that provides academic assistance to
parents, students, and community.
8. Ensuring compliance with Section 1118 (parent involvement) of the No
Child Left Behind legislation.
9. Providing an effective mechanism to ensure mutual respect and
accountability between school/parent partnerships.
The District Parent Coordinating Council
The purpose of the District Parent Coordinating Council is to ensure that a part-
nership with the District is created and to monitor the implementation of the Board
of Education’s Parent Involvement Policy. The Council is the venue for disseminating
relevant and important information from the Superintendent, as well as serving as
a conduit for parental feedback to the District. The Council receives support from
Erie I BOCES Regional School Support Center, including having a member working

in conjunction with the Council’s Executive Board. The general Council meetings
are held monthly. All district parents are welcome, including all organizations that
represent parents, such as the Special Education Parent Advisory Committee and
the Title I District Advisory Council.
Building Responsibilities and Expectations
Principals, in collaboration with parents and the support of the District Parent Co-
ordinating Council, Buffalo Chapter of the National Network of Partnership
Schools, and the Erie I BOCES Regional School Support Center, will:
1. Establish a parent/family organization in each school and shall:

• Call at least one business meeting of the parent organization each
year in order to encourage the inclusion of new parents into the
organization.
• Elect officers and have regular meetings, scheduled in consultation
with parents and announced publicly, inviting all to attend.
• Be maintained as a viable entity to ensure that parents, who are full
partners in their child’s education, have an opportunity to be
included in meetings and decision-making.
• Elect/appoint members to represent all parents from the school
community to the District Parent Coordinating Council, School
Based Management Team, and Action Teams related to student
achievement.
2. Establish a parent room in each school.
Parent Responsibilities and Expectations
Parent involvement is the action parents take to participate in regular, two way, and
meaningful communication with their children’s schools to provide an education
that graduates productive citizens. All parent involvement is aimed at increasing
student achievement through various levels of involvement.
Parents can be defined as any parent, guardian, and/or person in parental relation
to a child or children. Parents are expected to:
1. Ensure that children come to school prepared and ready to learn.

2. Provide high-quality nutrition, adequate sleep, and exercise for their
children.
3. Provide a learning environment for children to do homework and
actively monitor their children’s homework and level of completion.
4. Review and support the District Attendance Policy.
5. Review and support the District Code of Conduct.
6. Attend parent/family organization meetings, parent/teacher conferences,
and workshops designed to increase student achievement.

7. Communicate with teachers and principals as partners in their children’s
academic success.
The Buffalo Board of Education and the Superintendent of Buffalo Public Schools
endorse and support this plan to help ensure the BPS mission of “Putting children
and families first to ensure high academic achievement for all.”
NOTE: Refer also to Policies #7660—Parent Involvement—Children with Dis-
abilities and #8260—Programs and Projects Funded By Title I.
ADOPTED: APRIL 24, 2002
REVISED: FEBRUARY 13, 2008
Middletown (CT) Board of Education

Parent Involvement Policy
6172.4(a)
The Middletown Board of Education actively supports and encourages parent in-
volvement in all of its schools and programs. This policy also meets the applicable
No Child Left Behind guidelines in the district’s Title I schools. The Board recognizes
that cooperative efforts among the parents,* school and community are essential to
building strong educational programs for all children.
Toward this end and pursuant to federal law, the Middletown School District
has developed and will distribute this written parent involvement policy based on
discussion and consultation with parents of children participating in the Title I pro-
gram along with parents of non-participating children. In turn, each Middletown
school, both Title I and non-Title I, will develop and distribute its own parent in-
volvement policy/compact, consistent with district policy but specific to that school’s
interests and needs.
As recommended by Connecticut’s State Board of Education, the Middletown
Board recognizes and supports these six standards for building and maintaining ef-
fective school-family-community partnerships. The illustrations noted are some, not
all, of the programs and activities that help Middletown meet these standards.
1. Parenting: Promote and support effective parenting skills and the family’s
primary role in encouraging children’s learning at each age and grade level.
• Middletown meets this standard through its family math and
language arts nights, Parent Leadership Training Institutes (PLTI),
pre-school workshops for parents, parenting workshops, and Even
Start (adult ed.), and Family Resource Centers initiatives.
2. Communicating: ongoing, two-way, and meaningful communication
between schools, families, and the community.
• Middletown meets this standard through its PTAs and PTOs,
principals’ coffees, parent-teacher conferences, curriculum nights,
* “Parents” or “Parent” also includes guardians and other family members involved in supervising chil-
dren’s schooling.

Comcast programs, newsletters, and district, school, and classroom
web pages. The new parent involvement committees will strengthen
this communication.
3. Volunteering: provide training to parents and community members to
support learning both in and out of school.
• Middletown meets this standard through its extensive student
mentor program, family outreach worker efforts, PLTIs, read-ins,
student tutor collaborations with Middlesex Community College
and Wesleyan University, parent volunteer program, and several
student volunteer/service activities.
4. Learning at home: encourage family involvement in school and
curriculum related enrichment activities.
• Middletown meets this standard through its parent math and
language arts nights, numerous school-related and educational
websites, newsletters (weekly to monthly), and curricular activities
that focus on and engage families. Again, the new parent
involvement committees will help us better meet this standard.
5. Decision making: help all families strengthen their leadership in school
decisions.
• Middletown will better meet this standard through the formation of
parent involvement committees at all of its eleven schools, continued
support of PLTIs, inviting greater parent participation on curriculum
development efforts, and giving greater attention to student
performance and curriculum initiatives at its PTA, PTO, and MSA
(Middletown Schools Association—the umbrella organization for
Middletown’s PTAs and PTOs) meetings.
6. Collaborating with the community: enable schools and families to
access—and serve as—community resources.
• Middletown meets this standard through its work with the NAACP,
United Way, Ascend, Excel, Upward Bound, park and recreation
department, local colleges and universities, school-business
partnerships, and neighborhood outreach through community
centers and religious organizations.
Annually, parents of both Title I and non-Title I students will help evaluate, revise,
and implement their school’s policies for the following year. Every effort will be
made to engage these parents and to comply with the new federal and state regula-
tions. Both at the district and school levels, the parent committees will convene an-
nually to assess the district’s success in meeting the six standards and improving
overall academic quality. The district parent involvement advisory committee will
comprise representatives from all eleven schools and will include Title I parents.
Building principals and the assistant superintendent will be responsible for organiz-
ing and maintaining both district and building level parent involvement committees.
The school-based committees will each compile a brief report, submitting this to
the district parent involvement advisory committee. The advisory committee will
review the reports and compile a summary report to be shared with the Board of

Education and community. Specifically, the committees will consider data from the
district’s many assessments (i.e., DRAs, CMTs, CAPTs, SATs, in-house grades and
assessments, GPAs, drop-out and behavioral information), success at fulfilling the
objectives and recommendations in the annual district/school/department improve-
ment and diversity enhancement plans. The committee will also review Reading
First, Literacy Collaborative, and Early Reading Success progress as revealed
through these and other measures.
Beyond the annual review and planning meetings, schools receiving Title I funds
will conduct three additional meetings—again, scheduled to accommodate as many
Title I parents as possible—to provide parents with:
• Information about Title I funded programs;

• Clear and coherent descriptions of curricula, including the kinds of
assessments and levels of expected proficiency;
• Opportunities to make suggestions and participate in decisions affecting
their children’s educational experiences;
• Opportunities to bring to the district level any concerns that are not
satisfactorily addressed at the building level.
The district and schools will ensure that parents of children identified to partic-
ipate in Title I programs shall receive from the school principal and Title I staff an
explanation of the reasons supporting each child’s selection for the program, a set
of objectives to be addressed, and a description of the services to be provided. Op-
portunities will be provided for the parents to meet with the classroom and Title I
teachers to discuss their child’s progress. Parents will also receive guidance about
how they can assist in educating their children at home.
As part of its school’s parent involvement policy, each Title I school in Middle-
town shall jointly develop with parents of children served a “School-Parent Com-
pact” outlining the roles and responsibilities of parents, staff, and students for
improved student academic achievement in meeting state and federal standards.
Each school’s “School-Parent Compact” shall:
1. Describe the school’s responsibility to provide high-quality curriculum and

instruction in a supportive and effective learning environment enabling
children in the Title I program to meet the State’s academic achievement
standards;
2. Indicate the ways in which parents will be responsible for supporting
their children’s learning (e.g., monitoring attendance, completing
homework, monitoring TV and video viewing, attending school
activities, and participating, as appropriate, in decisions related to their
children’s education and extra-curricular time); and
3. Address the importance of parent-teacher communication on an on-
going basis, with at a minimum, parent-teacher conferences, frequent
reports to parents, and reasonable access to staff.
4. Address the six standards for building and maintaining school-family-

POLICY ADOPTED: FEBRUARY 10, 2004
POLICY READOPTED: JUNE 20, 2006, MIDDLETOWN, CONNECTICUT
Saint Paul Public Schools

Family Involvement Policy 615.00
Purpose (2002)
The Board believes that the involvement of families in the children’s education every
year, preK–12, has positive impact on the student’s success in school. Research in-
dicates that planned, comprehensive family involvement can contribute to the
achievement of key school goals. The Board also believes that children are more
likely to be successful when parents or families and school staff work as a team to
support each student.
General Statement of Policy (Revised, 2008)
1. Each school site shall collaborate with its community of families to ensure
family involvement in the education of their children. Each school shall
implement a strategy that takes a research-based, comprehensive approach
to parent involvement and expectations that includes the following
elements:
• Parenting
• Communicating
• Volunteering
• Learning at Home
• Decision Making
• Collaborating with the Community
• Shares responsibility for high expectations and student performance.
• Builds the involvement capacity of school, program staff and
families.
• Increases access and engagement of all families with children.
2. The end result will be to insure integration of family-school involvement
throughout district activities, including development and evaluation of
district and school improvement plans.
ADOPTED: MAY 14, 2002, SAINT PAUL PUBLIC SCHOOL POLICY 615.00
REVISED: JUNE 17, 2008
LEGAL REFERENCES:
20 U.S.C. § 6318 (PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT)
MINN. STAT. § 124D.8955 (PARENT AND FAMILY INVOLVEMENT POLICY)

READING 4.3
Research Meets Policy and Practice:
How Are School Districts Addressing NCLB
Requirements for Parental Involvement?*
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, Public Law 107-110), signed into law in
2002, reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), thereby
updating the legislation, first passed in 1965, that provides federal funds to improve
schools serving children from economically disadvantaged families and communi-
ties. In addition to well-publicized requirements for high-quality teachers, achieve-
ment tests, and accountability for the progress of major subgroups of students,
NCLB includes important requirements for district leaders to develop district-level
and school-based policies and programs for more effective parental involvement.
The regulations in Section 1118 have improved with each reauthorization of
ESEA, reflecting advances in sociological and educational theories about district
leadership for school improvement. The requirements also call for the application
of research-based approaches for program development (Borman, Cookson,
Sadovnik, and Spade, 1996; Epstein, 2001). For example, early Title I legislation on
parental involvement mandated minor, often symbolic, participation of a few parent
representatives on district and school advisory committees. Most other parents were
left on their own to figure out whether and how to become involved in their chil-
dren’s education across the grades. Now the law outlines a “nested” system of ac-
tions at the state, district, and school levels for developing programs to involve all
families in ways that support student achievement and success in school.
Historically, there have been notable pendulum swings in assessments of the con-
tributions of district leaders to school improvement. Some have labeled district lead-
ers irrelevant and inadequate managers of school reform; others have called them
essential guides for improving schools (Coburn, 2003; Datnow, Hubbard, and
Mehan, 2002; Fullan, 2001; Learning First Alliance, 2003; Mac Iver and Farley,
2003) and for strengthening programs of school, family, and community partner-
ships (Chrispeels, 1996; Epstein, 2001; Sanders, 2005). The consensus across studies
is that district leaders are responsible for creating a culture of reform with all schools
and that they must not allow one school to improve while others decline (Burch
and Spillane, 2004).
The new understanding of effective district leadership emphasizes shared, dis-
tributed, or democratic leadership and teamwork for school reform (Fullan, 2001;
Pounder, Reitzug, and Young, 2002). In practice, shared leadership typically refers
to collaborative work conducted by administrators and teachers. Although educators
* By Joyce Epstein. (2010). This work was supported by a grant from the National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development, Grant R01 HD0471. A shorter version of this chapter was published
in A. R. Sadovnik, J. O’Day, G. Bohrnstedt, and K. Borman, eds., No Child Left Behind and the Reduc-
tion of the Achievement Gap: Sociological Perspectives on Federal Educational Policy (New York: Rout-
ledge, 2008), pp. 267–279.

know that family and community involvement is important, educators often are re-
luctant to share leadership with parents and community members. Most teachers
and administrators have not been prepared in college courses to conduct collabo-
rative work (Darling-Hammond and Bransford, 2005; Epstein and Sanders, 2006;
Leithwood and Prestine, 2002). Most districts do not offer effective inservice edu-
cation on new strategies for organizing school, family, and community partnerships
(Epstein et al., 2009).
Despite these gaps in the education of educators, NCLB requires district leaders
to organize effective partnership programs and to share leadership for children’s
education with parents. Specifically, Section 1118 specifies that districts shall (which
in legislative language means must) provide professional development and ongoing
technical assistance to help schools implement programs that inform families about
state standards and tests, guide parents to support student achievement at home,
communicate messages in languages parents can understand, resolve other “barri-
ers” or challenges that limit the involvement of economically disadvantaged and
linguistically diverse parents, and build the capacity of both schools and parents to
conduct and improve programs. The law states that districts must:
• Provide the coordination, technical assistance and other support

necessary to assist participating schools in planning and implementing
effective parent involvement activities to improve student academic
achievement and school performance.
• Build the schools’ and parents’ capacity for strong parent involvement.
The law also outlines several optional activities that districts may conduct, in-
cluding establishing district-level advisory councils; providing parents with literacy
classes, leadership training, and transportation and child care to attend school meet-
ings and workshops; scheduling meetings at varied times to increase parental par-
ticipation, working with businesses and community partners; and adopting model
approaches to help organize partnership programs.
The specifications in NCLB redirect district leaders from simply monitoring
schools’ compliance with the law to actively guiding schools to improve the quality
and results of their partnership programs (Cowan, 2003; U.S. Department of Edu-
cation, 2004).
FRAMEWORK OF POLICY INSTRUMENTS
The required and optional actions in NCLB for district leadership on partnerships
can be understood with a theoretical framework that outlines a range of policy in-
struments for school reform. McDonnell and Elmore (1991) identified important
differences of mandates that require and regulate actions, inducements that reward
or sanction actions, capacity building that increases knowledge and skills for action,
and system changing that reassigns decision-making activities to new groups or in-
dividuals. NCLB includes all four policy instruments to guide district leaders on
varied ways to improve programs of family and community involvement.

NCLB’s Section 1118 includes the mandates for actions districts must take, outlined
above. Title I, Part A, includes inducements for action through funding that districts
must allocate to schools to implement effective school-based parental involvement
programs. The funding is tied to sanctions, which federal monitors may impose if dis-
tricts fail to meet the requirements. Overall, the law states its goal to build capacities
of district leaders, school leaders, and parents to plan, implement, and evaluate pro-
ductive family involvement through the required professional development activities.
District leaders who implement the required actions could help all schools develop
more equitable programs of involvement by involving families who are typically la-
beled “hard to reach.” Such actions would produce system-changing behaviors at the
district level and in all schools (Epstein, 2005; Epstein and Sheldon, 2006).
Additional system-changing requirements are legislated in other sections of
NCLB that require district leaders to offer parents of eligible students options to
change schools and select supplemental services if their child’s school fails to meet
state standards for achievement or safety for two years or more (Lauen, 2008; Mick-
elson and Southworth, 2008). These options change the way decisions about student
placement are made in school districts.
NATIONAL NETWORK OF PARTNERSHIP SCHOOLS
Although NCLB specifies that research-based programs should be implemented, the

law does not indicate how the actions can be accomplished. Most district leaders
need help in enacting NCLB Section 1118 and other requirements for family and
community involvement. Studies and field tests are required in order to understand
the structures and processes that enable districts and schools to develop and sustain
effective partnership programs. In this study, we draw from data collected by the
National Network of Partnership Schools (NNPS) at Johns Hopkins University,
which includes a large number of school districts that share an interest in improving
NNPS guides districts to use research-based approaches to understand family and
community involvement and to help schools develop goal-linked programs that will
help more students succeed in school (Epstein et al., 2009). Of course, not all leaders
apply new knowledge or use handbooks, tools, or professional development training
with the same speed or effectiveness. The variations in district leadership permit
NNPS to study whether and how particular practices contribute to the quality of
district partnership programs over time. We asked two main research questions:
• How are school districts addressing NCLB’s requirements for family

involvement? Are the requirements in Section 1118 for districts
reasonable and attainable?
• How do district leaders’ efforts on partnerships affect their reports of the
quality of their schools’ programs of family and community involvement?

DATA
Data were collected in 2004 on end-of-year Update surveys from 69 U.S. school
districts in NNPS. Of these, 51 districts also provided data in 2003, permitting lon-
gitudinal analyses of progress in districts’ partnership program development. The
districts, ranging in size from 1 school to over 200 schools, were located in urban,
suburban, and rural communities in 24 states.* They had been members of NNPS
for from one year (20.8 percent) to eight years (11.1 percent). Update surveys are
required by NNPS to renew membership and services for the next school year.
Therefore, all districts that returned the surveys were, in effect, restating their in-
terest in improving their partnership programs.
MEASURES
In NNPS, district leaders for partnerships are guided to assume two major respon-
sibilities, which also are required by NCLB. They are expected to establish district-
level leadership and directly assist individual schools with their partnership
programs, as measured by the following scales.
Dependent Variables
Leadership. This measure of 13 items ( = .79) assessed the extent to which

district leaders organized their work by setting up an office, identifying a
budget, writing a leadership plan, writing or reviewing policy on parent
involvement, and conducting other district-level activities.
Facilitation. This scale of 16 items ( = .92) gauged the extent to which
district leaders directly assisted individual schools to form an Action
Team for Partnerships, write annual plans, evaluate progress, share
ideas, and conduct other school-based activities.
Solve challenges to increase involvement. Six items ( = .71) identified
whether district leaders actively helped schools address basic challenges
to reach more diverse families or left the schools on their own to solve
problems. Challenges included involving parents who do not speak or
read English, getting information to families who cannot attend school
meetings, providing opportunities to volunteer at school and other
locations, preparing teachers to guide families on helping children with
homework, ensuring that diverse families are represented on school
committees, and identifying community resources for school
improvement.
* The U.S. districts providing data were in Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, North Carolina, New Jersey,
New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, and
Wisconsin.

Report of schools’ progress. A single item asked district leaders for the
number of schools making “good progress” on partnerships. This number
was transformed into the percentage of all schools that were assisted
with work on partnerships.
Independent Variables
The explanatory variables in this study included measures that were of interest in
prior studies of district leadership on partnerships.
Demographic characteristics. The size of the district (number of schools)

and poverty level (the percentage of students receiving free- or reduced-
price meals in the district) were statistically controlled.
Collegial support for partnerships. This 13-item scale ( = .93) reported the
average level of cooperation (from none = 1 to a lot = 4) that district leaders
for partnerships reported receiving from colleagues at the district level, in
schools, from parent organizations, and from others in the community.
Program development tools and guidelines. This 7-item scale ( = .87)
reported district leaders’ average ratings of helpfulness (from not helpful
= 1 to very helpful = 4) of major tools and materials for program
development, including a comprehensive handbook, newsletters, books
on best practices, website information, monthly communications, and
other connections with NNPS.
Evaluation tools. A 6-item scale ( = .53) identified whether district leaders
used tools designed to help them evaluate district and school partnership
programs, including reflective documentations, on-site inventories, and
survey instruments.
Other NCLB requirements. A 10-item scale ( = .79) assessed leaders’
reports of whether the district, as a whole, was addressing specific NCLB
requirements. One item in this scale—communicate in languages that
parents can understand—had the greatest variation across districts. It is
used as an explanatory variable in selected analyses of district leaders’
work on partnerships.
RESULTS
Districts varied on the nature and extent of their leadership and facilitation activities
for developing district-level and school-based programs of family and community
involvement. They implemented an average of 7.37 activities to organize their offices
and their work on partnerships. Some (16.9 percent) conducted 11 to 13 district-
level leadership activities, whereas others (19.7 percent) conducted only 1 to 4 of
the actions listed. District leaders also reported conducting an average of 7.25 facil-
itation activities to directly assist schools in developing their partnership programs.

TABLE 4.1 Variables Affecting District-Level Leadership and Facilitation from
2003 to 2004
NCLB Requirements for Districts
Leadership Structure Facilitation of

Schools
(t) (t)
District Characteristics
Size of district (# schools) .085 ns .050 ns
Percent free of reduced-price lunch .156 ns .025 ns
Program Components
Prior Year’s Leadership Structure .539 (4.24)*** —
Prior Year’s Facilitation of Schools .629 (5.78)***

Collegial Support (District, School, .176 ns .208 (1.89)*
Families)
NNPS Program Tools and Guidelines .325 (2.66)** .347 (3.17)***
Adjusted R2 .501 .597
N = 51 U.S. school districts in NNPS.

Standardized regression coefficients are shown.
Levels of significance: * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001
Source: 2003 and 2004 Update surveys.
About 24 percent conducted 13 to 16 activities, whereas 14.1 percent reported that,

as yet, they conducted no (0) actions to assist individual schools.
A few NCLB requirements were almost universally addressed, such as having a
policy on parental involvement (85 percent) and providing information to parents
about their child’s achievement test scores (98.4 percent). By contrast, only 51 per-
cent of the district leaders said their districts were working well to communicate
with families in the languages parents speak at home.
The Update survey also measured overall program quality in the form of a “por-
trait” of the district’s partnership program. Districts’ programs ranged from low
(26.7 percent in a planning year or just beginning), to average (46.5 percent with a
good start or good programs), to high quality (26.7 percent with very good or ex-
cellent programs). The variation in district leaders’ efforts inform the analyses of
how partnership programs develop.
District Leaders’ Work
OLS regression analyses were conducted to test whether districts in NNPS improved
their leadership and facilitation of schools from 2003 to 2004, as shown in Table
4.1. Districts’ demographic characteristics of size and poverty level did not signifi-

TABLE 4.2 Influence on District Leaders to Help Schools Meet Challenges to
Involve All Families
(t)
Size of district (# of schools) .278 (1.98)

Percent free or reduced-price lunch .151 ns
District Program Components
Prior Year’s Attention to Meet Challenges .379 (2.56)**
District’s Emphasis on Communicating .264 (1.82)

with All Parents
Use NNPS Evaluation Tools .296 (2.05)*
Adjusted R2 .407
N = 51 U.S. school districts in NNPS for at least two years.

Levels of significance: p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01
Source: 2003 and 2004 Update surveys.
cantly affect the number of leadership or facilitation actions conducted by district

leaders for partnerships. Some leaders in large and small, affluent and poor districts
successfully set up their offices and worked with schools on partnerships, whereas
other leaders lagged on these actions.
Table 4.1 also shows the importance of sustaining work on program develop-
ment. District leaders who conducted more leadership actions in 2003 continued
to do so in 2004 ( = .539, p < .001), and those who previously assisted their schools
also did so in 2004 ( = .629, p < .001).
After accounting for prior work in 2003, district leaders who reported strong
collegial support for partnerships ( = .208, p < .10) and who used and found help-
ful more NNPS tools for program development ( = .347, p < .001) significantly
increased the number of facilitative activities they conducted to assist schools. Useful
tools and guidelines also helped leaders organize their own work on partnerships
( = .325, p < .01). About 50 percent of the variance in leadership and nearly 60
percent of the variance in facilitation were explained by prior work on partnerships,
collegial support, and the use of helpful tools and materials. These basic factors
helped explain district leaders’ attention to the requirements listed in NCLB Section
1118 to improve programs of parental involvement.
Solving Challenges to Involve All Families
Table 4.2 explores the influences on district leaders’ efforts to help schools address
challenges to reach more diverse families, as required by NCLB. The results indicate

that district leaders who worked with schools to address challenges in 2003 con-
tinued to provide schools with ideas to involve all families in the next school year
( = .379, p < .01).
Over and above the work of the prior year, district leaders were more likely to
give schools ideas for addressing key challenges to involve parents from all racial,
educational, and socioeconomic groups if the district as a whole was addressing the
NCLB requirement to communicate in understandable languages with all families
( = .264, p < .10) and if the leaders for partnerships used more NNPS evaluation
tools ( = .296, p < .05).
District leaders in larger districts assisted schools more than in smaller districts
( = .278, p < .05), perhaps because the challenges were more common in large dis-
tricts. Poverty level of students did not strongly influence whether leaders for part-
nerships worked with schools to solve challenges to involve all families or left it up
to the schools. The district’s history of attention to challenges, priority for commu-
nicating in languages families understand, and the use of evaluation tools explained
40 percent of the variance in whether district leaders directly assisted schools to
work on challenges to reach all families.
The quantitative results in Table 4.2 were reflected in comments the district lead-
ers wrote about their schools’ progress, as in these typical responses:
More schools . . . included parents on teams, representing the demographic makeup of

the school.
(The district developed) a new school improvement format (that) requires . . . family and
community partnerships . . . for each major initiative.
Schools’ Progress on Partnerships
District leaders reported whether their schools were making little, some, or good
progress on partnerships. Table 4.3 shows that neither the size nor the poverty level
of the district significantly affected leaders’ reports of their schools’ progress. By
contrast, leaders’ actions of leadership and facilitation had strong but varying effects
on their reports of schools’ progress on partnership program development.
Column 1 of Table 4.3 shows that the extent of district leadership to organize
an office, budget, and plans for partnerships was important for how leaders reported
schools’ progress ( = .343, p < .01). Those who conducted more leadership actions
reported that more of their schools were making good progress on partnerships.
Column 2 shows even more dramatic effects of leaders’ direct assistance to schools
on reports of schools’ progress ( = .575, p < .001) and of the level of collegial support
on schools’ progress ( = .283, p < .05). District facilitation and collegial support—
two measures that indicate whether district leaders made contact with schools and
witnessed the work on school-based partnership programs—explained more than
twice the variance as the more distal measure of leadership structure (43 percent
compared to 20 percent) in reports of schools’ progress on partnerships.

TABLE 4.3 Influence of District Leadership and Facilitation on Reports of
Schools’ Progress in Family and Community Involvement
Model 1 Model 2
(t) (t)
Size of district (# schools) .052 ns .060 ns
Percent free of reduced-price lunch .098 ns .048 ns
Program Components
Prior Year’s Leadership Structure .343 (2.31)* —
Prior Year’s Facilitation of Schools .575 (4.88)***

Collegial Support (District, School, .278 (1.87) .283 (2.23)*
Families)
Adjusted R2 .203 .433
N = 69 U.S. school districts in NNPS.

Levels of significance: p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .001
Source: 2004 Update surveys.
In open-ended comments about their work, district leaders for partnerships re-
ported improvements in helping schools increase the involvement of parents with
children around achievement, as in the following representative statements:
Programs are directed more at academics. New sites have become more into it. They
seem to get it.
[We had a] 60% increase in school memberships [to work on partnerships], and more
parent engagement activities are connected to student achievement goals at school sites.
In separate analyses, not reported here, we found that district leaders for partner-
ships who evaluated their district and school programs did more than other districts
to help teachers involve parents with children to increase achievement in school sub-
jects ( = .425, p < .01). Prior studies also found that when districts evaluated their
programs, they showed a seriousness of purpose in increasing improving their lead-
ership and facilitative activities (Epstein and Williams, 2003; Epstein, Williams, and
Jansorn, 2004; Sanders, 2008). Over 30 percent of the variance in districts’ efforts to
involve families with students on achievement was explained by districts’ commitment
to communicate with all families and actions to evaluate partnership programs.
Asked how they evaluate their work on partnerships, district leaders explained
that they asked schools to document the activities they conducted and parents’

participation. Most schools gathered parents’ reactions after each involvement activity.
Some districts organized evaluations in systematic ways, as noted in these comments:
[We conduct] phone surveys, surveys in newsletters, focus groups.
[A] comprehensive survey is administered annually and carefully analyzed.
[Our program of] partnership is part of the strategic plan and is evaluated by staff,
parents and administration.
Contrasting Correlates of District Leadership
Not every leadership action is equally important for the quality of district-level part-
nership programs. Analyses were conducted to “unpack” the above results. NCLB
requires districts to have a parental involvement policy. In addition, NNPS asks dis-
trict leaders to write a leadership plan each year that schedules their actions at the
district level and in assisting schools on partnerships.
Table 4.4 shows that leaders with written plans were significantly more likely to
fulfill other requirements in NCLB’s Section 1118 for district leadership on parental
involvement. Those with a plan and schedule for actions were more likely to identify
a budget for partnerships (r = .543, p < .001), conduct professional development (r
= .317, p < .01), actively facilitate their schools (r = .552, p < .001), disseminate
best practices (r = .440, p < .001), and conduct other activities to increase district-
level and school-level capacities for productive parental involvement. Having a pol-
icy was not significantly correlated with any of the other actions by district leaders.
These patterns are due, in part, to the greater variation among districts in writing
detailed plans than in having a policy. Although most districts (85 percent) had a
policy, just over half (58 percent) wrote a detailed work plan in 2004. The results
reinforce the importance for district leaders to go beyond the minimum of having
a policy to increase the quality of their leadership and facilitation on partnerships.
DISCUSSION
This study presents the first quantitative analyses of whether and how well districts
are addressing NCLB requirements for improving programs of family involvement.
The data collected in 2004, as NCLB completed its second full school year, showed
that most districts in NNPS had started to address NCLB’s requirements for dis-
trict leadership on parental involvement. The results point to four policy-related
conclusions that could help other districts organize more effective leadership for
partnerships.
1. Writing a policy is important but not sufficient for districts to conduct viable
partnership programs. Most districts in NNPS had formal policies on parental in-
volvement and were trying to disseminate information to parents on their children’s

TABLE 4.4 Contrasting Correlates of District Policies and Written Plans with
NCLB Requirements
Leadership actions on partnerships linked Have a district policy Have a written plan
to NCLB requirements (Sec. 1118)
Mean .85 (s.d. .35) Mean .58 (s.d. .50)
r sig. r sig.
Have a district budget .222 ns .543 ***
Conduct professional development for .042 ns .317 **
schools
Offer grants to schools for partnerships .058 ns .405 ***
Recognize excellent programs .118 ns .417 ***
Disseminate best practices .088 ns .440 ***
Make connections with colleagues to .084 ns .472 ***
coordinate family involvement
Facilitate schools’ Action Teams for .176 ns .552 ***
Partnerships (scale)
Help schools address challenges to reach .035 ns .251 +
all families (scale)
Evaluate district and school partnership .008 ns .263 *
programs (scale)
Use NNPS evaluation tools (scale) .101 ns .378 **
N = 69 school districts.
p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001
Source: 2004 Update surveys.
achievement and on schools’ status in making adequate yearly progress (AYP), as

required by NCLB. Fewer were addressing more difficult challenges of helping
schools communicate with families who did not speak English and helping families
become involved in ways that could increase students’ achievement in school sub-
jects. Some others (14 percent) had taken no steps to directly assist schools in de-
veloping educators’ and parents’ capacities to create comprehensive school-based
partnership programs.
The results suggested that having a district policy on parental involvement was
just one step on a much longer path to partnerships. Another document—a detailed
plan for leadership and facilitation—was associated with the enactment of more
NCLB requirements for district leadership on partnerships. In open-ended com-
ments, district leaders listed the following typical goals for the next school year:
[We need to] assist buildings in fully implementing their action plans and to monitor
the progress of implementations.
[We need to] get principals on board and help them recognize the value of family and

Even as they worked to communicate with families, districts in NNPS met new
challenges. Some found that their communications about students’ test scores were
not clear and understandable for large numbers of parents. For example, a clinical
review with district leaders revealed that annual “school report cards” often were
issued in print that was too small to read, placed in hidden locations on district
and state websites, or distributed without needed explanations of educational terms
and statistics. It was clear that having a policy on parental involvement was a first
step on a long path toward excellent and equitable partnership programs.
2. A district leader for partnerships must be assigned to enact a district-wide part-

nership program. Each district in this study had a leader for partnerships who served
as a “key contact” to researchers at Johns Hopkins University for guidance on their
work on partnerships. By contrast, other districts may have policies for parental in-
volvement but have no one assigned to lead this component of school organization
and school improvement. This kind of “unstaffed mandate” would not be tolerated
in schools working to improve their reading or math curricula, where curriculum
coaches or consultants are expected. By contrast, many districts have lagged in as-
signing leaders for partnerships to guide schools in this work.
Assigning a leader for partnerships still was not enough to ensure high-quality
partnership programs. District leaders must take action to improve their partnership
programs. In this study, leaders varied widely in the number and quality of activities
they conducted. Leaders did more to organize work and facilitate schools if they
had strong collegial support, used research-based program development and eval-
uation tools and materials, and sustained their efforts over time. Further, leaders
who directly assisted their schools were more likely to report that the schools were
making good progress in their programs of family and community involvement.
There was wide variation and considerable room for improvement in the quality
of all of these activities. Many district leaders seemed to be moving slowly in pro-
viding school teams with professional development on partnerships and encouraging
and motivating schools to improve their programs from year to year. One leader
explained why progress was slow:
Over the past 2–3 years, due to retirements and resignations, the person designated to
lead this program (for the district) has changed (3 times). In addition the district has
just rewritten its strategic plan. Consequently, not much progress has been made.
3. District leaders for partnerships need support from others to conduct district-
wide partnership programs. Neither a district policy on partnerships nor an assigned
leader was enough to ensure a high-quality partnership program. This study showed
that collegial support from other district leaders, school principals, educators, fam-
ilies, and tools and guidelines offered by NNPS helped some district leaders for part-
nerships do more to assist schools and to report progress on partnerships. The
results suggest that collegial contacts and using research-based tools for program
development and evaluation may increase the seriousness of purpose of leaders’
work on partnerships.

Many district leaders for partnerships noted that they needed to keep improving
their assistance to their schools. The comments reinforce this study’s findings that
district leaders’ direct assistance to schools is linked to the progress that is observed
in schools and to schools’ detailed plans for involving all parents in productive ways.
The district leaders said that in the next school year they needed to:
. . . [have] more school contact to work with team development and planning
. . . [provide] staff development to all staff-administration, teachers, teacher assistants
The nested nature of support for involvement relies heavily on the district super-
intendent’s messages, as noted in this representative comment:
[Our superintendent should identify] partnership as a district priority by sending clear

messages to administrators, participating in [partnership] activities at the school and
district levels, and include the quality of partnership programs as part of administra-
tors’ evaluations.
The district leaders recommended other actions that their superintendents should
take to legitimate the district’s work on partnerships:
• Make public statements about the importance of partnerships.

• Give greetings at professional development sessions on partnerships for
schools’ Action Teams for Partnerships.
• Mandate a detailed action plan for partnerships as one part of the
annual school improvement plan.
• Expect other district administrators to understand and support
partnerships.
• Make partnerships part of the annual evaluation of principals and
teachers.
• Provide targeted funding at the district level and for each school for
programs of partnership.
• Include the quality of partnership programs in the data collected to
assess school improvement.
• Develop ties with community partners to support the schools.
In one district leader’s words, such activities would make partnerships an “un-
shakable expectation” for all schools in the district.
4. The four policy instruments embedded in NCLB Section 1118 are influencing
leadership for parental involvement. This study suggests that NCLB’s mandates for
partnerships are beginning to affect district leaders’ awareness and actions. The
scales and measures showed that leaders were able to distinguish between mandates
that they were and were not addressing. In written comments, respondents recognized
the legitimacy of NCLB’s mandates by noting that they wanted to improve their pro-
grams in the next school year by providing more staff development on partnerships,

getting more principals on board, and helping all schools fully implement their ac-
tion plans for partnerships.
NCLB inducements in the form of Title I targeted funds are beginning to influence
district leaders’ actions on family and community involvement. District leaders rated
whether there were not enough funds for partnerships or whether their programs
were adequately or well funded. More adequate funding was correlated with more
district-level leadership activities (r = .433, p < .001) and with more actions to fa-
cilitate schools on partnerships (r = .363, p < .01).
NCLB requirements for capacity building were enacted by district leaders who
conducted professional development on partnerships for school teams, including
teachers, administrators, parents, and community partners and other workshops
and presentations on family involvement for district colleagues. District leaders who
provided team training for schools’ Action Teams for Partnerships reported higher
quality partnership programs overall (r = .365, p < .004).
Finally, system-changing actions were emerging. Many district leaders were using
tools and materials to improve their work on partnerships and to help schools or-
ganize their programs and practices. Some were addressing challenges to help
schools involve families who would otherwise be excluded from exchanges and de-
cisions about their children’s education. Many were guiding schools to write annual
goal-oriented action plans with activities that involved families with their children
to improve achievement in reading, math, attendance, and other indicators of suc-
cess in school, as directed by NCLB (see Hutchins et al., 2009, for district and school
programs that apply research in practice and in award-winning programs at
www.partnershipschools.org in the section “Success Stories”).
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE STUDIES
Although this study provides new knowledge about district leaders’ work on part-
nerships in response to NCLB, it is limited by the lack of comparable data from dis-
tricts that were not members of NNPS. We cannot say if or how well other districts
are addressing NCLB requirements for parental involvement. The data provided
some useful clues, however, because districts in this study varied widely in their lead-
ership activities. Those that used fewer program development and evaluation tools,
for example, conducted fewer leadership and facilitation activities and had weaker
partnership programs. These districts may be more like many other districts that
are struggling to enact NCLB requirements. Still, studies are needed of matched
samples of NNPS and non-NNPS districts to clearly show whether targeted tools,
guidelines, and networking on partnerships increase districts’ responses to NCLB
requirements.
A second limitation is that this study examined only data from district leaders, not
reports from the schools in these districts. Separate studies have shown that schools’
Action Teams for Partnerships that reported receiving support from their district
leaders conducted more family involvement activities, reached more diverse families,
and implemented more NCLB requirements for family involvement (see Sheldon
2005, 2008; Sheldon and Van Voorhis, 2004). New studies are needed that examine

the “nested” systems of districts and their schools to learn whether and which district
leadership actions contribute significantly to the quality of schools’ partnership pro-
grams, over and above what schools do on their own. With appropriate samples of
schools nested within districts, researchers could use Hierarchical Linear Modeling
(HLM) analyses to separate the independent effects of district policies and actions
from the effects of leadership and support that occurs at the school level.
CONCLUSION
NLCB Section 1118 appears to be raising district leaders’ awareness of partnerships

and encouraging leaders to take action. The regulations for parental involvement
require attention to the structure of district leadership and to processes for planning,
implementing, and evaluating programs and practices of partnerships at the district
level and in all schools. In this study, data from districts showed that with time, col-
legial support, and helpful guidelines and tools, district leaders addressed more
NCLB requirements for family and community involvement. By their actions, these
leaders are showing that districts can meet the spirit and the letter of the law.
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chapter. Key concepts and results are summarized. Questions and activities are pro-
vided for class discussions, debates, and homework assignments. They may suggest
other exercises, field activities, and research projects.
KEY CONCEPTS
1. State, district, and school policies on school, family, and community partnerships
must be clear, comprehensive, flexible, and responsive to be implemented in ways
that meet the goals and needs of students, families, and schools.
2. State, district, and school policies on school, family, and community partnerships
require enactments or other official commitments to ensure adequate staff, funding,
training, dissemination, and other support needed to implement the policies.
COMMENT
Policies and Enactments
Policies concerning school, family, and community partnerships must be clear and
comprehensive, but also flexible. Good policies encourage state, district, and school
programs to account for their starting points on partnerships and focus partnership
practices on specific school and family goals for student success. Policies also should
set high standards for excellent, ongoing programs of school, family, and community
partnerships; they should specify ways to measure how well programs are imple-
mented and progressing and whether and how well goals are met.
At the state and district levels, policies on partnerships should include explicit
enactments for leadership, funding, professional development, and other assistance
that will enable schools to implement the policies with family and community in-
volvement plans and practices to engage all parents in their children’s education.
As noted in Reading 4.1, policies without enactments are unfunded and unsup-
ported, and will be unwelcome and ineffective.
State and district policies on partnerships must clearly outline how schools will
be assisted to develop and evaluate partnership programs with training, funds, and
other assistance, encouragement, and recognition from the state and district. The
emphasis on assistance to schools is in contrast to top-down policies with rigid di-
rectives or prescribed activities that leave educators, parents, and students no flex-
ibility to design programs or practices of partnership that they can call their own.
The seemingly simple guidelines for clear, comprehensive, flexible, funded, and
facilitated policies are not as simple to implement as you might think. The readings,

discussions, and activities in this chapter should help you to explore, critique, and
consider policies for improving school, family, and community partnerships in states,
districts, and schools.
ACTIVITY
Review State and District Policies
The sample policies (see Reading 4.2 in this chapter) show how state and district
boards of education are working to promote the development of effective programs
and practices of school, family, and community partnerships. Some of the sample
policies include enactments outlining the actions taken to help districts and/or
schools implement programs that fulfill the policies. It is useful to compare, contrast,
and critique the samples to identify words and actions that you think are particu-
larly important for producing good programs of school, family, and community
partnerships at the state, district, and school levels.
A. Select and identify one state and one district sample policy in Reading 4.2
that interest you.
B. For each one, write your ideas on these questions.
1. Does the policy include reference to all six types of involvement
(parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision
making, and collaborating with the community) in any order? Explain.
2. Does the policy refer to the involvement of parents at all grade levels?
3. Does the policy focus family and/or community involvement on
student learning and success in school?
4. Does the policy commit to helping districts and/or schools improve
their partnership programs?
5. Discuss one other feature of each policy that you think is
particularly important.
6. Give each policy an overall rating: E for Excellent, S for Satisfactory,
or N for Needs Improvement. Explain why you rated the policy as
you did.
C. Give your ideas of two ways to improve the policy you selected.
COMMENT
Changes in Technology
When Reading 4.1 was first published, there were no state or district websites on
partnerships. A library or clearinghouse was a physical, not a virtual, place. Now,

state departments of education and districts across the country use their websites
to provide educators, parents, and the public with easy access to policies, publica-
tions, and other information on school, family, and community partnerships.
Some state and district websites are informative and understandable. Some are
confusing to the extreme. It helps to see the difference. You may be in a position to
assist district and state leaders to develop clear and useful websites for educators,
parents, students, and the public.
ACTIVITY
Explore and Rate Websites
State Departments of Education Websites
A. Explore one of the following state department of education websites, and

answer the questions on the next page. Search to find the state’s policy on
parental involvement or school, family, and community partnerships and
evidence that the policy is being supported. Some of these states’ policies
are provided in Reading 4.2.
• California: www.cde.ca.gov
Click on “Specialized Programs.” Then use the search box to find “School,
Family, and Community Partnerships.”
• Connecticut: www.sde.ct.gov
Follow the path from “Parents and Community” to “Family & Commu-
nity Involvement and Youth Development Programs” to “School-Family-
Community Partnerships.” See newsletters called Schools and Families and
related documents. Or use the search box to find “School-Family-Community
Partnerships.”
• Ohio: www.ode.state.oh.us
Use the search box to find “Family and Community Engagement.” See the
state’s collection of promising practices on the website.
• West Virginia: wvde.state.wv.us
Follow the sidebar link to “State Board” and then “Policies,” and scroll
down to the links for “Policy 2200: Parent, Family, and Community In-
volvement in Education.”

• Wisconsin: dpi.wi.gov
In the left-hand navigation bar click on “Divisions & Teams” under “DPI Menu.”
Under the heading “Division for Libraries, Technology, & Community Learning,”
click on “Community Learning and Partnerships.” Then in the sidebar click on
“Family-School-Community Partnerships.”
Or select a state that interests you that has a section of its website on family and
community involvement to address the questions below.
1. Use the chart below. Give the name of the state’s Department of Education
and the website URL.
2. Explore the website that you selected, and rate the features outlined in
the chart.
3. Rate the website overall from A (Excellent/Informative) to F (Failing/
Headache-Producing).
4. Explain, in writing, two things that are clear and good about the
website’s section or information on partnerships.
5. Write two recommendations that would improve this website, and
explain why each improvement is needed.
State Department of Education and Website URL:

_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Feature Rating (A–F)
Ease of locating the policy on parental involvement or

partnerships
Ease of locating information on parental involvement or
partnerships
Clarity of information provided
Usefulness of information to educators, parents, or the public
Attractiveness/ease of reading
Multiple languages provided
Add another factor you consider important:
___________________________
Overall Rating
List two features that are clear and good:

1.
2.
Recommendation 1:
Recommendation 2:

District Websites
B. Explore one of the following district websites, and answer the questions
below. Search to find the district’s policy on parental involvement or school,
family, and community partnerships and evidence that the policy is being
supported. Some of these districts’ policies are provided in Reading 4.2.
• Anoka-Hennepin School District, MN: www.anoka.k12.mn.us
Hover over “Parents” in the menu at the top of the page, and then click
on “Parent Involvement.”
• Buffalo Public Schools, NY: www.buffaloschools.org
At the top of the page, hover over “Parents,” and then click on “Family,
Schools & Community.” In the sidebar click on “Parent Involvement.”
• Howard County Public Schools, MD: www.hcpss.org
Use the search box to find “Parent, Family and Community Involvement.”
• Middletown Public Schools, CT: www.middletownschools.org
Click on “Board of Education,” and follow links to “Policies & By-

laws.” Click on the link “Community Relations,” and then click on the
link for policy #1110.1 (a PDF), and see the section “Parent Resources.”
• Naperville Community School District 203, IL: www.naperville203.org
Hover over “Parents and Students,” and then click on “School Family
Community Partnership.”
• Pasco School District, WA: www.psd1.org
Hover over “Families,” and click on “School & Family Partnerships.”
• Saint Paul Public Schools, MN: www.spps.org
Hover over “Community” and then “Office of Community Relations,”

and click on “Family and Community Involvement.”
Or select a school district that interests you that has a section of its web-
site devoted to family and community involvement to address the questions
below.
1. Use the chart on the next page. Give the name of the district and the website’s
full URL.

2. Explore the website that you selected, and rate the features outlined in
the chart.
3. Rate the website overall from A (Excellent/Informative) to F
(Failing/Headache-Producing).
4. Explain, in writing, two things that are clear and good about the
website’s section or information on partnerships.
5. Write two recommendations that would improve the website and explain
why each improvement is needed.
NOTE: State and district websites change over time. Some connections may no
longer be correct. If one URL is no longer functioning, find another state or district
website for this activity.
District: __________________________________________________
Website URL: _____________________________________________
Feature Rating (A–F)
Ease of locating a policy on parental involvement or

partnerships
Ease of locating information on parental involvement or
partnerships
Clarity of information provided
Usefulness of information to educators, parents, or the public
Attractiveness/ease of reading
Multiple languages provided
Ease of connecting to a particular school
Add another factor you consider important:
___________________________
Overall Rating
List two features that are clear and good:

1.
2.
Recommendation 1:
Recommendation 2:

ACTIVITY
Compare State and District Leadership

on Partnership Program Development
The state policy initiatives recommended in Reading 4.1 also may be important lead-
ership actions in school districts. State policies are written and programs organized
to guide districts and schools in different geographic locations and political contexts
within a state. District policies are written and actions taken to guide preschools and
elementary, middle, and high schools serving diverse student and family populations
to develop their partnership programs. Some state-level leadership strategies also may
enable district leaders to help all schools develop effective partnership programs.
A. Photocopy Figure 4.1 on pages 354–355.

B. Write “yes” or “no” to indicate whether you think each entry (drawn
from the outline for states in Reading 4.1) is appropriate for state and/or
district leaders to enact their policies that support family and community
involvement.
1. If yes for districts, explain one way in which the action might differ
in a district compared to a state.
2. If no for districts, explain one reason why the action is not important
or appropriate for district leaders for partnerships to conduct.
COMMENT
The Power of Linked Policies and Practices
States may take actions that encourage partnership programs whether or not they
are guided by federal mandates or supported by federal funds. Districts may take
actions that enable all schools to develop partnership programs whether or not they
are actively supported by their state departments of education. Schools may develop
programs of school, family, and community partnerships whether or not they are
directly supported by their districts or states. Individual teachers may establish good
partnerships with students’ families and communities whether or not they are guided
or aided by their schools or by other policy levels and leaders.
Although each policy level may work on partnerships independently, research
and exemplary practice suggest that programs are stronger and of higher quality
when federal, state, district, and school policies; funding; and technical assistance
are linked or “nested.” That is, programs are more effective in design and in results
when federal policies support states, districts, and schools; when state policies sup-
port districts and schools; and when district policies enable schools to strengthen
and sustain excellent partnership programs. The best connections will lead ulti-
mately to improving programs at the school level, where educators, families, and
students interact on a daily basis to help students learn and grow.

If YES for districts,
tell one way the policy
or resulting activities
Is this an appropriate might differ in a district
policy initiative for: compared to a state.
If NO for districts,
POLICIES AND STATES? DISTRICTS? give one reason why the
ACTIVITIES (Write YES or NO for each.) policy is not appropriate.
a. Write a policy that supports —— —— ———————————

comprehensive programs —— —— ———————————
of school, family, and —— —— ———————————
b. Establish an office or —— —— ———————————

department with an expert —— —— ———————————
leader and adequate staff to —— —— ———————————
facilitate the development and
continuous improvement of
c. Write an annual Leadership —— —— ———————————

Action Plan for Partnerships. —— —— ———————————
—— —— ———————————
d. Identify funds for school, —— —— ———————————

family, and community —— —— ———————————
partnerships to cover staff —— —— ———————————
and program costs.
e. Conduct ongoing inservice —— —— ———————————

education on partnerships. —— —— ———————————
—— —— ———————————
f. Collect, assess, and improve —— —— ———————————

policies on partnerships, and —— —— ———————————
improve the organization of —— —— ———————————
leadership for partnership
program development.
g. Evaluate teachers and —— —— ———————————

administrators for their —— —— ———————————
work on partnerships. —— —— ———————————
h. Support a master teacher, —— —— ———————————

lead teacher, or other career —— —— ———————————
ladder program to increase —— —— ———————————
expertise on partnerships.
(continues)
FIGURE 4.1 Policies and Activities Comparing State and District Policies

i. Develop partnership tools or —— —— ———————————
products (e.g., brochures, lunch —— —— ———————————
menus, templates for calendars, —— —— ———————————
newsletters, publications for
all schools and families, guidelines
for communicating with
non–English-speaking families).
j. Encourage business, industry, —— —— ———————————

and other community —— —— ———————————
connections to strengthen —— —— ———————————
school, family, and
k. Establish an advisory —— —— ———————————

committee for school, family, —— —— ———————————
and community partnerships —— —— ———————————
including educators, parents,
and community members.
l. Establish a website, library, —— —— ———————————

clearinghouse, or dissemination —— —— ———————————
center for research on partnerships, —— ———————————
best practices, other materials.
m. Support and conduct —— —— ———————————

evaluations of the quality of —— —— ———————————
partnership programs and —— —— ———————————
practices.
n. Conduct an annual —— —— ———————————

conference for schools to —— —— ———————————
share best practices with —— —— ———————————
each other and to
continueannual plans for
improving partnership programs.
FIGURE 4.1 (continued)
1. On the one hand: Give two examples from readings in this chapter or from
your experience that indicate why policies that are linked (or “nested”)
across federal, state, district, and/or school levels are likely to create
stronger and more effective programs to involve families and communities
than do policies that are not linked or that are issued at just one level.
2. On the other hand: Give two examples of how a single school might
establish a policy and effective partnership program even if its state and
district are not actively supporting such actions.

3. What advice would you give to a district leader who is considering
whether to (a) develop a district policy, guidelines, and assistance to help
all schools in the district develop programs of school, family, and
community partnerships, or (b) leave it up to each school to do this
without district support? Draw from Reading 4.3 to list two
recommendations you would give a district leader and the reasons for
your advice.
COMMENT
Federal Leadership and Federal Guidelines
At the federal level, some policies of the departments of Education, Labor, and
Health and Human Services, as well as other departments, concern connections
among students, families, schools, and communities. Several programs have long
histories of including family involvement among their required components.
Head Start, initiated in 1965, recognized that all families, including those with
low incomes, are important in their children’s education. Head Start legislated roles
and opportunities for parents in economically distressed communities to become
involved in preschools, encouraged parents to volunteer or work as paid aides, and
required parents to serve on advisory committees to be involved in policy decisions
that affected their own and other children. Head Start programs included home vis-
its to help families learn age-appropriate parenting skills and activities to support
their preschool child’s learning and healthy development at home and to find health
and other services in the community.
Follow-Through, initiated in 1967, attempted to continue Head Start’s emphasis
on parental involvement and activities for children and families through the primary
grades.
The Education of All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142), initiated
in 1975, required teachers and parents to cooperate in setting annual educational
and developmental goals for children with special needs.
Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 (also
called Chapter 1 for a while and then Title I again) included guidelines and mandates
for school and family partnerships that are congruent with the theory and frame-
work in this volume. In its present form, Title I recognizes the importance of family
involvement in the education of children who, because of educational and economic
difficulties, are not doing well or are at risk of failing in school. This ongoing federal
policy requires large districts to spend some Title I funds to develop positive part-
nership programs to include families in their children’s education in productive ways.
Along with Title I, other sections of ESEA (e.g., Even Start; Titles III, IV, V, and
VI; the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA]) include requirements or
guidelines for home-school-community connections to improve students’ chances
of success.

There have been two main problems in implementing federal guidelines and pro-
grams for home-school connections. First, educators in states, districts, and schools
have not always understood the intent of the legislative language to establish
coherent and important programs of partnership, and they faced no serious conse-
quences for inaction. Second, in the past, the legislative guidelines led educators to
separate Title I parents from other parents. The first problem stalled action and
progress on partnerships in many locations. The second problem caused the sepa-
ration and segregation of parents within schools, limiting the sense of community
and contradicting the concept of partnerships. Although schoolwide Title I programs
aim to create more cohesive school communities, the two historic problems still
plague many Title I programs.
ACTIVITY
Find and Critique Federal Policies on Partnerships
Use the Internet to learn more about federal policies that include attention to
parental involvement, community connections, or other aspects of school, family,
and community partnerships.
A. Explore federal legislation, regulations, and other policy guidelines on

www.ed.gov, the website of the U.S. Department of Education. Or explore
the website of the departments of Labor, Commerce, or Health and Human
Services for policies concerning connections among home, school, and
community. Look for information on Titles I, III, IV, V, or VII; Head Start;
Even Start; free- or reduced-price meals; or another policy that concerns
the families of economically and educationally distressed children, children
with special needs, or gifted and talented children.
B. Identify one federal policy that interests you.
C. Summarize and critique the policy (or section) you selected.
1. What does the policy require or request of a state, district, school,
family, or community concerning school, family, and community
partnerships?
2. Explain: Is the policy you selected clear? Is it flexible for diverse
districts? Does it increase educators’ capacities to organize effective
programs at the selected policy level?
3. In your view, what is one positive or negative feature of the policy
for improving programs of school, family, and community
partnerships in schools, districts, or state departments of education?
4. Describe one way that you would improve the federal policy that
you selected.

FIELD EXPERIENCE
Federally Funded Programs and Policies
Interview one educator who is associated with a Head Start, Even Start, Title I, or
other federally funded program for children and families in a school, district, or
community location. This may be an individual interview or one conducted in class
for and with all students.
A. Identify the program and the position of the person you are interviewing.
Briefly summarize the goals of the selected program.
B. Ask the interviewee:
1. Does your program have a written policy and plan for school,
family, and community partnerships?
a. If yes, briefly summarize the policy.
b. If no, briefly summarize the program’s approach to school,
2. Are only federal funds used in this program, or are other funds also
used to support the program and activities of school, family, and
community partnerships?
3. Describe one of the program’s most effective and one of its least
effective activities for family and community involvement.
4. Overall, how effective is this program in informing and involving all
of the families that are eligible for its services?
5. What transitional activities help children and families move from
this program to their next school?
6. What is one way that you would like to improve the way this
program works with families and communities in the future?
C. Add one question of your own about the federally funded program you
selected.
D. Document your questions and responses.
E. Write a reflective paragraph on the information you obtained on the
nature and quality of the program and the contributions of federal funds
to its work.
ACTIVITY
Identify Policy Instruments in ESEA
Reading 4.3 discusses four policy instruments (McDonnell and Elmore, 1991) that,
at this writing, are embedded in the federal Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (ESEA) in sections on parental involvement. The reading examines whether
and how these different guidelines and requirements affect district leadership on
partnerships and school-based programs of family and community involvement.

The four policy instruments are mandates, inducements, capacity-building oppor-
tunities, and system-changing actions.
A. Use the search function at www.ed.gov to find the current Elementary and
Secondary Education Act.
B. Examine all sections of ESEA that refer to parental involvement.
C. Document one example of the legislative language in one section of the
law (give the identifying section code, and cite the content, or note
“none”) that specifies or reflects:
1. A mandate (a requirement or regulation that must be fulfilled to
comply with the law)
2. An inducement (a reward that encourages or a sanction that
punishes particular actions)
3. Capacity building (a way to build new skills and knowledge for
action on the topic)
4. System change (actions that permanently alter typical decision-
making or leadership patterns on the topic)
D. Write a paragraph or two to tell which section and policy instrument in
ESEA you think would have the strongest effects on district leaders’
actions to improve district-level and/or school-based programs of
parental involvement and why.
COMMENT
Top-Down, Bottom-Up, or Side-by-Side Policy
There are recurrent controversies about the differences, benefits, and disadvantages
of “top-down” versus “bottom-up” policies and directives. In several readings
throughout this book, I suggest that the most important policies for school, family,
and community partnership find expression in programs and practices at the school
level. The readings and activities also suggest, however, that some federal, state, and
district policies, leadership, activities, and support enable schools to develop skills
and programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
Use the information in this chapter and your experience to answer the following
questions.
1. Do you think that a federal, state, district, or school policy can change
educators’ and families’ attitudes and behaviors about school, family, and
community partnerships? Explain your yes or no answer.

2. Give one example of “side-by-side” federal, state, district, and/or school
policies that shows how leadership, investments, and practices of
partnership across policy levels might affect the involvement of families
and communities in their children’s education at the school level.
COMMENT
The Flow and Ebb of Policy and Practice
In the real world of education, the ebb and flow (or flow and ebb) of policies and
practices may encourage or prevent the development of permanent partnership pro-
grams. It is common for policies and actions to be passed, revised, and then halted
before the original goals are achieved.
In some states and districts, policies, leadership, goals, and activities for school,
family, and community partnerships are started and stopped, delayed, limited in
scope, or redirected because of leadership and staff changes, changes in “missions,”
or budget cuts. In other states and districts, partnerships are maintained and ex-
panded despite changes in personnel.
State Example
For example, at the state level, California’s Department of Education’s policy on

parental involvement (included in Reading 4.2) was passed in 1989 and, with revisions,
is still on the books. California was one of the first states to use research as the basis
for a short, clear policy that named the six types of involvement (parenting, commu-
nicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the
community) as components of school-based partnership programs (Solomon, 1991).
The original policy included detailed plans for state-sponsored staff development
and assistance for district leaders and school teams to maximize the chances that
the state policy would be enacted. After a good start, progress was slowed by politics
and by serious budget cuts that affected the state’s options for fulfilling its plans for
widespread, cost-free professional development. Later, the state reestablished and
strengthened its policy and initiatives on partnerships.
California is a large state with over 1,000 school districts. It is not possible for a
state office to order or control the work that occurs in all of these districts, large
and small. However, it is important for this state and all states to have a policy that
is meaningful to and can be customized and implemented in all districts and schools.

District Example
At the district level, Indianapolis provides an example of “flow and ebb” in leader-
ship, policies, and practices of family and community involvement. In the 1980s,
the Indianapolis Public Schools (IPS) Parents in Touch office led the nation in district-
level leadership on partnerships (Warner, 1991). Progress was seriously affected
when key staff retired and the superintendent and other leaders changed more than
once. These are common occurrences in school districts. Although some schools in
IPS still refer to Parents In Touch as one of their school-based approaches, and al-
though the district states its intention to develop effective partnership programs in
all schools, IPS remains in a period of reconstructing district-level leadership, poli-
cies, and actions on partnerships.
No Need for Progress to Ebb
It should be noted that progress on partnerships is not always halted by changes in

personnel and budget cuts. Several states and many districts working on partner-
ships experience changes in leaders and budgetary crises but continue to increase
the quality of their partnership programs. Several factors support continuous pro-
gram improvement, including clearly written policies; documented plans and activ-
ities; evaluations of progress; broad participation and expertise, so that new leaders
may be drawn from those already working in the state or district; and attention
to transitions, so that new leaders are informed about past successes and are able
to build on the work of those who left.
For example, when its superintendent changed once in the early 1990s and then
again, and when its leader for partnerships left and a new leader was appointed, St.
Paul Public Schools in Minnesota maintained a clear vision about family involve-
ment and increased efforts to improve home, school, and community connections
in all schools. Similarly, despite leadership changes and budget woes, Buffalo Public
Schools continued to assign leaders to guide schools to strengthen their school-based
partnership programs. The new superintendents and leaders in these and other lo-
cations were able to learn about and expand the goals of their predecessors.
Personnel changes are guaranteed to occur in schools, districts, and state depart-
ments of education. Individuals move, are promoted, retire, or transfer to new as-
signments. Budgets are challenged as departments compete for limited funds. Even
with these inevitable changes and challenges, state, district, and school investments in
school, family, and community partnership programs can be protected and improved—
just as reading, math, science, testing, and other programs continue despite the ups
and downs of budgets and the comings and goings of leaders and staff.

Think of the permanence and predictability of a reading, math, or testing program

in schools, districts, or states. What might be done to organize ongoing programs of
school, family, and community partnerships that will not disappear with staff or
budget changes?
1. Select and identify a policy level—state, district, or school—that interests you.

2. Using the readings in this chapter and your experience, describe two
structures, processes, or activities that you think would help prevent
setbacks in the progress of partnership programs from staff or budgetary
changes.
3. Explain why you think each idea might help stabilize or “institutionalize”
a program of partnerships at the policy level that you selected.
COMMENT
What Are School, Family, and

Community Partnerships Worth?
Programs of school, family, and community partnerships may be funded using a

formula allocating a per-pupil expenditure or a lump-sum investment to support
staff and program costs. Several years ago, I suggested a minimum per-pupil expen-
diture of $5, $10, and $25 at the state, district, and school levels, respectively, or
minimum lump-sum investments of $100,000 per state, $50,000 per large district,
and $15,000 per school to fund the leadership, development, training, implementa-
tion, evaluation, and continuous improvement of programs of partnership in states,
districts, and schools (Epstein, 1991).
Since that initial modest proposal, my colleagues and I have collected data from
states, districts, and schools on the levels and sources of their investments in staff
and activities to develop comprehensive partnership programs (Epstein et al., 2009).
The following comments and activities draw from those data to address the ques-
tion: What are school, family, and community partnerships worth?
Exploring Funding Options: Per-Pupil Allocations
Imagine the following allocations for school, family, and community partnership
programs at the state, district, and school levels:
• $0.15–$1 per student of state funds to be used at that level to fund

salaries and benefits of a state director of partnerships and staff, state
programs, and services for activities that assist districts and schools in
their work on partnerships. State funds may support staff salaries and

benefits, grants to districts and schools, training and other inservice
education, and other state leadership functions.
• $5–$10 per student of district funds to be used at that level to fund
salaries and benefits of district coordinator(s) and facilitator(s), district
programs, and services to assist all schools in the district to develop
expertise and programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
District funds may support training and other inservice education,
grants to schools, the dissemination of effective practices, and other
district leadership functions. The district’s work should be coordinated
with state policies and activities, when appropriate.
• $12–$20 per student of funds at the school level to support a program
of activities planned each year by the school’s Action Team for
Partnerships. This includes activities conducted on the six types of
involvement designed to inform and involve all students’ families in their
children’s education at school and at home. Each school’s program
includes activities that are selected and tailored to meet important goals
for student success and to meet the needs and interests of students and
families. This may include a part-time, site-based coordinator, printed
materials, refreshments, incentives, workshop presenters, website
development, and other specific involvement activities. The school
policies, programs, and practices should be coordinated with state and
district policies and activities, when appropriate.
Any state, district, or school could justify investing more than the modest amounts
suggested above, but few presently make even these minimal investments. Different
formulas could be used, for example, if a district offers large grants to all schools
to support activities in a written plan for partnerships, if districts fund full-time
facilitators for partnerships in each school, or if districts include in their allocations
for partnerships full-service program components such as school-site health, recre-
ation, after-school, and other educational programs and services for children and
families.
Another way to determine a reasonable per-pupil investment is to assign 1 per-
cent of the total per-pupil costs to educate youngsters to fund all state and district
leadership, training, and support activities and all school-based programs of school,
family, and community partnerships. For example, if it costs $6,000 per student per
year for a full educational program, then $60 per student would be divided to fund
the state, district, and school programs of partnership. This would exceed the min-
imum allocations suggested above for the state, district, and school levels, but still
would be a reasonable allocation for organizing, sustaining, and continually im-
proving family and community involvement that supports student learning and suc-
cess in school.

Exploring Funding Options: Lump-Sum Allocations
Another funding alternative is based on the allocation of a lump sum for partner-
ships. States, districts, and schools may allocate new funds or reallocate existing
funds to support staff salaries and benefits, grants, training, and other activities to
ensure that there are leadership and funds for the development of district-level and
school-based partnership programs. Table 4.5 summarizes the range of investments
reported by schools, districts, and states in the National Network of Partnership
Schools in 2007. The reported average investments indicate that:
• state leadership and support for programs of partnership averages about

$211,000 (median of $175,000);
• district leadership and support for programs of partnership average about
$214,000 for districts with more than 30 schools, and proportionately
more or less for larger and smaller districts (median of $65,000);
• school leadership and support for programs of partnership averages
about $6,000 for schools with 400–800 students and proportionately
more or less in larger or smaller schools (median of $2,000).
Combining the per-pupil expenditures for parental involvement programs in

Table 4.5 across all three policy levels indicates that all states, districts, and schools
could begin to build comprehensive programs of school, family, and community
partnerships for a total of about $30 per student per year. This remarkably reason-
able level of funding may be drawn from funds that are available in federal, state,
and local programs that already are targeted to school, family, and community part-
nerships for student success. The estimates suggest that all states, districts, and
schools can afford to identify leaders and support the development of programs
that fulfill basic goals for improving school, family, and community partnerships.
Table 4.5 also shows that, at this writing, states, districts, and schools are using
many sources of funds to cover their programs of school, family, and community
partnerships to increase student success in school. Some funds come from federal,
state, and local programs that include requirements and recommendations for family
and community involvement (e.g., Title I; Title III; Title IV, including Safe and Drug
Free Schools; Title V on choice and innovative programs; Title VI on flexible ap-
proaches for increasing student achievement and effective rural schools; and others).
For example, Title IV funds for Safe and Drug Free Schools may be used for pre-
vention activities, including home, school, and community connections to improve
and maintain good student attendance, behavior, and learning. Title VI funds may
be applied creatively to improve curricular connections in school, family, and com-
munity partnerships, such as improving designs of homework, enriching the cur-
riculum through volunteers, creating community-based career development and job
shadowing programs, and other attention to school subjects. Title VII funds may
be applied to programs that help students with limited English to increase school
skills, including connections with families to motivate student learning.

TABLE 4.5 Levels and Sources of Funds for Programs of Family and Community
Involvement in Schools, Districts, and States
Schools Districts States
(N = 356)1 (N = 83)1 (N = 12)1
Levels of Funding Range: $100 to Range: $800 to Range: $2,000 to

$88,000 $2.78 million $600,000
Median: $2,000 Median: $65,000 Median: $175,000
Average: $5,722 Average: $213,958 Average: $211,088
Suggested per-pupil Suggested per-pupil Suggested per-pupil
expenditure range: expenditure range: expenditure range:
$12 to $20 $5 to $10 $0.15 to $1.00
Sources of Funds for Bilingual education Bilingual education IDEA–special

Family and Community education funding
Community Community
Involvement Programs
partners partners PIRC support
District budget District budget State professional
development funds
Drug prevention Drug prevention
State department of
General funds District fund-raisers
education general
Principals’ General funds funds
discretionary
Local foundations Title I
funds
PIRC support 21st Century
PTA
Schools grants
PTA
School fund-raisers
Other federal and
Special education state funds
Special education
funds State funds
State funds Title I
Title I Titles II, III, IV
Titles III, IV United Way
21st Century 21st Century
Schools grants Schools grants
Other federal, state, Other federal, state,
district, and local and district funds
funds
1
Source: Update surveys of schools, districts, and states in the National Network of Partnership
Schools (NNPS) at Johns Hopkins University. School data are from 1998 and are corrected for
inflation to reflect 2007 dollars. District and state data are from 2007 Update surveys.
365
States, districts, and schools also use general funds, donations from parent associ-
ations, and grants and donations from businesses, foundations, community groups,
and other sources. Funds from all sources are combined or blended to support state
coordinators, district facilitators, activities planned by school Action Teams for School,
Family, and Community Partnerships, and other personnel and program costs.
Funding Options: Other Factors
The number of districts in a state, the number of schools in a district, and the number
of students and families in a school all may affect funding formulas. For example, a
state with over 400 school districts with an average of 7 schools in each will need
a different plan and funding formula than a state with 50 districts with an average
of 60 schools in each. Consider the following hypothetical states.
State A has about 400 districts that average State B has about 50 districts that average
10 schools per district (ranging from 1 to 60 schools per district (ranging from 10
50 schools per district across the state). to 100 schools per district across the state).
This state will need more staff and leader- This state will need only one or two
ship activities at the state level or by region full-time professional staff at the state
to assist all districts and schools to orga- level, adequate support staff, and a budget
nize and develop their expertise and pro- to assist districts and schools with their
grams of partnership. In small districts, leadership and work on school, family, and
with fewer than 15 schools, part-time lead- community partnerships. Large districts in
ers for partnerships may assist the schools. this state will need a full-time-equivalent
In very small districts (e.g., fewer than 5 facilitator to assist every 15–30 schools to
schools) school leaders may work relatively develop and maintain their partnership
independently, with state, regional, or other programs.
organizational support (e.g., service
providers), as needed.
In State A, state leadership (with assistance In State B, district leadership may be more
from various organizations) may be more complex than in State A.
complex than in State B.
Both hypothetical states need to identify a state leader for partnerships who will
write a plan to organize state leadership activities, including some of the actions
outlined in Readings 4.1 and 4.2. Each state will need to develop within-state,
interdepartmental connections among programs that include attention to families
and communities. Other state and regional organizations, intermediate staff devel-
opment units, and universities also may take leadership roles at the state and/or
district levels to help districts and schools develop their knowledge, skills, and pro-
grams of partnership.
Districts in each hypothetical state must identify a leader on partnerships and
related program costs, and all schools will need adequate funding each year to sup-
port activities planned by their Action Teams for Partnerships. The level of support

needed will depend on the size of the district or school, goals for students, student
and family needs, the community context, and other factors.
Summary of Funding Options
There are many possible formulas for per-pupil or lump-sum allocations at the state,
district, and school levels to support the real costs of developing and maintaining
programs of school, family, and community partnerships at all three policy levels.
Decisions will vary based on the conditions and needs in large and small states, dis-
tricts, and schools. However derived, a reasonable plan for adequate funding is
needed in every state, district, and school to ensure that all students’ families are
welcome in their children’s schools and are informed about and active partners in
their children’s education at all grade levels. The examples of alternative funding
plans force attention to such questions as:
• How much is it worth to develop and maintain productive school,

family, and community partnerships so that all families are involved in
their children’s education across the grades?
• Where will the money come from, and how will it be spent?
• Who will decide?
• How will results of the investments be evaluated?
• How will investments and programs be sustained?
ACTIVITY
Design a Feasible Plan for Funding Partnerships
A. Select and identify one state, district, or school that interests you.
B. List its name, location, and size (e.g., number of districts, schools, and/or
number of students served). This information may be obtained on the
Internet (e.g., nces.ed.gov), by phone, or in federal, state, or local
directories, or through other sources. Or use the following hypothetical
information:
New State has 100 school districts and approximately 1,600
schools. Every district, including New District, has 10 elementary
schools (grades K–5) with 300 students in each school; 4 middle schools
(grades 6–8) with 750 students in each school; and 2 high schools
(grades 9–12) with 1,500 students in each.
C. Working with the information in this chapter, create a realistic funding
plan for school, family, and community partnerships for the state,
district, or school that you selected.

1. Begin with a paragraph summarizing the philosophy or policy on
which you will base your funding plan. Consider these requirements:
a. The program you outline must enable educators, parents, and
community members to work together in ways that support
student success in school.
b. The program and budget you describe must enable each school
to build its capacity to plan, conduct, and maintain partnerships
with all families, not just a few.
2. a. Outline the funding approach you will use (i.e., per-pupil
expenditure or lump-sum allocation); at least five sample
activities that you will fund at the state, district, or school level
that you selected; and the level of funding you recommend for
one year to support the activities you outlined.
b. Give details on the allocations you recommend for staff salaries
and benefits, training workshops, grants, and other activities in
your comprehensive program of partnerships.
D. Optional class activity: In class, present and critique classmates’ funding
plans. Discuss:
1. Are the funding estimates realistic?
2. What would the plan permit and exclude in a full program of
partnerships?
3. Do you think that the plan could be implemented in the school,
district, or state you selected? Why or why not?
COMMENT
Partnerships Start at Birth
Parents As Teachers (P.A.T.) is a long-standing early education intervention program

that grew from a 1981 pilot program in Missouri to a nationally replicated model.
The program was designed to serve all families of infants and very young children,
not just those with high-risk characteristics. P.A.T. prepares parent educators who
make a series of home visits each year to help participating families understand
child development from birth to age three so that their children are ready to learn
in school. Services include home visits, screening to monitor children’s development
and to identify and reduce risks to healthy development, parent education, group
meetings for parents, and play experiences for children in a community center. In
Missouri, one early estimate of the cost of the pilot P.A.T. program was $210 per
family, with $170 coming from the state and $40 from local funds. Since the early
1980s, costs have increased to cover the salaries of parent educators and program
costs, though the program is rarely fully funded to serve all families, as originally
intended. P.A.T. remains a popular program that is part of early childhood education
policies in many states and districts.

Early evaluations of P.A.T. suggested positive effects on parents’ attitudes and
confidence and on children’s readiness skills and social development, fewer unde-
tected hearing problems, and reduced effects of risk conditions on children’s lan-
guage development (Pfannenstiel, Seitz, and Zigler, 2002; Pfannenstiel and Seltzer,
1989). Research is needed on how children in P.A.T. proceed through their educa-
tional careers and whether and which families continue to be involved in their chil-
dren’s education after their children start elementary school.
P.A.T. is one of many successful early education programs that assist families and
their infants and toddlers. A logical next step for all such programs is to ensure that
information for families about child and adolescent development and parental
involvement in education continues as children progress through the elementary
and secondary grades. This would require the kinds of policies and practices fea-
tured in Readings 4.1 and 4.2 that outline how state and district leaders can help
all schools develop and maintain effective partnership programs that aim to increase
student success in school.
1. Give two reasons why it is important for a state to focus on families of

children from birth to age three, as in P.A.T. and similar programs.
2. Give two reasons why it is not enough to focus on families of children from
birth to age three in organizing home, school, and community partnerships.
COMMENT
Chart a District’s Progress in Developing

Reading 4.3 and other studies indicate that district policies are necessary but not
sufficient for schools to build capacity to organize their own partnership programs.
Rather, district leaders who are expert on partnership program development have
two responsibilities: to conduct activities at the district level that benefit all schools
and to conduct activities that guide each school to develop effective programs of
family and community involvement. School-based partnership programs increase
the options for all students’ families to be involved in their children’s education at
every grade level in ways that support student success in school.
To fulfill both responsibilities, district leaders must take the following steps on
the path to partnerships:
Step 1. Write a policy.

Step 2. Build knowledge at the district level. Identify a leader for
partnerships.

Step 3. Implement district-level activities, such as conducting
workshops for parents or compiling a handbook of ideas.
Step 4. Assist schools on request.
Step 5. Take initiative to help every school create an Action Team for
Partnerships.
Step 6. Provide all school teams with needed professional
development and support to help them organize, implement,
evaluate, and sustain their partnership programs.
Step 7. Assist schools on a regular schedule, organize ways for schools
to share their best activities, and conduct midyear or end-of-
year activities to address challenges and discuss solutions.
Step 8. Evaluate the quality of district and school programs and effects
of partnerships in order to improve programs from year to year.
Most districts start this work with steps 1, 2, and 3 but never get to steps 5
through 8.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Discuss a District’s Progress on Partnerships
Select and identify a school district with at least 10 schools that is of interest to you.
Arrange to interview one district leader (a district leader for partnerships or other
administrator) and one principal from the district. Or invite a district leader and a
principal from a local district to class for a group interview.
A. Ask the district leader:

1. Does your district have a policy on parental involvement or school,
family, or community partnerships?
a. If yes, what is one feature of this policy?
b. If no, why is there no policy on partnerships?
2. Is there a district leader who is expert on partnerships to oversee
work at the district level and in the schools?
a. If yes, what are this leader’s responsibilities at the district level
and in aiding schools to develop their own site-based partnership
programs?
b. If there is no leader, who in the district is responsible for
advancing family and community involvement?
3. What is one strong district leadership activity for family and
community involvement conducted this year?
4. How should your district’s partnership program improve in the next
year or two?
5. Add at least one question of your own.

B. Ask the school principal:
1. Does your school implement the district’s policy on partnerships, or
does the school have a separate and different policy? Or both?
Or none?
a. If it has any policy, please explain how this policy is shared with
teachers, parents, and student.
b. If it has none, please explain whether a written policy would
help your school strengthen its partnership program.
2. Does the school have an Action Team for Partnership or an equivalent
committee that organizes a plan, implements activities, and evaluates
its outreach to engage all parents in useful ways each year?
3. How do district leaders assist your school to improve its partnership
program?
4. What is one strong activity for family and community involvement
in your school?
5. How does your school’s partnership program need to improve in the
next year or two?
6. Add at least one question of your own.
C. Document the questions and responses. Indicate which step (see steps 1–8)
the district is working on to build its leadership on partnerships.
D. Reflecting on the responses from the two interviewees, write a reflective
paragraph telling whether this district is at an early or advanced stage in
developing district-level and school-based partnership programs.
COMMENT
District Policies: Focus on Choice
Some states and districts have policies about school choice and about school, family,
and community partnerships. As discussed in Reading 4.1, school choice and part-
nerships are simultaneously linked and separate policies. They are linked because
choice involves families in major decisions about where their children will attend
school or which program within a school a child will elect. They are separate be-
cause choice is a discrete event that may or may not be followed by other opportu-
nities for ongoing involvement.
Many states and districts have policies that permit, encourage, or require families
to choose their public schools within or across school districts. In various places,
parents may choose magnet schools, charter schools, career academies, and other
special schools or programs at the elementary, middle, and high school levels. At
the time of this writing, districts were required to allow parents to choose new
schools for their children if, over two years, the current school failed to make ade-
quate progress on state achievement tests. Policies that enable parents to choose
their child’s school are designed to build students’ talents and interests, increase

competition among schools and improve the quality of school programs, respond
to court orders for racially integrated schools, or meet other policy goals.
Some policies on school choice are clear and equitable. Others are murky and
do not inform or involve all families about the choices they may make. In some
cases, parents do not receive timely information about their choices. Sometimes, in-
formation is not written in languages that parents and students can understand.
Parents need information on the consequences of different choices for their chil-
dren’s learning, transportation, and special programs. Changing schools entails
changing friends and locations. The new schools may not have programs that meet
the needs of particular children and could be a poorer match than the current
school. The choice process is, in fact, complicated. Information and processes on
choice must be clear, equitable, and timely.
After the choice of a school is made, every school must inform and engage all
families to support their children’s learning and development. This requires each
school to have a comprehensive program of school, family, and community part-
nerships that involves all parents every year as students proceed through school.
1. a. How might choosing a school increase the involvement of families?

b. How might choosing a school decrease the involvement of families?
2. Select and identify the level of schooling (elementary, middle, or high
school) that interests you. Suppose a family moved into a new
community with a child entering the level of schooling you selected.
a. Write three questions you think a parent should ask in the new
community if public school choice were an option. Note to whom
each question should be addressed. Explain why each question is
important to a parent.
b. Write three questions you think a parent should ask in the new
community if all students were assigned to their schools and there were
no options for school choice. Note to whom each question should be
addressed. Explain why each question is important to a parent.
c. Optional class activity: Discuss the concerns parents may have about
the choice or assignment of schools. Whose responsibility (e.g., district
administrators, school leaders, others) is it to address these issues?
Organizations’ Policies for Preparing Educators
States and districts are not the only leadership units that write policies and guidelines
on school, family, and community partnerships. Professional organizations, includ-
ing the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (2009), the Na-
tional Association of State Boards of Education (2009), and the National School
Boards Association (2003), recognize the importance of programs of partnership to
increase student success in school and to reduce school dropout rates.

Accrediting and professional organizations also have policies and recommendations
on partnerships that influence education and practice. Following are two examples.
New Teachers: NCATE Standards for Teacher Credentials
The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE, 2008) in-
cludes a standard for parental involvement for candidates for teaching and for
teacher preparation institutions. The standards aim to ensure that new teachers un-
derstand and are prepared to involve families in their children’s education. For ex-
ample, NCATE’s standards for preparing elementary teachers include the following
goals for teachers’ professionalism:
Professional Growth, Reflection, and Evaluation. Elementary teachers are aware

of and reflect on their practice in light of research on teaching, professional ethics,
and resources available for professional learning; they continually evaluate the ef-
fects of their professional decisions and actions on students, families, and other
professionals in the learning community and actively seek out opportunities to
grow professionally.
Collaboration with Families, Colleagues, and Community Agencies. They know the
importance of establishing and maintaining a positive collaborative relationship
with families, school colleagues, and agencies in the larger community to promote
the intellectual, social, emotional, physical growth, and well-being of children. (Stan-
dard 5.2)
Explanation. Candidates understand different family beliefs, traditions, values, and

practices across cultures and within society and use their knowledge effectively.
They involve families as partners in supporting the school both inside and outside
the classrooms. They involve families in assessing and planning for individual chil-
dren, including children with disabilities, developmental delays, or special abilities.
Candidates understand schools as organizations within the larger community con-
text and the operations of relevant aspects of the systems in which they work. They
also understand how factors in the elementary students’ environments outside of
school may influence the students’ cognitive, emotional, social, and physical well-
being and, consequently, their lives and learning. Candidates participate in collegial
activities designed to make the entire school a productive learning environment and
develop effective collaborations with specialists.
Similarly, in outlining what middle school teachers should know and be able to
do, NCATE (2008) states: “Middle school teachers understand how prior learning
experiences and family backgrounds influence young adolescent learning. They form
relationships with the students’ families and community to create a collaborative
learning experience.”

Experienced Teachers: National Board for Professional
Teaching Standards (NBPTS)
The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) defines what an
experienced, exemplary teacher should know and be able to do. One standard spec-
ifies that excellent teachers establish family partnerships. For example, in the outline
for the Early Adolescence/Generalist Certificate (NBPTS, 2001), the following stan-
dard describes how experienced teachers in the middle grades should work with
families and communities to help students succeed:
Standard XI: Family Partnerships

Accomplished generalists work with families to achieve common goals for the educa-
tion of their children.
Explanation. In explaining how teachers “clearly signal through word and deed the
importance of families as partners with the school in their children’s education,”
NBPTS explains how exemplary teachers cultivate family support for their children’s
education:
Accomplished generalists understand that active, involved, and informed families create
a network that supports vital, effective instructional programs. They see collaboration
with parents as an essential tool in providing students with the support, motivation,
and understanding they desire and need. Teachers effectively communicate with fami-
lies about their children’s accomplishments, successes, and needs for improvement, in-
cluding means for attaining higher goals. They ensure that this communication extends
to families whose primary language is not English. Teachers search for ways to share
the school’s objectives and expectations for its students, as well as the rationales for
assignments. Teachers interpret and discuss students’ work as well as report cards and
test scores in a manner that gives parents an accurate portrait of their children’s
progress. They can discuss course selection and consequences, including the importance
of planning for high school and future education. They work constructively with par-
ents to help their children develop good learning habits and study skills, complete
homework, set goals, and improve performance. As necessary, they assist families in
finding additional resources and services outside the school, such as health care, coun-
seling, and child care.
Teachers who apply for NBPTS certification must submit a portfolio with four
entries that demonstrate their best practices, one of which shows their accomplish-
ments outside of the classroom—with families, the community, or colleagues—and
how that entry affects student learning. Every NBPTS certificate includes one stan-
dard for family and community involvement, making clear that exemplary teachers
conduct productive partnerships to increase students’ success.

Compare and contrast the NCATE guidelines for new teachers and the NBPTS
guidelines for experienced teachers on practices to involve families and communities
in children’s education.
1. How might the NCATE and NBPTS guidelines encourage new and
experienced teachers to develop and conduct activities to involve the
families and communities of the students they teach? Give two ideas of
how each of the guidelines might influence an individual teacher’s practice.
2. How might the NCATE and NBPTS guidelines encourage teachers to
contribute to their schools’ partnership programs, beyond the work they
do with the families of their own students? Give two ideas of how each
of the guidelines might influence teachers to work collaboratively with
others at their schools.
3. How might the NCATE and NBPTS guidelines encourage teacher
education programs to provide undergraduate courses for new teachers
and advanced graduate courses for experienced teachers to develop
knowledge and skills to involve families in their children’s education? Give
one idea of how each of the guidelines might affect teacher education.
ACTIVITY
Explore State Requirements for Teaching Credentials
A. Locate on the Internet or otherwise obtain a copy of the requirements for

teacher, administrator, or counselor credentials from a state that interests
you. Identify the state and credential that you selected.
1. Do the requirements explicitly specify competencies in involving
families and communities in children’s education?
If yes:
a. List the requirements for competencies in partnerships.
b. Do you think these requirements are adequate for preparing the
educator to work productively with families? Explain why or
why not.
c. Suggest one change that you believe would improve the
requirements.
If no:
a. Do the requirements implicitly refer to family and community
involvement (e.g., refer to teaching culturally diverse children,
which implies also working with students’ families)?
b. Create a state requirement concerning school, family, and
community partnerships that you believe would be important
for the professional credential you selected.

c. Explain why you think your recommendation is important and
attainable.
B. Obtain a current catalog for your college or university.
1. List the required and elective courses offered in education that
would prepare future teachers, administrators, or counselors to
understand students’ families and have skills to work with family
and community partners in students’ education.
2. Do you think the available courses are adequate for preparing
teachers, administrators, counselors, or other professionals to
conduct effective programs of family and community involvement?
a. If yes, give two reasons why you think so.
b. If no, suggest two additions, revisions (e.g., changes in course
titles), or other changes that you think would improve the
courses and content on partnerships.
Other Policy Issues
Many other important and provocative policy-related questions have emerged as

the field of school, family, and community partnerships has grown. This section dis-
cusses a few policies and proposals that could affect state, district, and school poli-
cies on school, family, and community partnerships.
COMMENT
Laws that Enable Parents Who Work Outside the Home to

Attend Parent-Teacher Conferences and School Meetings
In 2007, 12 states and the District of Columbia passed laws that require employers
to allow employees who are parents to take leave time to attend their children’s
school meetings and events. The laws differed in how “leave time” was defined and
regulated, including which employers must comply by size of business, which em-
ployees are eligible, the number of hours covered, which school meetings qualify,
how employers are notified for approval, whether parents use paid or unpaid time,
and other factors.
One report identified the states as California, Hawaii, Illinois, Louisiana, Mas-
sachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, North Carolina, Rhodes Island, Tennessee, Texas,
and Vermont (A Better Balance, 2007). At least 13 other states (Colorado, Delaware,
Georgia, Iowa, Maryland, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
South Carolina, West Virginia, and Wisconsin) have designed, are reviewing, or may
reconsider similar legislation.
For example, among the early laws on this topic:

• A 1990 law passed by the state legislature in Minnesota permitted
workers who are parents to use up to 16 hours of accrued vacation time,
sick leave, or other arranged time to attend parent-teacher conferences
or other meetings related to their own children’s education or to attend
to their children’s illnesses.
• A similar bill in California (AB 2590, Chapter 1290 in the Statutes of
1994, expanded in 1997) specified that employers with 25 or more
employees should allow each employee (parents, grandparents, or
guardians) up to 40 hours of time to participate in their children’s
schools using vacation time, personal or sick leave, compensatory time,
or leave without pay.
• By contrast, a 1992 policy in Virginia pertained only to parents who were
employees of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The law provided paid
leave of up to eight hours per year, credited to full-time employees each
year, with proportional awards of leave time to part-time employees to
meet with teachers, attend functions, or volunteer at school. This policy
was designed to serve as a model for large businesses in the state to
duplicate to demonstrate their commitment to families, children, and
schools. Similarly, Tennessee’s first law pertained to state employees.
Reports from Minnesota and other states suggest that flexible leave policies pro-
moted greater involvement of parents in their children’s education, including more
communication with their children’s teachers and more involvement of fathers. Re-
search suggests why and how this happens.
An early study by Espinoza (1988) found that employers’ typical short-term leave
policies affected the involvement of employees who were parents. He studied a phone
company where women in clerical jobs were not permitted to take less than a full day
of unpaid leave when they wanted to attend parent-teacher conferences. In addition,
nonmedical, unexcused absences worked against them when they were considered
for transfers and promotions. Thus, the women were doubly disciplined by a loss of
pay for more time off than they needed to attend conferences at their children’s schools
and by penalties for taking time off. They had to balance these factors with the per-
sonal and family benefits of attending the conferences to demonstrate good parenting
and to learn more about their children’s progress and success in school.
Most parents in blue-collar jobs still face difficulties and penalties at work if they
take time from work to attend parent-teacher conferences or to volunteer at their
children’s schools. Most white-collar workers have greater flexibility with compen-
satory time, flexible leave time, or other arrangements to attend conferences or other
meetings and to volunteer, with no loss in pay and no penalties for their actions.
Although mothers attend most of these activities, more fathers in white-collar jobs
with flexible work conditions participate in school conferences and activities than
do fathers in blue-collar jobs that impose more rigid work rules and penalties for
absences (Espinoza, 1988).

1. What changes in behavior, actions, or attitudes might result from state

laws that require employers to permit employees who are parents to
attend parent-teacher conferences or other required school meetings?
a. Describe one result that you would expect (regardless of state).
b. Explain why you would expect the results you described.
ACTIVITY
Examine an Employer’s Support for

Family Involvement in Education
Does your state, place of employment, or a local company with over 100 employees
have laws or guidelines that permit workers to take time to attend parent-teacher
conferences or other meetings at their children’s schools? Use the Internet and other
reference materials, or interview a local employer about this issue.
A. Identify the employer you selected (e.g., state or business) and your method
of inquiry. Address section B-1 (below) if the employer has a parental leave
policy and B-2 if not.
B-1. If the employer you selected permits parental leave for meetings at
children’s schools, report the following:
1. Describe the formal or informal guidelines and requirements for
parental leave.
2. Are the guidelines used by employees? In what ways or why not?
3. Do you think the current guidelines are adequate and clear?
a. If so, how do the guidelines benefit the participating families,
students, schools, communities, and the employer?
b. If not, how would you improve the guidelines or their applications?
OR
B-2. If the state or business you selected does not permit parental leave:
1. Write a hypothetical guideline that you think is clear, fair, and
workable for the state or business you selected.
2. Explain why the components you included are important for
families, students, schools, communities, and the employer.
C. Whether or not guidelines about parental leave exist:
1. Give one example of an activity that a school might conduct to adjust
the schedule of conferences, meetings, and events to accommodate
parents who work full-time or part-time during the day or evening.
2. Give one example of an activity that a community organization or
group (e.g., faith-based organization, neighborhood group) might
conduct to assist working parents or single parents to maintain
involvement in their children’s schools.

COMMENT
Communicate in Languages that Parents Understand
Most federal, state, and district policies call attention to the need to create positive
partnerships with all families, including those who do not speak or read English
well. In some cases, information from school to home needs to be written more
clearly in English. In other cases, information needs to be in the languages that par-
ents speak and read at home.
For example, policies to improve the education of children who are limited in
English proficiency could be applied to the families of these children. Policies also
are needed to communicate with parents who are limited in their proficiency with
English, even if their children speak English well. In a modest proposal, I suggested
(Hidalgo, Siu, and Epstein, 2004) that the Lau v. Nichols (414 U.S. 563, 1974) de-
cision, which required schools to provide non–English-speaking students with equal
opportunities to learn in a language they could understand, should be reworded to
reflect the results of research on school, family, and community partnerships, as fol-
lows (added text is in italics):
Where the inability of parents of school children to speak and understand the English
language excludes the children from effective participation in the education program,
the school district must take affirmative steps to open its instructional program to these
parents and their children.
The proposed revision recognizes that language barriers between parents and
teachers—like barriers between children and teachers—impede the equal participa-
tion of children in educational programs. If parents cannot understand their chil-
dren’s teachers, classroom programs, and communications from the school, then
parents cannot effectively guide their children, monitor their work and progress,
raise questions or concerns with teachers, or act as advocates for their children.
Without clear and understandable communication, parents cannot effectively eval-
uate the quality of the schools or the education of their children.
The suggestion to extend Lau v. Nichols to apply to communications with par-
ents as well as to instruction for children raises questions about schools’ responsi-
bilities to ensure that appropriate communications are conducted with all parents,
whether or not their children are limited in English proficiency. Indeed, the 2002
NCLB’s Section 1118 supported this call for more equitable, understandable com-
munications with all parents. The law required states, districts, and schools to com-
municate policies and involvement practices with all parents “in a language the
parents can understand,” but added “to the extent practicable.” This is a reasonable
qualification, but even in schools that serve families who speak many different lan-
guages at home, educators, parents, students, and community members are devel-
oping innovative ways to inform and involve all families with neighborhood
translators, high school student bilingual interpreters, foreign language media, and
other connectors (Hutchins et al., 2009). See examples in the section “Success Sto-
ries” at www.partnershipschools.org.

1. Do you think it is necessary to ensure two-way communications with non–

English-speaking parents and those whose English is limited? Give two
reasons why or why not.
2. As states, districts, and schools work to comply with federal and state
legislation to communicate with all parents, educators and their family
and community partners will have to develop and implement creative
practices with parents who do not speak or read English well or speak
other languages at home. Give two examples of practical activities that
could inform and involve families who do not speak or read English well.
COMMENT
Equity in Out-of-School Activities
Students gain knowledge and build cultural capital when they engage in and enjoy
activities, events, and services in school and in their communities. In recent years,
after-school programs have become more common, but they do not serve all stu-
dents at any age or grade level.
Some families cannot afford the transportation, admission fees, lessons, and dues
that more affluent families easily invest in their children’s education outside of
school. Federal, state, and local “vouchers” or certificates could be created for edu-
cational and cultural activities that support and enhance children’s school learning
and development. An “enrichment voucher”—a kind of “food-for-thought stamp”—
could be distributed to families who cannot presently provide their children with
supplementary learning and talent development activities after school. The subsidies
could be funded by governmental or community agencies and distributed to families
whose children are eligible for free or reduced-price meals in school. These enrich-
ment vouchers would help families support their children’s participation in educa-
tional experiences and activities in their communities.
Enrichment or talent development vouchers could cover payments for children’s
and parents’ transportation and admissions to museums, zoos, science centers,
and aquariums; dance, music, theater, and other performances; sports activities; and
other community cultural activities, classes, and events. The mix of after-school,
summer, weekend, vacation, and evening activities would supplement the school cur-
riculum, promote students’ success in school, and help develop students’ special tal-
ents and skills. In addition to traditional after-school programs (which are not
available in all communities or for all students), innovative, well-designed enrich-
ment programs could provide care and learning opportunities for children while
their parents are at work. In addition, unlike traditional after-school programs, the
enrichment vouchers would enable parents and children to attend some activities,
events, and programs together as a family on evenings and weekends and during
holidays and vacation periods.

Why Vouchers for Community
Enrichment Activities Are Needed
Recognized Need by Parents. In several surveys of families of elementary, middle,

and high school students, the workshop topic of most interest to parents was: “How
do I help my child develop his or her talents?” This was of particular interest to
parents with low incomes who know that their children have special, sometimes
hidden, talents that must be discovered and nourished. Many families need to know
where or how to gain access to community enrichment programs and services, but
may not be able to afford to do so.
Evidence of Long-Term Positive Effects. Studies of middle and high school students
and families indicate that student and family visits to museums during the middle
grades have long-term effects on student success in high school, even after prior
achievement scores are taken into account (Bodilly and Beckett, 2005; Catsambis,
2001; Griffin, 2004). The results suggest that cultural and educational activities may
have lasting value for student success in school, but only some students have op-
portunities to benefit from these experiences.
Unresponsive Community Schedules. Some communities and schools create oppor-

tunities for families and children to participate in enriching educational and cultural
community activities. These include free days at zoos and museums, community
fairs, “first nights” for family New Year’s Eve celebrations, and other special events
and festivals on holidays and weekends throughout the year. Unfortunately, many
families with low incomes and limited English skills do not hear about these offers,
do not have transportation to get to them, or do not feel welcome and comfortable
at the events. The opportunities are often inaccessible to families and students who
need them most. For example, free days at art, science, or history museums may be
scheduled when children are in school or when parents are at work, making it dif-
ficult or impossible for children and families to attend.
In sum, there are major inequities in opportunities for student learning outside
of school and for developing skills and talents that help define who students are as
individuals and as members of their communities. How might more equal access to
enriching and educational events and opportunities in communities be provided?
Enrichment or talent development vouchers is one idea. Expansion of effective after-
school programs is another.
Schools, families, and communities must think together in new ways to enrich
and extend students’ experiences after school, on weekends, and during summer
and other vacations, including family cultural activities in their communities. In
the absence of direct federal, state, or local subsidies to families for the educa-
tional and cultural enrichment of their children, federal, state, or local tax credits
or other incentives might be offered to community organizations, agencies, cul-
tural groups, businesses, and others who organize such programs for children and
their families.

1. Do you think communities should offer free admission and transportation

to enrichment activities to:
a. Students who cannot afford these fees? Explain your views.
b. Families who cannot afford these fees? Explain your views.
2. In your home community, which community groups, cultural
organizations, businesses, and others might be able to support
“enrichment vouchers” for children and for families? Describe one
strategy that one of the groups you listed might conduct to enact this
modest proposal for all or some students and families.
ACTIVITY
How Do Policies Link to Programs, Practices,

and Results of Partnerships?
The readings, comments, questions, and activities in this chapter suggest that federal,
state, district, and school policies are needed to sustain strong school-based programs
of family and community involvement that engage all parents in their children’s
education. Policies may affect the results discussed in Part 1 (Chapters 1, 2, and 3)
of this volume. Among other results, four major findings of the research studies
were:
• More parents become involved when welcoming schools have well-

planned goal-linked partnership programs that involve families and the
community in ways that support student success in school.
• Teachers are more positive about their work and about family and
community involvement in schools that have effective partnership
programs.
• All communities have resources that could support students’ social,
emotional, physical, and talent development and academic achievement
in school.
• Students are more successful in school, and more students graduate from
high school on time, if their families and communities support their
learning and development at every grade level.
A. Write a sentence or two to explain how a good policy at any one level—
federal, state, district, or school—could affect each of four results listed
above.
B. Write a sentence or two to explain how good and linked policies at all
four levels—federal, state, district, and school—could strengthen each of
the four results listed above.

ACTIVITY
Read and Report More about State

and District Policies on Partnerships
To increase your understanding of policies on partnerships, read at least one article,

chapter, or book listed below, or choose a recent, important publication on federal,
state, district, or school policies on school, family, and community partnerships.
A. Identify the article, chapter, or book that you selected, the policy level it
addresses (federal, state, district, or school), and its full bibliographic
reference.
B. Write a one-page summary of the publication. Include a brief overview
of the main topic(s) or question(s) that are raised in the publications,
data (if any), and main results or conclusions.
C. Write a one-page critique of whether and how the selected publication is
useful to educators or policy leaders for improving programs of school,
D. Write two questions that you think should be asked to extend the work
that you read. Explain why you think each question is important for
improving policies of partnerships.
READING LIST FOR THIS ACTIVITY
Federal Policies
Appleseed. (2006). It takes a parent: Transforming education in the wake of the No Child
Left Behind Act. Washington, DC: Author.
Moles, O. C. (2005). School-family relations and student learning: Federal education initia-
tives. In E. N. Patrikakou et al. (Eds.), School-family partnership for children’s success (pp.
131–147). New York: Teachers College Press.
Sadovnik, A. R., J. O’Day, G. Bohrnstedt, and K. Borman. (Eds.). (2008). No Child Left Be-
hind and the reduction of the achievement gap: Sociological perspectives on federal edu-
cational policy. New York: Routledge. (See Section IV, “School Choice and Parental
Involvement,” chapters 10–14.)
Schneider, B. (1996). School, parent, and community involvement: The federal government
invests in social capital. In K. Borman, P. Cookson, and A. Sadovnik (Eds.), Implementing
federal education legislation (pp. 193–213). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
State Policies
M-Pac. (2005). A shared responsibility: Recommendations for increasing family and com-
munity involvement in schools. Baltimore: Maryland State Department of Education.
www.marylandpublicschools.org/MSDE/programs/familylit/mpac/.

National PTA. (2009). State laws on family engagement in education. Chicago: Author.
Redding, S., and P. Sheley. (2005). Grass roots from the top down: The state’s role in family-
school relationships. In E. N. Patrikakou et al. (Eds.), School-family partnership for chil-
dren’s success (pp. 148–163). New York: Teachers College Press.
Epstein, J. L. (2009). Develop district and state leadership for partnerships. In J. L. Epstein et
al. (Eds.), School, family and community partnerships: Your handbook for action (3rd ed.;
pp. 235–273). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
District Policies
Chavkin, N. F. (1995). Comprehensive districtwide reforms in parent and community in-
volvement programs. In B. Rutherford (Ed.), Creating family/school partnerships (pp. 77–
106). Columbus: National Middle School Association.
Henderson, A. T., K. L. Mapp, V. R. Johnson, and D. Davies. (2007). Scaling up: Why can’t
all schools in a district create strong partnerships with families? In A. T. Henderson, K. L.
Mapp, V. R. Johnson, and D. Davies, Beyond the bake sale: The essential guide to family-
school partnerships (pp. 219–250). New York: the New Press.
Sanders, M. G. (2008). Using diverse data to develop and sustain school, family, and com-
munity partnerships: A district case study. Education Management, Administration, and
Leadership 36: 530–545.
Westmoreland, H., H. M. Rosenberg, E. Lopez, and H. Weiss. (2009). Seeing is believing:
Promising practices for how school districts promote family engagement. Chicago: Na-
tional PTA and Harvard Family Research Project.
School Policies
Chrispeels, J. H., and K. J. Martin. (2002). Four school leadership teams define their roles
within organizational and political structures to improve student learning. School Effec-
tiveness and School Improvement 13: 327–365.
Edwards, P. A. (2004). Children’s literacy development: Making it happen through school,
family, and community involvement. Boston: Pearson.
McKenna, M., and D. J. Willms. (1998). The challenge facing parent councils in Canada.
Childhood Education 74: 378–382.
Sanders, M. G., and S. B. Sheldon. (2009). Principals matter: A guide to school, family, and
community partnerships. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
REFERENCES
A Better Balance. (2007). Fact sheet: Educational leave. New York: The Work and Family
Legal Center.
American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. (2009). Resolutions. www.aacte.org.
Bodilly, S., and M. K. Beckett. (2005). Making out-of school time matter: Evidence for an
action agenda. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
Catsambis, S. (2001). Expanding knowledge of parental involvement in children’s secondary
education: Connections with high school seniors’ academic success. Social Psychology of
Education 5: 149–177.
Epstein, J. L. (1991). Paths to partnership: What we can learn from federal, state, district,
and school initiatives. Phi Delta Kappan 72: 344–349.
Epstein, J. L., et al. (2009). School, family and community partnerships: Your handbook for

Espinoza, R. (1988). Working parents, employers, and schools. Educational Horizons 66:
62–65.
Griffin, J. (2004). Research on students and museums: Looking more closely at the students
in school groups. Science Education 88: 59–70.
Hidalgo, N., S-F. Siu, and J. L. Epstein. (2004). Research on families, schools, and communi-
ties: A multicultural perspective. In J. Banks (Ed.), Handbook of research on multicultural
education (2nd ed.; pp. 631–655). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Hutchins, D. J., et al. (Eds.). (2009). Promising partnership practices 2009. Baltimore: Na-
tional Network of Partnership Schools at Johns Hopkins University.
McDonnell, L. M., and R. F. Elmore. (1991). Getting the job done: Alternative policy instru-
ments. In A. R. Odden (Ed.), Education policy implementation (pp. 157–184). Albany:
State University of New York Press.
National Association of State Boards of Education. (2009). Partners in prevention: The role
of school-community partnerships in dropout prevention. Arlington, VA: NASBE.
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). (2001). Early adolescence gen-
eralist standards, second edition. Arlington, VA: Author. (See www.nbpts.org for certificate
requirements for all subjects and grade levels.)
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). (2008). Professional
standards for the accreditation of teacher preparation institutions. Washington, D.C.: Au-
thor. (See www.ncate.org, and click on “Standards” and then “Program Standards.”)
National School Boards Association. (2003). Guiding principles for business and school part-
nerships. Arlington, VA: The Council for Corporate and School Partnerships.
Pfannenstiel, J. C., V. Seitz, and E. Zigler. (2002). Promoting school readiness: The role of the
Parents as Teachers Program. NHSA Dialog: A Research-to-Practice Journal for the Early
Intervention Field 6: 71–86.
Pfannenstiel, J., and D. Seltzer. (1989). New parents as teachers: Evaluation of an early parent
education program. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 4: 1–18.
Solomon, Z. P. (1991). California’s policy on parent involvement: State leadership for local
initiatives. Phi Delta Kappan 72: 335–362.
Warner, I. (1991). Parents in touch: District leadership for parent involvement. Phi Delta
Kappan 72: 372–375.

5
A Practical Framework for
Developing Comprehensive
T HIS CHAPTER TURNS FROM THEORY, research, and policy to practice. If theo-
retical concepts, research results, and policies are clear, then good practices
of school, family, and community partnerships should follow. Reading 5.1
serves as a touchstone for Chapters 5, 6, and 7. You will hear “echoes” of themes
from the early chapters. Here we focus on the research-based framework of six types
of involvement. You will find examples of practices for each type of involvement,
discuss challenges that must be met to conduct excellent activities, and learn about
the results of well-designed and well-implemented activities. Reading 5.1 also out-
lines the steps for organizing and maintaining goal-oriented, school-based partner-
ship programs.
The comments, discussions, and activities in this chapter delve deeply into the
six types of involvement. There are hundreds of activities that may be selected for
each type of involvement. Here we explore ways to understand how each type of
involvement contributes to the quality of partnership programs in preschools, ele-
mentary, middle, and high schools. The information in this chapter provides the
background and understanding needed to resolve difficult challenges that arise for
some types of involvement (also see Chapter 6) and for organizing comprehensive
programs of school, family, and community partnerships (also see Chapter 7).
Based on research, development, and innovative practice, there are new ways to
think about the six types of involvement, including new definitions and designs for
workshops for parents, new structures for parent-teacher-student conferences and
other communications, new locations for volunteers, new approaches to interactive
homework, new responsibilities of parent organizations and leadership, and new
goals for community-school collaborations. The basic and advanced activities ex-
plored in this chapter should help every teacher and principal connect with more
families and community groups. The activities should help every district leader for
387
partnerships understand how to help their schools improve the quality of their part-
nership programs. By reviewing, discussing, and designing ideas for the six types
of involvement, you will begin to see how activities for each type meet the needs of
today’s families and contribute to the attainment of school improvement goals for
student success.
If you are in education, you will be able to use the practical framework of six
types of involvement to guide discussions and to customize plans and actions for
programs of school, family, and community partnerships in the schools, districts,
or states in which you work. If you are in research and evaluation, you will be able
to use Reading 5.1 as a base on which to build new studies of the organization and
results of specific types of involvement. Such studies will contribute to the field by
extending, elaborating, confirming, or contradicting information on the challenges
and results of different family and community involvement activities.
388 FR AMEWORK FOR DEVELOPING COMPREHENSIVE PARTNERSHIP PROGR AMS

READING 5.1
School, Family, and Community Partnerships—
Caring for the Children We Share*
The way schools care about children is reflected in the way schools care about the
children’s families. If educators view children simply as students, they are likely to
see the family as separate from the school. That is, the family is expected to do its
job and leave the education of children to the schools. If educators view students as
children, they are likely to see both the family and the community as partners with
the school in children’s education and development. Partners recognize their shared
interests in and responsibilities for children, and they work together to create better
programs and opportunities for students.
There are many reasons for developing school, family, and community partner-
ships. Partnerships can improve school programs and school climate, provide family
services and support, increase parents’ skills and leadership, connect families with
others in the school and in the community, and help teachers with their work. How-
ever, the main reason to create such partnerships is to help all youngsters succeed
in school and in later life. When parents, teachers, students, and others view one
another as partners in education, a caring community forms around students and
begins its work.
What do successful partnership programs look like? How can practices be effec-
tively designed and implemented? What are the results of better communications,
interactions, and exchanges across these three important contexts? These questions
have challenged research and practice, creating an interdisciplinary field of inquiry
into school, family, and community partnerships with “caring” as a core concept.
The field has been strengthened by supporting federal, state, and local policies.
Since the late 1980s, Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act has in-
cluded increasingly specific, research-based mandates and guidelines for programs
and practices of family and community involvement. Most recently, the No Child
Left Behind Act (NCLB) outlines a “nested” system of school, district, and state re-
quirements for developing research-based programs that involve parents in ways
that contribute to student achievement and success in school. These guidelines must
be met to qualify for and maintain federal funding.
As important, many states and districts have developed or are preparing their
own policies to guide schools in creating more systematic connections with families
and with community partners. The policies reflect research results and exemplary
practices that show that goals for more effective programs of family and community
involvement are attainable (Epstein, 2005a).
* By Joyce L. Epstein. Originally published in Phi Delta Kappan 76 (1995): 701–712. Updated as Chap-
ter 1.1 in J. L. Epstein et al., School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook for Action,
3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2009).
FR AMEWORK FOR DEVELOPING COMPREHENSIVE PARTNERSHIP PROGR AMS 389

Underlying all of the policies and programs is a theory of how social organiza-
tions connect with each other; a framework of the basic components of school, fam-
ily, and community partnerships for children’s learning; a growing literature on
positive and negative results of these connections for students, families, and schools;
and an understanding of how to organize excellent programs. In this chapter, I sum-
marize the theory, framework, and guidelines from our research that should help
elementary, middle, and high schools and education leaders take steps toward suc-
cessful partnerships.
OVERLAPPING SPHERES OF INFLUENCE:

UNDERSTANDING THE THEORY
Schools make choices. They may conduct only a few communications and interac-
tions with families and communities, keeping the three spheres of influence that di-
rectly affect student learning and development relatively separate. Or they may
conduct many high-quality communications and interactions designed to bring all
three spheres of influence closer together. With frequent interactions among schools,
families, and communities, more students will receive common messages from var-
ious people about the importance of school, of working hard, of thinking creatively,
of helping one another, and of staying in school.
The external model of overlapping spheres of influence recognizes that the three
major contexts in which students learn and grow—the family, the school, and
the community—may be drawn together or pushed apart. In this model, there are
some practices that schools, families, and communities conduct separately and some
that they conduct jointly to influence children’s learning and development.
The internal model of the interaction of the three spheres of influence shows
where and how complex and essential interpersonal relations and patterns of influ-
ence occur between individuals at home, at school, and in the community. These
social relationships may be enacted and studied at an institutional level (e.g., when
a school invites all families to an event or sends the same communications to all
families) and at an individual level (e.g., when a parent and a teacher meet in con-
ference or talk by phone). Connections between educators or parents and commu-
nity groups, agencies, and services also can be represented and studied within the
model (Epstein, 1987, 1992, 1994).
The model of school, family, and community partnerships locates the student at
the center. The inarguable fact is that students are the main actors in their education,
development, and success in school. School, family, and community partnerships
cannot simply “produce” successful students. Rather, partnership activities may be
designed to engage, guide, energize, and motivate students to produce their own
successes. The assumption is that if children feel cared for and if they are encouraged
to work hard in the role of student, they are more likely to do their best to learn to
read, write, calculate, and learn other skills and talents, and to remain in school.
Interestingly, studies indicate that students are crucial for the success of school,
family, and community partnerships. Students are often their parents’ main source

of information about school. In strong partnership programs, teachers help students
understand and conduct both traditional communications with families (e.g., deliv-
ering memos or report cards) and new communications (e.g., interacting with family
members about homework, using e-mail to communicate with teachers, or partici-
pating in or leading parent-teacher-student conferences). As we gain more informa-
tion about the role of students in partnerships, we are developing a more complete
understanding of how schools, families, and communities must work with students
to increase their chances for success.
HOW THE THEORY WORKS IN PRACTICE
In some schools there still are educators who say, “If the family would just do its
job, we could do our job.” And there still are families who say, “I raised this child;
now it is your job to educate her.” These words embody a view of separate spheres
of influence. Other educators say, “I cannot do my job without the help of my stu-
dents’ families and the support of this community.” And some parents say, “I really
need to know what is happening in school in order to help my child.” These phrases
embody the theory of overlapping spheres of influence.
In a partnership, teachers and administrators create more family-like schools. A
family-like school recognizes each child’s individuality and makes each child feel
special and included. Family-like schools welcome all families, not just those that
are easy to reach. In a partnership, parents create more school-like families. A
school-like family recognizes that each child is also a student. Families reinforce the
importance of school, homework, and activities that build student skills and feelings
of success.
Communities, too, including groups of parents working together, create school-
like opportunities, events, and programs that reinforce, recognize, and reward stu-
dents for good progress, creativity, contributions, and excellence. Communities also
create family-like settings, services, and events to enable families to better support
their children. Community-minded families and students help their neighborhoods
and other families. The concept of a community school or full-service school is gain-
ing acceptance (Dryfoos and Maguire, 2002). This refers to a place where programs
and services for students, parents, and others are offered before, during, and after
the regular school day.
Schools and communities talk about programs and services that are family-
friendly—meaning that they take into account the needs and realities of family life,
are feasible to conduct, and are equitable toward all families. When all these con-
cepts combine, children experience learning communities or caring communities
(Epstein, 1995; Henderson, Mapp, Johnson, and Davies, 2007; Lewis, Schaps, and
Watson, 1995).
All of these terms are consistent with the theory of overlapping spheres of influ-
ence, but they are not abstract concepts. You will find them daily in conversations,
news stories, and celebrations of many kinds. In a family-like school, a teacher might
say, “I know when a student is having a bad day and how to help him along.”

A student might slip and call a teacher “Mom” or “Dad” and then laugh with a
mixture of embarrassment and glee. In a school-like family, a parent might say, “I
make sure my daughter knows that homework comes first.” A child might raise his
hand to speak at the dinner table and then joke about acting as if he were still in
school. When communities reach out to students and their families, youngsters
might say, “This program really made my schoolwork make sense!” Parents or ed-
ucators might comment, “This community really supports its schools.”
Once people hear about the concepts of family-like schools and school-like families,
they remember positive examples of schools, teachers, and places in the community
that were “like a family” to them. They may remember how a teacher paid individ-
ual attention to them, recognized their uniqueness, or praised them for real progress,
just as a parent would. They might recall things at home that were “just like school”
and that supported their work as a student, or they might remember community
activities that made them feel smart or good about themselves and their families.
They will recall that parents, siblings, and other family members engaged in and
enjoyed educational activities and took pride in the good schoolwork or homework
that they did, just as a teacher would.
HOW PARTNERSHIPS WORK IN PRACTICE
These terms and examples are evidence of the potential for schools, families, and
communities to create caring educational environments. It is possible to have a
school that is excellent academically but ignores families. However, that school will
build barriers between teachers, parents, and children that affect school life and
learning. It is possible to have a school that is ineffective academically but involves
families in many good ways. With its weak academic program, that school will
shortchange students’ learning. Neither of these schools exemplifies a caring, edu-
cational environment that requires academic excellence, good communication, and
productive interactions involving the school, all families, and the community.
Some children succeed in school without much family involvement or despite
family neglect or distress, particularly if the school has excellent academic and sup-
port programs. Teachers, relatives outside the immediate family, other families, and
members of the community may provide important guidance and encouragement
for these students. As support from school, home, and community accumulates,
more students feel secure and cared for, understand and adopt the goals of educa-
tion, work to achieve their full potential, build positive attitudes and school behav-
iors, and stay in school. The shared interests and investments of schools, families,
and communities create the conditions of caring that work to “over-determine” the
likelihood of student success (Boykin, 1994).
Any practice can be designed and implemented well or poorly. Even well-
implemented partnership practices may not be useful to all families. In a caring school
community, participants work continually to improve the nature and effects of part-
nerships. Although the interactions of educators, parents, students, and community
members will not always be smooth and successful, partnership programs establish

a base of respect and trust on which to build. Good partnerships encourage questions
and debates, and withstand disagreements; provide structures and processes to solve
problems; and are maintained—even strengthened—after conflicts and differences
have been resolved. Without a firm base of partnerships, the problems and concerns
about schools and students that are sure to arise will be harder to solve.
WHAT RESEARCH SAYS
In surveys, experimental interventions, and other field studies involving teachers,

parents, and students at the elementary, middle, and high school levels, some im-
portant patterns relating to partnerships have emerged.
• Partnerships tend to decline across the grades, unless schools and

teachers work to develop and implement appropriate practices of
partnership at each grade level.
• Affluent communities tend to have more positive family involvement, on
average, unless schools and teachers in economically distressed
communities work to build positive partnerships with their students’
families.
• Schools in more economically depressed communities make more
contacts with families about the problems and difficulties their children
are having, unless they work at developing balanced partnership
programs that also include contacts about the positive accomplishments
of students.
• Single parents, parents who are employed outside the home, parents who
live far from the school, and fathers are less involved, on average, at the
school building, unless the school organizes opportunities for families to
become involved and to volunteer at various times and in various places
to support the school and their children. These parents may be as involved
as other parents with their children at home.
Researchers from the U.S. and other nations have drawn the following conclu-
sions from their studies of family and community involvement:
• Just about all families care about their children, want them to succeed,
and are eager to obtain better information from schools and
communities in order to remain good partners in their children’s
education.
• Just about all teachers and administrators would like to involve families,
but many do not know how to efficiently and effectively build positive
and productive programs, and, consequently, are fearful about trying.
This creates a “rhetoric rut,” in which educators are stuck expressing
support for partnerships without taking necessary actions.

• Just about all students at all levels—elementary, middle, and high
school—want their families to be more knowledgeable partners about
schooling and are willing to take active roles in assisting
communications between home and school. However, students need
much better information about how their schools view partnerships and
more guidance about how they can conduct important exchanges with
their families about school activities, homework, and school decisions.
The summary of results reflect findings in articles and chapters by Baker and
Stevenson (1986), Bauch (1988), Becker and Epstein (1982), Booth and Dunn (1996),
Burch and Palanki (1994), Clark (1983), Connors and Epstein (1994), Dauber and
Epstein (1993), Davies (1991, 1993), Dornbusch and Ritter (1988), Eccles and
Harold (1996), Epstein (1986, 1990, 2001, 2005c), Epstein and Connors (1994),
Epstein and Dauber (1991), Epstein, Herrick, and Coates, (1996), Epstein and Lee
(1995), Epstein and Sanders (2000), Lareau (1989), Lee (1994), Sanders (2005),
Scott-Jones (1995), Sheldon (2005, 2007a, b), Sheldon and Van Voorhis (2004),
Simon (2004), Van Voorhis (2003), Van Voorhis and Sheldon (2004), and others.
The research results are important because they indicate that caring communities
can be built intentionally; that they include families that might not become involved
on their own; and that, by their own reports, just about all families, students, and
teachers believe that partnerships are important for helping students succeed across
the grades.
Good programs of family and community involvement will look different at each
site, as individual schools tailor their practices to meet the needs and interests,
time and talents, and ages and grade levels of the student. However, our studies
have identified some commonalities across successful partnership programs at all
grade levels. These include attention to the overlapping spheres of influence on stu-
dent development; attention to various types of involvement that promote many
different opportunities for schools, families, and communities to work together;
and an Action Team for Partnerships (ATP) to coordinate each school’s work and
progress on family and community involvement. The best school-based programs
are supported by district leaders for partnerships, whose expertise grows and who
help all elementary, middle, and high schools in the district to plan, implement, and
evaluate their programs and share best practices (Epstein, 2007).
SIX TYPES OF INVOLVEMENT—SIX TYPES OF CARING
A framework of six major types of involvement is based on the results of many

studies and from many years of work by educators and families in elementary, mid-
dle, and high schools. The framework (summarized in the accompanying tables)
helps educators develop more comprehensive programs of school and family part-
nerships. The framework also helps researchers locate their questions and results in
ways that can inform and improve practice (Epstein, 1992, 1995).

TABLE 5.1 Epstein’s Framework of Six Types of Involvement for Comprehensive Programs
of Partnership, with Sample Practices
Type 6—
Type 4— Type 5— Collaborating
Type 1— Type 2— Type 3— Learning at Decision with the
Parenting Communicating Volunteering Home Making Community
Help all Design effective Recruit and Provide Include parents Identify and
families forms of organize parent information in school integrate
establish home school-to-home help and and ideas to decisions, resources and
environment to and home-to- support. families about developing services from
support school how to help parent leaders the community
children as communications students at and to strengthen
students. about school home with representatives. school
programs and homework and programs,
their children’s other family
progress. curriculum- practices, and
related student
activities, learning and
decisions, and development.
planning.
Sample Practices Sample Practices Sample Practices Sample Practices Sample Practices Sample Practices
Suggestions for Conferences School and Information for

Active PTA/ Information for
home with every classroom families on
PTO or other students and
conditions that parent at least volunteer skills required
parent families on
support once a year, program to for students in
organizations, community
learning at with follow-ups help teachers, all subjects at
advisory health, cultural,
each grade as needed. administrators, each grade.
councils, or recreational,
level. students, and committees social support,
Language other parents.
Information on (e.g., and other
Workshops, translators homework curriculum, programs or
videotapes, and assist families, Parent room or policies and safety, services.
computerized as needed. family center how to personnel) for
phone messages for volunteer monitor and parent Information on
on parenting Weekly or work, meetings, discuss leadership and community
and child monthly folders and resources schoolwork at participation. activities that
rearing for of student for families. home. link to learning
each age and work sent Independent skills and
grade level. home for Annual Information on advocacy talents,
review and postcard survey how to assist groups to including
Parent comments. to identify all students to lobby and summer
education and available improve skills work for programs for
other courses Parent-student talents, times, on various school reform students.
or training for pickup of and locations class and and
parents (e.g., report cards, of volunteers. school improvements. Service
GED, college with assessments. integration
credit, family conferences on District-level through
literacy). improving Regular councils and partnerships
grades. schedule of committees for involving
homework that family and school; civic,
requires counseling,
cultural, health,
(continues)
395
Sample Practices Sample Practices Sample Practices Sample Practices Sample Practices Sample Practices
Family support Regular Class parent, students to community recreation, and

programs to schedule of telephone tree, discuss and involvement.other agencies
assist families useful notices, or other interact with and
with health, memos, phone structures to families on Information on organizations;
nutrition, and calls, provide all what they areschool or local and businesses.
other services. newsletters, families with learning in elections for
and other needed class. school Service to the
Home visits at communications. information. representatives. community by
transition Calendars with students,
points to Clear Parent patrols activities for Networks to families, and
preschool, information on or other parents and link all families schools (e.g.,
elementary, choosing activities to aid students to do with parent recycling, art,
middle, and schools or safety and at home or in representatives. music, drama,
high school. courses, operation of the community. and other
Neighborhood programs, and school activities for
meetings to activities within programs. Family math, seniors).
help families schools. science, and
understand reading Participation of
schools and to Clear activities at alumni in
help schools information on school. school
understand all school programs for
families. policies, Summer students.
programs, learning
reforms, and packets or
transitions. activities.
Family
participation in
setting student
goals each year
and in planning
for college or
work.
The six types of involvement are parenting, communicating, volunteering, learn-

ing at home, decision making, and collaborating with the community. Each type of
involvement includes many different practices of partnership (see Table 5.1). Each
type presents particular challenges that must be met to involve all families and
needed redefinitions of some basic principles of involvement (see Table 5.2). Finally,
each type is likely to lead to different results for students, parents, teaching practices,
and school climates (see Table 5.3). Thus, schools must select which practices will
help achieve the goals they set for student success and for creating a climate of part-
nerships. The tables provide examples of practices for each type of involvement,
challenges for successful implementation, redefinitions for up-to-date understanding,
and results that have been documented and observed in diverse school settings.

CHARTING THE COURSE
The entries in the tables are illustrative. The sample practices displayed in Table 5.1
are a few of hundreds of activities that may be selected or designed for each type of
involvement. Although all schools may use the framework of six types as a guide,
each school must chart its own course in choosing practices to meet the needs of its
families and students.
The challenges in Table 5.2 are a few of many that relate to the sample practices
for each type of involvement. There are challenges—that is, problems—for every
activity that must be resolved in order to reach and engage all families in the best
ways. Often, when one challenge has been met, a new one will emerge.
The redefinitions, also in Table 5.2, redirect old notions so that involvement is
not viewed solely as or measured only by “bodies in the building.” For example, the
table calls for changes in how we define, organize, and conduct workshops, com-
munications, volunteers, homework, decision making, and connections with commu-
nity. By redefining these familiar terms, it is possible for partnership programs to
reach out in new ways to many more families.
The selected results in Table 5.3 should help correct the widespread mispercep-
tion that any practice that involves families will raise children’s achievement test
scores. Instead, it can be seen that certain practices are more likely than others to
influence students’ attitudes, attendance, and behavior in school, whereas other
practices will influence skills, test scores, and other achievements over time.
Although students are the main focus of partnerships, the various types of in-
volvement also promote various results for parents and teachers. For example, ex-
pected results for parents include not only leadership in decision making, but also
confidence about parenting, productive curriculum-related interactions with chil-
dren, and many interactions with other parents and the school. The expected results
for teachers include not only improved parent-teacher conferences and clearer
school-home communications, but also helping teachers understand students’ fam-
ilies, take new approaches to homework, and make productive connections with
families and the community.
The results listed in Table 5.3 have been measured in at least one research study
and/or observed as many schools conducted their work on partnerships. The entries
are listed in positive terms to indicate the results of well-designed and well-implemented
practices. It should be fully understood, however, that results may be negative if
poorly designed practices exclude families or create barriers to communication and
exchange. More research is needed on the results of specific practices of partnership
in various schools, at various grade levels, and for diverse populations of students,
families, and teachers. It will be important to confirm, extend, or correct the infor-
mation on results listed in Table 5.3 to help schools make purposeful choices among
practices that foster various types of involvement.
The tables cannot show the connections that occur when one activity promotes
several types of involvement simultaneously. For example, volunteers may organize
and conduct a clothing swap-shop (Type 3) that allows parents to obtain school
uniforms or children’s clothes at no cost (Type 1), and community businesses may

TABLE 5.2 Challenges and Redefinitions for the Successful Design and Implementation of
the Six Types of Involvement
Type 6—
Challenges Challenges Challenges Challenges Challenges Challenges
Provide Review the Recruit Design and Include parent Solve turf
information to readability, volunteers organize a leaders from all problems of
all families clarity, form, regular
widely so that racial, ethnic, responsibilities,
who want it or and frequency all families schedule of socioeconomic, funds, staff,
who need it, of all memos, interactive
know that their and other and locations
not just to the notices, and time and homework groups in the for
few who can other print and talents are (e.g., weekly school. collaborative
attend nonprint welcome. or bimonthly) activities.
workshops or communications. that gives Offer training
meetings at the Make flexible students to enable Inform families
school Consider schedules for responsibility leaders to serve of community
building. parents who do volunteers, for discussing as programs for
not speak assemblies, and important representatives students, such
Enable families English well, events to things they are of other as mentoring,
to share do not read enable learning and families, with tutoring, and
information well, or need employed helps families input from and business
about culture, large type. parents to stay aware of return of partnerships.
background, participate. the content of information to
and children’s Review the their children’s all parents. Ensure equity
talents and quality of Organize classwork. of
needs. major volunteer Include opportunities
communications work; provide Coordinate students (along for students
Make sure that (e.g., the training; match family-linked with parents) and families to
all information schedule, time and talent homework in decision- participate in
for families is content, and with school, activities, if making groups. community
clear, usable, structure of teacher, and students have programs or to
and linked to conferences; student needs; several obtain services.
children’s newsletters; and recognize teachers.
success in report cards). efforts so that Match
school. participants are Involve families community
Establish clear productive. with their contributions
two-way children in all with school
channels for important goals; integrate
communications curriculum- child and
from home to related family services
school and decisions. with education.
from school to
home.
(continues)
398
Type 6—
Redefinitions Redefinitions Redefinitions Redefinitions Redefinitions Redefinitions
Workshop to Communications Volunteer to Homework to Decision Community

mean more about school mean anyone mean not only making to to mean not
than a meeting programs and who supports work done mean a process only the
about a topic student school goals alone but also of partnership, neighborhoods
held at the progress to and children’s interactive of shared views where students’
school building mean two-way, learning or activities and actions homes and
at a particular three-way, and development in shared with toward shared schools are
time. many-way any way, at any others at home goals, not just located but
channels of place, and at or in the a power also any
Workshop also communication any time, not community, struggle neighborhoods
may mean that connect just during the linking between that influence
making schools, school day and schoolwork to conflicting their learning
information families, at the school real life. ideas. and
about a topic students, and building. development.
available in a the community. Help at home Parent leader to
variety of to mean mean a real Community
forms that can encouraging, representative, rated not only
be viewed, listening, with by low or high
heard, or read reacting, opportunities social or
anywhere, praising, and support to economic
anytime. guiding, hear from and qualities but
monitoring, communicate also by
and discussing, with other strengths and
not “teaching” families. talents to
school subjects. support
students,
families, and
schools.
Community
means all who
are interested
in and affected
by the quality
of education,
not just those
with children
in the schools.
offer discounts on uniforms purchased at the swap-shop (Type 6). The participating
parents may serve as volunteers to keep the swap-shop operating, thereby perpetu-
ating activities and results for Types 1, 3, and 6.
As another example, an after-school program may be conducted by parent and
community volunteers and the community’s Parks and Recreation Department,

combining Types 3 and 6. The after-school program also serves as a Type 1 activity
because it assists families in supervising their children in a safe and purposeful place.
The program also may alter the way homework is completed and how interactions
about homework are conducted at home between students and parents (Type 4). Re-
search is needed to understand the combination of types of involvement in complex
activities. Practitioners should realize that various practices may activate several
types of involvement.
The tables also simplify the influences that produce results over time. For exam-
ple, the involvement of families with children in reading at home may make students
more strongly motivated to read and to give more attention to reading instruction
TABLE 5.3 Expected Results for Students, Parents, and Teachers of the Six Types of Involvement
Type 6—
Results Results Results Results Results Results

for Students for Students for Students for Students for Students for Students
Awareness of Awareness of Skill in Gains in skills, Awareness of Increased skills

family own progress communicating abilities, and representation and talents
supervision; and of actions with adults. test scores of families in through
respect for needed to linked to school enriched
parents. maintain or Increased homework and decisions. curricular and
improve grades. learning of classwork. extracurricular
Positive skills that Understanding experiences.
personal Understanding receive tutoring Homework that student
qualities, of school or targeted completion. rights are Awareness of
habits, beliefs, policies on attention from protected. careers and
and values, as behavior, volunteers. Positive options for
taught by attendance, and attitude toward Specific future
family. other areas of Awareness of schoolwork. benefits linked education and
student many skills, to policies work.
Balance conduct. talents, View of parent enacted by
between time occupations, as more similar parent Specific
spent on Informed and to teacher and organizations benefits linked
chores, on decisions about contributions home as more and to programs,
other activities, courses and of parents and similar experienced by services,
and on programs. other to school. students. resources, and
homework. volunteers. opportunities
Awareness of Self-concept of that connect
Good or own role in ability as students with
improved partnerships, learner. community.
attendance. serving as
courier and
Awareness of communicator.
importance of
school. (continues)

in school. This, in turn, may help students maintain or improve their daily reading
skills in class and their reading report card grades. Over time, good classroom read-
ing instruction and ongoing home support should increase students’ skills and con-
fidence in reading and significantly improve their reading achievement test scores.
The time between a Family Reading Night or other family involvement activities in
reading and the time that students’ increase their reading achievement test scores
will vary, depending on the quality and quantity of the reading-related activities in
school and out.
Consider one more example. Studies using longitudinal data and rigorous statis-
tical controls on student background and prior influences found important benefits

Type 6—

for Parents for Parents for Parents for Parents for Parents for Parents
Understanding Understanding Understanding Knowledge of Input into Knowledge and

of and school programs teacher’s job, how to policies that use of local
confidence and policies. increased support, affect child’s resources by
about comfort in encourage, and education. family and
parenting, child Monitoring and school, and help student at child to
and adolescent awareness of carryover of home each Feeling of increase skills
development, child’s progress. school activities year. ownership of and talents or
and changes in at home. school. to obtain
home Responding Discussions of needed services.
conditions for effectively to Self-confidence school, Awareness of
learning as students’ about ability to classwork, and parents’ voices Interactions
children problems. work in school homework. in school with other
proceed and with decisions. families in
through school. Interactions with children or to Understanding community
teachers and ease take steps to of instructionalShared activities.
Awareness of of improve own program each experiences and
own and communications education. year and of connections Awareness of
others’ with school and what child is with other school’s role in
challenges in teachers. Awareness that learning in families. the community
parenting. families are each subject. and of the
welcome and Awareness of community’s
Feeling of valued at Appreciation of school, district, contributions
support from school. teaching skills. and state to the school.
school and policies.
other parents. Gains in Awareness of
specific skills of child as a
volunteer learner.
work.
(continues)

Type 6—

for Teachers for Teachers for Teachers for Teachers for Teachers for Teachers
Understanding Increased Readiness to Better design of Awareness of Awareness of

families’ diversity and homework
involve families parent community
backgrounds, use of in new ways, assignments perspectives as resources to
cultures, communications including those a factor in enrich
concerns, goals, with families and who do not Respect of policy curriculum and
needs, and awareness of volunteer at family time development instruction
views of their own ability to school and decisions
children communicate Recognition of Openness to
clearly Awareness of equal View of equal and skill in
Respect for parent talents helpfulness of status of family using mentors,
families’ Appreciation and interests in single parent, representatives business
strengths and and use of school and dual income, on committees partners,
efforts parent network children and less and in community
for formally leadership roles volunteers, and
Understanding communications Greater educated others to assist
of student individual families in students and
diversity Increased ability attention to motivating and augment
to elicit and students, with reinforcing teaching
Awareness of understand help from student practice
own skills to family views on volunteers learning
share children’s Knowledgeable,
information programs and Satisfaction helpful referrals
on child progress with family of children and
development involvement families to
and support needed services
for high school students’ attitudes, behaviors, and report card grades as a result of
continuing several types of family involvement from middle school through high
school (Lee, 1994; Simon, 2004). However, achievement test scores, stable by 12th
grade, were not greatly affected by partnerships at the high school level. By contrast,
elementary school students’ math achievement test scores increased significantly
when their teachers assigned interactive math homework (Epstein, 2005b; Van
Voorhis, in press). Even with prior math test scores accounted for, elementary stu-
dents’ standardized achievement can be influenced by effective homework designs
and interactions with parents. In the future, longitudinal studies of practical inter-
ventions at different grade levels will increase an understanding of the complex pat-
terns of results that can develop from various partnership activities (Epstein, 1991;
Epstein and Dauber, 1995; Epstein and Sanders, 2000; Henderson and Mapp, 2002;
Sheldon, 2009).
The six types of involvement guide the development of a balanced, comprehen-
sive program of partnerships, including opportunities for family involvement at

school, at home, and in the community, with potentially important results for stu-
dents, parents, and teachers. The results will depend on the particular activities that
are implemented and the quality of the design, implementation, and outreach.
ACTION TEAMS FOR PARTNERSHIPS
Who will work to create caring school communities that are based on concepts of
partnership? How will the necessary work on all six types of involvement get done?
Although a principal or a teacher may be a leader in working with some families
and with some community groups, one person cannot create a lasting, comprehen-
sive program that involves all families as their children progress through the grades.
From the hard work of many educators and families in hundreds of schools and
districts, we have learned that, along with clear policies and strong support from
district and state leaders and from school principals, an Action Team for Partner-
ships (ATP) in each school is an essential structure. The ATP—a committee of the
school council or school improvement team—is dedicated to improving plans and
practices of family and community involvement. The ATP guides the development
of a comprehensive partnership program linked to school improvement goals for
student success. Using the framework of six types of involvement, the ATP integrates
all family and community connections that occur in the school in a single, unified
plan and program.
The trials and errors and the efforts and insights of hundreds of schools across
the country have helped identify five important steps that any school can take to
develop more positive school, family, and community connections.
Step 1: Create an Action Team for Partnerships
A team approach is an appropriate and effective way to build school, family, and
community partnerships. The Action Team for Partnerships (ATP) is an “action
arm” of a School Council or School Improvement Team, if one exists in the school.
The ATP takes responsibility for assessing present family and community involve-
ment practices, organizing options for new partnerships, implementing selected
activities, delegating leadership for other activities, evaluating next steps, and con-
tinuing to improve and coordinate practices for all six types of involvement. Al-
though the members of the ATP lead some of the activities, they are assisted by other
teachers, parents, students, administrators, and community members who take lead-
ership or support roles for planned partnerships.
The ATP team should include at least two or three teachers from different grade
levels, departments, or specialties; at least two or three parents from different neigh-
borhoods or cultural groups with children in different grade levels; and at least one
administrator. Teams may also include at least one member from the community at
large and, at the high school level, at least two students from different grade levels.
Others who are central to the school’s work with families also may be included as
team members, such as a school counselor, social worker, nurse, school psychologist,

cafeteria worker, secretary, or custodian. Such diverse membership ensures that the
team will plan activities that take into account the various needs, interests, and tal-
ents of teachers, parents, the school, and students.
The chair (or, better, co-chairs) of the action team should be members who have the
respect of the other members, as well as good communication skills and an under-
standing of the partnership approach. At least one member of the action team should
also serve on the school council, school improvement team, or other advisory body.
Members of the ATP may serve as chair or co-chairs of subcommittees organized
to implement family and community involvement activities on specific school im-
provement goals (e.g., family and community involvement to help improve students’
reading, math, and behavior, and to improve the school’s climate of partnerships)
or on the six types of involvement. A team with at least 6 members (or as many as
12 or more) ensures that responsibilities for leadership can be shared and delegated
so that one person is not overburdened with all family and community involvement
activities. The work of the action team also ensures that plans for partnership will
continue even if members move or change schools or positions. Members may serve
renewable terms of two to three years, with the replacement of members who leave in
the interim. Other thoughtful variations in assignments and activities may be created
by small or large schools using this process. See Chapter 7 for details on organizing
effective Action Teams for Partnerships.
In the first phase of our field work in 1987, projects were led by “project direc-
tors” (usually teachers) and were focused on one type of involvement at a time.
Some schools succeeded in developing good partnerships over several years, but
others were thwarted if the project director moved, if the principal changed, or if
the project grew larger than one person could handle. Other schools were guided
to try a team approach to work on many types of involvement simultaneously, and
to focus on activities that create a climate of partnerships and that help students
reach important results in learning and behavior. These schools showed that the
team approach was the best structure for strong and sustainable program. Now, a
team approach guides all of our research and development projects in elementary,
middle, and high schools.
Step 2: Obtain Funds and Other Support
A modest budget is needed to guide and support the activities planned by each
school’s Action Team for Partnerships. Funds also are needed for district leaders for
partnerships who will help each school with its plans and programs of family and
community involvement. Investments are needed at the state level for leadership on
partnerships as well.
Funds for schools, districts, and states may come from a number of sources. These
include federal, state, and local programs that mandate, request, or support family
involvement, including Title I and other “titled” funding streams. At the district
level, funds are needed to support the salaries of a director and facilitators who help
all schools develop their partnership programs, and for program costs (e.g., staff

development and training workshops on school, family, and community partner-
ships; parent coordinators or liaisons to serve as ATP chairs or co-chairs; activities
in schools’ One-Year Action Plans for Partnerships). In addition, local school-business
partnerships, school discretionary funds, and fundraising targeted to the schools’
partnership programs can support the plans and activities of school-based ATPs.
Recent data indicate that schools’ ATPs need at least $2,500 per year to support ac-
tivities in a typical, start-up Action Plan for Partnerships. See details on levels and
sources of funds for partnership programs at the school, district, and state levels in
Chapter 4.
The ATP also must have sufficient time and social support to do its work. This
requires explicit support from the principal and from district leaders for team train-
ing, meetings to plan and evaluate activities, and time to conduct the activities in
the annual plan for partnerships. Time during the summer also may be used to plan
new approaches and projects for the start of the new school year.
Step 3: Identify Starting Points
Most schools have some teachers and administrators who conduct some practices
of partnership with some families some of the time. How can good practices be or-
ganized and extended so that all teachers at all grade levels inform and involve all
families in ways that support student learning and success in school? How can some
schoolwide involvement activities build a sense of community with all students
and families?
The Action Team for Partnerships (ATP) works to systematize and improve typ-
ically haphazard patterns of involvement. The ATP starts by gathering information
about the school’s current practices of partnership, along with the views, experi-
ences, and wishes of teachers, parents, administrators, and students (see “Starting
Points” and “Measure of School, Family, and Community Partnerships” in Epstein
et al. [2009] for two ways of assessing the nature and extent of present practices).
Starting points also may be identified in other ways, depending on available re-
sources, time, and talents. For example, the ATP might use formal questionnaires
(Epstein, Connors, and Salinas, 1993; Epstein and Salinas, 1993; Sheldon and Ep-
stein, 2007) or telephone interviews to survey teachers, administrators, parents, and
students, if funds and experts are available to process, analyze, and report survey
data. Or the ATP might organize a panel of teachers, parents, and students to speak
at a PTA or PTO meeting to discuss the goals and desired activities for improving
family and community involvement. Structured discussions may be conducted at a
series of principal’s breakfasts for representative groups of teachers, parents, stu-
dents, and others; random-sample phone calls may also be used to collect sugges-
tions and reactions; and formal focus groups may be convened to gather ideas about
school, family, and community partnerships at the school.
What questions should be addressed to take stock of present practices and to
plan next steps? Regardless of how information is gathered, the following areas
should be part of any information gathering:

Present strengths. Which practices of school, family, and community
partnerships are, presently, working well for the school as a whole? For
individual teachers and specific grade levels? For which types of
involvement? On what school goals for student success?
Needed changes. Ideally, how do we want school, family, and community
partnerships to work at this school three years from now? Which
present practices should continue, and which should change?
Expectations. What do teachers expect of families? What do families expect
of teachers and other school personnel? What do students expect of
their families and teachers?
Sense of community. Which families are presently involved, and which are
not yet engaged with the school and with their children’s education?
Who are the “hard-to-reach” families? What might be done to
communicate with and engage these families?
Links to goals. How are students doing on measures of academic
achievement, including test scores and report card grades? On measures
of attitudes and attendance? On other indicators of success? How might
family and community connections assist the school in helping more
students reach higher goals and achieve greater success?
Step 4: Develop a One-Year Action Plan
With the information on a school’s starting points and with understanding of the
goals and ideas for partnerships collected from teachers, administrators, parents, and
students, the Action Team for Partnerships (ATP) will develop a detailed One-Year
Action Plan for Partnerships. The annual action plan includes a set of selected goals
or objectives, desired results, measures to assess results, specific involvement activ-
ities that will be implemented, improved, or maintained each year; dates scheduled;
types of involvement; actions needed to prepare the activity; people responsible for
implementing the activities and those assisting; funds or resources required; and
other important details.
The One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships should be shared with the school
council or school improvement team, parent organization, all teachers, and, in var-
ious ways, all parents and students. Corrections and additions from the various
groups contribute to a final plan for partnerships for the school year.
If the ATP takes one step forward each year to improve family and community
involvement for each of the specific academic and behavioral goals in the One-Year
Action Plan, it will continually improve the quality of partnerships and student suc-
cess. If the ATP makes one step forward each year on each of the six types of involve-
ment, it will take 18 steps forward over three years to improve the school climate for
partnerships. Good plans and actions lead to a more comprehensive, coordinated,
and goal-oriented program of school, family, and community partnerships.
In short, the ATP, with input from others, will complete an annual, detailed action
plan for partnerships that addresses these issues:

Details. What will be done each year to implement activities that involve
families in ways linked to specific goals for student success? What
activities for the six types of involvement will be activated? How will
these activities also create a welcoming school climate for all students
and their families? What, specifically, will be accomplished over the next
school year to improve family and community involvement?
Responsibilities. Who will be responsible for developing and implementing
the practices of partnership that are in the One-Year Action Plan for
Partnerships? Will staff development or other guidance be needed to
plan and implement activities? How will teachers, administrators,
parents, and students be supported and recognized for their work? What
role will district leaders for partnership or others play in assisting
schools’ ATPs with activities?
Costs. What costs are associated with implementing the planned activities?
What sources will provide the needed funds? Will small grants or other
special budgets be needed? What funds and in-kind contributions are
needed to maintain and improve the activities from year to year?
Evaluation. How well are activities implemented? What are the effects of
each activity on the school climate and/or on students, teachers, and
families? What indicators will be used to measure the quality of
implementation and the results?
Step 5: Continue Planning, Evaluating,

and Improving Programs
The ATP should schedule an annual presentation and celebration of progress at

the school so that all teachers, families, and students know about the work that
was done each year to build partnerships. Or a district coordinator for school, fam-
ily, and community partnerships may arrange an annual midyear or end-of-year
conference for all schools in the district. At a district-wide annual meeting, ATPs
from all schools can display and share their accomplishments and best practices for
involving families and the community in ways that improve students’ attitudes, be-
haviors, and achievements in specific subjects. Panels of ATP members may discuss
serious challenges and solutions for reaching all families, share ideas for the six types
of involvement, and gather ideas for improving programs in the next school year.
In short, the ATP considers the following questions: How will the ATP increase
the number of families who are partners with the school in their children’s education
over the next school year? What opportunities will be arranged for teachers, parents,
and students to come together as individual teachers, grade levels, or a whole school
to support student learning and development? How will the ATP evaluate,
strengthen, and sustain the school’s partnership program to continue to improve re-
sults for students?
Each year, the Action Team for Partnerships develops a new and improved One-
Year Action Plan for Partnerships for the next school year. The ATP shares its plans

and gathers input so that educators, families, students, and the community are aware
of progress, new plans, and how they can help.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL PROGRAMS
Hundreds of schools have taken these five steps over the years. Their experiences
helped identify some important properties of successful partnership programs.
Incremental Progress
Progress on partnerships is incremental, including more families each year in ways

that benefit more students. Like reading or math programs, assessment programs,
sports programs, or other school investments, partnership programs take time to
develop, and must be periodically reviewed, evaluated, and continuously improved.
Schools and districts in our projects have shown that some progress can be made
immediately, but it tends to take at least three years to demonstrate that a partner-
ship program is a “permanent” component of school and district organization.
The development of an excellent partnership program is a process, not a single
event. All teachers, families, students, and community groups are unlikely to par-
ticipate all at once. Not all activities that are implemented the first time will suc-
ceed in engaging all families. But with good planning, thoughtful implementation,
well-designed activities, thoughtful evaluations, and pointed improvements, more
and more families and teachers can learn to work with one another on behalf of
the children they share.
Similarly, not all students instantly improve their attitudes or achievements when
their families become involved in their education. After all, student learning depends
mainly on good curricula, engaging and appropriate instruction, the students’ in-
terests and commitment, and the work the students’ complete. However, with a
well-implemented program of partnerships, more students receive support from
their families, and more will be motivated to work harder in school.
Connections to Curricular and Instructional Reform
A program of school, family, and community partnerships that focuses on children’s

learning and development is an important component of curricular and instructional
reform. For example, helping families understand, monitor, and interact with stu-
dents on homework is an extension of classroom instruction. Volunteers who bolster
and broaden student skills, talents, and interests extend classroom learning. Improv-
ing the content and conduct of parent-teacher-student conferences and goal-setting
activities are important aspects of curricular reform; family support and family un-
derstanding of child and adolescent development and school curricula are necessary
to assist students as learners. All of these activities—homework-help interventions,

volunteers and tutors linked to student learning, the redesign of parent-teacher-
student conferences, and similar activities—are part of curricular and instructional
reform and should be supported with the appropriate federal, state, and local funds
for school improvement.
One important new direction for partnership programs connects family and com-
munity involvement directly to the school improvement plan. This is done by fo-
cusing family and community involvement on specific curricular and instructional
goals for student learning and by appending the One-Year Action Plan for Partner-
ships to the annual school improvement plan. These organizational changes move
partnerships from being peripheral and unplanned activities for parents to being
official components of a school’s program for student learning and development.
Redefining Professional Development

and Shared Leadership
The action team approach to partnerships changes the definition of “professional

development” because teachers, administrators, parents, and other partners are
trained together, as a team, to develop, implement, evaluate, and continue to im-
prove practices of partnership. The development of a well-functioning Action Team
for Partnerships is not the result of a “dose” of inservice education, but is a long-term
process of developing and extending educators’ and parents’ talents and capacities
for organizing and conducting effective partnerships. Teachers, administrators, par-
ents, and others on the Action Team for Partnerships must be helped to become the
experts on this topic for their school. With this definition, program development
can be supported by various federal, state, and local funds for professional devel-
opment for school improvement.
An effective program of family and community involvement also stretches the
definition of shared leadership—an important concept in educational administra-
tion. Usually, the term means that teachers will share leadership with principals and
specialists in improving school organization, curriculum, and instruction. In effective
partnership programs, shared leadership means that all members on the team of
teachers, administrators, parents, and community partners will take responsibility
for developing, implementing, evaluating, and continually improving plans and
practices of family and community involvement.
Developing excellent partnership programs in all districts and schools would be
easier if educators came to their positions prepared to work productively with fam-
ilies and communities. Courses or classes are needed in preservice teacher educa-
tion, continuing studies, and advanced degree programs that define professional
work in terms of partnerships. Today, most teachers, principals, counselors, and
district leaders enter their professions without an understanding of family back-
grounds, concepts of caring, the framework of six types of involvement, or part-
nership program development. Thus, most principals and district leaders are not
prepared to guide school teams in developing, evaluating, and sustaining effective
partnership programs.

Schools, colleges, and departments of education that prepare future teachers, ad-
ministrators, and others who work with children and families should identify where
in the curriculum students are asked to study and learn the theory, research, policy,
and practical ideas of partnerships, or where these topics should be added to better
prepare their graduates for their professional work (Chavkin and Williams, 1988;
Christenson and Conoley, 1992; Epstein, 2001; Epstein and Sheldon, 2006; Hinz,
Clark, and Nathan, 1992; Swap, 1993).
Even with improved preservice and advanced coursework, however, each school’s
Action Team for Partnerships and other practicing educators will need inservice ed-
ucation and targeted team training to tailor plans for partnerships to the needs and
goals of the teachers, families, and students in the school. The framework and guide-
lines in this chapter can be used by thoughtful educators to organize high-quality,
ongoing professional development on partnerships, school by school.
THE CORE OF CARING
Years ago, a school in Baltimore named its partnership program the I Care Program.
It developed an I Care Parent Club that fostered fellowship and leadership of fam-
ilies, an I Care newsletter, and many other events and activities. Other schools also
gave catchy, positive names to their programs to indicate that families, students,
teachers, and community partners were developing relationships and conducting
actions to assist all students toward success.
Interestingly, synonyms for caring match the six types of involvement:
Type 1—Parenting: Supporting, nurturing, loving, and child raising

Type 2—Communicating: Relating, reviewing, and overseeing
Type 3—Volunteering: Supervising and fostering
Type 4—Learning at Home: Managing, recognizing, and rewarding
Type 5—Decision Making: Contributing, considering, and judging
Type 6—Collaborating with the Community: Sharing and giving
Underlying all six types of involvement are two defining synonyms of caring:
trusting and respecting. Of course, the varied meanings are interconnected, but it is
striking that various elements of caring are associated with activities for the six
types of involvement. If all six types of involvement are operating well in a school’s
program of partnerships, then all of these caring behaviors could be activated to
assist children’s learning and development.
SUMMARY: BATTLEGROUND OR HOMELAND?
Despite real progress in many states, districts, and schools over the past few years,
there still are too many schools where educators do not understand the families of
their students. There still are too many families who do not understand their chil-
dren’s schools, and too many communities that do not understand or assist their

schools, families, or students. There still are too many districts and states without
the policies, departments, leadership, staff, and fiscal support needed to help all
schools develop excellent and permanent programs of partnership.
Relatively small financial investments are needed to support district leaders for
partnerships and the work of school-based Action Teams for Partnerships. Yet, those
investments yield significant returns for all schools, teachers, families, and students.
Educators who have led the way in constructing research-based programs with the
necessary components provide evidence that any state, district, or school can create
similar programs.
Schools have choices. There are two opposing approaches to involving families
in schools and in their children’s education. One approach emphasizes conflict and
views the school as a battleground. The conditions and relationships in this kind of
environment guarantee power struggles and disharmony. The other approach em-
phasizes partnership and views the school as a homeland. The conditions and rela-
tionships in this kind of environment invite mutual respect, shared leadership on
partnerships, and direct energies to activities that foster student learning and devel-
opment. Even when conflicts flare, however, peace must be restored, and the partners
in children’s education must work together.
NEXT STEPS: STRENGTHENING PARTNERSHIPS
Collaborative work and thoughtful give-and-take among researchers, policy leaders,

educators, parents, and community partners are responsible for the progress that
has been made over the past two decades in understanding and developing school,
family, and community partnerships. Similar collaborations will be important for
future progress in this and other areas of school reform.
To promote these approaches, I established the National Network of Partnership
Schools (NNPS) at Johns Hopkins University in 1996. NNPS provides school, dis-
trict, state, and other education leaders with research-based tools and guidelines to
help elementary, middle, and high schools plan, implement, and maintain compre-
hensive and goal-oriented programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
With the efforts of many colleagues, NNPS has been able to encourage and guide
educators, parents, and other community leaders to organize stronger program of
family and community involvement.
Partnership schools, districts, and states have worked hard to put the recommen-
dations of this chapter into practice in ways that are appropriate for their locations.
Implementation includes applying the theory of overlapping spheres of influence,
the framework of six types of involvement, and the action team approach. Systemic
advances include district leaders who assist all schools to use teamwork and develop
and sustain partnership programs. The researchers and staff of NNPS at Johns Hop-
kins University disseminate information, guidelines, and newsletters; offer e-mail
and website assistance; hold annual conferences; and conduct workshops to help
state and district coordinators and school leaders learn new strategies and share
successful ideas. The members of NNPS share best practices at all policy levels in
annual collections of Promising Partnership Practices (Hutchins et al., 2009). With

a strong research base, NNPS guides state and district leaders, educators, and par-
ents to recognize their common interests in the children they share, and to work to-
gether, with care, to strengthen programs of family and community involvement
that contribute to student success.
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This section extends and updates the content of Reading 5.1. It summarizes key
concepts and results and provides questions and activities for class discussions, de-
bates, and homework assignments, which may suggest other exercises, field activi-
ties, and research projects.
KEY CONCEPTS
1. Six types of involvement. A framework of six types of involvement (parenting,

communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating
with the community) grew from analyses of data collected from educators, parents,
and students at the elementary, middle, and high school levels. The six types of in-
volvement are demonstrably separable; include different practices; set different chal-
lenges for excellence; and lead to different results for students, families, schools,
and communities.
2. Practices or activities. These terms are used interchangeably to describe specific

implementations in schools. For district and state policies, practices, and activities,
see Chapter 4.
3. Challenges. Challenges are problems that must be solved to improve the outreach
or quality of school, family, and community partnerships. Some researchers, educa-
tors, and parents talk of “barriers” that prevent the involvement of some parents or
community groups in children’s education. However, every challenge that we iden-
tify has been solved by some educators, families, students, and community partners
working together. Therefore, although every school will face challenges in designing
and implementing activities for all types of involvement, the challenges can be solved
to sustain excellent partnership programs.
4. Results. The results of school, family, and community partnerships are complex
because not every activity leads to all good things. Indeed, any activity may be de-
signed and conducted well or poorly, and, thereby, may lead to positive or negative
results. Moreover, there are two main patterns of effects. First, each type of involve-
ment produces some unique results. For example, Type 5—Decision Making activ-
ities, done well, will increase parents’ support for their children’s schools, whereas
Type 4—Learning at Home activities, done well, will help students complete home-
work and gain skills in particular subject areas.
Second, all types of involvement can be designed to produce the same targeted
results. For example, activities for all six types of involvement may focus on engag-
ing families and the community to help students improve reading skills, math skills,
or other desired results for student success.

Educators, parents, and others must understand the potential and patterns of re-
sults of involvement to knowledgeably and purposely design or select activities that
will help meet school improvement goals.
5. Resource/idea file. The discussions and activities in Chapters 5, 6, and 7 focus

on how to design and implement practical programs of school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships. Future teachers, administrators, and other education professionals
should compile a resource notebook or electronic file of ideas to use in practice
teaching and in their work in schools, districts, and other education settings. Stu-
dents who are preparing to conduct research may compile ideas and questions that
they might address and clarify in future studies.
COMMENT
Website Resource: Promising Partnership Practices
Many activities in this chapter ask you to think of examples of practices for the six
types of involvement that meet particular challenges or that produce specific results.
You can use Tables 5.1, 5.2, or 5.3 for ideas. Or, you can draw from hundreds of
exemplary practices that are featured in annual books of Promising Partnership
Practices by schools, districts, states, and organizations in the National Network of
Partnership Schools (NNPS). These collections are on the NNPS website at
www.partnershipschools.org in the section “Success Stories.” Use the search feature
to sort the activities in each book by type of involvement.
COMMENT
Why Six Types?
Over the years, a framework of six types of involvement grew from research, field
studies with practicing educators and families, and emerging policies. The types of
involvement—parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision
making, and collaborating with the community—were first identified in the elemen-
tary grades and became clearer with data from middle and high schools.
The types of involvement comprise activities conducted at school, at home, and
in the community. Activities may be conducted by students, teachers, parents, ad-
ministrators, and others to improve schools, strengthen families, and increase student
success. This large and varied agenda could get lost if categories were too simple.
For example, if all involvement activities were labeled “at home” or “at school,”
it would not be possible to make important distinctions between and among activ-
ities that occur in both locations. For example, volunteers may become involved at

school or at home—assisting teachers, administrators, and/or students in either lo-
cation. If categories are confounded, other distinctions are lost. For example, some
programs define parents as “supporters” or “learners,” but these labels are confusing
because families and educators are supporters and learners in all six types of
involvement—often in the same involvement activity.
The framework of six types of involvement corrects too-simple and confounded
labels. With this framework, it is possible to categorize all activities that involve
families and community members; identify challenges; and link activities to short-
term and long-term goals for students, parents, and the schools. There is general
agreement about the usefulness of the framework. It was adopted and applied by
the National PTA (1998, 2009) to the work of that organization, and it was incor-
porated into publications and training of the National Education Association
(Dianda and McLaren, 1996) and American Federation of Teachers (1999, 2009).
Many states, districts, and schools use the framework as the basis for their policies
of parental involvement (see Chapter 4). The framework has made it possible to
move away from the task of “defining” involvement to the harder work of imple-
menting comprehensive programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
The following comments and exercises will increase your understanding of the
six types of involvement. I hope that familiarity will breed attempt! If you under-
stand the framework and many ways to activate it in practice, you should be more
likely to create and conduct comprehensive programs of school, family, and com-
munity partnerships. You may develop these programs with colleagues in the
schools, districts, and state departments of education where you work as a profes-
sional educator, as an active parent, and as an involved member of the community.
Researchers, too, should be able to use the framework to improve their studies
of the effects of different types of involvement on student achievement and other
outcomes for students, families, teachers, and school climate. Details are needed on
who benefits from specific partnership activities, how much, and at which grade
levels. The summary charts in Reading 5.1 are extensive, but each entry is based on
relatively few studies. Many studies—using different methods, in diverse communi-
ties, and with students and families at all grade levels—are needed to extend knowl-
edge and strengthen all six types of involvement.
SUMMARY: TYPE 1—PARENTING
Basic Responsibilities of Families
Type 1—Parenting activities help families fulfill their basic responsibilities of pro-
viding for children’s nutrition, health, safety and protection, clothing, supervision,
discipline, development of independence, and other attributes. Activities may include
family support programs, parent education, workshops, and parent-to-parent con-
nections that strengthen parents’ understanding of child and adolescent development,

parenting skills, and home conditions that support learning at each age and grade
level. Type 1 activities also assist schools in understanding families’ backgrounds,
cultures, parenting styles, and goals for children.
Many schools address topics of parenting by conducting workshops for parents.
One of the many Type 1 challenges is to get information from workshops to par-
ents who cannot come to the school but want and need the information. Schools
are meeting this challenge with old and new technologies to share information in writ-
ten summaries, by e-mail, on websites, on CDs, through parent-to-parent networks,
and in other ways using high-tech and low-tech communications.
If Type 1—Parenting activities are well designed and well implemented, specific
results can be expected. For example, student attendance and promptness should
improve if parents are helped to understand the school’s attendance policies, their
responsibility to get their children to school every day and on time, and the health
and community services available to support student attendance.
Focus of Type 1 Activities
• Housing, health, nutrition, clothing, safety

• Parenting skills for all age levels
• Home conditions that support children as students at all grade levels
• Information and activities to help schools understand children and
families
Challenges
• Provide information to all families who want it or who need it, not only
to the few who attend workshops/meetings at the school building.
• Enable families to share information with schools about background,
culture, talents, goals, and needs.
Redefinitions
• Workshop is not only a meeting on a topic held at the school building

but also the content of that topic, which may be viewed, heard, or read
at convenient times and varied locations.
Measurable Results for Students
• Balance of time spent on chores, other activities, and homework

• Regular attendance
• Awareness of family belief in the importance of school

Measurable Results for Parents
• Self-confidence about parenting as children proceed through school

• Knowledge of child and adolescent development
Measurable Results for Teachers and Schools
• Understanding of families’ goals and concerns for children

• Respect for families’ strengths and efforts
See Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 in Reading 5.1 for more on Type 1.
COMMENT
Understanding Type 1—Parenting
Parents have a continuous responsibility for raising their children, whereas most
teachers have students for only one year, and most schools work with children for
just a few years. To meet their children’s needs, families say they want clear, under-
standable, ongoing information about child and adolescent development. Many
families benefit from contacts with other parents about parenting skills, problems,
and solutions at each age level. Others request or require professional, personal ser-
vices for themselves and their children.
Just about all parents deserve respect and appreciation from educators for their
ongoing efforts at home to raise their children and for the support they provide to
their children as students. Families want and need up-to-date information, conver-
sations, and guidance to revise and adapt home activities and family discussions
every year. With good information, many, most, or all parents would better under-
stand their children and the expectations of teachers.
At the same time, teachers and administrators deserve respect and appreciation
from parents for their dedication to educating every child and for the attention they
pay to bring out the best in each child. Educators need information from families
about their children and about family backgrounds, cultures, talents, goals, and ex-
pectations for students. Without such information, schools and teachers may operate
on erroneous ideas about students and their families.
Most schools do not gather information from families about their children on a
regular schedule. Most do not routinely give clear information to help all families
remain knowledgeable partners in their children’s education from year to year. It is
not surprising, then, that many families feel unassisted and unappreciated by their
children’s schools and unsure about the development stages their children experi-
ence. A good mix of Type 1 activities includes information for parents and from
parents about children and families. This creates two main challenges that must be
met for programs of partnership to effectively implement Type 1—Parenting.

Challenge Number 1: Provide Information to Families Who
Cannot Come to Meetings and Workshops at School
Many families cannot come to meetings and workshops on parenting, child and
adolescent development, or other topics designed to help families understand their
children. Most workshops, parent-to-parent meetings, and social activities with ed-
ucators are attended only by a small number of the families served at a school. Even
when a workshop is well attended, some families will not be there. An important
challenge raised by Type 1 activities is: How shall schools get information to those
who cannot come to the school building at a particular time?
The absentees are not bad parents. They may be busy with other children, work
outside the home, live far from school, feel unwelcome or frightened by the school,
speak languages other than English, or have other reasons for not attending a meet-
ing at school on a particular day. The absentees may be just as caring, loving, and
interested in their children as the parents who attend. Ironically, some absentees are
parents who are teachers, administrators, or child care providers who are working
with other people’s children during the school day and who cannot leave their
schools to attend meetings at their own children’s schools.
Challenge Number 2: Gather Information from Families to

Help Schools Understand the Students and Their Families
In addition to increasing families’ understanding of their children at each age and

grade level, some Type 1 activities should increase educators’ understanding of the
students and their families, including their backgrounds, goals, strengths, and needs.
As they become aware of and sensitive to the strengths of families, educators are
better able to support all students and involve all families.
1. What information do you think families want and need every year from
schools to understand child and adolescent development? List five items
of information that you believe all families need to know every year from
their children’s schools.
2. What information do you think all schools want and need each year from
families to understand the students and their families? List five items of
information that you believe teachers, administrators, and/or counselors
need to know every year from families.

ACTIVITY
Linking Type 1 Challenges and Results
What results would you expect from Type 1—Parenting activities designed to meet
the two challenges discussed above?
A. Use the chart in Figure 5.1.

B. Select and identify a grade level that interests you.
C. Describe one Type 1—Parenting activity that you think would meet each
of the listed challenges. You can use the list of ideas that you developed
in the questions above, the website for Promising Partnership Practices,
or other ideas that you may have.
D. For each activity that you describe, give one short-term result that you
would expect if the activity were well implemented.
E. Make clear whether the expected result will benefit students, parents,
teachers, or others.
Name: ___________________________ Grade level selected:_____ Date ______________
Sample Challenges One activity to meet One short-term Who will benefit?
for Success with this challenge result of the activity
Type 1—Parenting
Provide information
for parents who can-
not attend a work-
shop or meeting
Obtain information
from parents to help
teachers understand
their children and
families
FIGURE 5.1 Type 1 Challenges
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Parent Education Programs
Type 1 activities may be provided by a school or by family support, parent educa-

tion, or other programs that serve families. If these programs are well designed, re-
sponsive to families’ needs, and well implemented, they should increase parents’
confidence and the quality of their parenting.

A. Interview (or invite for a class interview) the director and a participant of
a family support, family literacy, parent education, or other parenting
program. Identify the interviewees and the program.
B. Discuss the goals of the program and how the results of the program are
measured. Prior to the interview, prepare at least five questions about the
program on these topics:
1. One question about the goals of the program and participants.
2. One question about eligibility requirements or fees for services.
3. One question about how the quality of the implementation of the
program is measured.
4. One question about the results of the program for participants and
their families and how results are monitored and measured.
5. At least one more question that interests you about the program.
C. Document your questions. Listen to the director’s and participant’s
views, and document their responses.
D. Summarize the similarities and/or differences in views of the director and
the participant.
E. Write two commendations on the program’s successes and/or two
recommendations for improving the program based on your
interpretations of the interviewees’ comments.
COMMENT
Looking Deeper into “Workshops”
Under the new definition of workshop stated above, the location, presenter, time,
and technology of a workshop may vary. The content of a workshop may be pre-
sented in various ways to reach more parents.
Location: Workshops may be offered at the school building or at a location

in the community. Some businesses or organizations host lunchtime or
weekend workshops on school-related topics for their employees.
Presenter: Workshops may be offered by teachers, administrators,
counselors, parents, other professionals, or members of the community.
Some workshops for parents and teachers may be presented by students.
Expertise is available in all communities on topics that are important to
all families and students.
Time: Workshop information may be made available at various times, not
just at one scheduled time, at the school or in the community. Some
workshops are presented twice—once during the school day and once in
the evening to reach more families. Some are available “on demand” and
may use new technologies (e.g., video, website, summaries in a parent
center, etc.).

Technology: Workshops may be offered in traditional meetings and in other
forms. Videotapes, CDs, audiotapes, and printed summaries of
homegrown or commercial workshops may be viewed and heard in the
media center or parent room at school; borrowed to view at home; or
distributed to neighborhood libraries, businesses, family resource centers,
health centers, or other locations. Workshop topics and main results can
be summarized in computerized phone messages, in school or local
newspapers, on local cable TV or radio, on school or district websites, or
in other forms. Follow-up discussions might include parent, educator, and
student reactions, experiences, and suggestions. Different workshops may
be scheduled each year to develop a “library” of important information
for families on child development and other topics concerning education.
The workshop products could then be shared among schools or districts.
Workshop topics should be thoughtfully selected with input from parents to meet
their needs and interests in child and adolescent development. Each year and across
time, workshop topics should “add up” to something that helps parents understand
their children and that helps schools understand families.
ACTIVITY
Workshop Topics
A. Select and identify a grade level that interests you.

B. List one workshop topic about which educators have important
information about children and schools that you think should be shared
with parents at the grade level you selected.
C. Describe two ways in which the information could be shared with
parents who were unable to attend the workshop.
D. Discuss one result that you would expect for:
• parents who attended the workshop
• parents who received information in the ways you described in
item C
E. List one topic about which parents have important information about
their children or families that you think should be shared with educators
at the school.
F. Describe two ways to share the information you listed in item E. If the
activity is conducted at school, include at least one idea of how families
who cannot come to school might participate.
G. Discuss one result that you would expect from the activities you
described in item F.

ACTIVITY
Organize a Type 1—Parenting Activity
A. Select item 1 or item 2 to organize a Type 1—Parenting activity.

1. Workshop for parents.
a. Select and identify a grade level that interests you.
b. List one topic that you believe parents want to know more about
concerning their children’s development at that grade level. You
may use your ideas from the activity above or other ideas.
c. Organize a workshop of about one hour on the topic you
selected. Use the new definition of workshop to ensure that all
parents obtain good information on the topic you selected.
Consider various locations, times, and technologies that would
help convey information to all families. Write a complete plan
outlining the content, facility, targeted audience, schedule,
responsibilities for publicity, other organizational issues, and
follow-up plans, if any.
2. Family exchange and information for schools. Remember, in
addition to workshops for parents, Type 1—Parenting activities help
schools learn more about their students’ families. For example, an
annual Family Fair might help families share histories, talents,
stories, customs, foods, crafts, and other specialties. Such activities
could be photographed, collected in school albums, videotaped, and
edited over time to establish a “family history” of the school that
may be shared with each new class that enrolls.
a. Select and identify a grade level that interests you.
b. Describe one strategy that would encourage families to exchange
important information with each other and with educators at the
school.
c. Write a complete plan for organizing, conducting, and following
up the activity you selected.
B. Optional activity: In class, critique the plans for the workshops and
family exchange activities. Consider the importance of the topics, timing,
technologies, strategies for providing information to nonattendees, and
likely results. Save good ideas in your resource notebook or electronic
idea file.
SUMMARY: TYPE 2—COMMUNICATING

Basic Responsibilities of Schools
Type 2—Communicating activities help educators and families share information

about school programs and student progress in varied, clear, and productive ways.

Schools send information home in notes, newsletters, report cards, folders, and
e-mail, and they share information in conferences, phone calls, and other ways. In-
creasingly schools are using voice mail, e-mail, and websites to communicate with
families. Type 2 activities create two-way communication channels from school to
home and from home to school so that families can easily communicate with teach-
ers, administrators, counselors, and other families.
Most schools communicate in many ways with at least some parents about school
programs and children’s progress, but not all of the communications are understood
by all families. One of the many Type 2 challenges is to use clear and understandable
language in written and verbal exchanges to reach all families. Schools are meeting
this challenge by writing more clearly in English, translating written documents into
major languages spoken by students’ families, and providing interpreters for parents
who speak different languages at meetings and conferences.
Many schools are working to make their report cards and the criteria for stu-
dents’ grades clear to all students and parents. If Type 2 communications are well
designed and well implemented, specific results can be expected. For example, if
more families feel welcome and comfortable at parent-teacher-student conferences
(Minke and Anderson, 2003), they will be better able to follow up the conference
with help for their children or with more questions for the teacher. If more parents
understand criteria for report card grades, they may be better able to recognize and
celebrate good work and progress at home and help their children maintain or im-
prove their grades.
FOCUS OF TYPE 2 ACTIVITIES
School-to-Home Communications
• Memos, notices, report cards, conferences, newsletters, phone calls,

e-mail and other computerized messages, websites
• Information on school programs, tests, and children’s progress
• Information needed to choose or change schools, courses, programs,
and activities
Home-to-School Communications
• Two-way channels of communication for questions, comments, and

other interactions
Challenges
• Make all memos, notices, and other print and nonprint communications
clear and understandable for all families.

• Obtain ideas from families to improve the design and content of
communications such as newsletters, report cards, and conference
schedules.
Redefinitions
• Communications about school programs and student progress are not

only from school to home but also from home to school and with the
community.
• Awareness of their own progress in subjects and skills

• Knowledge of actions needed to maintain or improve grades
• Awareness of their roles as courier and communicator in partnerships
• Support for child’s progress and responses to correct problems

• Ease of interactions and communications with school and teachers
• High rating of quality of the school
• Ability to communicate clearly with parents

• Use of a network of parents to communicate with all families
COMMENT
Two-Way Communications between Home and School
One Type 2 challenge is to establish easy-to-use, two-way communications between

home and school about school programs and student progress. Teachers need to
know when parents can be reached at home or at work and what numbers to call.
Parents need to know when teachers, counselors, and principals can be reached at
school or home and what numbers to call. Families may want to know how to con-
nect with other helpful people such as the school counselor, nurse, social worker,

officers of the parent organization, class parents, family center coordinator, parent
representatives on the school council and Action Team for Partnerships, and others.
Some schools develop “telephone trees” or family directories each year for each
grade level so that all parents have information on school contacts and so that par-
ents can easily contact each other.
Parents also need to be encouraged to ask questions and offer ideas that will help
their children proceed successfully through the grades. Although this is a simple
idea, many schools have not opened two-way communication channels so that in-
formation, questions, and conversations may flow easily from school to home and
from home to school. This is a particular challenge when families speak many lan-
guages, have diverse reading skills, work different shifts and schedules, and have
other circumstances that require thoughtful and responsive actions. Parents’ requests
for more and better information are indicators of family strengths, not weaknesses.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Interview about Type 2 Communications
A. Select a parent or educator (teacher, principal, or counselor) to discuss the

two-way communications that he or she presently conducts and about
needed improvements. Also identify the grade level of one school-age child
who links home and school for the interviewee. Ask:
1. What are two productive forms of school-to-home or home-to-school
communications that you presently use?
2. In your view, what are two ways that improve your present practices
or experiences to encourage two-way communications between
parents and teachers or between parents and school administrators?
3. Some teachers give parents their home phone numbers. Others
prefer not to do so. What are your feelings about this exchange of
information?
B. Document the questions and responses.
C. What do you think is the most difficult challenge to effective two-way
communications that was identified in your interview? Explain why you
think this challenge is formidable.
D. Share information in class to compare responses of educators and
parents and how some have solved the challenges that others have not
yet addressed.

COMMENT
The Role of Students in Type 2 Communications
Students are important for the success of all six types of involvement, including
Type 2—Communicating. Communications from school to home and from home
to school almost always involve students as couriers, commentators, observers, and
targets of attention in both settings. From preschool through high school, students
need guidance and recognition from teachers and administrators to effectively serve
as home-school communicators and connectors. In a study we conducted at the high
school level, a parent joked, “If teachers could pin notices to students’ sweaters the
way they did in kindergarten, more of their communications would reach me.” Of
course, that is not an age-appropriate solution for high school teachers, students,
or parents.
Students and families need good information about the curriculum, tests and as-
sessments, standards for success, report card marking systems, and other features
and changes in school programs. Students and families should be involved in creating,
reviewing, and improving all aspects of schooling that determine student success.
With good information and participation, families can assist educators in helping
students adjust to new schools, new curricula, and other changes that affect their
success in school. With good information and participation, students themselves
can more successfully respond to changes that affect their work and progress.
1. What do families and students need to know about the following aspects
of school programs, and what might families and students contribute to
the success of these aspects of schooling?
Families need to Students need to Families or students

know know may contribute in
this way
A. Curriculum/
school subjects
B. Tests and
assessments
C. Report cards
D. Standards for
students’ work
E. Add one more

Topic: __________

2. a. Give two examples of how students might help conduct school-to-
home or home-to-school communications about school programs
and student progress in learning and behavior.
b. Give two examples of how students might hinder school-to-home or
home-to-school communications about school programs and student
progress in learning and behavior.
c. Give two examples of what teachers and/or parents could say or do
to help students understand the importance of their roles in school-
to-home and home-to-school communications.
COMMENT
Back-to-School Night
At the start of a school year, most preschools and elementary, middle, and high
schools hold a Back-to-School Night or open house to help families learn about
school programs, meet their children’s teachers, and hear about plans and require-
ments for specific subjects. These initial, annual gatherings are group meetings, not
individual parent-teacher conferences. Some principals and teachers use the occasion
to talk about their approaches to school, family, and community partnerships and to
obtain information from parents about their families’ goals for their children and
their children’s special talents.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Site Visit
The following activity may be completed alone, with a partner, or in cooperation

with a teacher, administrator, or parent.
A. Visit a local school on Back-to-School Night. If that cannot be scheduled,

interview a teacher, administrator, or parent who has attended a Back-
to-School Night, or use your own experience. Indicate whether you made
a visit, conducted an interview, or are relying on reflection.
B. Describe the type of school, location of the community, number of
families attending the event, agenda and activities, and other
observations or descriptions.
C. Evaluate the event for its strengths and weaknesses in welcoming parents;
providing information about school programs and grade-level
requirements; gathering information from parents; and establishing a
climate for school, family, and community partnerships for the year.

ACTIVITY
Letter Writing from School to Home
A. Identify a school level or grade level that interests you.

B. Write four letters that a teacher or administrator might send to families
of students, including:
• An introductory letter to greet all families at the start of the year,
along with your ideas and plans for school, family, and community
partnerships;
• A letter to set up and schedule an individual conference with each
parent at school or by phone at a time that is convenient for both
of you;
• A “good-news” letter to share students’ accomplishments with their
families; and
• A letter to all families or to an individual family on another topic of
your choice (e.g., a special conference to discuss an academic or
behavior problem, a follow-up letter to report progress in solving a
problem, or some other topic).
C. Optional class activity: In class, share the letters that were drafted. In
small groups, pairs, or as a whole class, critique the letters for their form,
vocabulary, readability for all families, awareness of family interests and
needs, sensitivities to children’s ages and grade levels, and other issues.
Make changes to improve your letters. Collect examples as prototypes
for future reference in your resource notebook or electronic idea file.
ACTIVITY
Newsletters
A. Collect one example of a school or classroom newsletter. It may be a paper

copy or a copy from a school website.
B. Identify the school level (preschool or elementary, middle, or high
school) or grade level of the example.
C. Analyze the purpose(s) and content of the newsletter. Critique the
format; readability; quality of information; participation of students,
teachers, administrators, and parents; two-way communication
strategies; and other qualities.
D. Give two suggestions of how you would improve the newsletter you
reviewed.
E. Draw a diagram or layout to show what an excellent newsletter might
look like for the school or grade level that you critiqued.
F. Optional activity: In class, share some of the sample newsletters and
critiques.

COMMENT
Contacts and Meetings with Parents—What Is Realistic?
Many educators say, “If we could just get the parents to the school, we would know
they were involved.” The fact is that most parents cannot come to school very often.
Most work full-time or part-time during the school day. Others are too far from
the school; have other family, faith, and neighborhood obligations; or have other
reasons why it is not easy to come often to the school building.
Realistically, how often each year might a teacher or administrator contact every
student’s family individually? As a group? How might these contacts occur—in face-
to-face meetings, in writing, by phone, or in other ways? What resources or support
from the school or from the school district might be needed to encourage parents
to come to school at certain times during the school year?
One method is to share information with individual families. The following are
some ways to share information with individual families about their own children.
• Parent-teacher conferences
• Parent-teacher-student conferences
• Student-parent interviews, conversations, or conferences at home
• Telephone conversations
• Informal meetings
• Notes, letters about individual students
• E-mail to individual parents or students
• Student report cards
• Weekly folders of students’ work
• Interactive homework
• Add another example: _____________
Another method is to share information with groups of families. The following

are some ways to share information with groups of families:
• Back-to-School Night or open house

• School or class newsletters
• Grade-level meetings
• PTA or other parent organization meetings
• School and district policy statements
• School handbooks
• Websites
• Listservs
• Other social networking method (e.g., blog, Twitter)
• Add another example: ____________

ACTIVITY
Mapping Communications for a Year
A. Select and identify a grade level that interests you. For middle and high
school grades, also select and identify a subject area. Estimate the number
of students a teacher may teach at that grade level/subject.
B. Think of the time and resources needed for group meetings, individual
parent-teacher conferences, home visits, phone calls, e-mail, positive
postcards, and the other communications listed above.
C. Create a paper or computerized calendar of the months and weeks of
one school year (typically 180 days from September to June, or 36 full
weeks; in year-round schools, four 9-week sessions). If you wish, you
may add vacation months.
D. Outline a feasible communication schedule that you believe is positive
and realistic and encourages two-way communication and problem
solving between a teacher and the families of students in the grade (and
subject) you selected.
1. Put an I next to the individual communications with each student’s
family.
2. Put a G next to group communications that are the same for all
families.
3. Identify whether the communications would be conducted by the
teacher(T), school administrators (SA), counselors (C), parents (P),
students (S), or others (O).
4. On your calendar, estimate the hours or minutes needed to plan,
conduct, and complete the communications you listed.
E. Optional activity: Exchange and critique the calendars of
communications in class. Are the activities realistic for teachers and for
parents? Which activities ensure two-way channels of communication
from school to home and from home to school? Discuss: Do the activities
emphasize “bodies in the building,” or is there a useful mix of
communication strategies so that all parents can participate even if they
cannot come to the school building?
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Parent-Teacher Conferences
Interview a teacher or parent about a parent-teacher conference in which he or she

participated. Identify a few key characteristics of the interviewee and the grade level
of the child who was the subject of the conference.

A. Ask the interviewee to think of one recent parent-teacher or parent-
teacher-student conference and answer the following questions about that
conference:
1. What was the purpose of the conference? What was the content?
How was it organized?
2. How would you describe the tone of the conference, feelings of the
participants, and quality of the exchanges?
3. Was the student present?
a. If yes, how did this affect the conference?
b. If no, how might that have affected the conference?
4. Give an example of how you:
a. Exchanged information about the student as a person with
interests, strengths, talents, concerns, and needs.
b. Gained information about the student’s progress on work in
school in specific subjects, general knowledge, and social skills.
c. Discussed important goals and strategies for reaching goals for
progress in learning and success, including help needed to reach
new goals.
d. Celebrated the uniqueness and potential of the student as a part
of the school, class, and community.
B. Add at least one question of your own about a parent-teacher conference
and its schedule, content, and follow-up or another important related topic.
C. Document your questions and responses.
D. Write a short critique of whether and why you think this was a good or
poor conference.
ACTIVITY
Role Play on Conferences and Meetings with Parents
A. With others in class, take the part of a parent, teacher, administrator, or

student in one of the following school meetings:
1. Conference with a parent about a behavior problem
2. Conference with a parent about an academic problem
3. PTA meeting about a dress code or homework policy
4. Committee on the selection of textbooks
5. Meeting on special programs or services for children (e.g., library,
guidance, summer school, after-school program, free breakfasts,
student health issues, or a topic that you add)
B. List the topic, the roles, and the players.
C. The players should meet for at least 15 minutes to discuss the topic and
plan a mock interaction to perform for the class.

D. Conduct the interaction for the class. For each presentation, discuss:
1. What were the goals, fears, strengths, and needs of each participant?
2. If this were a real interaction of educators and family members,
would all participants have felt that the exchange was positive and
productive?
a. If yes, explain why.
b. If no, explain what each participant might have done differently
to produce a better result.
COMMENT
Students in Conferences
One of the most common comments about parent involvement is that the best way
to get parents to attend events at school is to have students involved. Student con-
certs, plays, sports activities, choruses, award assemblies, and, of course, graduation
are just a few activities that parents attend happily. This common pattern alerts us
to the need to consider when, why, and how students are included in school, family,
and community partnerships. Increasingly, students are being given active roles in
parent-teacher-student conferences.
A. Students may help prepare parents for parent-teacher conferences by:

• describing and discussing the subjects they study;
• drawing a map of the school to help parents find their teacher(s) and
classroom(s);
• providing a schedule of their classes, names of teachers, and room
numbers; and
• writing some questions for their parents to discuss with their
teacher(s).
B. Students may participate in parent-teacher-student conferences by:
• attending parent-teacher-student conferences; and
• leading one part or all of the parent-teacher-student conferences.
C. Students may follow up conferences with needed actions by:
• discussing the results and recommendations of conferences they did
not attend with their teachers and parents;
• setting goals and creating a work plan, as needed, to fulfill
important recommendations; and
• following up at regular intervals to discuss with their teachers and
parents how their work is continuing at high levels or improving.
To lead or conduct parent-teacher-student conferences, students need clear ex-

planations and time with their teachers to prepare for the conference. Also, parents
need to be prepared for the nontraditional format of a student-led conference. By

conducting parent-teacher-student conferences, students demonstrate that they are
the main actors in their education and that they can plan and reflect on their work
and progress.
1. a. Add one more example to list A (above) of how a student might

prepare a parent for a parent-teacher conference.
b. What are one benefit and one problem with any entry in list A?
2. a. Add one more example to list B (above) of how a student might
actively participate in a parent-teacher-student conference.
b. What are one benefit and one problem with any entry in list B?
3. a. Add one more example to list C (above) of how a student might
follow up the results and recommendations of a parent-teacher
conference.
b. What are one benefit and one problem with any entry in list C?
ACTIVITY
Inviting Parents to a Meeting at School
A. Select and identify a school level and grade level that interest you. Tell
whether you will be thinking about this as a teacher or as a principal.
B. Select one of the following events that interests you: Back-to-School
Night or parent-teacher-student conference.
C. Suppose you wanted all parents of your students to attend the event you
selected.
1. Describe one way that you would maximize the number of parents
who attended the event you selected.
2. Some families in your class or school are difficult to reach and rarely
come to such events. Select and identify one group of the following
families who sometimes are hard to reach or reluctant to come to
school events:
• Parents who disliked school when they were children
• Parents who do not speak English
• Parents who do not read English well
• Parents who work at night
• Parents who live at a distance
• Fathers or significant males in students’ lives
• Foster parents
• Noncustodial parents
• Other (please specify): _______________

3. Describe two ways that you might try to reach the special group you
selected to encourage them to attend the event.
4. Explain why you think your two communication strategies might work
with the group you selected.
All students move through the grades and change schools at key points, such as
from preschool to elementary, elementary to middle, and middle to high school.
Even within schools with K–8, K–12, 7–12, or other broad grade spans, there are
important within-school transitions from one school level to the next. How might
students and their families be helped to make successful transitions from one school
level to the next?
1. Select and identify one transition point in schooling that interests you.
2. If you were in the “feeder” school or grade, what is one piece of
information about going to a new school that you would share with all
students and families? How might you provide that information?
3. If you were the “receiving” school or grade, what is one piece of
information about coming to a new school that you would share with all
students and all families? How might you provide that information?
4. Optional activity: Critique the ideas in class, and collect the most
promising ones for a resource notebook or electronic idea file.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Communicating with Families Who Are New to a School
What information is typically shared with families when they enroll their children
in a new school, either because of a move to a new neighborhood or because of a
change in school levels? Interview a principal, counselor, or teacher about his or her
school’s policies and practices of communicating with families who enroll children
at or after the start of the school year. (Or invite all three for a class panel interview.)
A. Identify your interviewee’s position and level of schooling. Ask:

1. What formal connections are made with all families that are new to
the school? What information is routinely provided to these families?
2. What informal connections are made with some families that are
new to the school?
3. What is one improvement that you would make to better inform or
assist families that are new to your school?
B. Add a question of your own.

C. Document your questions and responses. Summarize your opinion of
how well new families are welcomed and included in this school.
SUMMARY: TYPE 3—VOLUNTEERING
Involvement at and for the School
Type 3—Volunteering activities help educators and families work together to sup-
port the school program and children’s work and activities. Type 3 activities include
recruiting and training volunteers; arranging schedules, locations, and activities for
volunteers; and recognizing parents who serve as audiences for students’ events and
performances as volunteers. Type 3 activities enable educators to work with reg-
ular and occasional volunteers who assist and support students in the school and
in other locations. Type 3 activities enable parents and other family members to
offer their time, talent, and ideas for productive activities for volunteers.
Many schools have at least a few volunteers—often the same group of active par-
ents. One of the many Type 3 challenges to excellent volunteer programs is to recruit
widely so that all families know they are valued as volunteers. Schools are meeting
these challenges by enabling parents to volunteer their time and talent at convenient
times in the evening, on weekends, and on vacation days. These decisions greatly
increase the number of parents and others who can assist schools and students. If
Type 3—Volunteering is well designed and well implemented, some or all students
may gain or improve skills taught by or practiced with volunteer aides, lecturers,
tutors, and mentors.
• Volunteers in schools or classrooms—assist administrators, teachers,

students, or parents as aides, tutors, coaches, lecturers, chaperones, and
other leaders
• Volunteers for schools or classrooms—assist school programs and
children’s progress in any location and at any time
• Volunteers as members of audiences—attend assemblies, performances,
sports events, recognition and award ceremonies, celebrations, and other
events
Challenges
• Recruit widely, provide training, and create flexible schedules and

locations for volunteers so that all families know that their time and
talents are welcomed and valued.

Redefinitions
• Volunteer not only means a person who comes during the school day but
also a person who supports school goals and children’s learning in any
place and at any time.
• Skills that are tutored or taught by volunteers

• Skills in communicating with adults
• Understanding of the teacher’s job

• Self-confidence about ability to work in school and with children
• Enrollment in programs to improve their own education and to prepare
for jobs in education
• Readiness to involve all families in new ways, not only as volunteers

• More individual attention to students because of help from volunteers
1. The number of families who become volunteers at the school building may
be increased if parents and other family members can volunteer to assist
in classrooms, in parent rooms, on the playground, in the lunchroom, and
in other locations. Give one idea for how each of the following old ways
of working with volunteers might be expanded or changed to enable more
families to participate.
OLD way NEW way

A. Volunteers must come to the school building. _______________________
B. Volunteers must come during school hours. _______________________
C. Volunteers must come during the school year. _______________________
E. Volunteers must have children in the school. _______________________
F. Volunteers must not be involved in
curriculum-related activities. _______________________
G. Other idea: _______________________

2. Suppose you notice, as the research shows, that working parents, single
parents, or parents who live far from the school do not volunteer as
much as other parents. What is one new approach to increase the
number of each of the following groups of parents to volunteer in ways
that help student learning and success?
Potential Volunteers One way to increase participation:

A. Working parents _______________________
B. Single parents _______________________
C. Parents who live far from the school _______________________
D. Fathers _______________________
ACTIVITY
Improving the Effectiveness of Volunteers
Not every task at school should be assigned to a volunteer. And not every volunteer
is successful at every task.
A. Use the chart in Figure 5.2. Give one idea of how a principal, teacher, or
coordinator of volunteers might identify the problems that are listed.
B. Give one idea of how to solve the problems should they occur.
Potential Type 3 How to Identify Possible Solution

Problem the Problem
A. Ineffective volunteers
who want to help but do
not do well
B. Underachieving volun-
teers whose talents are not
well used
C. Unsavory characters who

should not be in school or
working with
children
D. Add one other possible

problem with volunteers
that might arise:
__________________
__________________
FIGURE 5.2 Type 3 Problems

Some parents cannot or do not volunteer at school. Many parents work full-time
or part-time during the school day, when most volunteer activities are scheduled.
Those who work at night may not be able to volunteer during the school day. What
if you redefined volunteer, as suggested above, to mean “any one who supports
school goals and children’s learning in any place and at any time.”
1. How would this definition enable more parents to become volunteers?

2. How would this definition assist a school, a teacher’s classroom, families,
and the community?
3. What is one problem with the new definition? What is one way to
resolve that problem?
4. How far would you extend the new definition? Answer the following
questions and explain your reasons:
a. Should we consider parents and family members “volunteers” when
they attend sports activities, drama productions, concerts, and other
performances and assemblies? Why or why not?
b. Should we consider parents “volunteers” when they come to school
for parent-teacher conferences, for meetings on Individual Education
Plans (IEPs) for students with special needs, to readmit children who
have been suspended, or for other required meetings? Why or
why not?
COMMENT
Matching Volunteers’
Talents and School Needs
One way that some schools begin to think about expanding Type 3—Volunteering,
is to ask teachers, administrators, and school staff for a “wish list” of how volunteers’
time and talents might be helpful. The activities on a wish list might be conducted
by volunteers at school, in classrooms, on the way to and from school, in the com-
munity, or at home. The activities may be frequent and periodic, or occasional.
Another way that some schools begin to think about volunteers is to create a
“talent pool” by asking parents, other family members, and even members of the
community to indicate how they might like to help the school and students; what
their talents, time, range of interests, or willingness to help are, and what a good
location for their assistance would be.

FIELD EXPERIENCE
Wish Lists or Talent Pools for Volunteers
A. Select one of the approaches above—a school’s wish list or a parent talent
pool—that interests you.
B. Design a tool that would help a school gather the information you
selected. Make the form you design short, clear, and to the point, as well
as easy to categorize, tally, and search for/find.
C. Optional activity: Invite a cooperating principal or teacher to work with
your class.
1. Ask a teacher, administrator, or counselor to critique one or more
forms for collecting information about volunteers and give feedback
on whether the forms are clear enough for teachers or parents.
2. Ask the cooperating educator to share with you any similar approaches
that are used to develop a wish list for volunteers or a talent pool
of volunteers.
ACTIVITY
Website Exploration: Organizing Volunteers
Explore the annual collections of Promising Partnership Practices at www.partner

shipschools.org in the section “Success Stories.”
A. Select one year’s book, and search on Type 3—Volunteers.

B. Select one activity reported by a school, and critique it.
1. What were two positive features of the activity that increased the
number of volunteers or the activities conducted by volunteers?
2. What were two weaknesses or limitations to the activity that could
be corrected for even greater success? Tell how.
ACTIVITY
Creating Strong Volunteer Programs
Suppose you were working with a preschool or elementary, middle, or high school
that wanted to organize and implement a useful volunteer program.
A. Identify the level of schooling that interests you (e.g., preschool or

elementary, middle, or high school).

B. Identify whether you are thinking about the needs of the whole school or
the needs of one teacher in a specific grade level or subject.
C. Include the following components in your plan for a successful volunteer
program. List one example of how you will address each component.
• Recruit volunteers
• Match talents of volunteers with needs of teachers, students, others
• Train volunteers
• Schedule work for volunteers
• Evaluate volunteers
• Continue the program from year to year
D. Share the plans for organizing volunteers in class. For each idea, discuss:
1. Is the design feasible?
2. Would the proposed program reach out to involve parents, other
family members, and/or community members who would not
typically become volunteers on their own?
3. Will the recruitment, training, and assignments of volunteers be easy
to maintain from year to year?
E. Collect promising ideas for a resource notebook or electronic idea file.
See Chapter 6 for one targeted program to organize Type 3—Volunteering for
social studies and art in the middle grades and additional discussion topics and ac-
tivities on volunteers.
SUMMARY: TYPE 4—LEARNING AT HOME
Involvement in Academic Activities
Type 4—Learning at Home activities involve families with their children in home-
work, goal setting, and other curriculum-related activities and decisions. Informa-
tion on homework policies, course choices, prerequisites, goal setting, and other
academic decisions can help parents influence students’ choices and learning in many
different ways. Some schools encourage teachers to design homework that enables
students to share and discuss interesting work and ideas with family members. These
activities create two-way connections between home and school about the curricu-
lum and academic learning without parents having to come to the school building.
Students in all schools learn many different subjects, but most parents are un-
aware of all that their children are learning or how to interact with their children
on curricular matters. Most parents are uninvolved in important academic decisions
that affect their children’s and the family’s future. One of many Type 4 challenges
is for teachers to effectively and realistically assign students homework and guide
parents in how to interact with students about schoolwork at home. Some activities
draw on the knowledge that all parents have, based on their backgrounds and ex-

periences (Moll, Amanti, Neff, and Gonzalez, 1992). Other activities enable students
to conduct conversations, demonstrations, and other interactions with parents to
share ideas and examples of what they are learning in class (Van Voorhis and Ep-
stein, 2002).
If Type 4—Learning at Home activities are well designed and well implemented,
more students will complete their homework and improve the quality of their work,
and more parents will be well informed about what students are learning in class.
With family encouragement and input, students will be more actively involved in set-
ting goals for success in school and in planning postsecondary educational pathways.
• How to help at home with homework

• Skills required to pass each subject
• Curriculum-related decisions
• Students’ goal setting for success in school and postsecondary planning
• Development of other skills and talents
Challenges
• Design and implement interactive homework in which students take

responsibility to discuss important classwork and ideas with their
families.
• Sequence information and activities to help students and families set
ambitious goals and strategies for improving or maintaining success in
school every year, and for postsecondary education, training, and work.
Redefinitions
• Homework means not only work that students do alone but also inter-
active activities that students share and discuss with others at home.
• Help at home means how families encourage and guide children, not
how they teach school subjects.
• Skills, abilities, and test scores linked to classwork; homework completion

• Self-confidence in ability as learner; positive attitudes about school
• Viewing parent as similar to teacher and home as in sync with school

• Discussions with child about school, classwork, homework, future plans

• Understanding curriculum, what child is learning, and how to help
at home
• Respect for family time; satisfaction with family involvement and

support
• Recognition that single parents, dual-income families, economically
disadvantaged families, and families that do not speak English can
encourage and assist student learning
COMMENT
Understanding How Families

Link to Homework
Many studies show that there are serious problems with the design, assignment,
completion, and follow-up of homework in many elementary, middle, and high
schools. School policies, teachers’ designs of homework, student investments, and
family activities all may need to be improved for students to benefit from their
homework assignments.
Scott-Jones (1995a and 1995b) discussed four levels of involvement of parents
and children in homework: valuing, monitoring, assisting, and doing. Families need
good information each year to convey to their children that they value homework
as an important task, they will monitor the completion of homework, and they want
to assist students as best they can with their work. Everyone agrees that parents
should not do their children’s homework and that homework is the students’ re-
sponsibility. For example, the Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) Inter-
active Homework process (see Chapter 6) is designed to expedite the first three
levels of valuing, monitoring, and assisting homework and to prevent the fourth,
with directions for students to conduct the interactions with their families.

How does family valuing, monitoring, and assisting or interacting on homework

change across the grades?
1. Select and identify in ascending order three grade levels that interest you.
2. For each grade level, list one example of what you think parents might
say or do to show their children that they (a) value homework, (b)
monitor homework, and (c) will assist or interact with them on
homework.
Grade Levels: (a) Value (b) Monitor (c) Assist or Interact

Homework Homework with Homework
Grade __
Grade __
Grade __
3. How do the messages you listed differ or remain the same across the
grade levels you selected? Explain.
4. Select one grade level from your chart. How might a teacher help all
parents convey the messages you listed on how they value, monitor, and
assist with student homework?
COMMENT
Homework Policies and Procedures
Parents help their children with homework based on their own knowledge about
school and school subjects. An early study found that most parents say that they
need information every year to help their children do their best on homework.
Over 70 percent of parents surveyed in elementary, middle, and high schools
wanted to know: What is the school’s homework policy? Over 90 percent wanted
to know: How do I help my child at home this year? (See Chapter 3 for surveys
of parents.)
1. How are parents affected if teachers do or do not provide the following

information on students’ homework? List one result for parents that you
would expect:

How Are Parents Affected . . . ?
If teachers do provide If teachers do not provide

information on . . . information on . . .
A. Homework policies
each year
B. How homework is
factored into students’
report card grade in each
subject
C. How to monitor
students’ homework
D. How to ask good

questions so that
students talk about their
classwork and ideas
E. How students can show

and explain something
that they learned in class
F. How to choose academic

courses in math, science,
foreign languages, and
electives in high school
2. Select one result from your chart that you believe is particularly
compelling. Describe one activity that might help teachers provide the
information to all parents and that would produce the result that you
expect.
3. Select one result from the chart that you believe is particularly
troublesome. Describe one problem that could arise and an activity that
would help solve that problem.
COMMENT
Innovative Designs for Interactive Homework
One way to redefine family involvement in homework and in academic decisions is

to place the student in charge of the interactions. This strategy acknowledges that
parents are not and should not be expected to teach school subjects to their children
every year. Rather, students are expected to share with families interesting things
they are learning in class or important decisions that must be made about academic
courses, programs, or other opportunities.

In addition to the special focus on Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS)
in Chapter 6, there are many other ways to help families monitor their children’s
work and interact with them about ideas and academic decisions. The following
comments and activities introduce a few interactive strategies for increasing con-
versations at home about students’ skills in different subjects.
ACTIVITY
Purposes of Homework
You often hear people say that students should do their homework on their own in
a quiet place. Indeed, some homework should be completed independently to help
students learn how to study on their own. But other homework can be interactive
to enable students to share their work and to keep families informed about what
their children are learning in school. Thus, homework may be either independent
or interactive. Also see Chapter 6.
A. Select and identify a grade level that interests you.

B. In the chart below, list three purposes of independent homework. If
homework were designed for each purpose, what might be
accomplished for students and for parents?
C. List three purposes of interactive homework. If homework were
designed for each purpose, what might be accomplished for students
and for parents?
Three Purposes of What might be What might be

Independent Homework accomplished for students? accomplished for parents?
1.
2.
3.
Three Purposes of What might be What might be

Interactive Homework accomplished for students? accomplished for parents?
1.
2.
3.

COMMENT
Student-Parent “Home Conference”
Many years ago, Ross Burkhardt, a talented middle-grade educator, designed home
conferences on writing that students conducted at home. Each student made a for-
mal appointment with a parent or family member to discuss the student’s writing.
The students provided their parents with folders containing selected pieces of their
writing or arranged to read the work aloud. Then students conducted a structured
interview that the class developed to gather parents’ reactions to their work. Finally,
students summarized their parents’ reactions and wrote their own reactions to their
parents’ comments. They listed plans for improving or maintaining the quality of
their writing.
The interaction enabled each student to share writing samples with a parent;
gather reactions, ideas, and suggestions from a parent; and write a reflective response
to what he or she learned from the discussion. A student-parent home conference
could be scheduled in any subject as an interactive homework assignment once or
twice a year to keep families aware of students’ work and to encourage curriculum-
related conversations.
ACTIVITY AND FIELD EXPERIENCE
Student-Parent “Home Conference”
A. Select a subject other than writing and a grade level that interest you.
B. Design a student-parent home conference for the subject and grade level
that you selected. Include guidelines for students to:
• arrange an appointment with a parent
• obtain a parent’s reactions to the work
• record the parent’s reactions
• write their own reflections
C. Add one more component that you believe should be part of a home
conference in the subject and grade level you selected.
D. Optional activity:
1. Identify a cooperative teacher.
a. Ask the teacher for feedback on the guidelines that you wrote
for a home conference in item B above.
b. Arrange for one class to conduct the student-parent home
conference that you developed, or work with the teacher to
design a set of guidelines for a home conference in writing or
another subject.

Part b will require the cooperating teacher to
(1) use some class time to develop with students or explain the
elements of a structured interview that all students will
conduct with their parents
(2) develop with students or explain a recording form for
students to report the parents’ and their own reactions
(3) have students select a few pieces of their work in the
selected subject for the home-conference folder
(4) assign the home conference as homework to the students
and conduct the follow-up activity.
2. Collect and summarize the students’ reactions to their parents’ reviews.
3. Write a paragraph to explain your views on whether the activity
succeeded in increasing student-parent communications, parents’
awareness of student work, and students’ understanding of their
own skills and goals.
COMMENT
“Homemade Homework” Designed by

Students and Families
Another way to vary homework assignments is to periodically ask children and par-
ents to design a family-related homework activity for the student to conduct. For
example, students or parents may design activities for homework such as writing a
story, poem, or speech; creating artwork; taking a photograph; planning a budget
and activities for a special trip; making a list to complete an important family proj-
ect; or other tasks that help students practice and demonstrate real-world applica-
tions of writing, speaking, math, science, social studies, and other school skills or
develop personal talents. The student and a parent or family member might create
or select one assignment each month, such as:
• Write a letter to a grandparent, other relative, or family friend.

• Learn to play or sing a new song, practice it at home, and perform it in
class on a traditional or created instrument.
• Write a critical summary or review of a movie, drama production, piece
of music, restaurant, neighborhood location, or other family experience.
• Draw or paint a poster of a family holiday or celebration.
• Compose a speech on a topic of importance to the student or family.
• Describe an activity that the student conducted at home or in the
community to help someone.
• Write a description or draw a portrait of a favorite relative or interesting
person in the neighborhood.

• Write a story of something interesting that happened while conducting
an ordinary activity at home (e.g., what happened when babysitting,
lawn mowing, fixing a door, washing clothes, making dinner).
• Critique a website on a topic or hobby of interest to the student.
• Build a building, bridge, or box out of toothpicks, spaghetti, Legos, ice
cream sticks, or other matter.
• Add one idea of your own of an activity a parent and child might choose
or design for the child’s homework.
“Homemade Homework”
Student-designed or student-and-family-designed homework assignments may be

linked to different school subjects each month or on some other regular schedule.
A. Select and identify a grade level of your choice.

B. Create a plan from October to May that would guide students and
families to design or select a “homemade homework” assignment for the
student to conduct. In elementary grades, vary the plan for different
subjects or skills each month. In middle or high school grades, vary the
plan for different skills or topics for one subject that you select and
identify.
C. Optional activity:
1. Identify a cooperative teacher at the grade level you selected. Ask the
teacher for feedback on your plan and an opportunity to test one of
the activities with a class.
2. Collect the assignment, and review in writing the results of the
homemade assignments.
COMMENT
Schoolwide Interactive Homework
A school may select a key theme or topic once a month or once a marking period
and assign the same homework to everyone in a particular grade or to everyone in
the school. This kind of assignment directs younger and older students to think
about an issue or idea that is important to everyone. For example, all students may
address questions such as:
What should a new playground for the school or community look like?
How can we get more books for the library?

How can we help our community or local senior citizens’ center?
Alternatively, the assignment may help all students focus on topics that are im-
portant for personal and social development, such as:
How can students be kind to each other?

What does it mean to study for a test?
How can we welcome new students to our school?
Or an assignment may focus all students on a matter of history or current events,

such as:
What issues are important to you in the next election?

What should this school ask the mayor about education and school
improvement?
What do we mean by freedom and democracy?
Schoolwide or grade-level homework assignments also could be purposely inter-

active with sections for students to interview a friend or a family member about the
topic, as in TIPS activities (see Chapter 6).
Schoolwide Homework
Schoolwide homework assignments may address different issues once a month, once
a marking period, twice a year, or on some regular schedule.
A. Select and identify a school level that interests you (i.e., preschool or
B. Select a topic that you think is important for students at all grade levels
in the school to think and talk about.
C. Create a design for schoolwide interactive homework on the topic you
selected. Outline how this work might be assigned to all students, noting
1. if adaptations are needed for younger and older students
2. what the students will be asked to do
3. how they will be guided to conduct interactions with a family
member, friend, or member of the community.
D. Optional activity: Identify a cooperative school.
1. Ask the principal, master teacher, or department chair for reactions
to your design for schoolwide homework.
2. If possible, test the idea schoolwide or with more than one
collaborating teacher.

3. Collect the assignments, and write a short critique of whether and
how a common assignment worked with students in different grades
or classes.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Homework Assignments in Practice Teaching
A. Select a subject that you are observing or assisting with as a practice

teacher.
B. Identify the subject, grade level(s) of the students, and dates of at least
two observations.
C. Summarize the main content of the classroom lessons, skills taught, and
homework assigned on the dates of your observations.
D. For each observation, discuss whether you think the homework assigned
was well designed or poorly designed for the students in the class. If the
homework or some elements were well designed, explain why. If the
homework or some elements were poorly designed, explain why, and
design and explain one improvement.
E. Discuss your observations with your cooperating teacher and/or your
practice teaching supervisor. Discuss the difficulties or ease with which
homework is designed, assigned, and completed by students.
COMMENT
Student Goal Setting
Another aspect of Type 4—Learning at Home focuses on parental involvement in

discussions with students about their goals and strategies for success in school. Every
student should be guided to set goals for each school term or marking period, the
school year, and the future. Of course, teachers set goals for students, but it also is
important for students—the main actors in learning—to set some of their own goals
and to identify strategies and resources to reach their goals. Often, parents are un-
aware that their children are setting academic and behavioral goals or how to help
them reach their goals each year in school.
In our early studies of high schools, one high school devised an interesting way
of bringing families into student goal-setting activities. First, during an English class,
all students set goals for attendance, report card grades in all subjects, and a personal
goal for increasing their skills and self-confidence over the next marking period.
Second, at home, students shared their goals with a parent or other family partner,

discussed various strategies for reaching their goals, and how the family partner
could help. Then, during a social studies period in school, students reflected on their
discussions with their families and their own ideas, and wrote their final goals and
strategies for the next marking period. The goals and strategies were kept in folders
in the students’ English classes. At the end of each marking period, students con-
ducted another interactive homework assignment with a family partner to review
and discuss whether they attained their goals, made progress, or needed more help.
They wrote their new goals and strategies for the next marking period and contin-
ued the process throughout the school year.
ACTIVITY
Helping Students Discuss Goals for Success at Home
A. Select and identify a grade level that interests you. At the middle and high
school levels, also select and identify a subject that interests you.
B. Using the description of a goal-setting strategy in the Comment above,
develop a set of directions and forms that a teacher in the grade level or
subject selected might use at the start of the school year to do the
following:
• Guide students to set four important goals for success in school. You
might choose attendance, achievement (in at least two subjects),
homework completion, behavior, or another important goal for
students in the grade level you selected.
• Have students identify strategies that they will use to reach their goals.
• Enable students to conduct an interactive homework assignment as
a structured interview with a family partner at home to discuss their
goals, strategies to reach their goals, and how parents or other
family members may help the students with their goals and
strategies.
• Guide students to write their final goals and strategies to reach their
goals, after reflecting on their discussion with a family partner.
C. Share designs for goal-setting activities with a partner in class. Check
whether the directions and processes are clear, well timed for students and
families, and appropriate for the grade levels and subjects selected.
See Chapter 6 for one targeted program to organize Type 4—Learning at Home
for Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) Interactive Homework and ad-
ditional discussion topics and activities on school, family, and community partner-
ships for student learning.

SUMMARY: TYPE 5—DECISION MAKING
Participation and Leadership
Type 5—Decision Making activities include families as participants in school deci-

sions, governance, and advocacy activities on school councils or school improvement
teams, Action Teams for Partnerships, other committees, PTA/PTO, and other
school-based or independent parent organizations. Type 5 activities prepare some
parents for leadership roles and enable parent representatives to obtain information
from and give information to the families they represent. Type 5 activities also prime
all parents to serve as advocates for their own child so that they have equitable ac-
cess to programs, services, and opportunities that are offered by a school, district,
or community.
Increasingly, schools are recognizing the importance of parent representatives on
school councils, site-based management teams, committees that focus on partner-
ships and other aspects of school improvement, and other advisory groups. One of
the many Type 5 challenges is for parent representatives to reflect the diverse pop-
ulations and neighborhoods served by the school. It also is important for parent
representatives to communicate well with other parents to obtain input on school
decisions and to report the results of school meetings. Schools are meeting this chal-
lenge by creating leadership positions for neighborhood representatives to reach
out to traditionally underrepresented groups and ensure that all families have a
voice in policy decisions.
If Type 5—Decision Making activities are well designed and well implemented,
more families should feel a strong attachment to their school. They may be willing
to serve on committees or assist committees with ideas and resources. Some families
may be willing to lobby for more effective state and district policies and funding to
benefit their school and all students. Also, educators learn that parents’ views im-
prove and extend discussions that lead to more inclusive and responsive decisions.
• PTA/PTO membership, participation, leadership, representation

• Advisory councils, school improvement teams, Action Teams for
Partnerships
• Title I councils, school-site management teams, other committees
• Independent advocacy groups

Challenges
• Include parent leaders from all racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and other
groups in the school.
• Offer training for parent representatives to develop leadership skills.
• Include student representatives along with parents in decision making.
Redefinitions
• Decision making means a process of partnership to share views and take

action toward shared goals, not a power struggle.
• Awareness that families are represented in school decisions

• Specific benefits linked to policies enacted by parent organizations
• Awareness of and input on policies that affect children’s education

• Shared experiences and connections with other families
• Awareness of families’ perspectives on policies and school decisions

• Acceptance of family representatives as equals on school committees
COMMENT
Type 5—Decision-Making Partnerships, Not Power Plays
Type 5—Decision Making activities recognize and increase parents’ abilities to ex-
press their opinions and contribute to school plans and policies. In Type 5 activities,
parent representatives take leadership roles along with educators. Parent leaders
help other parents understand and contribute ideas to issues and policies that affect
the design and quality of school programs and opportunities for all children. Be-
cause parents and teachers share an interest in and responsibility for children’s

learning and development, parents’ voices and ideas add important dimensions to
school decisions about children’s education.
To successfully implement Type 5—Decision Making, it is necessary for schools to
address several challenges. One is to help parent leaders serve as true representatives
of other families. This includes helping leaders obtain ideas from and return informa-
tion to the families they represent about school decisions, programs, and activities.
In many schools, parents’ opinions about school policies are not taken seriously.
Some schools have no parent organization (e.g., PTA, PTO, PTSA). Some have no
school council, site-management team, or committee structure that includes family
representatives. Often, even when such groups include parents, only a few parents
participate actively. When they do participate, few parent representatives collect in-
formation from other families or share the results of school meetings and decisions
with other parents.
Consequently, in most schools, only a few parents know what topics, issues, and
decisions are discussed or enacted. Typically, only a few voices are heard from parent
leaders who may or may not represent the views of other parents. These patterns
and problems of selective participation are even more evident on district-level councils
and committees.
Interestingly, most families do not want to serve on committees or in leadership
roles, but most do want parents’ voices represented in school decisions. In a study
of high schools, for example, we found that about 8 percent of parents wanted to
serve on committees, but just about all others wanted parent representatives on
councils and committees so that parents’ had a say in school decisions.
For parent leaders to represent all parents on major committees, it is necessary
to develop Type 5—Decision Making skills and strategies. For example:
• Parent leaders must be numerous and be selected or elected in ways that

give the parents of all groups of students (from different neighborhoods,
racial and ethnic groups, special interests) representative voices in
school decisions.
• Parent leaders must be assisted to effectively represent other parents by
gathering their ideas on important issues and by reporting back to the
families they represent. Because not every parent attends committee
meetings, communication with parent leaders is evidence of all parents’
participation.
• Similarly, administrators, teachers, students, or others from the
community who serve on decision-making teams also must gather and
give information to those they represent.
• New leaders must be continually prepared to serve as representatives
and active participants in all schools. Processes must be organized and
ongoing for selecting representatives and conducting decision-making
activities because parent leaders, at one time, move to other schools and
to other neighborhoods as their children progress through the grades.
In comprehensive programs of school, family, and community partnerships, there

must be adequate and effective representation of all parents’ ideas by parent leaders.

Should parents’ views be represented in all school decisions?
1. Select and identify a level of schooling that interests you.

2. Divide a page in half.
a. On one side, list arguments that support a response of yes to the
above question for the level of schooling that you selected. Give at
least two reasons why parents’ views should be represented in all
school decisions.
b. On the other side, list arguments that support a response of no to
the question for the level of schooling that you selected. Give at least
two reasons why parents’ views should not be represented in all
school decisions, and give at least two examples of decisions that
should be made only by teachers or administrators.
3. Share your ideas in a class discussion or debate.
4. After hearing others’ ideas and considering your own arguments, write a
policy statement about family representation in school decisions that you
believe would work in a school or district. Discuss whether the policy
statement would be feasible to implement.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Parent Participation in School Decisions
A. Interview a state, district, or school administrator or a teacher for ideas

about how families should be and could be involved in school decisions
and on policy-related committees. (This may be conducted as an individual
assignment or by inviting an administrator for a class interview.)
B. Identify the policy level you selected and the job title of your interviewee.
Ask:
1. Approximately how many students are served in your
state/district/school?
2. In your work, which organizations, committees, or other formal
policy-making groups presently include parent representatives?
3. If any, ask:
a. This year, about how many parents serve on these decision-
making or advisory bodies?
b. What contributions do you think parents make to these groups?
c. What leadership training is provided to parent leaders and to
others on these committees?

4. If none, ask:
a. What committees, task forces, or other groups or organizations
do you think would benefit from parent representatives?
b. What contributions do you think parents would make to these
groups?
c. What leadership training would be needed to prepare parent
leaders and others on these committees?
C. What is one successful example of family participation in school
decisions that you have experienced or heard about?
D. What is one problem that you have experienced or heard about
concerning family involvement in school decisions? What is one possible
solution to this problem?
E. Add at least one question of your own about parent or community
representation.
F. Document your questions and the interviewee’s responses. From the
information in this chapter and the answers from your interview:
1. Summarize your assessment of the quality of participation of
families in Type 5—Decision Making in the state/district/school in
your interview.
2. Include one recommendation to improve the quality of parent
participation in Type 5—Decision Making in the location you
examined.
1. Suppose that your school or district served five different neighborhoods

of mainly white, African American, Latino, Asian American, and American
Indian families, respectively. Your school has a PTA, a school improvement
team, and an Action Team for Partnerships (ATP). Your district has a
district advisory committee, a community development committee, and a
business outreach committee. Right now, just about all of the parent
representatives on these six school and district committees are from one
of the five neighborhoods served by the school. Is this a problem that needs
a solution?
a. If yes, explain why, and provide one solution to the problem you
defined.
b. If no, explain why this is not a problem.
2. Mr. Jones has been PTA president for nine years. His children have
graduated from school, but he is still the PTA president of their prior
elementary school. Is this a problem that needs a solution?
defined.

3. The monthly PTA meetings are poorly attended. Only the officers and a
few regulars attend these meetings. Minutes are taken, but they are not
distributed. Is this a problem that needs a solution?
defined.
SUMMARY: TYPE 6—COLLABORATING

WITH THE COMMUNITY
Where Is the School Community?
Type 6—Collaborating with the Community activities bring extra human, fiscal,
and physical resources, programs, and services from the community to the school.
Connections with small and large businesses; government agencies; cultural, reli-
gious, civic, and fraternal organizations; colleges and universities; and other com-
munity groups and individuals should benefit students, families, or the school. Type
6 activities also enable students, staff, and families to contribute their services to
the community.
All schools are located in communities, but many schools are strangely isolated
from the businesses, agencies, senior citizens, cultural centers, and other potentially
helpful groups and individuals in their locations. Students often live in one commu-
nity, travel to the school community, attend religious services in another community,
have after-school care somewhere else, and link to businesses in still other locations.
Schools rarely tap the full set of resources from all communities that have ties to
and interest in students. One Type 6 challenge is to identify the resources in the
community that will advance school improvement goals, enrich school programs,
and meet the needs of students and families.
If Type 6 activities are well designed and well implemented, students and families
will learn about and use the various community services and programs to improve
health, increase skills, and develop the talents of all family members. Schools will
enrich their curriculum and instruction and improve the school climate by collabo-
rating with the community.
• Community contributes to schools, students, and families

• Business partners, agencies, cultural groups, health services, recreation,
and many other groups strengthen programs and classroom curricula

• Schools, students, and families contribute to community
• Students in service learning programs conduct projects to share talents
and to solve community problems
Challenges
• Solve problems of turf, responsibilities, funds, and goals to effectively

organize school-community collaborations.
• Inform all families and students about community programs and services.
• Ensure equal access and opportunities for participation.
Redefinitions
• Community includes not only families with children in the schools but
also all who are interested in and affected by the quality of education.
• Communities are rated not only on economic qualities but also on the
strengths and talents available to support students, families, and schools.
• Knowledge, skills, and talents from enriched curricular and

extracurricular experiences and from exploring careers in the community
• Self-confidence, feeling valued by and belonging to the community
• Knowledge and use of local resources to improve health, increase skills,

develop talents, and obtain needed services for families
• Interactions with other families and contributions to community
• Knowledge and use of community resources for curriculum and instruction

COMMENT
Getting to Know the “Community”
It is not easy for educators to know about all of the resources in their communities.
Few teachers or principals live near their schools, as was common in the distant
past. There are several reasons, however, why it may benefit students if educators
and parents conduct Type 6 activities to learn more about their communities and
to draw on available resources to help students succeed in school and in life.
One Type 6 challenge is to identify and mobilize community support of school
goals for student learning. In some schools, contributions by business partners of
equipment or volunteer time are unconnected to the goals of the school or to student
learning. Ties with businesses and industries, organizations, agencies, and other
groups and individuals in the community should be designed to support, enrich,
and extend the school’s agenda to promote success for more students (Mickelson,
1996; Sanders, 2005).
For example, several years ago, one school’s business partner (the local office of
a national telephone company) placed phones in all teachers’ classrooms, making it
possible for teachers to communicate more easily with parents. Other business part-
ners have funded small grants to schools to develop better school, family, and com-
munity partnerships on all types of involvement. Some community partners organize
food banks with low-income families’ assistance and participation, clothing for par-
ents to attend school functions, eyeglasses for students, books for students or school
libraries, Internet connections to scientists, mentors, job-shadowing programs for
high school students, and other goal-oriented activities that are linked to student
and family needs or interests and to school improvement plans. In this way,
Type 6—Collaborating with the Community comes full circle to link with Type 1—
Parenting to help families fulfill basic obligations to feed, clothe, care for, and guide
their children.
A second challenge is for schools to view the term community broadly to build
connections with many members and groups who have an interest in developing
successful students and good citizens. These include the businesses, organizations,
and other groups and individuals in and around the school, in neighborhoods where
students live, in faith communities where students worship, in locations that hire
students for part-time employment, in areas where parents work, and in other places
that are important to students, families, and the school.
The school community includes all family and community members who care
what happens to the school and to children, whether or not they have children in
the school. Because children are the future adults, workers, and families in commu-
nities, it is important to foster positive and productive connections with all who
have a stake in good schools and student success.

ACTIVITY
Community Portraits
Many educators, families, and students are unaware of the resources in their com-
munities. Indeed, many are unclear where their community begins and ends. The
boundaries of a school community may be narrowly defined to include only the
neighborhood around the school, broadly drawn to include the home communities
of all who are served by the school, or even more inclusive of the whole town or city.
Students, teachers, and families can learn about available resources if they create
a “community portrait” of the area around the school, home neighborhoods, and
other locations where children, families, and teachers spend time and give or receive
services (Family Resource Coalition, 1996; Goode, 1990). These include museums,
zoos, libraries, shops, places for child care, places of worship, and other locations
where students and families visit, work, give or obtain services, learn, or play. This
activity asks you to think about your community, then consider how you might ad-
dress the same questions in a school setting to help students and families think about
their communities.
A. Divide a page in half with:

Side A: YOUR OWN community Side B: OTHER communities
Answer the A questions on one side of the page and the B questions
on the other side. Then answer the summary questions.
1a. Where are the boundaries of your community?
1b. How might you guide students, teachers, and families to identify the
geographic boundaries of what they consider their community?
2a. Who lives in your community?
2b. How might you guide students, teachers, and families to identify and
report information on the various groups of people who live in their
communities?
3a. What are the social and economic conditions in your community
that identify its strengths and needs?
3b. How might you guide students, teachers, and families to collect
information and report on the diverse social and economic
conditions, strengths, and needs in their communities?
4a. What organizations, groups, programs, or special resources in your
community are interested in schools, students, and families?
4b. How might you guide students, teachers, and families to collect
information on groups that are interested in and have resources,
services, programs, and opportunities for students and families in
their communities?
B. Present the information on your community (from questions 1a, 2a, 3a,
and 4a) in a community portrait as a report, chart, picture, or other form
that you think might be useful for a particular audience of your choice
(e.g., families, students, community group).

C. From your ideas for questions 1b, 2b, 3b, and 4b, summarize an activity
that would enable teachers or a team of teachers and parents to create a
community portrait that they could use to enrich their school and services
for students and families.
COMMENT
Finding Community
We need to define the school community to include all who have a stake in the qual-
ity of students’ education. This includes families in the community with children in
school and people in the community who have no children in school. The latter
group is growing in size and is sometimes described as hostile to or uninterested in
public schools.
Contrary to some beliefs, however, people with no children in school are con-
nected to schools, families, and to children in many ways. They have grandchildren,
nieces, nephews, and other relatives or friends and neighbors in school. They hire
students to work for them. They live next door to students and see them in the
neighborhood. They follow school sports in the news and are served by students
and graduates in restaurants, stores, hospitals, and other locations in the community.
Future policies, products, programs, services, and qualities of life in communities
depend on the education, skills, and talents of the children they know and the chil-
dren they do not know who are presently in schools.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Community Interview
A. Interview one community member who has no children in the public

schools. Identify this person’s occupation, approximate age, and other
characteristics that you think are important. Ask:
1. How do you rate the public schools presently in your community:
excellent, good, average, or poor? Explain.
2. Did you attend public or private school in elementary school, middle
grades, and high school? What was the quality of your educational
program at each school level?
3a. Do you have any children?
3b. If yes, and they are older than school age: Did your children attend
public or private school? Was it in this community? How would you
rate the quality of the education they received at their schools:
excellent, good, average, or poor?

3c. If yes, and they are younger than school age: Will your children
attend public or private school in this community?
4a. Do you have any relatives whose children presently attend public
schools in this or another community?
4b. About how many in all?
4c. About how many in this community?
5. Do you have any friends whose children presently attend public
schools in this or other communities?
5a. About how many in all?
5b. About how many in this community?
6. Do you ever talk with children, adolescents, or graduates of the
public schools in this community? If so, what is one example of an
interaction you have had?
7. How are you presently affected by the quality of education offered
by the local public schools?
8. How do you think you will be affected in the future by the quality
of the local public schools?
C. Document your questions and the responses.
D. Summarize your views of how this person is linked to the public schools.
What are the implications of the responses that you obtained? How
typical do you think this person is compared to others in the
community?
E. Compare notes in class to learn about the variety of connections that
community members have with schools and students, whether or not
their children are attending public schools.
COMMENT
Meetings with Parents at School and in the Community
Schools are the most common place for meetings with parents, but they are not the
only possible sites. Meetings for parents and others in the community may be held
in other locations that are open and accessible to all, including libraries, churches,
community centers, apartment or community meeting rooms, and business or com-
munity auditoriums.
Some small meetings or “coffees” have been organized in volunteers’ living
rooms, apartment buildings’ common rooms, and centrally located community
spaces. Individual home visits also may be conducted to meet with parents. One
year, a school in the National Network of Partnership Schools (NNPS) reported an
innovative Promising Partnership Practice held mid-summer on a local beach! The
activity brought together teachers, administrators, parents, and students to encour-
age summer reading.

Notices of school and community meetings may be posted in supermarkets,
Laundromats, and other neighborhood locations, and information on school pro-
grams, schedules, events, newsletters, and other announcements also may be dis-
tributed at these sites.
Although some meetings about school may be conducted in other settings, it is
important for teachers and families to communicate easily with each other. Indeed,
schools must make all families welcome and comfortable about coming to school
for important meetings, conferences, celebrations, student presentations, and other
school-linked activities.
1. Select and identify a grade level that interests you and one of the following
activities: Back-to-School Night, parent-teacher conference, meeting about
a school policy, or a topic of your choice.
2. What are the pros and cons about conducting the activity you selected at
school or in the community? Consider the location; the ease of access for
all families; time, travel, and other conditions that are likely to affect
attendance and participation of families; and the success of the activity.
Create a chart that lists your ideas:
a. Which activity did you select? ____________________
b. Which grade level did you select? _________________
PROS CONS
Two reasons this is a good Two reasons this is not a
location good location
At school? 1.
2.
In the community 1.
In what location? 2.
________________
COMMENT
Community Connections for Student Success
On any given day, students are either in school or out of school. When they are not
in school, their families, peers, and communities either reinforce, complement, or
counter school goals for student learning and development. Heather Weiss and

others call out-of-school activities for students complementary learning (Bouffard
and Weiss, 2008). Gordon, Bridglall, and Meroe (2005) call out-of-school-activities
supplementary education. These terms focus on after-school activities and commu-
nity programs and services that increase students’ skills and talents. Dryfoos and
others advocate for out-of-school activities to be housed within a full-service school,
so that students, families, and community members use the school building through-
out the day and evening for positive programs and services that support student
learning (Dryfoos, 1994; Dryfoos and McGuire, 2002). In partnership schools, the
goal is for educators, parents, and community partners to work together to provide
in-school and out-of-school opportunities, at school, at home, and in the community,
that increase student learning, talents, and success in school.
Community partners are valuable participants in partnership programs—in or
out of school, with complementary, supplementary, or simply excellent programs
and services. When educators, families, and the community reinforce and extend
student learning and success, the spheres of influence of home, school, and commu-
nity overlap in productive ways, and students experience strong support in school
and out. Alternatively, when home, school, and community are disconnected, young-
sters may reject the student’s role and may be more likely to drop out of school.
Example A. Some community groups recognize and reward students for excellence
and improvement. For example, a few communities created a “Gold Card” program
to give middle and high school students discounts on purchases for a defined period
of time if they attained and maintained high attendance or good grades or improved
significantly over a marking period.
A. Describe one other community recognition or support program for

students that you know or have heard about.
B. How might something like a Gold Card program or the program that
you described help a student, a family, a school, and a community?
Example B. Most students are assisted when schools, families, peers, and commu-
nities reinforce and enrich school, learning, and service. There are times, however,
when this rule does not hold. For example, students who are not succeeding in
school may be positively influenced by community programs and services that
treat them better than they are treated in school. Nonschool contacts may give these
students more respect and more rewarding messages than they receive in school.
Nonschool contacts, including peers, families, employers, and other community
members, may appreciate students’ ideas, assistance, special skills, and talents more
than their teachers, administrators, and classmates do.

1. Describe one program or activity that you know or have heard about in
which a student who is failing or having trouble in school is succeeding in an
activity in the community.
2. How would the program or activity you described help a student, a
family, a school, and a community?
3. Discuss one way in which a student’s success in community activities
might be directly linked to schoolwork and might increase a failing
students’ chances of success in school.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Interview with a Community

Organization Representative
How do community groups link to schools? One district working with the National
Network of Partnership Schools worked with its foreign language radio stations
and newspapers to place notices about school events in places that would reach
families who did not speak English at home. A high school working to improve stu-
dents’ success in school worked with a clothing firm to increase students’ experi-
ences in marketing, design, and career exploration.
Select a local community agency, cultural group, citizens’ group, religious insti-
tution, government office, fraternal or other social organization, college or university
public relations office, radio, TV, cable TV, newspaper community relations office,
local foundation or philanthropic group, business, or other community location
that has an interest in children and their success in school.
A. Identify the place and your contact person. Ask the contact person:
1. In what way(s) is your organization interested in children, learning,
schools, and families?
2. In what way(s) does your organization presently assist children,
schools, or families? What are your programs and their goals? How
many participate? How long have the programs operated?
3. What programs or activities would you like to add or improve in
the future to link your organization to children, schools, and
families? In your organization, how would decisions be made to
implement these changes?
C. Document your questions and responses.
D. From the information you obtained, write a short summary on the
quality and purposes of this organization’s connections to students,
families, and/or schools. Include one recommendation for improving this
organization’s partnerships in the future.

E. Share all students’ summaries in class to gain a broader view of the many
ways that community groups partner with schools to improve school
programs and to increase students’ learning and development.
COMMENT
Part-Time Jobs in Communities
When they are in middle and high school, adolescents increase their connections
with businesses, community groups, agencies, and others in the community. Students
join clubs and organizations in their communities, shop, help neighbors with odd
jobs, have part-time jobs, join summer programs, take lessons outside of school,
volunteer to serve their community, and participate in many other community ac-
tivities. In some school districts, middle and high school students must earn service-
learning credits as a graduation requirement.
Many high school students and some middle school students work part-time dur-
ing the school year. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2005) from 41 per-
cent of high school freshman to 87 percent of high school seniors (over 70 percent
of all high school students) worked during the school year or summer. Often, stu-
dents’ part-time or summer jobs or activities in the community are treated as if they
were unrelated to the school program. Yet students gain academic and social skills
on the job, meet and solve problems, and contribute to the community in their work
and with their earnings.
There are important debates about whether students should work during high
school, for how many hours, and in what kinds of jobs. Some early studies that
concluded that students should not work too many hours during the school year
were emotionally interpreted to mean that part-time work is bad for students. Re-
cent studies based on national samples of students, longitudinal data, and more
rigorous analyses found that most students were not adversely affected by their
work experiences within the current range of hours worked, from a few hours to
about 20 hours per week (Mortimer, Finch, Dennehy, Lee, and Beebe, 1994;
Schoenhals, Tienda, and Schneider, 1998). Clearly, students need guidance about
balancing school and employment, and some need to be limited in their part-time
work if their schoolwork is suffering (The College Board, 2009). An equally im-
portant question is whether and how employers should require students to have
or maintain excellent school attendance and report card grades to continue em-
ployment during the school year.

FIELD EXPERIENCE
Linking School and Part-Time Employment
How can students’ part-time and summer jobs be more productively linked to their
school programs? Interview an employer of a high school student, a parent or
teacher of a student who has a part-time job, or a student who is employed part-
time. Or invite one or more of these people for a class interview.
A. Identify the person you are interviewing: an employer, parent, teacher, or

student. Ask:
1. What are two things that an employer might do to help student
employees place high priority on school attendance, classwork,
homework, studying, course grades, completing high school, and
continuing their education?
2. What are two things that families might do to ensure that their
children do not fall behind in school as a result of part-time work?
3. What are two things schools might do to link students’ employment
with required courses?
4. What are two things students might do to demonstrate that they can
successfully balance school, work, leisure, and family responsibilities?
5. Give two ideas of how such school-family-community linkages
might benefit students who work while they are in high school.
B. Add one question of your own.
C. List your questions and the interviewee’s responses.
D. Write a summary of the most important ideas that were discussed for
connecting student jobs and student learning.
COMMENT
Community Forums and Advocates for Education
Some research and development activities focus on the roles of community leaders
and members, task forces, advocates, and other groups in improving schools. Often
called community engagement, this type of involvement may be sponsored by a gov-
ernor’s Office on Children, Youth, and Families; a mayor; community organizers;
business roundtables; chambers of commerce; citizens for school improvement; or
others. The goal is to encourage participants from all parts of the community to
share their views, concerns, and goals for excellent schools, highly competent and
responsive teachers and administrators, and new programs for students.
There are two views on community roles in school improvement. On one hand,
community-led discussions and initiatives may result in new and innovative ideas.
On the other hand, most community gatherings produce a list of good and common

goals, often the same goals as teachers and all parents have for their schools and
for their children. The list is then filed and often forgotten.
Years ago, community leaders thought they could simply “organize” and tell the
leaders of districts and schools what to do. That never worked. Schools are embed-
ded in a complex educational system with regulations and requirements that develop
at the federal, state, district, and school levels. Community groups may think they
have different and better goals than do district and school leaders, but most forums
reveal that educators, parents, business leaders, and citizens have very similar goals
for their schools and for their students.
New efforts in community engagement show how important it is for community
groups to collaborate with (not fight with) the educators in their districts and
schools. This is very clear in a recent study of how community groups in seven cities
worked with school leaders to improve programs and promote student success in
attendance, achievement, high school graduation, and postsecondary plans (Blank,
Melaville, and Shah, 2003; Bodilly and Beckett, 2005; Mediratta, Shah, and McAl-
ister, 2009).
1. What roles do community members play in improving elementary, middle,

and high schools in their area?
2. Why is it important for elected officials or for school district leaders to
conduct periodic community forums on education and on school reform?
ACTIVITY
Who Can Improve the Schools?
A. Select one of the following statements to discuss, defend, or dispute.

1. Resolved: People in business, industry, and other professions and
occupations know how to improve schools better than educators do.
2. Resolved: Educators at the state, district, and/or school levels know
how to improve schools better than other citizens in communities do.
3. Resolved: The best way to improve schools is for educators and
community leaders to exchange ideas and work together.
4. Resolved: If the community is engaged in improving schools, then
educators need not organize programs and activities to involve all
students’ families in their education.
B. Use one of the following references (or a recent article that you select on
connections with community) to learn more and to support your views.

Chadwick, K. G. (2004). Improving schools through community engagement. Thou-
sand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Mediratta, K., S. Shah, and S. McAlister. (2009). Community organizing for stronger
schools: Strategies and successes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Publishing
Group.
Nettles, S. M. (1991). Community involvement and disadvantaged students. Review
of Educational Research 61: 379–406.
Sanders, M. G. (2005). Building school-community partnerships: Collaborating for
student success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Sanders, M. G., and A. Harvey. (2002). Beyond the school walls: A case study of prin-
cipal leadership for school-community collaboration. Teachers College Record
104(7): 1345–1368.
Waddock, S. A. (1995). Not by schools alone: Sharing responsibility for America’s ed-
ucation reform. Westport, CT: Praeger.
C. Write a paragraph or two describing your views, and be ready to defend

your ideas in class. Identify the reference that you used.
SUMMARY: THE 6 TYPES OF INVOLVEMENT
To summarize, it is important to understand how the six types of involvement can

be used to develop comprehensive programs of school, family, and community part-
nerships in all schools. We have learned that it is necessary to redefine parent in-
volvement with new designs for school, family, and community partnerships. It also
is imperative to meet the challenges that have prevented many families from becom-
ing involved in their children’s education. In this section, we explore how the six
types of involvement are connected. This includes how basic and advanced activities
contribute to a balanced program of partnerships, how one type of involvement pro-
motes another, and how several types of involvement may strengthen the chances of
reaching important results. The summary comments and activities should increase
your understanding of the types of involvement, separately and in combination.
SUMMARY: NEW DEFINITIONS FOR FAMILY AND

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY
The framework of six types of involvement helps school-based teams of teachers,

administrators, and parents responsible for planning and improving family and com-
munity involvement, as well as individual educators, develop comprehensive pro-
grams of school, family, and community partnerships. Such programs include
activities that are designed and implemented to involve all families in new ways at
school, at home, and in the community. Data from many studies contributed to the
following “redefinitions” of involvement that must be understood and activated for

effective school, family, and community partnerships in the twenty-first century. (See
Reading 5.1 and the summaries of the six types in this chapter for examples.)
1. Give one example of a school, family, and community partnership activity

that would fulfill the spirit of each of the following redefinitions for selected
activities for the six types of involvement.
Sample Redefinition—Type 1
A workshop not only is a meeting on a topic held at the school building but also
the content of that meeting, which may be viewed, heard, or read at convenient
times and varied locations.
a. One activity that represents this new definition is:
__________________________________________________________________
Communications about school programs and student progress are not only from
school to home but also from home to school and with the community.
b. One activity that represents this new definition is:
__________________________________________________________________
Volunteers are not only parents or others who come to help during the school day
but also those who give their time to support school goals and children’s learning
in any location.
c. One activity that represents this new definition is:
__________________________________________________________________
Help at home does not mean that parents must know how to teach school subjects
but that families guide, encourage, and interact with their children on homework
and school-related decisions.

d. One activity that represents this new definition is:
__________________________________________________________________
Decision making means exchanging views to plan and implement an effective, co-
ordinated partnership program that will help students succeed in school, not an
endless, contentious power struggle.
e. One activity that represents this new definition is:
__________________________________________________________________
Community includes not only families with children in school but also all commu-
nity members who are interested in and affected by the quality of education.
f. One activity that represents this new definition is:
__________________________________________________________________
2. Select one of the above redefinitions that interests you. Write a short
paragraph on:
a. One major difference between the “old” and “new” definitions of the
term you selected.
b. One way the new definition might affect how school, family, and
community partnerships are conducted.
COMMENT
Meeting Challenges for Excellent Partnerships
Even if the redefinitions of involvement were applied, there still would be many
challenges to meet in implementing high-quality partnership programs. By meeting
key challenges, more or all parents will be informed and involved in their children’s
education. The questions in the next section start with a challenge for each of the
six types of involvement that must be met with well-designed activities for
preschools and elementary, middle, and high schools to reach out to all families.

1. Rewrite each of the following “challenge sentences” to give one idea of

how all schools (preschools and elementary, middle, and high schools)
might meet that challenge to try to involve more parents or all parents.
An example is given for one of the Type 1 challenges.
Sample Type 1 Challenge
Challenge: Not all parents provide information to schools about their goals for their
children.
Rewrite: To meet this challenge, all schools could conduct a short survey of all
parents about their goals, dreams, and expectations for their children each year.
Type 1 Challenge
Not all parents can attend workshops at school when they are scheduled.
a. To meet this challenge, all schools could
__________________________________________________________________
Type 2 Challenge
Not all parents feel comfortable asking teachers or principals questions about school
programs and their children’s progress or giving suggestions for improvements.
b. To meet this challenge, all schools could
__________________________________________________________________
Type 3 Challenge
Not all parents can volunteer to assist at the school building during the school day.
c. To meet this challenge, all schools could
__________________________________________________________________
Type 4 Challenge
Not all parents understand the teacher’s homework policies or how to monitor and
assist their children with homework.

d. To meet this challenge, all schools could
__________________________________________________________________
Type 5 Challenge
Not all parents want to serve on school committees or in other organized leadership
roles, but they want parents’ voices represented in school decisions.
e. To meet this challenge, all schools could
__________________________________________________________________
Type 6 Challenge
Not all parents have good information about the programs, resources, and services
in their communities that could assist and benefit their children and families.
f. To meet this challenge, all schools could
__________________________________________________________________
COMMENT
Basic and Advanced Practices
Basic Activities
A common question about the types of involvement is: Which basic activities should
our school conduct to involve families? Are there some things that all schools
should do with all families? Should some practices for each of the six types of in-
volvement be implemented before other practices?
There are no right answers to these questions. What is basic or essential in one
school may be unnecessary in another. What is essential one year may not be needed
the next year if the population of students and families changes or if school goals
are changed or attained. These unknowns emphasize the importance of customizing
plans and selecting activities for the six types of involvement to meet the needs, in-
terests, goals, and capabilities at each school. For example:
• If many families need help in obtaining food or clothing for their

children, then a food bank or a clothing swap-shop may be a basic Type
1—Parenting activity at a school. If these are not major problems, it
would be foolish to spend time and effort in organizing and conducting
a food bank or a swap-shop.

• If most families do not feel comfortable at school or knowledgeable
about the school’s programs, then a Family Fun and Learning Night
(Type 2) may be basic for increasing parents’ feelings of welcome and
for initiating positive parent-teacher communications.
• If students are chronically absent, then family and community
involvement focused on improving attendance is basic and essential for
increasing student success.
Schools with different goals or different challenges to partnerships would select

different basic activities to involve families and members of the community in im-
portant and useful ways. Thus, it is the framework of six types of involvement that
is basic and prescribed for an effective program of school, family, and community
partnerships, not any one particular activity. Every school must know its families,
students, teachers, and goals to select practices that create a balanced and productive
partnership program. Although every program will include some different practices,
there are some common home, school, and community connections that are valued
by parents and by educators in many or most schools.
For example, one basic Type 2—Communicating activity in all schools is to com-
municate that all families are welcome and that two-way communications will be
a regular feature of every teacher’s practice. Some schools need to hang welcome
signs in many languages; some need to develop friendly sign-in procedures for par-
ents and visitors who enter the building. Just about all schools need to organize
ways to gather families’ ideas for improving school programs from year to year.
Conferences also are basic Type 2—Communicating activities. These may be de-
signed as parent-teacher, parent-teacher-student, or student-led parent-teacher-
student conferences. Such conferences may be individual, group, or grade-level meet-
ings, using face-to-face, phone, or other communications. Whatever their format,
conferences need to be scheduled so that all parents are able to attend.
Similarly, school or class newsletters are basic Type 2—Communicating practices
in most schools. All newsletters should be readable in languages parents can under-
stand. Newsletters in California schools are often written on tri-folds in English,
Spanish, and Chinese as a matter of state law. Newsletters will differ, however, in
whether they are long or short; with or without student work; on paper, on a web-
site, or sent via e-mail to families who request that format. Whatever the content or
format, newsletters need to include two-way communication formats for families
to respond with ideas, comments, or questions.
Preschools and elementary, middle, and high schools will select different basic
activities for all six types of involvement to meet important needs and goals. At all
school levels, however, all activities must be designed to meet key challenges to in-
volve all families. That means, for example, that parent-teacher conferences should
not be conducted only with parents of students who are having serious problems,
nor only with the families of successful students. Newsletters should not be written
using vocabulary that only some can read. Although basic communications will
vary in design and quality, all excellent partnership programs will include some
basic activities that are well planned, well implemented, and continually reviewed
and improved.

Advanced Activities
In addition to basic or common activities to involve families and communities, there

are advanced, complex, or specially targeted practices that may require more time
and resources to design and conduct. For example, it takes considerable time and a
large number of participants to plan and implement a multicultural fair, a monthly
series of family workshops on curricular topics, a “turn-off-the-TV” series of events,
weekly interactive homework assignments in particular subjects, a four-year sequence
to help families and students develop postsecondary plans for college or work, com-
munity improvement projects, and other large-scale projects.
Specially targeted advanced practices may be designed and implemented to meet
the special needs of selected students and families. For example, some schools need
to translate all print and nonprint communications with families into Spanish or
other languages and to have translators at parent-teacher conferences and other
meetings to assist some parents. District resources may be needed for this advanced
agenda, or other creative solutions may be developed that require time to organize.
By including these targeted activities, families who would not be involved can be
included by design.
A comprehensive partnership program should include a reasonable mix of basic
and advanced partnership activities that can be conducted by educators, parents,
and others working together. The activities should be designed to meet major chal-
lenges to excellent involvement and contribute to the attainment of school improve-
ment goals. (See Chapter 7 for an action team approach that supports good planning
and continual improvement of partnership programs.)
ACTIVITY
Identifying Basic and Advanced Partnerships
What are some basic and advanced activities for each type of involvement?
A. Identify a level of schooling that interests you (preschool or elementary,

middle, or high school).
B. In the chart on the next page, create a hypothetical school at the level
you selected. Give the school a name.
C. List a few key features of your hypothetical school, including its size
(number of students), locale (urban, suburban, rural), and some features
of the students and families served (e.g., racial and ethnic composition,
family education background, and levels of student achievement).
D. Which family or community involvement activities will be basic at your
school? Use Reading 5.1, the summaries in the chapter, and the website
for Promising Partnership Practices to fill in the chart.

1. List one basic activity for each of the six types of involvement that is
common in most schools and that should be conducted in your
hypothetical school.
2. Give one reason why you think each basic activity is essential for
your school.
Name of your hypothetical school: ———————————————

School Features:
Size of school (number of students): ————————----------------------------------——
Locale (urban, suburban, rural): ——-----------------------------------------————————
Racial/ethnic composition of students: ———------------------------------———————
Mix of education levels of parents: ——------------------------------------————————
Mix of levels of student achievement: ————-------------------------------——————
Type of Involvement One Basic Activity Why Is It Important?
Type 1—Parenting: To
help parents understand
child and adolescent
development.
Type 2—Communicating:
To help parents understand
school programs and
children’s progress.
Type 3—Volunteering:
To support the school
and students.
Type 4—Learning at Home:

To help students and
families interact at home
on homework and the
curriculum.
Type 5—Decision Making:

To develop parent leader-
ship and to encourage par-
ent input on school matters.
Type 6—Collaborating with

the Community: To connect
people and resources in
ways that assist students,
families, and the school.

E. Which advanced or more complex activities are needed in your
hypothetical school? Use Reading 5.1, the summaries in the chapter, and
the website resource of Promising Partnership Practices to fill in the
chart below.
1. List one advanced, complex, or specially targeted activity for each
type of involvement that will enrich your school’s partnership
program or meet some unique needs and interests of students,
families, and the community.
2. Give one reason why you think each advanced activity will
strengthen, enrich, extend, or enliven your school’s program of
partnerships.
Type of Involvement One Advanced Activity Why Is It Important?
Type 1—Parenting
Type 2—Communicating
Type 3—Volunteering
Type 4—Learning at Home
Type 5—Decision Making
Type 6—Collaborating
with the Community
COMMENT
Beyond “Bodies in the Building”
The framework of six types of involvement balances activities that are conducted
at school, at home, and in the community so that parents who cannot easily come
to the school building still can be productively involved in their children’s education.
This is important because some parents feel guilty or frustrated if they cannot be at
the school building to volunteer or attend meetings. The framework also helps
educators understand that parents who are not at school may be very much involved
in their children’s education.
Activities that require “bodies in the building” limit the involvement of many
parents who cannot get to the building at a specific time. Thus, the redefinitions
that we discussed are particularly important for helping families become and remain
involved in school and in other settings. Face-to-face communications must be sup-
plemented by voice-to-voice, note-to-note, e-mail–to–e-mail, and other responsive
technologies.

The fact is that some parents come to school regularly, whereas others come oc-
casionally or rarely. What can you learn about whether, why, and when parents,
other family members, or others in a community come to the school building?
FIELD EXPERIENCE
What Kinds of Family and Community

Involvement Can You See at School?
A. Visit a school for at least one hour to observe and record the family and/or
community involvement that you see during a time of day that you select.
1. Identify the name, location, and level of the school (i.e., preschool or
2. Identify the date and day of your observation.
3. Identify the time of your observation (select one).
_____ A. at the start of a typical school day, time: __________
_____ B. during selected hours of a school day, time: ________
_____ C. at the end of a school day, time: _________________

_____ D. at a scheduled evening meeting, time: ____________
_____ E. other time (describe): ___________________________
4. Identify where in the school you made your observations:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe whether, where, how many, and how parents or others
from the community were involved at the school during your
observation.
6. If parents are at the school, briefly interview two parents about:
• why they are at school at the time you observed
• how often they come at this time
• how often they are involved with their children at home
• at least one other question that you add
If no parents are at the school, briefly interview two teachers,
administrators, or staff about:
• why they think there are no parents present at the time you
observed
• when most parents come to the school
• how much they believe parents are involved with their children
at home
• at least one other question that you add

B. Record your questions and responses. Summarize your ideas about the na-
ture and quality of family involvement that you observed. Are your obser-
vations sufficient for judging the involvement of parents and others at this
school? Explain.
C. Compare observations in class to get a “big picture” from many observers
of why and when parents are involved at the school building and in other
locations.
SUMMARY: CONNECTING THE SIX TYPES

OF INVOLVEMENT
The six types of involvement are labeled according to their main goals or purposes.
The labels are designed to help schools classify and identify present practices, plan a
results-oriented program of partnerships, monitor progress, and continually improve
the quality of family and community involvement. As in all typologies, however, there
are no “pure” types. Although some activities represent just one type of involvement,
other activities promote more than one type to produce particular results.
For example, school or classroom newsletters aim to inform families about school
programs and events (Type 2—Communicating). Depending on their designs, how-
ever, newsletters also may promote other types of involvement. A school or class-
room newsletter may be formatted electronically by parent volunteers (thereby
increasing Type 3—Volunteering). In addition, students’ academic work and cur-
ricular skills may appear in some newsletters for students to share their work and
ideas with their parents (thereby extending Type 4—Learning at Home). Commu-
nity programs for children and families may be announced in newsletters (thereby
strengthening Type 6—Collaborating with the Community). Thus, all school or
classroom newsletters have the goal of Type 2—Communicating, but some also may
promote other types of involvement.
There are many such examples. A food cooperative or clothing swap-shop has
the goal of assisting parents with basic responsibilities to feed or clothe their children
(Type 1—Parenting), but the activity may be organized and conducted by parent
volunteers (Type 3—Volunteering) with contributions from the community (Type
6). The goal determines the activity’s classification, but the structure, organization,
and scope of an activity may promote additional types of involvement that
strengthen a school’s partnership program.
How may the six types of involvement be combined to successfully organize and
conduct the following?

1. A workshop has the goal of helping parents understand their children’s
development at different grade levels (Type 1—Parenting). List activities
for at least two other types of involvement that may contribute to the
successful conduct of a Type 1—Parenting workshop.
Activities contributing to a successful workshop for parents:
Type __________________________________________________________
Type __________________________________________________________
2. A read-a-lot program has the goal of helping parents interact with their
children who read at home for school or for pleasure (Type 4—Learning
at Home). List activities for at least two other types of involvement that
might contribute to the successful conduct of a Type 4 activity that
guides families to read with their children at home.
Activities contributing to a successful read-a-lot at-home program:
Type __________________________________________________________
Type ___________________________________________________________
COMMENT
Correlated Types of Involvement
The six types of involvement contribute to a comprehensive program of school,

family, and community partnerships. Research reveals a few prominent patterns of
how the types of involvement work independently and in combination.
For example, Type 2—Communicating activities are implemented in most
schools, even if other types of involvement are not. Just about all schools commu-
nicate with families through memos, report cards, conferences, phone calls, and
other technologies, even if they need to improve the quality of these connections to
reach and involve all families. Not all schools organize parent volunteers to work
at the school (Type 3), invite parents to serve on decision-making committees (Type
5), or systematically involve families in other ways.
Because most research on Type 2 simply tallies whether schools ever communi-
cate with any families, there is little variation across schools on this type of involve-
ment. Therefore, in many studies, Type 2 activities do not strongly correlate with
or predict the use of other types of involvement.
By contrast, Type 4—Learning at Home activities are less prevalent in schools
because they require every teacher to involve all families in children’s learning ac-
tivities at home in homework, decisions about courses, and other curricular-related
activities. There is, then, considerable variation across schools in the use of Type 4
involvement. Type 4 activities tend to strongly predict the use of all other types of
involvement. This suggests that schools may not conduct Type 4 activities until they
have successfully implemented other, less complicated, types of involvement.

Other correlations between types of involvement also are informative. Most stud-
ies indicate strong, positive correlations of Type 3—Volunteering and Type 5—
Decision Making. These connections have been reported at the school level (i.e.,
when school programs and practices are measured) and at the individual parent
level (i.e., when parents report their personal experiences). That is, schools with
Type 3—Volunteering activities also tend to conduct Type 5—Decision Making ac-
tivities with parents on school committees. In some cases, parents who volunteer
during the school day are the same parents who participate in and lead the PTA/PTO
or other parent association activities. This is due, in part, to the fact that both types
of involvement typically require parents who can come to the school building and
require parents who feel welcome and confident at the school.
The size and direction of correlations of types of involvement are not fixed. They
will change with newly designed activities, research samples, and measures. For ex-
ample, if schools begin to define volunteers as parents who assist in different ways
at home, at school, and in the community, then parent volunteers (Type 3) may no
longer be the same parents who are active leaders in the PTA or on decision-making
committees (Type 5). By redefining volunteers, the previously strong correlations of
Types 3 and 5 may be reduced in future studies.
Even if schools conducted comprehensive partnership programs with all six types
of involvement, they would vary in which activities were selected, how well the ac-
tivities were designed and implemented, and how results were measured. Most prior
studies of involvement used relatively simple measures to denote a “type” of in-
volvement. With a better understanding of school, family, and community partner-
ships and with better measures of the quality and results of partnerships, future
studies will be able to contribute new knowledge about the connections of the six
types of involvement (Epstein, Connors-Tadros, and Salinas, 1993; Epstein and Sali-
nas, 1993; Sheldon and Epstein, 2007).
1. What is one reason why volunteers at a school might increase the

likelihood that the school also will have an active PTA or PTO?
2. What is one reason why an active PTA at a school might increase the
likelihood that the school also will have many volunteers?
3. Another prominent correlation in studies of involvement is reported
between Type 5—Decision Making and Type 6—Collaborating with the
Community. Give two reasons why schools that include parents on
decision-making committees or in an active PTA/PTO might also conduct
activities that involve their communities.

COMMENT
Understanding Results of Involvement
Even if all of the challenges to excellent partnerships were solved, there still would
be questions about which activities should be implemented to produce the most
successful partnership programs and to produce important results for students. To
date, research suggests several important patterns that link family and community
involvement to results for students, families, and schools (Sheldon, 2009).
1. Each type of involvement includes activities that produce different or unique results
for students, families, and schools. Table 5.3 in Reading 5.1 and the summaries in
this chapter show that each type of involvement may lead to some unique results for
students, parents, and teachers. This is important because too many people still believe
that any activity for any type of involvement will increase student achievement test
scores. This is not the case. For example, well-implemented Type 1—Parenting ac-
tivities should help families understand child and adolescent development. It will
take many steps for that knowledge to affect student learning. By contrast, well-
implemented Type 4—Learning at Home Activities should help families understand
their children’s school curricula, their children as “learners,” and how to assist their
children with homework at each grade level. Parents’ connections with their children
about their daily work may directly affect whether the student completes homework
and pays attention in class for immediate learning. In this way, it may take fewer steps
for well-implemented Type 4 activities to affect student learning.
2. Each type of involvement includes activities that can be designed to help produce
and strengthen the same, specific results for students, families, and teachers. Because
there are hundreds of practices that may be selected for each type of involvement,
educators and parents can design or select activities to contribute to specific results
such as improving or maintaining good student attendance, school safety, and even
student achievement. Examine these examples:
Example: Focus on Attendance. National and local surveys and extensive

fieldwork confirm that activities for several types of involvement engage
families and community partners in ways that help students improve
their attendance and on-time arrival at school.
Type 1: Workshops and information for parents explain the family’s role in
getting children to school every day on time.
Type 2: Administrators clearly outline the school’s attendance policies;
all report cards communicate students’ attendance and promptness to
all families.
Type 3: Volunteers call parents of children who are absent to let families
know that the school cares about student attendance and to remind
parents and students about making up work that is missed.

Type 6: Businesses and community groups provide alarm clocks to families
that need them; health services provide needed information to families
so that they can get assistance if students are ill.
Example: Focus on Writing. Schools may focus on helping students improve

their writing skills by implementing activities for several types of family
and community involvement that focus on writing.
Type 2: Student writing is featured in school newsletters.
Type 4: Families are involved with students on weekly interactive
homework assignments in writing, as students read aloud their
paragraphs, essays, poems, and other forms to obtain parents reactions.
Type 5: PTA/PTO sponsors annual “meet-the-authors” events for students,
families, and the community.
Type 6: Community members come to the school on a regular schedule to
show and share how writing is used in their various occupations.
There are many examples of how the six types of family and community involve-
ment may be activated to help improve student attendance; behavior; reading, math,
and science skills; and other results (Epstein et al., 2009). The mix of activities across
types of involvement enables all families to become involved in productive ways
even if they cannot come to the school building. The variety of activities makes it
more likely that students will reach the stated goals than if only one activity for one
type of involvement were conducted.
ACTIVITY
Design Different Types of Involvement to

Contribute to Same Results
A. Add one more activity to each of the above lists to show another type of
family or community involvement that might help improve student
attendance and writing skills.
1. One more family or community involvement activity to improve
student attendance:
Type _______ Activity: ____________________________
2. One more family or community involvement activity to improve
student writing:
Type _______ Activity: ____________________________
B. Identify a grade level that interests you.
1. Select a goal for student success in a school subject (other than
improving writing) that interests you. You may choose to focus on
improving skills in reading, math, science, social studies, foreign
languages, or another subject.

2. List activities for at least three of the six types of family and
community involvement that you think would help produce the goal
you selected.
3. Explain how each activity would help produce the desired results.
COMMENT
Steps from Family Involvement

to Student Success
Not all family and community involvement activities will improve student learning,
achievement test scores, or report card grades. Some activities produce other, dif-
ferent, and important results. We are beginning to learn which involvement activ-
ities produce what results, for whom, in what amount of time, and with what
inevitable challenges.
Following are two involvement activities (discussed briefly above) that some people
believe will increase student success in school. However, they differ in whether, how,
and when they affect parents and students in the short term and in the long term.
Type 1—Parenting
A workshop for parents on child development may first increase parents’ confidence
about their interactions with their children.
If parents attend the workshop or obtain information from the workshop in other
ways, and if the information they receive from the school is understandable and im-
portant, then some parents might apply the information at home in their attitudes
and actions. If parents implement the activities successfully, then some of their chil-
dren may process the information and increase, improve, or maintain their motiva-
tion to learn in school or other positive school behaviors.
As children proceed through the grades, parents will need additional information
to continue this chain of effects. If parents, students, or the school misses any of
these or other intermediate steps, then the long and fragile chain of effects from
workshops for parents to student learning will be broken.
This chain of potential effects and some common “detours” or failures are shown
in Figure 5.3.

Workshop for Parents on Child/Adolescent Development
1. Parents attend workshop. Parents do not attend.
2. Parents understand information. Parents obtain information No

from the workshop. information
given.
Do not
Parents understand
information.
Do not
3. Parents put information
to work at home.
Do not
4. Parents work with children

to increase motivation.
Do not
5. Students begin to work harder

on classwork, studying, and
homework. Do not
6. Report card grades improve.

Do not
7. Test scores improve.
Do not
FIGURE 5.3 Map 1: Selected Steps from Workshops for Parents to Student
Learning
Type 4—Learning at Home
Homework is a key connector between school and home. Weekly interactive home-
work and other school-family-student connections about homework should help
more students complete their assignments and talk about schoolwork at home. Stu-
dents who regularly complete their homework not only practice and strengthen
their skills but also tend to be better prepared for the next day’s classwork. The
completion of homework also should help students improve their report card grades
and may improve their performance on weekly tests. Over time, all of these im-
provements may affect achievement test scores. Interactive homework activities also
help families remain aware of their children’s curriculum, monitor their children’s
work, show interest in what their children are learning, and motivate their children
to work in school.

Weekly Interactive Homework in Math for All Students to Share at Home
1. Students bring home assignments. Students do not bring

home math assignments.
Do not
Teachers and parents follow up

so that students bring home next
math assignment.
Do not
2. Parents interact with students on

math homework.
Do not
3. Students complete assignment and

are better prepared for next math
lesson. Do not
4. Students begin to work harder

on classwork, studying, and
homework. Do not
5. Math report card grades improve.

Do not
6. Math test scores improve.
Do not
FIGURE 5.4 Map 2: Selected Steps from Weekly Interactive Homework in Math
to Student Learning
If students attend school regularly, experience excellent teaching, participate in

class, complete their homework, and are reinforced by their families, then students
should improve their skills and success in school. The interactions at home in read-
ing should contribute to improved reading skills, interactions in writing to improved
writing skills, and so forth. It may be that all of these elements are needed for stu-
dents to benefit from family involvement in learning activities at home.
This chain of potential effects and some common “detours” or failures are shown
in Figure 5.4.
School-family-community connections are less likely to increase student learning
if the activities focus on developing parents’ attitudes and behaviors without clear,
immediate, and effective links to the students. Because most parents do not attend
workshops at school, only a few parents and students benefit from these activities.

Even if workshop information is disseminated to all parents, many steps are needed
for parents to transfer their own new knowledge and new parenting behaviors to
the students, who then must incorporate their parents’ guidance into their behavior
and learning.
• Figure 5.3 (Map 1) shows major steps that may be needed to transfer
information from a workshop for parents on child development (Type
1—Parenting) to increased student learning.
• Figure 5.4 (Map 2) shows typical steps that may be needed to transfer
weekly interactive homework in (Type 4—Learning at Home) to student
learning and success in school.
1. Compare the two maps.

a. What are two factors that might make a difference in whether and
how a student is affected positively by the involvement of a parent
in Map 1 and Map 2?
b. What are two factors that might make a difference in how many
students in a school are assisted by the involvement of parents in
Map 1 and Map 2?
2. Each step indicated by an arrow () along the path to partnerships takes
time to implement and to produce results. Each step may lead to
progress (i.e., the next step) or to failure. The timing, risks, and successes
will, of course, vary from parent to parent and from student to student.
a. Create a “time chart” for the successful steps in each of the maps.
b. Estimate the time it would take a typical family and average student
to complete each step () from the parent involvement activity to
student success.
c. Show and label your time estimates for the six steps in Map 1 and
Map 2.
3. Write a summary of your conclusions from your review of the two maps
and time charts about the impact of family involvement on student
achievement.
ACTIVITY
Mapping Family Involvement to Student Success
Following are four more family involvement activities that some believe should im-
prove student success in school.

A. Select one of these activities, or write a sequence of your own.
1. School or Class Newsletters (Type 2—Communicating). School or
classroom newsletters may first increase families’ awareness of
school and classroom programs and help parents talk with their
children about school activities. If parents regularly discuss school
activities with their children, then parents may reinforce the school’s
messages to students about the importance of their participation in
school and in class. If students understand and accept that message
and increase their participation in class, then students may improve
their attitudes about school and, over time, increase their attention
in class, work, and achievement.
2. Parent Volunteers at School (Type 3—Volunteering). Volunteers at
school may lead first to more adult supervision of students, improve
the safety in and around the school building, and improve the
overall climate of the school. If volunteers are engaged in
classrooms, then the closer adult supervision may improve student
behavior in class. This may make it more likely that students who
are in class will pay attention to their teachers and to their
classwork, which, in turn, may boost learning. If volunteers are well
trained in assisting students with specific learning skills, then the
students who are assisted should improve the skills on which they
are assisted and, over time, other skills that build on what they
learn.
3. Parent Leaders (Type 5—Decision Making). Inviting parents to
contribute to school decisions as members of a school council or
committee may first increase the parent leaders’ support for the
school. If the parent leaders communicate well, then other parents,
too, may improve their understanding of and support for school
programs. Over time, parents’ input on school decisions may
improve the quality of school programs, teaching conditions,
curriculum and instructional advances, and how children succeed in
school. Families with strong ties to the school may be more likely to
understand and reinforce the school’s messages to students about the
importance of school and their work in school. Over time, parents’
messages about school, vigilant monitoring, and continuous
communications with their children may increase students’ positive
attitudes toward school, their attention in class, the quality of their
classwork and homework, and their learning.
4. Before- and After-School Classes (Type 6—Collaborating with the
Community). Before-school and after-school programs conducted
with community support and volunteers may help some students
develop special talents and learn new skills. If students participate in
these programs, then they should improve or learn skills in sports,
music, dance, art, photography, computer use, chess, math, foreign
languages, and other topics. Students who do not or cannot attend

before- and after-school coaching and classes should not be expected
to benefit in the same way as those who attend. The activities may
affect student attendance, behavior, attitudes about school, and
other specific skills that are taught and, over time, may increase
student learning and achievement test scores.
5. An Activity You Select. Write a sequence of steps from an
involvement activity to student success.
B. Draw a map of major steps from the implementation of a family and com-
munity involvement activity to student achievement or success in school.
Show the possible detours or failures of action along the way.
C. Estimate the time it would take for an average family and student to com-
plete each step () on your map from the involvement activity to student
success.
D. Share and critique the maps and timelines in class. Discuss:
• Are the estimated timelines realistic?
• Is the selected family involvement activity likely to improve student
achievement for most students in a school?
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6
Practical Applications:
Linking Family and
Community Involvement
to Student Learning
TEACHERS INVOLVE PARENTS IN SCHOOLWORK (TIPS):

INTERACTIVE HOMEWORK AND PRODUCTIVE VOLUNTEERS
Educators must understand all six major types of involvement (parenting, commu-
nicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with
the community) to implement, evaluate, and sustain comprehensive programs of
school, family, and community partnerships. Some types of involvement are imple-
mented with familiar activities, such as workshops for parents in Type 1—Parenting
or parent-teacher conferences in Type 2—Communicating. Even common practices,
however, pose challenges that must be met to involve all families in their children’s
education (see Chapter 5).
Some types of involvement are not so familiar or have not been well organized
in the past. In this chapter, we examine two research-based approaches to involve
families in their children’s education in ways that are important to teachers, students,
and parents; these approaches have not been well implemented in most schools. The
applications were designed, developed, and tested to help educators systematically,
equitably, and productively involve families at home and in school to improve stu-
dent learning.
Reading 6.1 introduces the topic of “interactive homework” with a research sum-
mary of early studies that were conducted to focus on rarely discussed issues. First,
homework is not only about the time that students spend on homework. Second,
homework has different purposes that should affect the design of the assignments.
493
Third, certain interactive homework designs inform and involve families without
requiring parents to think they should know how to teach school subjects.
Reading 6.2 elaborates the research summary with details on the Teachers Involve
Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) Interactive Homework process, which helps educators
implement Type 4—Learning at Home Activities. This is a difficult component of a
comprehensive partnership program to establish and sustain because it requires
every teacher to connect class lessons, students’ work, and families as influential part-
ners for children’s learning. The TIPS Interactive Homework process helps teachers
design and use homework assignments to connect home and school on curriculum-
related activities. TIPS activities improve parents’ understanding of what their chil-
dren are learning; guide conversations at home; and, if well implemented, improve
students’ homework completion, subject-matter skills, and readiness for classwork.
New definitions and ideas about volunteers were discussed in Chapter 5. Just
about all schools have some volunteers, but educators have found it difficult to es-
tablish and sustain productive roles and activities for parent and community vol-
unteers, particularly in middle schools. Two aspects of organizing volunteers are
particularly challenging. First, middle schools wrestle with the common belief that
students do not want their parents at school. Our studies in middle schools indicated
that this was partly true and partly false. It was true that students did not want par-
ents working in the same way as in elementary schools—meaning parents should
not wave to or hug their children or make a “big deal” about their presence. But
middle school students actually appreciated parents in helpful roles. Second, many
schools struggle with developing volunteers who can help teachers create interdis-
ciplinary experiences—that is, connect one subject with another in ways that extend
student learning.
Reading 6.3 describes the Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) Volun-
teers in Social Studies and Art process, which helps educators implement productive
and interdisciplinary Type 3—Volunteering in the middle grades. In social studies
and art, volunteers are trained to present famous art prints linked to the social stud-
ies curriculum for grades six, seven, and eight. The process can be adapted for other
subjects and grade levels. If well implemented, TIPS volunteers help teachers enrich
and extend the curriculum and increase students’ knowledge and appreciation of art.
Both TIPS approaches focus on students. In TIPS Interactive Homework, students
conduct conversations and other interactions with family partners, because home-
work is always the students’ responsibility. Students’ skills are evaluated to deter-
mine whether and how TIPS interactive homework contributes to learning. In TIPS
Volunteers, students are the focus of the interdisciplinary lessons in social studies
and art. Students’ knowledge and attitudes about art are evaluated to determine if
the volunteers’ presentations are effective.
A common question is, “How does family and community involvement help
students to succeed?” The question assumes a direct link between involvement and
student learning. Research reveals, however, that not every type of involvement leads
to higher student achievement (see related discussions in Chapters 2, 3, 5, and 7).
The TIPS approaches illustrate two different ways to link family and community
involvement to student learning: by involving all families at home in supporting
494 PR AC TICAL APPLICATIONS

homework and by involving parents and other volunteers at school in activities that
enrich the curriculum and extend students’ experiences.
The TIPS research-based processes are not “canned” programs. Teachers cannot
simply distribute someone else’s homework assignments. Homework—including in-
teractive homework—must be directly linked to a teacher’s course objectives and
to students’ classwork. Similarly, interdisciplinary art and social studies lessons must
be linked to specific units of work. Thus, the prototype materials that have been de-
veloped for both approaches at Johns Hopkins University (referenced in Readings
6.2 and 6.3) must be reviewed, revised, and supplemented to match each school’s
curriculum and other school, family, and student characteristics. The TIPS approaches
require educators to work with families to organize family-friendly schedules, con-
duct and improve activities, orient families and students to new approaches, conduct
follow-up activities in class, evaluate results, and continue to improve the effective-
ness of these programs.
By understanding the research on interactive homework and by looking at two
different processes for improving Type 3—Volunteering and Type 4—Learning at
Home, you will see what it takes to organize productive partnerships linked to stu-
dent learning. The descriptions and examples of TIPS materials in this chapter may
be particularly helpful in courses on curriculum and instruction, methods of teaching
specific subjects, practice teaching seminars, and related instruction for future teach-
ers and administrators. Principals, superintendents, curriculum leaders, and teachers
of all subjects should know how to design and implement family and community
connections that enhance student learning.
PR AC TICAL APPLICATIONS 495

READING 6.1
More Than Minutes: Teachers’ Roles
in Designing Homework*
Homework has long been a topic of social research, but relatively few studies have
focused on the teacher’s role in the homework process. Most research examines
what students do and whether and how the completion of homework or time spent
affects student achievement or success in school (Cooper, 1989; Paschal, Weinstein,
and Walberg, 1984; and see Cooper and Valentine, 2001). Yet the homework process
begins with teachers who choose the topics and content of assignments to help stu-
dents meet particular learning goals. Thus, teachers not only assign homework but
also design homework. Designing homework requires teachers to consider the pur-
poses, format, and other elements of assignments that will engage students and help
them succeed. Assignments reflect not only teachers’ knowledge of the curriculum,
but also their understanding of the skills, abilities, and needs of their students, and
the characteristics and situations of their students’ families (Epstein, 2001).
Homework is recognized as one indicator of successful schools and successful
students. Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore (1982) concluded that more homework and
better discipline were two reasons why private schools were more successful learning
environments than public schools. Similarly, studies have shown that students in
the U.S. do less homework than do students in other countries (Chen and Stevenson,
1989; Stevenson et al., 1990). The implication is that if teachers in U.S. public
schools assigned more homework, students would learn more, and the schools
would be more effective.
This prescription may be too simple. Just assigning more homework is a mechan-
ical response to a set of complex issues. Students who presently do little or no home-
work are unlikely to work harder and longer just because more homework is assigned
(Corno, 1996). The call for more homework is based on a belief that the more time
students spend on schoolwork, the more they will learn. However, as the next sec-
tions show, the purposes of homework are varied, and the connections of time on
homework and student achievement are complex. In addition to time, other aspects
of homework design also are important for encouraging more students to do their
assignments. For example, parental involvement is one element of homework design
that may encourage students to spend more time and complete their assignments
with higher quality work (Epstein, 2001; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001).
This article begins with a review of the purposes of homework that have been
identified by educators in survey research, and in interviews and workshops on
homework. We then draw from research to understand how homework completion,
time on homework, and parental involvement inform and affect the teacher’s role
in the homework process. Finally, we review the results of research on one new
homework design—interactive homework—that teachers have implemented in lan-
* By Joyce L. Epstein and Frances L. Van Voorhis. Reprinted with permission from Educational Psy-
chologist 36 (2001): 181–193. References have been updated.

guage arts, math, and science to meet the specific purposes of improving student
skills, increasing parent-teacher communication, and improving parent-child relations.
PURPOSES OF HOMEWORK
Early surveys and interviews of teachers (Becker and Epstein, 1982; Epstein and
Becker, 1982 [Reading 3.2]; Epstein, 1988), comprehensive reviews of research on
homework (Cooper, 1989; Paschal et al., 1984), recent studies (Corno, 2000; Muh-
lenbruck, Cooper, Nye, and Lindsay, 2000), and periodic workshops with educa-
tors (Epstein and Van Voorhis, 2000) indicate that there are many reasons that
teachers assign homework. A content analysis of information from these sources
revealed ten broad purposes of homework: practice, preparation, participation,
personal development, parent-child relations, parent-teacher communications, peer
interactions, policy, public relations, and punishment (Epstein, 1988, 2001). Assign-
ments designed to meet these purposes should help increase student learning and
development, develop home-school-community partnerships, and improve teaching
and administrative practice. In order to understand the teacher’s role in the home-
work process, we believe it is important to begin with information on why teachers
assign homework to students. (Also see Reading 3.8).
Practice
Some homework is designed to give students opportunities to practice skills taught

in class, increase speed, demonstrate mastery, retain skills, review work, and study
for tests. Teachers reported that the main reason they assigned homework in the el-
ementary grades is to give students time to practice skills from class lessons (Becker
and Epstein, 1982). In an early study of fifth, eighth, and tenth grade students, Gar-
ner (1978) observed that 25–30 minutes of math homework a day in middle and
high school would add more than three and one half years of time for practicing
and mastering math.
Preparation
Teachers may assign homework to ensure that each student is ready for the next
lesson. This may include homework that asks student to complete unfinished class-
room activities and assignments. Homework may be designed to help students
study and internalize what they learned in school in preparation for the next lessons
that will be taught (Muhlenbruck et al., 2000; Paulu, 1995). For example, stu-
dents may begin a series of math problems in school, and complete the work for
homework. Homework also may be designed to stimulate students’ thinking about
a topic, as when teachers ask students to outline ideas for an essay that will be
written in class.

Participation
Homework may increase each student’s involvement in learning, in applying specific

skills and knowledge, and in conducting projects. Often in class, some students are
hesitant to participate. Homework may be designed to engage all students in active
learning, such as conducting and reporting experiments in science, writing essays,
critiquing a book, or conducting other projects (Corno, 2000; Epstein, 2001).
Personal Development
Another purpose of homework is to build student responsibility, perseverance, time

management, self-confidence, and feelings of accomplishment; also to develop and
recognize students’ talents in skills that may not be taught in class. Some teachers
design homework to help students learn to manage their time, establish work sched-
ules, build study skills, and develop research skills (Featherstone, 1985; McDermott,
Goldman, and Varenne, 1984; Muhlenbruck et al., 2000). At home, students may
control the amount of time they spend on different skills, the books or resources
they use, and the number of consultations with parents, siblings, and friends to com-
plete their work (Leone and Richards, 1989). Students also may need to learn to
deal with distractions at home (Cooper, Lindsay, and Nye, 2000; Xu and Corno,
1998). Homework for personal development also may be designed to extend or en-
rich skills and talents in music, art, drama, mechanics, construction, and other areas
of interest to students that are not developed in class (Corno, 2000; Epstein, 2001).
Parent-Child Relations
Homework may be designed to guide and promote positive communications

between parent and child. Parent-child conversations may help reinforce the impor-
tance of schoolwork, homework, and learning, and promote students’ understand-
ing of how schoolwork is used in real-life situations. Homework may spark
conversations between parents or other family partners and children about what
students are learning in class (Balli, 1995; Epstein, Simon, and Salinas, 1997; Scott-
Jones, 1995; Van Voorhis, 2003). Some homework assignments may help bring par-
ents and children closer together to enjoy learning and exchange ideas (Acock and
Demo, 1994), and enable parents to show their children that they support their
schoolwork (Balli, Demo, and Wedman, 1998; González, Andrade, Civil, and Moll,
2001; Levin et al., 1997; Merttens and Woods, 1994). Decades ago, Maertens and
Johnston (1972) found that students who received feedback from their parents on
their math homework had better mastery of math skills than did other students.
More recently, Van Voorhis (2003) found that when students and their parents were
enthusiastic about science homework, the students completed more homework and
earned more points for accuracy than did students whose attitudes about science
were not positive or did not match their parents’ views.

Parent-Teacher Communications
Homework may be purposely designed to enable teachers to inform and involve all
families in their children’s curricular activities. Teachers may organize procedures
and assignments to keep families aware of topics that are taught in class, how their
children are progressing, how to support their children’s work and progress, and
how to connect with the teachers. Some teachers ask parents to sign students’ home-
work agendas or completed assignments (Epstein and Becker, 1982). Some homework
may be designed for parents to give extra help to students with specific weaknesses.
These assignments require teachers to provide clear guidelines or training so that
parents can succeed in the role of “tutor” (Lehrer and Shumow, 1997; Xu and
Corno, 1998). Also, teachers may design homework that encourages students to
conduct conversations with family partners in order to complete the assignments
(Balli et al., 1998; Epstein, Salinas, and Jackson, 1995; Van Voorhis, 2003).
Peer Interactions
Some homework may be designed to encourage students to work together, and mo-
tivate and learn from each other. Students may work with friends and peers on
short-term or long-term assignments, projects, and studying for tests (Corno, 2000;
Paris, Yambor, and Packard, 1998). Peer interactions may be formal, with assigned
partners and roles, or informal, with friends at home or on the telephone. Research
suggests that when adolescents support one another on homework, students have
higher math and English report card grades (Azmitia and Cooper, 2001).
Policy
Teachers may make assignments to fulfill school or district policies for a prescribed
amount of homework. Individual teachers, principals, the whole school staff, district
superintendents, or educator-parent teams may decide that students should receive
a certain amount of homework each day or each week (Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler,
and Burow, 1995; Zernike, 2000). Policy directives should be integrated with other
homework processes. For example, elementary, middle, and high school parents re-
port that they have time to help their children with homework on weekends (Con-
nors and Epstein, 1994; Dauber and Epstein, 1993; Epstein, 1986), but some schools
assign homework only on weekdays, thereby reducing opportunities for parent-
child interactions.
Public Relations
Homework may be assigned to demonstrate to parents and to the public that a

school has a rigorous academic program and high standards for student work.

Researchers have suggested that good schools give homework (Coleman, Hoffer,
and Kilgore, 1982), that good students do homework (Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore,
and Ouston, 1979), and that good teachers assign more homework (Corno, 1996).
When expectations for schoolwork and homework are met, families, businesses,
and other community partners may be more likely to support schools and students
in other ways.
Punishment
Historically, some teachers used homework to try to correct problems with student
conduct or productivity. Teachers now report that assigning homework to punish
students for inattention or poor behavior is not a valid purpose (Epstein and Van
Voorhis, 2000). Some researchers have described homework, itself, as a punishing
activity, referring particularly to poorly designed or overly burdensome assignments
that confuse or frustrate students (Cooper and Valentine, 2001; McDermott, Gold-
man, and Varenne, 1984; Xu and Corno, 1998).
The different purposes of homework are not mutually exclusive; homework may
be designed to fulfill one or several purposes. For example, elementary and second-
ary teachers reported that they assign homework to help students learn, build study
skills, and manage time (Muhlenbruck et al., 2000), thereby recognizing practice,
preparation, and personal development as three purposes for homework assign-
ments. Research is needed that examines whether the design and content of home-
work match the teachers’ stated purposes, and how different homework designs
affect student outcomes. The next section summarizes how research on homework
completion and time informs and affects teachers’ roles in the homework process.
HOW RESEARCH ON HOMEWORK INFORMS

TEACHERS’ ROLES AND ACTIONS
Homework Completion
Early research examined the effects of homework completion on student achieve-
ment and other indicators of student success. Most studies concluded that students
who complete their homework have better report card grades and higher achieve-
ment test scores than do students who do not complete their work (see reviews by
Cooper, 1989; Cooper and Valentine, 2001; Paschal et al., 1984). Measures of home-
work completion accept the fact that students vary in the amount of time they spend
on their assignments and focus, instead, on whether students fulfill their responsi-
bility to do their work. For example, Cooper, Lindsay, Nye, and Greathouse (1998)
found that in both the upper and the lower grades, the more homework that stu-
dents completed (i.e., none, some, about half, most, or all of their assignments), the
higher their report card grades and achievement test scores. Homework completion
still is an important variable to study, but, in our view, measurement models should

be improved to study the effects, over time, of contrasting homework designs and
content on students’ homework completion, accuracy of work, and their achieve-
ment, attitudes, and homework habits.
Time on Homework
The results of studies of time spent on homework are complex, with important im-
plications for teachers’ actions in designing homework. One early study of elemen-
tary school students collected information on homework from students, parents,
and teachers (Epstein, 1988). This cross-sectional study found that, on average, stu-
dents with lower levels of ability spent more time on homework. Also, the elemen-
tary school teachers reported that they asked parents of low-ability students to help
their children more than they asked other parents to help. Finally, parents of low-
ability students reported that they spent more time helping their children with home-
work. Similar results were reported by Levin and her colleagues (1997).
In cross-sectional studies, the negative correlation of student ability and time on
homework must not be interpreted as a causal pattern (Babbie, 1990). Rather, the
association suggests that in the elementary grades where assignments are relatively
short, students at all levels of ability tend to take the time they need to complete
their work (Muhlenbruck et al., 2000). Also, in the elementary grades, teachers and
parents are more likely to work together to help all students complete their assign-
ments (Epstein and Dauber, 1991).
Other studies indicate that in the secondary grades, high-ability students tend
to spend more time on homework (Campbell, Hombo, and Mazzeo, 2000).
Importantly, some studies of secondary students have used longitudinal data or mea-
sures of students’ prior skills to identify causal patterns between time and achievement.
These studies show that if students spend time on and complete their homework,
then their skills improve over time. For example, Keith (1982) reported that, re-
gardless of their initial levels of ability, high school students who did homework
regularly received higher report card grades than did other students. With students’
race, family background, prior ability, and high school curricular track statistically
controlled, low-ability students who did ten hours of homework or more per week
had as good report card grades as high-ability students who did no homework. That
study identified a persuasive linear relationship between time on homework and re-
port card grades for low-, middle-, and high-ability students in high school.
Because, on average, fewer students do all of their homework in the older grades,
there is greater variation in secondary school students’ investments in homework
and greater variation in their rates of homework completion (Sheldon and Epstein,
2005). The greater variation in these indicators helps produce the stronger associ-
ations in secondary than in elementary grades of time on homework and achieve-
ment (Cooper and Valentine, 2001). Epstein (1988) speculated about three reasons
for the variation in secondary students’ homework habits and results.
First, some low-ability students in the upper grades may stop doing homework
if it is frustrating, if it does not help them learn, or if they are pressured by peers

not to do homework. This explanation is supported by 1999 NAEP data that indi-
cate that 13 percent of high school students do not do any homework that is as-
signed (i.e., 0 minutes) compared with 5 percent and 4 percent at the middle and
elementary levels, respectively (Campbell et al., 2000). Also, a detailed study of mid-
dle school students found that many low-ability students do their work hastily and
less accurately than average-ability or honors students, or do not do their assign-
ments at all (Van Voorhis, 2003).
Second, some teachers may assign students in low-ability classes less homework
or less interesting assignments than students in honors or advanced classes, or con-
vey low expectations that slower students will do the work. The 1999 NAEP data
indicate that about one-fourth of high school students are assigned 5 pages or less
to read in school or at home per day, whereas another one-fourth are assigned over
20 pages per day. These discrepant assignments are linked to significant differences
in students’ reading scores, suggesting that brighter students are assigned and do
more work (Campbell et al., 2000).
Third, parents of middle and high school students may not monitor adolescents’
homework as faithfully as they did when their children were younger, in part be-
cause they are not asked to do so by secondary school teachers. For example, analy-
ses of the National Education Longitudinal Survey (NELS) data show that 26
percent of parents in 8th grade, 45 percent of parents in 10th grade, and 51 percent
of parents in 12th grade report that they rarely or never help their children with
homework (Lee, 1994; Simon, 2004). Low-ability students in middle and high
school may not feel the degree of parental pressure to complete their assignments
that low-ability students in the elementary grades experience.
The first two reasons may be explained by greater differences in secondary versus
elementary students’ attitudes about and actions in fulfilling their responsibilities
for homework. Students’ personal investments also may be influenced by the
strength and clarity of teachers’ messages and expectations for good work, and by
whether the design and content of the homework are well matched to students’ in-
creasingly diverse skills and interests. The third reason is related to the persistent
finding that fewer parents are involved in secondary schools or feel able to help
their teens with increasingly difficult schoolwork at home (Epstein and Lee, 1995;
Lee, 1994; Scott-Jones, 1995; and see Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). The greater
variation in parents’ monitoring and assisting with homework may contribute to
the degree of students’ dedication to and time on homework, which in turn result
in fewer secondary than elementary students completing their assignments. It is
likely that a combination of these influences—individual attitudes and investments,
teachers’ homework designs and processes, parent and peer messages and support—
not any one alone, affect secondary students’ homework habits and the results of
their efforts.
Other studies confirm these basic patterns of results. Reported zero-order corre-
lations show that young students with weaker skills tend to take more time to com-
plete their homework (Cooper et al., 1998; Epstein, 1988; Muhlenbruck et al.,
2000). In these studies, time on homework leads more students to complete their
assignments, which may contribute to improved skills or other indicators of success.
Middle and high school students with advanced skills are assigned more homework

and spend more time on homework (Garner, 1978; Keith et al., 1993). In these stud-
ies, students’ achievement influences teachers to assign more demanding homework
that requires more time, which, in turn, may continue to help increase the achieve-
ment of more successful students. Causal models that account for students’ prior
abilities and coursework show, however, that time on homework contributes to the
achievement of middle and high school students at all ability levels (Keith and Cool,
1992). Time series studies are needed to clarify whether there is a reinforcing, spi-
raling pattern whereby time on homework leads to completion of assignments and
higher achievement or success in school, which in turn affects the nature and extent
of ongoing homework assignments, and so on.
Implications for Research and Practice
The research on homework time and completion has important implications for
teachers’ actions, and alerts researchers to studies that are needed to clarify the dis-
crepant patterns of results. First, the reported zero-order correlations suggest that
secondary school teachers should design homework that more effectively encourages
and enables low-ability students to take the time they need to complete their work.
That should produce the same pattern of negative or null associations of student abil-
ity and time on homework as reported in studies at the elementary level. Second, the
causal analyses that account for students’ prior skills suggest that all teachers should
strive to design high-quality homework so that students who complete their assign-
ments will, in fact, benefit from their efforts. More longitudinal research is needed,
especially at the elementary level, to determine if completing homework and doing it
well improves student achievement over time, as reported at the secondary level.
As indicated above, parent involvement in children’s education is recognized as
a positive force for homework completion, student learning, and success in school.
The next section summarizes research on parental involvement in homework that
may affect how teachers design and use homework (also see Hoover-Dempsey et
al., 2001, for a comprehensive review).
HOW RESEARCH ON PARENT INVOLVEMENT

INFORMS TEACHERS’ ROLES AND ACTIONS
Homework is one part of a comprehensive program of school, family, and commu-

nity partnerships, which includes six major types of involvement: parenting, com-
municating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with
the community (Epstein, 1995; Epstein et al., 2009). As one example of a learning-
at-home activity, homework is an inevitable connector of home and school. Inter-
estingly, of all the types of involvement, parents say they most want to help their
children with homework so that they will do better in school (Epstein, 1986;
Sanders, Epstein, and Connors-Tadros, 1999).
Scott-Jones (1995) identified four ways that parents may be involved with their

children on homework by valuing, monitoring, assisting, and doing homework. That
is, parents may tell their children that they value homework as an important task
for increasing learning; monitor the completion of homework; and show that they
will assist their children with their work. It is well understood that parents should
not do their children’s homework (Scott-Jones, 1995), and that homework is the
students’ responsibility (Epstein, 2001). Research indicates that, presently, involve-
ment is influenced by parents’ education, students’ grade levels, teachers’ attitudes,
and schools’ programs and practices of partnership.
Parent Involvement and Family Educational Background
Research consistently reports that just about all parents know they should monitor
their children’s work, and that they view homework as an important part of school-
ing (Delgado-Gaitan, 1990; Epstein, 1986; Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1995; Simon,
2004). However, those with more formal education are more likely to act on their
beliefs (Astone and McLanahan, 1991; Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Lareau, 1989;
Xu and Corno, 1998).
Parent Involvement and Students’ Grade Levels
Parents of younger children are more frequently involved in their children’s education
than are parents of students in the upper grades (Eccles and Harold, 1996; Epstein
and Lee, 1995; Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler, 1997; Stevenson and Baker, 1987).
Parents of older students report feeling increasingly less able to help with homework
(Dauber and Epstein, 1993; Grolnick and Slowiaczek, 1994; Simon, 2004). Studies
using data from the National Education Longitudinal Surveys (NELS) indicate that
students benefit if their parents remain involved in their education through the middle
and high school grades (Catsambis, 1998; Fehrmann, Keith, and Reimers, 1987; Ho
and Willms, 1996; Keith et al., 1993; Lee, 1994; Simon, 2004).
These studies show that students do better on outcomes such as attendance, cred-
its completed, report card grades, preparedness for school from grade 8 to grades
10 and 12 if they continue to communicate with their parents about schoolwork
and school decisions, regardless of family background, parents’ education, and stu-
dents’ prior skills.
Parent Involvement and Teacher Attitudes
Research shows that family involvement also benefits teachers. They report more
positive feelings about teaching and about their schools when there is more parent
involvement in the school (Epstein and Dauber, 1991; Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler,
and Brissie, 1987). Moreover, teachers who frequently conduct activities to involve
parents in their children’s learning activities at home are more likely to report that
all parents can help their children, whereas other teachers are more likely to stereo-

type parents with less formal education, and report that they are not interested in
education and cannot help their children at home (Becker and Epstein, 1982; Ep-
stein, 1990). Teachers who communicate with parents tend to increase their expec-
tations and appreciation of all parents, and continue to add activities for family
involvement.
School Programs to Increase Parental Involvement
Studies are accumulating that show that if schools and teachers implement specific
practices, then parents respond by becoming more involved on those very practices
(Ames, DeStefano, Watkins, and Sheldon, 1995; Balli, 1998; Delgado-Gaitan, 1990;
Epstein and Dauber, 1991; Ho and Willms, 1996; Lee, 1994; Sanders et al., 1999;
Simon, 2004; Snow, Barnes, Chandler, Goodman, and Hemphill, 1989; Van
Voorhis, 2003).
Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) explored why some parents become in-
volved in their children’s schooling. They found that parents were influenced by
their beliefs about their roles and responsibilities to become involved, their feelings
of efficacy or competence to help their children, and their understanding of teachers’
expectations for involvement (see Hoover-Dempsey, 2001). Without new ap-
proaches to help parents to understand their roles and build their feelings of com-
petence, it is likely that the prevailing pattern that only some parents are involved
will continue.
The challenges are clear. Most teachers and administrators report that they want
parents to support their children’s learning and to monitor homework, but they
think that most parents do not do enough (Farkas, Johnson, and Duffett, 1999).
Parents want to be involved, but say they need guidance in how to help at home
(Corno, 2000; Dauber and Epstein, 1993; Eccles and Harrold, 1996; Hoover-
Dempsey and Sandler, 1997; Sanders et al., 1999). Most teachers need new ap-
proaches, organized strategies, and specific tools to help parents become
productively involved at home (Ames et al., 1995; Epstein, 2001; McDermott et al.,
1984; Pratt, Filipovich, and Bountrogianni, 1995).
NEW DESIGNS FOR FAMILY INVOLVEMENT IN HOMEWORK
The results of research on homework completion, time on homework, and parental

involvement suggest that teachers have a responsibility to select or design assign-
ments that are purposeful, engaging, and of high quality so that (a) students at all
grade levels—including low-ability students—take the time they need to complete
their assignments; (b) students benefit from their effort; and (c) parents at all grade
levels are appropriately and effectively involved in their children’s education. This
three-fold challenge was addressed by researchers and teachers working together
to improve the design of homework and to study the effects of interactive assign-
ments on homework completion, family involvement, and student learning (Epstein,
Salinas, and Jackson, 1995).

New Approaches to Interactive Homework
“Interactive homework” encourages students to share interesting things they are

learning in class with family members, friends, peers, or others in the community
(Epstein, 2001). The Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) process is one
design for interactive homework that guides students to conduct conversations and
interactions with family partners in math, science, language arts, or other subjects
The TIPS interactive homework process grew from early research that showed
when elementary school teachers frequently involved families in reading activities at
home, more parents conducted reading activities with their children, and more of
these students improved their reading test scores from fall to spring of the school year.
Interestingly, involvement in reading had no impact on students’ math achievement
scores. These results suggested a potentially important subject-specific link between
parent involvement in reading and gains in student reading achievement (Epstein,
1991). The same study revealed that teachers in the younger grades often asked par-
ents to be involved with their children in reading homework, but rarely in other sub-
jects. In the middle grades, few teachers involved parents on curricular matters or
homework (Dauber and Epstein, 1993; Eccles and Harrold, 1996; Scott-Jones, 1995).
TIPS Design Elements. As in all homework, TIPS assignments are the students’ re-
sponsibility. Parents play supportive roles in discussing homework with their chil-
dren; they are not asked to teach school skills. With their family partners, students
demonstrate math skills, conduct science experiments, share ideas and obtain reac-
tions to written work, conduct surveys or interviews, gather parents’ memories and
experiences, apply school skills to real life; or work with parents or other family
partners in other ways.
Other features of the TIPS process include: (1) Teachers and principals orient
parents and students to the TIPS process; (2) teachers send home TIPS activities on
a regular schedule (e.g., once a week or twice a month); (3) teachers allot extra time
(e.g., two days or over a weekend) for TIPS homework to accommodate family
schedules; (4) TIPS are designed for two sides of one page and include simple in-
structions that the student can explain to a family partner; (5) all activities use read-
ily available materials at home, and require no expensive purchases; (6) TIPS
activities include a home-to-school communication for parents to check or comment
whether they enjoyed the activity with their child, and whether they learned some-
thing about what students are learning in class; (7) teachers use the same methods
for collecting, grading, and discussing TIPS as they use for other homework; (8)
teachers use family and student feedback for redesigning activities, or to contact
families who may have questions about their students’ work or progress. Used on
a weekly or bimonthly schedule, TIPS activities aim to keep parents aware of what
their children are learning in school.
Research on TIPS proceeded from questions about the feasibility of implementing
interactive homework, to studies of the effects of interactive homework works, for
whom, and in what subjects.

Research on the TIPS Interactive Homework Process
Three studies have been conducted on the effects of teachers’ implementations of

TIPS interactive homework on students’ skills, parent involvement, and student
and parent attitudes about homework (Balli, 1995; Epstein et al., 1997; Van
Voorhis, 2003), as summarized in Table 6.1. The three longitudinal studies also re-
port the effects of homework completion on students’ skills, report card grades,
and other measures of achievement, after accounting for students’ prior skills and
family background.
TIPS Language Arts
Research was conducted on the influence of TIPS Language Arts on students’ home-
work completion, writing skills, and language arts report card grades (Epstein et
al., 1997). This study included 683 students in grades 6 and 8 in two central city
middle schools where over 70 percent of the students qualified for free- or reduced-
price lunch.
TIPS language arts writing assignments guided students to read aloud the
“prompts” that set the stage for their writing, converse with family partners about
the topic, read aloud their first drafts of written work, gather reactions to their sto-
ries or essays, and conduct “family surveys” to discuss their family partners’ expe-
riences that related to their own.
Records were kept of the homework completed, and writing samples were col-
lected and scored by an independent coder in the fall, winter, and spring of the
school year. Students and parents were surveyed for their reactions to TIPS. Analyses
statistically controlled for parent education, student grade level, attendance, fall re-
port card grades, and fall writing sample scores, to identify the effects of TIPS in-
teractive homework on students’ skills in the winter and spring, and on student and
family attitudes at the end of the school year.
As would be expected in any longitudinal study of student achievement, students
with higher writing scores in the fall also had higher scores in the winter and spring.
However, after taking into account their initial skill levels, students who completed
more TIPS homework assignments had higher language arts report card grades.
When parents participated, students improved their writing scores from fall to win-
ter and from winter to spring, regardless of their initial abilities.
Over 80 percent of the students reported that TIPS gave them a way to show
their parents what they were learning in class. Nearly 100 percent of the families
surveyed agreed that TIPS gave them information about what their children were
learning in class. The more parents participated, the better they liked TIPS interactive
homework. This study demonstrated that TIPS interactive homework could be
successfully implemented in the middle grades, and that parents with little formal
education could become productively involved in ways they had not been before.
Results indicate that students at all ability levels benefited, over time, from com-
pleting their language arts homework by improving their writing skills. Future

TIPS TIPS TIPS
Language Arts Math Science
Author(s) Epstein, J. L., Simon, Balli, S. J., Balli, S. J., Van Voorhis, F. L.
B. S., and Salinas, Wedman, J. F., and
K. C. Demo, D.
Date of Publication 1997 1995, 1997 2003 (reference
updated)
Sample Size 683 students 74 students 253 students
218 parents 69 family partners 180 family partners
16 classes 24 parent interviews 10 classes
8 teachers 3 classes 4 teachers
1 teacher
Research Design Longitudinal (1 year) Quasi-Experimental Quasi-Experimental
and developmental 3 groups: no prompts 2 groups with same
Weekly assignments for family involve- homework content:
ment, student prompts one group had
for family involve- detailed guidelines for
ment, and student and student and family
family prompts for interaction, and the
family involvement. other group had no
Longitudinal family involvement
(3 months) guidelines.
20 assignments, about Longitudinal
2 per week (1/2 school year)
Developmental
18 assignments, weekly
Student Sample 6th and 8th grade 6th grade students 6th and 8th grade
Characteristics students Mean MMAT scores of students
70% Free/reduced- 3 groups 378.0 36% African American
price lunch Similar ability level in 53% White
15% Special education all 3 classes 25% Free/reduced-
services 46% Reported that one price lunch
12–15% Enter during or both parents held 15% Low-ability classes
year a college degree 39% Average-ability
20–27% Withdraw Midwestern middle classes
during year school 46% Honors classes
East Coast middle Predominantly middle East Coast middle
school class, white families school
Predominantly poor Predominantly middle
African American class, but
families heterogeneous
population
TABLE 6.1 Summary of TIPS Interactive Homework Intervention Studies
(continues)
508
TIPS TIPS TIPS
Language Arts Math Science
Main Outcome Reported level of Reported level of Reported level of

Measures family involvement family involvement family involvement
Writing samples Mathematics posttest Accuracy (number of
Language arts report administered after points out of 10 for
card grades 20 homework assign- each assignment)
Surveys of parents and ments completed Science report card
students’ attitudes Surveys of students grades
toward TIPS and parents Science homework test
Telephone surveys of questions
24 selected parents Student and parent
attitudes about home-
work and TIPS
Results: Parent participation on No significant TIPS students (with
Effects on TIPS added differences in math detailed instructions
Achievement significantly to achievement across for family involve-
students’ writing the three groups, with ment) earned signifi-
scores as the year prior math cantly higher science
progressed (β = .180, achievement as a report card grades
p < .01 for winter; covariate. (β = .15, p < .05 ) than
β = .234, p < .001 for students without
spring), after detailed family
accounting for prior involvement
fall writing scores. instructions. The effect
held after accounting
for prior science
achievement and
percent of homework
returned.
Subject Contrasts None tested. Focused TIPS homework design TIPS homework design
only on language in math prompted in science prompted
arts/writing. family involvement in family involvement in
math more than in science more than in
non-TIPS subjects. non-TIPS subjects.
SES Effects No SES difference in No SES difference in No SES difference in
extent of family extent of family extent of family
involvement. involvement. involvement.
Other Results Completing more TIPS Students in the groups Students in the group
homework assign- with prompts for with prompts for
ments positively family involvement family involvement
influenced student more often involved more often involved
report card grades, families in math families in science
with prior grades and homework than did homework than did
attendance controlled. students whose students whose home-
Eighty-two (82%) homework designs work designs excluded
percent of students excluded prompts. prompts.
agreed “TIPS gives me Eighty-eight (88%)
a way to show my percent of TIPS
parent what I am students agreed, “TIPS
learning in class,” and gives me a way to
nearly 100% of show my parent what
parents also agreed. I am learning in class,”
and 93% of parents
also agreed.

509
studies of TIPS language arts are needed that vary the homework condition (see
math and science studies below), and that are conducted in schools with diverse
student populations.
TIPS Math
A study of 74 suburban sixth graders explored the effects of TIPS math interactive
homework (Balli, 1995; Balli et al., 1998), as outlined in Table 6.1. In this study,
students in three classes with the same teacher were assigned math homework that
was identical in content, but that varied in guidelines for parental involvement. One
class received TIPS math homework with guidelines for students to discuss their
work with family partners and for family partners to sign and send comments and
observations to the teachers. The second class received modified TIPS math home-
work with some guidelines for students, but no options for parents’ comments or
signature. The third class had the same assignments but no references to family in-
volvement for the student or for parents.
TIPS math assignments guide students to show parents how specific math skills
are taught by the teacher in class; practice and demonstrate their mastery of math
skills; and engage their family partners in conversations about how math skills are
used in the real world. Parents are asked to provide reactions, comments, and a sig-
nature in the section for home-to-school communications.
Balli’s results indicated that family involvement was significantly higher in both
TIPS groups that guided students to involve their parents in demonstrations and
discussions about math. More parents of these students reported being involved
with their children on math homework. Parents felt most involved in the full TIPS
process, when they were encouraged to provide their observations, comments, and
questions to teachers.
The study of TIPS math revealed that, in the middle grades, parents appreciated
the student-guided interactions about math. Students and parents reported more pos-
itive conversations about math, and most students believed that the interactions
helped them be more prepared and successful in math class (Balli, 1998). This study
also advanced knowledge about homework with subject-specific measures and analy-
ses that showed that parents’ involvement in math using the TIPS design did not
translate to parent involvement in other subjects which did not use TIPS (Balli, 1995).
All three classes advanced similarly in math skills, in part because they had the
same effective math teacher and because their homework and tests covered the same
content. By holding the teacher-effect constant, this study contributed component
analyses that demonstrated the effects on parent involvement of the portions of the
TIPS assignments that guide students to share their math work with their family
partners, discuss real-world math applications, and that ask parents for their reac-
tions to the interactive experience.

TIPS Science
Van Voorhis (2003) conducted a quasi-experimental study of 253 sixth and eighth
grade science students in 10 classrooms of four teachers in a suburban middle
school. The racial and socioeconomic characteristics and the ability levels of students
were more diverse in this study than in the other two studies, as shown in Table
6.1. Van Voorhis examined the effects of contrasting science homework designs on
students’ homework completion, science report card grades, science test scores, and
student and parent attitudes about homework and science.
Students in six classes received weekly Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork
(TIPS) science activities with specific guidelines for students to interact with family
partners on science experiments and activities. Students in the remaining four classes
received the same homework but with no guidelines for family involvement (ATIPS).
TIPS science activities were designed by the students’ teachers to match the units
and topics covered in grades 6 (i.e., science skills and processes, oceanography, ma-
chines) and in grade 8 (i.e., ecology, geology, heredity).
TIPS science assignments are designed to help students summarize what they are
studying in science, conduct science activities with family partners as their assistants,
discuss their conclusions with family partners, and conduct surveys or discussions
about how the science topic is part of everyday life. There is a home-to-school
communication section for parents to send their comments and reactions to the sci-
ence teacher (Epstein et al., 1995; Van Voorhis, 2003).
Van Voorhis and her collaborating teachers strengthened the consequences of
completing science homework by assigning points to each section of the assignment,
and by including questions based on the homework on each unit test. She also ex-
tended an understanding of subject-specific effects by showing that family involve-
ment in TIPS science was higher than family involvement in subjects that did not
use interactive homework designs.
Students completing TIPS assignments reported significantly higher family in-
volvement in science than did students in the ATIPS classes. TIPS students also had
higher science report card grades, even after accounting for other influential vari-
ables of students’ prior science abilities, parent education, and the amount of home-
work completed. Thus, over and above the effects of homework, the impact of the
TIPS interactive design added significantly and positively to students’ report card
grades. This study provides strong evidence that the TIPS homework process is
effective in increasing family involvement and in boosting science achievement of
students who involve family partners in homework.
Summary
The three TIPS studies were conducted in poor, urban and middle-class, suburban
communities. Family socioeconomic status did not determine whether parents be-
came involved with their children in math, science, or language arts. Without the

TIPS design that guides all students to conduct conversations with their family part-
ners, one would expect the typical result that parents with more formal education
and advantage would be more involved.
Also, the three studies were conducted in middle schools where, traditionally,
there is little involvement of parents with students on homework. Yet, in these
schools, parents were overwhelmingly appreciative of the TIPS design and the way
that their middle school students were able to demonstrate and share their skills
and ideas at home.
In all three studies, students agreed that the TIPS interactive homework design
enabled them to show their parents what they were learning in class, and parents
agreed that the TIPS homework design helped them know what their children were
learning in school. These were two major purposes that teachers identified for using
interactive homework.
The TIPS studies indicate that teachers can take decisive roles in designing and
implementing math, language arts, and science homework to fulfill several purposes
of homework. Each TIPS assignment is designed to extend time for students to prac-
tice skills and participate actively in learning; increase teacher-parent communica-
tions about the curriculum; and improve parent-child connections on learning
activities at home, as outlined in Table 6.2. TIPS manuals and prototype materials in
math, science, and language arts may be of interest to teachers and researchers who
want to develop interactive homework for their curricula and study the effects on
students at different grade levels and with diverse abilities and backgrounds (ASCD,
2001; Epstein et al., 1995; Epstein and Van Voorhis, 2000). (See Reading 6.2 for
more information.)
The results of the TIPS studies are supported by interventions and research in
other countries including Australia, Chile, Great Britain, Portugal, and Scotland
(Davies and Johnson, 1996). Generally, the international studies of “shared learning”
and interactions in the elementary grades indicate that children can be effective
“connectors” between school and home. For example, when spelling homework
was designed to involve families in Scotland, more parents participated in discus-
sions with their children and helped students practice and extend spelling skills
(MacBeath, 1998). As another example, more families with very little formal edu-
cation interacted with their children on Portuguese language development skills
(Villas-Boas, 1998).
OTHER NEW HOMEWORK DESIGNS
TIPS is not the only innovative homework design that teachers may use or adapt
for specific purposes. Moll and his colleagues (Moll, Amanti, Neff, and González,
1992; González and Moll, 1996) have worked with teachers and parents to develop
curricular approaches that bring students’ cultural backgrounds and families’ “funds
of knowledge” (Vélez-Ibáñez and Greenberg, 1992) into the classroom. In turn, the
class lessons spark homework that requires students to bring school skills home to
discuss with family members, and other assignments that enable students to draw

TABLE 6.2 Components of Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS)
Interactive Homework Assignments, by Subject
All TIPS Assignments

Letter to parent, guardian, or family partner briefly explains in one sentence the topic and
skill of the assignment. The student writes in the due date and signs the letter.
Math Elements
Look this over shows an example of how a particular math skill was taught in class, and
guides the student to explain the skill to a parent or family partner. The answer to this exam-
ple is given.
Now try this presents another example for the student to show a family partner how the par-
ticular skill is done. The answer is given on the back of the page.
Practice and more practice are additional examples for the student to master the skill.
Let’s find out or In the real world interactions help the student and family partner discover
and discuss how the math skill is applied at home or in common situations.
Language Arts Elements

Objectives explain the learning goal(s) of the activity, if this is not clear from the title or letter.
Prewriting gives the student space to plan a letter, essay, story, or poem by outlining, brain-
storming, listing, designing nets and webs, or using other planning strategies.
Prewriting gives the student space to plan a letter, essay, story, or poem by outlining, brain-
storming, listing, designing nets and webs, or using other planning strategies.
First draft gives the student space to write and edit. A student who needs more space may add
paper. Some teachers ask the student to write a final copy on other paper at home or at school.
Interactions guide the student to conduct a family survey or interview, talk with a family part-
ner about ideas or memories, read work aloud for reactions, edit work, practice a speech, or
conduct other interactions. Other assignments include exchanges focused on grammar, vocabu-
lary, reading, and other language arts skills.
Science Elements
Objectives explain the learning goal(s) of the activity.
Materials are common, inexpensive, and easily available at home, or the school provides the
materials.
Procedure guides the student, step by step, in a hands-on activity that requires the student to
think and act like a scientist, and to interact with a family partner.
Lab report or data chart gives space for the student to report findings.
Conclusions guide the student to discuss results and real-world applications of science with a
family partner.
End of All TIPS Assignments

Home-to-school communication invites the parent to send an observation, comment, or ques-
tion to the teacher about the skill the student demonstrated and the homework experience.
Parent signature is requested on each activity.
Sources: Epstein, Salinas, and Jackson, 1995; Epstein and Van Voorhis, 2000.
513
ideas, information, and experiences from family and community knowledge and ex-
pertise. Class lessons and related homework may be based on how mothers use
math in sewing (González et al., 2001), how workers in many occupations use read-
ing and math to build a house (Mehan, Lintz, Okamoto, and Wills, 1995), and sim-
ilar investigations. These school-family-community connections help students see
that, regardless of the socioeconomic status of the community, many people in their
families and neighborhoods have useful, interesting, and enriching skills that link
to and enhance school topics.
Corno (2000) discusses other ways that innovative teachers may design homework
assignments to spark students’ creative thinking, talent development, and community
service and problem solving. For example, teachers may design assignments so that
students work with one another after school at home, by telephone, or on the Internet.
Assignments and projects done with peers and friends help students connect, draw
from each other’s talents, and communicate about schoolwork at times that they may
otherwise be at home alone. As another example, Corno (2000) describes how the
writing process (Calkins, 1994) can be used in homework assignments. Students keep
notebooks of ideas drawn from family events, photographs, characters, and other ac-
tivities as the basis for writing stories, essays, and poems in class. The homework note-
books help students improve their observation skills and focus their writing on what
they know. Evaluations of interactive homework show that practice in writing im-
proves the quality of students’ work (Epstein et al., 1997), and so it is possible that
students’ writing notebooks also may help students become better writers.
Epstein (2001) outlines new approaches for homemade homework, in which par-
ents and children design a family-related activity for students to conduct based on
important activities and responsibilities at home. For example, students and parents
may elect to write a letter to a relative; draw or take a photo of something important
to the family; plan activities and a budget for a special trip; start a collection of crit-
ical reviews of TV shows, movies, or restaurants that they experience; or other fam-
ily activities that use and advance school skills. Epstein (2001) also describes home
conferences, originally created by a middle school educator. In these assignments
students select a few examples of their writing, read or discuss them with a family
partner, and write a reflection on the suggestions they received in order to improve
their writing in the future. This strategy could be used once or twice a year in any
subject to help students and parents review and discuss student work. (See Chapter
3 for discussions and activities on these.)
In these innovative approaches, students always are responsible for their home-
work, but all of the interactions with peers, family partners, or members of the com-
munity aim to promote conversations and active learning. These and other
innovative homework interventions require systematic development and research
on their impact on student homework habits and learning.

IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
The results of this review prompt three recommendations for improving research
on homework and its connections with policy and practice.
The results of the TIPS interventions are promising, but serious homework problems
in many, if not most, schools need to be addressed (Campbell et al., 2000). Some
students do not do their work, some parents are not informed about or involved in
their children’s education, and some teachers do not design or use homework effec-
tively. Educators need to assess the homework successes and problems in their
schools, and plan specific actions to correct the problems that presently limit many
students’ learning. Researchers can help educators conduct these assessments, and
can work more closely with educators to design and test solutions to the homework
problems that are identified.
The topic of homework should be covered more pointedly in preservice, advanced,

and inservice education for teachers and administrators. This review suggests that
homework not only is something that students do, but also is part of teachers’ pro-
fessional work. When they worked with researchers to develop TIPS activities in
language arts and science, the collaborating teachers had never before worked to-
gether systematically to design homework for the purposes of informing parents
about students’ work or for guiding students to talk with their parents about school-
work (ASCD, 2001). They had to learn how to use research-based design elements
to develop effective assignments (Epstein and Van Voorhis, 2003). Prospective and
practicing educators need clear information on the purposes of homework, various
designs for assignments, research on the effects of homework, and how to link class-
work, homework, and assessments. Most teachers are presently guided and moni-
tored on the quality of class lesson plans and classroom teaching, but are not well
prepared, supervised, or evaluated on their homework designs and actions (see Ep-
stein, 2001).
More rigorous research is needed to better understand how contrasting homework

designs affect specific student outcomes across the grades. Research shows that
homework can be an important tool for teachers to help students develop basic and
advanced skills, but there still is much to learn about homework. The TIPS studies
illustrate one way to broaden research from measures of minutes or completion of
homework to focus on the design and content of assignments to meet specific purposes
or goals for student learning and development. These studies also raise questions
about teachers’ roles in using homework as an instructional tool, including whether
and how well they introduce assignments and follow up assignments with discus-
sions, marks, and related quiz or test questions. Research on these topics would
open the “black box” of homework, and should make research on homework more
useful in policy and in practice.

CONCLUSIONS
Homework is a daily activity for most students for at least twelve years of schooling.
Every assignment takes the time, energy, and emotions of teachers, students, and
families. Given these investments, it is important to ask: How can homework be an
effective teaching tool, a useful communication strategy, and a beneficial learning
experience? The research reviewed in this article suggests that when teachers design
homework to meet specific purposes and goals, more students complete their home-
work and benefit from the results, and more families remain involved in their chil-
dren’s education through the middle grades.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by grants from the U.S. Department of Education, Of-
fice of Educational Research and Improvement/OERI, Disney Learning Partnership,
and the Wallace–Reader’s Digest Funds. The opinions are the authors’ and do not
necessarily represent the policies or positions of these funding sources. Special
thanks to the many teachers who, over the years, assisted in designing and testing
the TIPS interactive process, and to students and parents who participated in the
research studies. Thanks, too, to the editors and three anonymous reviewers for sug-
gestions on an earlier version of this article.
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READING 6.2
Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS):
Interactive Homework in Math, Science, and
Language Arts
LINKING FAMILY INVOLVEMENT

WITH STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
Although all six types of involvement discussed in Chapter 5 are important, not
every type of family or community involvement will immediately increase student
achievement and success in school. Type 4—Learning at Home is one type of in-
volvement that may directly influence students’ skills and achievements. Family
interactions with children about schoolwork and homework may, if well designed
and effectively implemented, increase students’ completion of homework, improve
students’ attitudes toward school, boost students’ readiness for the next class lesson,
and improve students’ performance on tests and report card grades.
Type 4—Learning at Home requires every teacher to activate the important con-
nections between what is taught and learned in school and what is encouraged,
practiced, discussed, and celebrated at home. It requires every teacher to inform and
involve families about the work that their children do in class.
This could be a daunting, even impossible, task if it meant that teachers had to
show every parent how to teach every skill in every subject. It would be equally un-
fair, even absurd, to expect all parents to know how to teach their children all school
subjects every year. It is possible, however, to implement useful Type 4 activities to
help students gain and strengthen skills, interact with parents or other family mem-
bers about schoolwork at home, and keep parents informed about the skills their
children are learning from week to week or month to month.
Most teachers and administrators report that they want parents to support their
children’s learning, help students practice important skills, and monitor homework.
Most, however, have not organized ways to guide all parents in productive interac-
tions with their children about homework or curriculum-related decisions. Some
teachers and administrators worry that involving families with children in learning
activities at home will diminish teachers’ professional status. Studies indicate, how-
ever, that when teachers implement frequent, family-friendly practices of partner-
ship, parents increase their respect for teachers and for the work that teachers do
(Epstein and Van Voorhis, 2001 [Reading 6.1]; Xu, 2003; Xu and Corno, 2003;
and see Reading 4.3).
Most parents do not want to teach school subjects to their children. Rather, par-
ents want to know: “How can I help my child do well in school?” Many studies
and interviews with thousands of parents about what they mean by “help” indicate
that parents want to support, encourage, and motivate their children, monitor their
work, celebrate progress, and conduct interactions that will help their children

complete their homework and do well in school (Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler,
1995; and see Readings 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6). These preferences are expressed by par-
ents of children at all grade levels, from preschool through high school, in diverse
communities. Parents’ requests require teachers to involve all families in new ways
with their children in academic activities at home.
TIPS interactive homework was designed to fulfill this goal: Teachers at every
grade level and subject can select or design one homework assignment a week or
every other week that requires students to talk to someone at home about something
interesting they are learning in class. If such activities were well designed and as-
signed on a regular schedule, all families would be able to follow their children’s
progress in learning; all children would be able to share ideas and information at
home; and all teachers would have a realistic strategy for communicating with fam-
ilies about students’ curriculum, homework, and academic choices and decisions.
TIPS activities recognize the central role of students as the main actors in their
own education. Students—not parents—must study, complete homework, take tests,
and learn as much as possible. Students also are active participants in school, family,
and community partnerships. They are couriers of all kinds of information from
school to home and from home to school, including information on homework.
Students are the natural leaders of and participants in conversations and interactions
about schoolwork and homework, academic decisions such as course choices, and
plans for the future.
RESEARCH LEADING TO TIPS
TIPS interactive homework processes grew from early research that revealed that
when elementary school teachers frequently involved families in reading activities
at home, more parents conducted these activities with their children, and more of
these students improved their reading test scores from fall to spring of the school
year. The study suggested an important subject-specific link between parent in-
volvement in reading and gains in student achievement in reading (see Readings
3.1 and 3.7).
The same studies revealed that although many teachers, particularly in the
younger grades, asked parents to be involved with their children in reading, few
teachers at any grade level asked parents to become involved in other subjects.
Teachers did not have effective strategies to guide parental involvement in math,
science, or other subjects and, therefore, did not feel comfortable about requesting
involvement in these subjects. The research raised several questions:
• Could an interactive homework process be designed that would help

teachers involve all families with their children at home in math, science,
writing, and other subjects?
• Could interactive assignments be conducted successfully by students at
different grade levels, with varying abilities, and in diverse communities?

• If teachers involved students in activities with family partners in math,
science, or other subjects, would students increase their skills, improve
attitudes, and complete more homework in these subjects?
To address these questions, my colleagues and I worked with educators, families,

and students in the elementary and middle grades to design and study interactive
homework and its effects (Van Voorhis and Epstein, 2002). Exploratory work also
was conducted with high school educators, families, and students to learn if and
how interactive homework might work in high schools.
TIPS prototype activities show teachers how to design research-based interactive
homework assignments in math, science/health, and language arts. In TIPS activities,
students may demonstrate their mastery of skills; conduct experiments; share ideas;
obtain reactions and suggestions; conduct surveys or interviews; gather parents’
memories of their own experiences as children, or memories of the students as young
children; apply a skill to real life; or work with family members in other ways. The
interactions are conducted by the students in ways that enable all parents to become
involved in learning activities at home.
Different school subjects pose different challenges and require different designs
for successful interactions. The next sections describe TIPS Math, TIPS Science, and
TIPS Language Arts Interactive Homework. A few sample interactive homework
assignments are included at the end of this reading to illustrate TIPS Math, Science,
and Language Arts for the elementary and middle grades, and there is a high school
activity in social studies.
TIPS MATH
In studying interactive homework in math, we learned that teachers worried that

parents did not know how their children were being taught math in school. Parents
worried that they might confuse their children about math. And children com-
plained, cried, or argued, “You don’t do it like my teacher does it.”
The teachers knew that they could not teach all parents how to teach math, and
that parents did not want to do this. Consequently, most families did not talk much
about math with their children, and many did not approach math positively.
TIPS Math was designed to put parents, students, and teachers at ease in their
interactions about math at home. TIPS Math:
• illustrates clearly how the teacher taught the skill in class;

• allows students to demonstrate, discuss, and celebrate their mastery of
new math skills;
• enables parents to stay informed about their children’s math work; and
• encourages parents to communicate with teachers about their
observations, comments, or questions concerning their children’s math
homework and progress in math.

Math in the middle grades is more complex than is math in younger grades, mak-
ing it even harder for most parents to monitor or assist their children. TIPS Math
assignments in the middle grades guide early adolescents to review math skills and
to talk with family partners about how each math skill is used in real-life situations.
Exploratory fieldwork with TIPS Math in elementary schools in a low-income
community in Illinois suggested that interactive homework was easily implemented,
and that just about all parents were able to participate. An early study of TIPS Math
was conducted in three sixth grade classes in one middle school. The study compared
levels of family involvement and math achievement of students completing TIPS
Math interactive assignments with student completing noninteractive math assign-
ments (i.e., without directions for the student to involve a family member in the as-
signment). Results indicated that parents appreciated the student-led interactions,
students and parents reported more positive conversations with students about
math. Most students believed that the interactions helped them be more prepared
and successful in math class. In that study, students had the same math teacher, and
all three math classes improved in achievement. However, students assigned TIPS
Math interactive homework had significantly more interactions with parents and
more positive attitudes about math than did students who were assigned traditional
math homework (Balli, 1998; Balli, Demo, and Wedman, 1998).
Van Voorhis (in press) improved research on TIPS Math with a longitudinal study
of students in the elementary grades. Van Voorhis followed 153 students and their
families from grade 3 through grade 4 in schools in an urban system in a southern
state (2009a; in press). Compared to students in control (non-TIPS) classes, students
assigned TIPS assignments and their parents reported significantly more family in-
volvement in math, more positive attitudes and “happy” emotions about math
homework and about doing math together, and higher math achievement test scores,
controlling on prior test scores.
Links to Curriculum
TIPS Math interactive homework should be an integral part of the math curriculum.
(See Anderson and Gold, 2006; Remillard and Jackson, 2006, for related research
on the connections of families and the math curriculum.) At each grade level, stu-
dents can show family members that they are mastering major math skills. For ex-
ample, TIPS Math prototype activities in grade 1 include more than 35 math skills,
including counting from 1 to 100; writing numerals for sets of tens and ones; adding
two-digit numbers without regrouping; and learning shapes, fractions, graphs, and
other skills. TIPS Math in grade 5 includes more than 35 activities, such as estimat-
ing quotients, adding and subtracting mixed numerals, identifying line segments
and rays, comparing unlike fractions, solving word problems requiring multiplica-
tion, creating graphs, and other skills. TIPS Math for the middle grades includes 20
prototype activities that help students review basic skills and focus on problem-
solving and real-world applications.

From year to year, TIPS Math should help families see that their children’s math
skills are increasing and how new skills build on earlier activities. For example,
graphing is introduced in grade 1 and 2 when students share picture graphs with
their family partners. By grade 5, students demonstrate how they construct their
own bar graphs and line graphs. Graphs also are included in TIPS Science activities
in the middle grades to help students observe and classify information systematically.
Graphing is a good interactive homework assignment at all grade levels across the
curriculum because children enjoy the challenge of creating and interpreting graphs,
as well as sharing information with their families.
Format
TIPS Math enables students to show parents or other family members what they
learned in math class and how they practice new skills. The activities also guide
student-parent discussions on how to apply specific skills in real-world problems.
TIPS Math activities may include challenging games and problem-solving activities
related to the specific skills in the assignments. TIPS Math enables teachers to obtain
reactions from parents in home-to-school communications. Each interactive activity
includes the following sections:
Look This Over shows an example of a skill that was taught in class, and
allows the student to explain the skill to a parent or family partner. The
answer to the example is given.
Now Try This presents another example for the student to demonstrate how
to do the particular skill, with the answer on the back of the page.
Practice and More Practice are regular homework problems for the student
to master the skill.
Let’s Find Out or In the Real World may be added to help the student and
family partner discover and discuss how the math skill is used at home
or in common situations. Games or other interactions may be included
to reinforce the math skill.
Home-to-School Communication invites the parent to record an
observation, comment, or question for the math teacher about the skill
the student demonstrated.
Parent Signature is requested on each activity.
Presentation and Schedule
Each activity must be prepared in readable type on two sides of one page and be
printed on light colored paper to stand out in students’ notebooks. TIPS Math
should be assigned on a regular schedule (e.g., once a week or twice a month) to

help students and families talk about math at home and to help parents see what
their children are learning in math. In one school, a parent wrote about TIPS Math:
“When I see that yellow paper, I know that is important homework for my son to
complete with me.” Another noted: “Send more of these. I forgot how to do this. It
was fun for us.”
Materials Available
TIPS Math interactive homework materials include over 200 prototype assignments
for basic math skills from kindergarten through grade 5 and 20 prototype activities
for functional math in the middle grades (Van Voorhis and Epstein, 2002). There
also are teacher manuals for implementing TIPS in the elementary and middle grades
(Epstein, Salinas, and Van Voorhis, 2001). Two examples of TIPS Math activities
for the elementary and middle grades are included in the appendix to this reading:
Fractional Parts Sample TIPS Math (elementary grades)

I Mean It! Sample TIPS Math (middle grades)
TIPS SCIENCE
In studying interactive homework in science, we learned that most elementary

school teachers did not have much time to teach science. After teaching math, read-
ing, and language arts every day, many teachers had one block of time in which to
fit social studies, science, art, music, physical education, and other subjects and ac-
tivities. Because of the lack of class time, and, until recently, often a lack of attention
to science on standardized tests, few elementary teachers ever assigned science home-
work. Teachers almost never expected family involvement except on science fair
projects, which often were isolated from the regular science program.
In the mid-1980s, the National Science Foundation called for at least 30 minutes
of science instruction per day in the elementary grades, but few schools met that
standard. This was confirmed in a national study that reported that only 25 percent
of states and 40 percent of school districts in the nation required even minimum
amounts of time for math or science in the elementary grades (Resnick and Resnick,
1985). Specific requirements for class time usually referred to math, not science.
It was clear from national assessments and international comparisons that ele-
mentary and middle-grade students in the United States were not getting enough
science instruction and had few opportunities to work as scientists with hands-on
activities. In the 1990s, a national education goal called for the country to be “first
in the world” in math and science by the year 2000. To begin to work toward that
goal, science was added to national, state, and international lists of standards and
assessments to make schools more accountable for science instruction. The goal for
all students’ science learning was not achieved by 2000. Indeed, according to statis-

tics from the U.S. Department of Education, 82 percent of this nation’s twelfth
graders performed “below the proficient level” in science in 2000 (U.S. Department
of Education, 2004).
The goal for advancing science teaching and learning was reset for 2014 in
NCLB. Yet, unlike math and reading—required on state achievement tests every
year for students in grades 3 to grade 8—NCLB required science tests only once
per school level, starting in 2007. It is clear that although some students in some
schools take advanced science courses and attain world-class science skills, most
students in the U.S. receive relatively little science instruction and have few oppor-
tunities to gain or share science knowledge.
Very few schools have organized programs to involve all families with their chil-
dren in regularly scheduled interactive science homework. Most parents have no
idea what their children are learning in science in the elementary grades and rarely
talk with their children about science at home. In the middle grades, most students
have daily science classes, but most students and families still do not converse about
science at home.
TIPS Science addresses some of these issues. TIPS activities require students to
work as scientists, involve a family “assistant,” discuss conclusions, and interview
family members about how science affects them in everyday life. TIPS Science:
• encourages teachers to introduce science topics in class and follow up

with discussions or demonstrations, after the TIPS interactive homework
assignments are completed;
• guides students to conduct, discuss, and enjoy science activities at home;
• enables parents to stay informed about their children’s science work and
progress; and
observations and questions concerning their children’s science
homework and progress in science.
Exploratory studies in TIPS Science in the middle grades indicated that parents
and students enjoyed their conversations about science, and they strongly recom-
mended that the school continue to use TIPS Science activities from year to year.
Teachers who introduced and discussed the homework assignments in class, before
students took them home, and who followed up the assignments with some discus-
sion, had students with higher rates of homework completion than did teachers who
did not follow these implementation strategies. Knowledge gained from several years
of field observations, interviews, and surveys of teachers, parents, and students
was incorporated in the TIPS manuals for teachers (Epstein et al., 2001).
New questions about the effects of TIPS Science homework in the middle grades
were explored by Van Voorhis (2003). She conducted a quasi-experimental study
of the TIPS Science process with 250 sixth- and eighth-grade science students in ten
classes of four teachers in a suburban middle school. Students in six classes received
weekly TIPS Science activities with specific guidelines for students to interact with
family partners in science experiments and activities. Students in four classes

received the same homework but with no guidelines for family involvement (non-
TIPS). Van Voorhis found that students who completed TIPS assignments reported
significantly higher family involvement in science than did students in the non-TIPS
classes. TIPS students also had higher science report card grades, even after account-
ing for the strong influence of students’ prior science abilities, parent education, and
the amount of homework completed.
Van Voorhis improved the early research on TIPS Science with a longitudinal
study of students in the middle grades. She followed 309 students and their families
from grade 7 through grade 8 in schools in a southern, suburban school district
(Van Voorhis, 2008, 2009b). After statistically controlling for gender, socioeconomic
status, students’ prior ability, and other background variables, TIPS students had
higher benchmark science test scores and report card grades than did students in
control (non-TIPS) classes. Compared to students in control (non-TIPS) classes, stu-
dents assigned TIPS Science assignments and their parents reported significantly
more family involvement in science, and more positive attitudes about science home-
work and about doing science together. Nearly all (98 percent) of the students and
families agreed that “TIPS science was a good idea.”
These strong studies with control groups for comparisons indicate that TIPS Sci-
ence added significantly and positively to students’ learning science. They showed
that even in the middle grades, interactive homework is one approach for students
to engage family partners in experiments and discussions about science.
Links to Curriculum
TIPS Science interactive homework should be an integral part of the science cur-
riculum. TIPS Science hands-on activities help students build science skills of ob-
servation, classification, hypothesizing, experimenting, graphing, recording data,
interpreting data, drawing conclusions, and discussing ideas with others at home
and in school. Prototype science activities emphasize writing across the curriculum
as students record information and summarize results and conclusions from exper-
iments and from interviews with family members.
Data collection in science becomes more complex across the grades. Simple charts
or lists in the early elementary grades lead to longer systematic collections of data
in the upper grades. Even young children, however, can keep track of data over time.
For example, one TIPS activity asks third graders to draw the moon each night that
it is visible for a month. An activity on osmosis asks seventh graders to chart changes
in an egg that is set in vinegar over several days.
TIPS Science activities enable students to talk about science with family members
at home and to see that science is all around us. For example, 12 prototype activities
in grade 3 cover topics of living things, matter, and earth and space; and approxi-
mately 40 activities for grade 8 introduce topics in chemistry and physics. TIPS
activities guide discussions on important issues as diverse as metric measures, pol-
lution, digestion, and carbon dating to help students and families discuss and share
opinions about the meaning of science in their lives at home and at school.

Some prototype science activities address health and mental health topics that
require students to conduct conversations, gather reactions, or collect data from
family members on good health and early adolescent development. Health may be
covered in science, physical education, advisory periods, or separate health classes.
Regardless of their formal education, just about all parents have ideas to share
about healthy development, such as good nutrition, the importance of exercise, or
ideas for making good decisions. Sometimes, however, parents do not know how to
begin to discuss sensitive topics with their children, such as adolescent sexual de-
velopment, AIDS, or drug abuse prevention. TIPS interactive homework assignments
on health topics give students opportunities and directions to start conversations
with family members and exchange ideas and opinions on health issues. Prototype
activities include such topics as physical changes in early adolescence; emotional
development; personal strengths, weaknesses, plans, and values; and making tough
decisions. Other sample activities include understanding sight/blindness; hearing;
drugs; and organ systems of the body, including the circulatory, respiratory, diges-
tive, excretory, nervous, reproductive, and endocrine systems.
Format
TIPS Science guides students to conduct and discuss hands-on “lab” activities at
home. All activities include a brief letter to parents explaining the topic and outline
the learning objectives, materials needed, directions for data collection, discussion
questions, conclusions, and home-to-school communications. Each interactive ac-
tivity includes the following sections:
Letter to parent, guardian, or family partner explains briefly the topic and
specific science skills involved in the activity. The student writes in the
due date and signs the letter.
Objectives explain the learning goal(s) of the activity. Materials are
common, inexpensive, and immediately available at home or easily
obtained. If they are not, the school should provide the materials.
Procedure guides the student, step by step. Each assignment includes hands-
on actions that require the student to think and act like a scientist.
Teachers may change, simplify, or increase the difficulty of activities to
meet the special needs of students.
Lab report or data chart gives space for the student to report findings.
Conclusions guide the student to discuss results and real-world applications
of science or health with family partners.
Home-to-school communication invites the parents to share comments
and observations with science teachers about whether their child
understood the homework, whether they all enjoyed the activity, and
whether the parents gained information about the student’s work in
science and health.

TIPS Science/Health activities must be prepared in readable type, on two sides of

one page, and be printed on light colored paper to stand out in students’ notebooks.
TIPS Science interactive homework should be assigned on a regular schedule (e.g.,
once a week or twice a month) to help students discuss their work in science and
health at home and to keep families aware of what their students are learning in
science and health classes.
Typical comments from parents on TIPS Science include “His thought process
was more mature than what I knew.” And “I think she could have done a better job
with the consequences.” Family partners’ comments on health activities include “I
am glad we discussed working with blind people.” And “This opened up an easier
way of communicating.”
Materials Available
TIPS Science prototypes are available for grade 3 and more than 100 examples are
prepared for various science units in the middle grades (6–8) (Van Voorhis and Ep-
stein, 2002). There also are teacher manuals for implementing TIPS Science in the
elementary and middle grades (Epstein et al., 2001). Two examples of TIPS Science
activities for the elementary and middle grades are included in the appendix to this
reading:
Living Things: The Importance of Animals Sample TIPS Science

(elementary grades)
On Your Mark, Get Set, Go! Sample TIPS Science
(middle grades)
TIPS LANGUAGE ARTS
In studying TIPS Language Arts, we found that teachers in the middle grades were
not as comfortable about guiding family involvement in reading, vocabulary, and
writing as were teachers in the elementary grades. Middle school educators wanted
assignments that went beyond asking parents to listen to their children read aloud or
to give practice spelling tests. They wanted students to conduct conversations
with family members about words, phrases, sentences, stories, speeches, themes,
and ideas.
Language arts is an excellent interactive subject because families like to listen to
what their children write; help children practice a speech; and share ideas and mem-
ories that make good topics for stories, poems, and essays. Data from students in
elementary, middle, and high schools show that students like to interview parents,
gather ideas, demonstrate skills, and share their work. TIPS Language Arts:

• encourages teachers to design homework that builds students’ skills in
reading, writing, speaking, and listening through communications with
family partners;
• guides students to conduct, discuss, and enjoy language arts activities at
home;
• enables parents to stay informed about their children’s language arts
work and progress; and
observations and questions concerning their children’s homework and
progress in language arts.
Research was conducted to study the influence of TIPS Language Arts on stu-
dents’ writing skills, language arts report card grades, and completion of TIPS in-
teractive homework assignments (Epstein, Simon, and Salinas, 1997). The study
included 683 students in grades 6 and 8 in two urban schools where over 70 percent
of the students qualified for free or reduced-price lunch. Students completed writing
samples in the fall, winter, and spring of the school year and provided their reactions
to TIPS. Parents also were surveyed on their attitudes toward TIPS and their partic-
ipation with their children in TIPS activities. Analyses statistically controlled for
family socioeconomic status, grade level, attendance, fall report card grades, and
fall writing sample scores, to identify the effects of TIPS on students’ skills in the
winter and spring and student and family attitudes at the end of the school year.
As might be expected, students with higher writing scores in the fall had higher
scores in the winter and spring. However, there also were some important homework-
related results. The more homework assignments students completed, the higher
were their language arts report card grades. The more parents participated, the bet-
ter they liked TIPS interactive homework, and the higher were their students’ writing
scores in the winter and spring.
Nearly 100 percent of the families surveyed agreed that TIPS gave them infor-
mation about what their children were learning in class. Over 80 percent of the stu-
dents reported that TIPS gave them a way to show their parents what they were
learning. Students said that they liked TIPS because they did not have to copy the
homework from the board, because it was not boring, and because they learned
something from or about their parents or families that they did not know before.
Most teachers reported that more children completed TIPS than other homework.
TIPS goals and the results of the study of the effects of TIPS Language Arts in the
middle grades are shown in Table 6.3.
Van Voorhis advanced research on TIPS Language Arts with a longitudinal study
of students in the middle grades. She followed 263 students and their families for
two years from grade 6 to 7 in schools in a southern, urban school district (Van
Voorhis, 2009a, b). In this diverse community, over 60 percent of the middle grades
students received free or reduced-price meals. Compared to non-TIPS students
whose teachers assigned language arts “homework as usual,” TIPS students and
families reported greater family involvement. Parents reported more positive attitudes

Goals of
Interactive Homework Summary of Results
For families . . . For families . . .

To increase family awareness of their Nearly 100% of the parents agreed that
children’s schoolwork TIPS gave them information about what
To increase family involvement in their children were learning in class,
children’s learning activities at home and approximately 90% advised the
linked to academic classes school to continue TIPS next year.
Over 80% of the families liked the TIPS
process (44% a lot; 36% a little). Most
were involved every week (40%) or
every other week (23%).
Parents who participated with their
children in more TIPS activities liked
TIPS better than did other parents, even
after accounting for other parental
monitoring of schoolwork.
For students . . . For students . . .
To increase students’ ability to talk about About 60% of the students said TIPS
schoolwork at home and the frequency activities are better than regular
of interactions with family members homework; 70% reported their parents
about homework liked TIPS; 82% believed TIPS “gives
To improve students’ homework me a way to show my parent what I am
completion in specific subjects learning in class”; and about 70%
To improve students’ skills in specific recommended that the school continue
subjects to use TIPS next year.
Students’ attitudes about TIPS were most
influenced by their attitudes toward
school and by their teachers’ attitudes
toward TIPS.
Students’ writing skills increased with
more family involvement in TIPS, even
after prior writing skills were taken into
account.
Students’ language arts report card grades
improved when more TIPS assignments
were completed, even after prior report
card grades and attendance were taken
into account.
For teachers . . . For teachers . . .
To enable teachers to assign interactive Six of the eight teachers liked the TIPS
homework designed to encourage process and reported that they could
students to share their ideas with family continue its use without assistance or
members supplies from the researchers.
To increase teachers’ understanding of Seven of eight teachers agreed that TIPS
families’ interest in their children’s work “helps families see what their children
are learning in class.”
TABLE 6.3 Linking the Goals of TIPS Interactive Homework to Results of a

Study of TIPS Writing in the Middle Grades
Source: Epstein, Simon, and Salinas (1997).
532
about talking and working with their middle school student on language arts home-
work. After statistically controlling background variables including prior test scores,
students who had TIPS Language Arts assignments for two years had higher stan-
dardized achievement test scores than the comparison groups.
Links to Curriculum
TIPS Language Arts interactive homework should be an integral part of the language
arts curriculum. TIPS Language Arts guides students to share a variety of skills in
writing, reading, grammar, wordplay, and related language arts activities. The stu-
dents do all of the reading and writing in the assignments, but students and family
members may discuss, share, and exchange ideas. Parents or other family members
may listen to students read their writing aloud; give reactions, ideas, memories, and
experiences; and interact in other ways.
TIPS Language Arts interactive homework prototype assignments focus on skills
such as writing descriptive sentences, letters, stories, tall tales, poems, and speeches;
elaborating ideas and details; improving grammar; and studying words and mean-
ings such as similes, homonyms, analogies, context clues, multiple meanings, and
chronological order. TIPS sample writing activities show teachers how to design
homework that guides students to plan their writing, discuss ideas, write a draft,
read aloud, and edit and improve their work.
TIPS writing assignments should help students improve their skills from their
own starting points. For example, the same assignment may help some students
write a short paragraph while other students write a long essay. TIPS also helps
students edit their work. When they read their writing aloud to someone at home,
students are more likely to see and hear how their words and punctuation should
be changed or corrected.
Format
TIPS Language Arts activities include the following sections:
Letter to parent, guardian, or family partner explains the purpose of the

activity. The student writes in the due date and signs the letter.
Objectives explain the learning goal of the activity (if this is not clear from
the title and letter).
Materials are listed if more than paper and pen are needed.
Writing activities include the following sections:
Prewriting gives the student space to plan a letter, essay, or story by

outlining, brainstorming, listing, designing nets and webs, or other
planning activities.

First draft gives the student space to write and edit. A student who needs
more space may add paper. Some teachers ask the student to write a
final copy on other paper at home or at school.
Interactions such as a family survey or interview guide students to interview
someone for ideas or memories, read work aloud for reactions, edit their
work based on responses, practice a speech, take turns with others in
giving ideas, or other interactions.
Home-to-school communication invites the parents to share comments and
observations with language arts teachers about whether their child
understood the homework, whether they all enjoyed the activity, and
whether the parents gained information about the student’s work in
language arts.
Each activity must be prepared in clear, readable type on two sides of one page and
be printed on light colored paper so that it stands out in the students’ notebooks.
TIPS Language Arts homework should be assigned on a regular schedule (e.g., once
a week or every other week) to help students share their work and to keep families
aware of what their children are learning in language arts or English classes. One
parent wrote in a home-to-school communication about TIPS Language Arts: “I
can tell from Jenneaka relating the story to me that she really enjoyed reading it.”
Another wrote: “Very interesting assignment. I enjoyed this and it brought back
good memories.”
Materials Available
More than 100 TIPS Language Arts prototype assignments are available for the
middle grades (6–8). There also are teacher manuals for implementing TIPS Lan-
guage Arts in the middle grades (Epstein et al., 2001; Van Voorhis and Epstein,
2002). The process and activities can be adapted for use in other grades. Two ex-
amples of TIPS Language Arts are included in the appendix to this reading. Origi-
nally designed for the middle grades, one shows how an interactive assignment can
be revised for an elementary grade (grade 4), and one illustrates the greater difficulty
appropriate in the middle grades.
Hairy Tales Sample TIPS Language Arts (elementary grades)

A Helping Hand Sample TIPS Language Arts (middle grades)

GOALS OF TIPS INTERACTIVE HOMEWORK
The prototype activities in math, science, and language arts show that the content
and goals of different subjects require different designs for interactive homework.
Nevertheless, TIPS activities in all subjects have some common goals for students,
parents, and teachers. TIPS activities aim to:
• increase students’ ability and willingness to talk about schoolwork at

home and increase the frequency of these interactions;
• increase students’ knowledge about real-world applications and the
usefulness of skills learned in school;
• improve students’ skills and homework completion in specific subjects;
• increase parents’ awareness of their children’s schoolwork;
• increase parents’ confidence about talking with their children about
schoolwork and homework;
• increase parents’ involvement in their children’s learning activities at
home that are linked to class work;
• enable teachers to design homework that encourages students to share
their work with family members;
• increase teachers’ positive attitudes about families’ interest in their
children’s work;
• increase positive attitudes of students, parents, and teachers about
homework; and
• increase opportunities for students and parents to celebrate the mastery
of skills and progress in learning.
HOW TO DEVELOP A TIPS INTERACTIVE

HOMEWORK PROGRAM FOR ANY SUBJECT
Because TIPS interactive homework must match the curriculum that is taught in
class, it is necessary to review, select, or design homework assignments that will be
used throughout the school year in each school or school district. The following
steps guide the development of TIPS interactive homework in any school, in any
grade level, and in any subject (Epstein and Van Voorhis, 2009).
1. Select the subject(s) for interactive homework. List or outline the major
curriculum objectives, concepts, and skills that will be taught each week
over one school year.
2. Select one skill for each week of the school year that would promote
productive, family-friendly interactions. From the outline of learning
objectives, identify one skill that will be taught or reviewed each week
that lends itself well to an enjoyable and useful interaction between
students and family members.

3. Select or design one interactive homework assignment for each of the
weekly skills identified. Review the existing TIPS prototype activities to
find those that match the selected skills or those that may be easily
adapted. If appropriate prototype activities do not exist, design new
interactive homework assignments to accompany the class lessons.
Following are some helpful design elements:
• Keep the activities short and focused. TIPS assignments should fit on
two sides of one page. They should ask students to involve family
partners for up to 20 minutes, even if the students have more work
to do on TIPS or other assignments.
• Require only inexpensive and readily available materials, or provide
the students with the necessary materials.
• Include enjoyable and thoughtful student-family interactions in
every activity.
• Draw on real-life experiences that are common to all families and
that are not dependent on parents’ formal education.
• Include a place for “home-to-school” communications on every
activity so that parents may send a message back to the teacher
about their interactions with their children on the assignment.
• Print the TIPS assignments on light colored paper so they do not get
lost in students’ notebooks. Use the same color for all assignments in
particular subjects so that students and families become familiar, for
example, with yellow TIPS Math or blue TIPS Science activities.
4. Work with other teachers. Teachers who teach the same subjects at the same
grade level can share the work of designing interactive homework. Teachers
from the same school or school district may work together to plan, discuss,
write, edit, test, and revise the TIPS assignments, format for the computer,
and add related graphics. Then, the resulting TIPS activities can be shared
and used or adapted by all teachers who use the same or similar curricula.
5. Use the summer to plan, produce, revise, format, and computerize activities
so that they will be easily accessible to teachers and ready for students and
families for the next school year. Homework should be part of school plans
for improving the curriculum, instruction, and family involvement. Federal,
state, district, and school funds may be available for improving the curricu-
lum and should support teachers’ time during the summer to design, de-
velop, and organize TIPS interactive homework assignments for the next
school year.
HOW TO IMPLEMENT TIPS INTERACTIVE HOMEWORK
Once the TIPS assignments are selected, adapted, or designed, teachers must develop
plans and set schedules to effectively implement, evaluate, and maintain TIPS. This
begins with an orientation of students and parents to the new approach to home-
work. Following are some key implementation guidelines.

Orient Parents and Students to TIPS
Students and parents need to be well prepared to conduct TIPS interactive home-
work successfully. Students need to know that they are responsible for all homework,
and that they will conduct the interactions with family members in TIPS assign-
ments. Students also need to hear frequently from the teacher that their families are
important; that students are essential for the success of connections between school
and home; and that students are expected to show and share their work, ideas, and
progress at home. This information must be shared at the start of the school year
and reinforced periodically throughout the year.
Parents need to know the goals of TIPS assignments, their children’s responsibil-
ities to share their work, how parents should help, and the schedule for TIPS activ-
ities so that they can plan time for these interactions. Parents also need to hear
frequently from the teacher that it is important for them to monitor their children’s
homework and to motivate and interact with their children.
To introduce parents to TIPS, teachers and principals may send a letter to all par-
ents, announce the process in a newsletter, introduce and explain TIPS at parent-
teacher meetings and conferences, and discuss the process with parents on other
occasions. Teachers may conduct classroom or grade-level meetings to show parents
examples of TIPS activities on an overhead projector and discuss with them how to
proceed when their children bring TIPS activities home. Parents who cannot attend
these meetings should be contacted by phone, paired with a “buddy” parent, or pro-
vided with easy-to-follow information from the orientation session.
Teachers must introduce each TIPS homework assignment in class and discuss
each assignment with their students. By taking five minutes of class time to go over
TIPS interactive homework, teachers will ensure that most or all students under-
stand the sections that they will explain or share at home. Teachers should ask stu-
dents if they have any questions about the directions or about their responsibilities
for conducting interactions with family partners. This is the time for students to
sign the short letter to parents in science or language arts assignments and to note
when the assignment is due, so that they can plan when to complete the assignment
when a parent or family member is available. This also is the time to reinforce the
importance of students’ interactions with family members at home. If teachers take
five minutes in class to introduce the homework, point out the interactive sections,
and discuss students’ questions, all or most students will be able to conduct and
complete the assignment at home.
Give Students Adequate Time to

Complete Interactive Assignments
Some teachers give students two or more days to interact with family members and
complete the homework. This ensures that even if parents are not available on one
evening, they may be able to interact with students sometime the next day or
evening. Some teachers assign TIPS homework over the weekend. In several studies,

parents reported that they have time on the weekends to talk with their children
about schoolwork.
Follow Up Each Assignment
Teachers should follow up the completed assignments with short, stimulating class-
room discussions or demonstrations that reinforce or enrich the homework. Even a
five-minute discussion reinforces the importance of completing homework on time
and allows students to share some interactions they had with their families. Evalu-
ations of TIPS indicate that teachers who regularly introduce and follow up the as-
signments have more students who complete their homework well.
Treat TIPS Assignments Like Other Homework
TIPS interactive homework should be collected, graded, and returned like other
homework. Teachers are asked to specify points for completing each section of the
TIPS assignment so that students understand that TIPS, like other homework, will
be marked and will contribute to their report card grades.
Answer Parents’ Questions
The home-to-school communication section at the end of every TIPS assignment gives
parents a place for comments or questions and encourages two-way communication
between school and home. Teachers must follow up parents’ questions by phone,
notes, e-mail, or other communication on a regular schedule that is known to par-
ents. For example, parents may be told that if they ask a question on a TIPS activity,
the teacher will respond within one week or other reasonable time period.
Recognize Good Work
Some teachers award Family-School Partnership Certificates of Merit (or other recog-
nitions) after students complete a certain number of TIPS interactive homework activ-
ities with their families. This lets students and families know that the school recognizes
and appreciates the time that parents or other family partners spend on interactive
homework. This may be done once or twice a year or for each report card period.
Evaluate the Implementation and Effects of TIPS
There are two “built-in” evaluations in all TIPS assignments. First, students are ex-
pected to complete TIPS activities just as they do all homework assignments. Teach-
ers should discuss, collect, grade, and return TIPS in the same way that they do

other homework. Thus, students’ homework completion and skills can be recorded
for each assignment.
Second, every TIPS activity includes a section for home-to-school communica-
tions. In this section, parents report their observations of whether the child seemed
to understand the assignment, whether it was enjoyable for everyone, and whether
they have any questions about the assignment for the teacher. Teachers should mon-
itor this section, record whether students shared their work with a family partner,
and note whether they need to call or write to parents to respond to their questions.
Parents’ reactions to assignments should be noted to determine which activities
should be edited or eliminated from year to year.
At the start of the school year when the first TIPS activities are assigned, educators
should conduct a short, targeted assessment of whether students and parents under-
stand the TIPS interactive homework process. Teachers or counselors should call par-
ents who are not involved initially to see if they understand the TIPS process and to
assure them that they do not have to “teach” their children school subjects—but sim-
ply encourage the student to conduct the interactions. This implementation-check
will help maximize the number of students who are able to engage their family part-
ners in conversations about schoolwork, as well as the number of parents who know
how to encourage their children to take the lead in discussing the TIPS activities.
Formal evaluations of TIPS may be designed with school, district, or external re-
searchers to determine the added value of homework to class lessons (Van Voorhis,
2003; in press).
For more information on what teachers, administrators, parents, and students
do to successfully conduct interactive homework, see the TIPS implementation man-
uals (Epstein et al., 2001) and guidelines and examples at www.partnershipschools
.org—follow links to “TIPS interactive homework.” (Also see other research on
homework in Reading 3.8, discussions in Chapter 3.)
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American Educational Research Association (AERA), San Diego, CA.
———. (In press). Adding families to the homework equation: A longitudinal study of family
involvement and mathematics achievement. Education and Urban Society.
Van Voorhis, F. L., and J. L. Epstein. (2002). Teachers involve parents in schoolwork: Inter-
active Homework CD. Baltimore: Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships,
Johns Hopkins University. Includes 500 prototype assignments in math (grades K–5 and
middle grades review), and language arts and science (grades 6–8).
Xu, J. (2003). Purposes for doing homework reported by middle and high school students.
Journal of Education Research 99: 46–55.
Xu, J., and L. Corno. (2003). Family help and homework management reported by middle
school students. Elementary School Journal 103: 503–537.
APPENDIX
Sample Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS)

Activities in Math, Science, and Language Arts in the
Elementary and Middle Grades, and High School Social Studies
Fractional Parts Sample TIPS Math (elementary)

I Mean It! Sample TIPS Math (middle grades)
Living Things—The Sample TIPS Science (elementary)
Importance of Animals
On Your Mark, Get Set, Go! Sample TIPS Science (middle grades)
Hairy Tales Sample TIPS Language Arts (elementary)
A Helping Hand Sample TIPS Language Arts (middle grades)
Why Do We Need Government? Sample TIPS Social Studies (high school)*
* An exploratory study with one high school showed that teachers in all departments (math, science, so-
cial studies, English, and family life) were able to develop interactive assignments that students enjoyed
conducting with a family partner. TIPS materials have not been developed for full courses at the high
school level. Teachers and curriculum leaders may use the guidelines for developing TIPS provided in this
chapter, or contact the author to conduct a TIPS development project in specific subjects in high school.

Date_ _ _ __
Student's Name
-------------------------
TIPS: FRACTIONAL PARTS
Dear Family Partner,
My class is learning how to write fractions. This activity will let me show you what I know about
fractions. We can talk about how we use fractions at home. This assignment is due_ __
Sincerely,
L..
Student's signature
·················-····-···············-·····.. ····-··················..·······--··-··-·--····-···········-···············-·········--·········-· ························--··· ..........1
I. LOOK THIS OVER: Explain this example to your family partner.
SAMPLE: What part of the shape is shaded?
Count the parts: 2 parts
How many are shaded?: 1 part
1 part out of 2 parts = 1 part

out of
2 parts
Answer: of the shape is shaded.
II. NOW, TRY THIS: Show !JOUr famii~J partner how IJOU do this example.
EXAMPLE: What part of the shape is shaded?
Count the parts:
How man\j are shaded?:
Answer:
If you need some help, ask your family partner to go over the example with you.
When you understand the work, explain what you did.
Complete these examples on !JOUr own.

Ill. PRACTICE SECTION:
Explain one example to ~JOUr famil\j partner.
What part of the following shapes are shaded?
1. 2.
Answer: Answer:
(continues)
541
What part of the following shapes are shaded?
3. 4.
~Ill
Answer: Answer:
5. G. (Create a shape of your own)
Answer: Answer:
DI9CU9910N: 1) Wtth a family partner, look over the examples you finished and
tell what fractional parts are NOT SHADED
2) Ask a family partner: When do you use fractions at home?_ __
ANSWER TO "NOW, TRY THIS":

Count the parts: 8 parts
How many are shaded?: 3 parts
3 parts out of 8 parts = 3 parts

out of
Answer: is shaded 8 parts
8
IV. HOME TO SCHOOL COMMUNICATION:
Parent Observation: Please let me know your reactions to your child's work on this activity.
O.K. Child seems to understand this skill
PLEASE CHECK. Child needed some help on this, but seems to understand.
PLEASE HELP. Child still needs instruction on this skill.
PLEASE NOTE. (other comments) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Parent's signature: - - - - - - - - -
Epstein, J.L., It Qalinas, K.C. (revised 2000). Teachers Involve Parents in 9choolworlc (TiP9) lnt~racflvo Homework for tho Elornontal'\j Orodos.
Baltirnoro: Cantor on 9chool, Farnily, and Community Partnerships, Johns Hopkins University.
542
542
Date_______
Student's Name
-------------------------
I. LOOK THIS OVER: Explain this example to your family partner.

Remember: To find the average (mean) for a set of data:
1) add all of the data;
2) divide by the number of pieces of data; and
3) round to the nearest whole number if necessary.
DATA: 4, 9, 5, G, 11
ADO: 4 + 9 + 5 + G + 11 :;: 35
5 pieces of data
DIVIDE by Number of Items in Set: 35 + 5 :;: 7
AVERAGE (MEAN) = 7
II. NOW, TRY THIS: Show your family member how you do this example.
DATA: 7, 13, 23, 3, 17, 9, 12
ADO:
DIVIDE by Number of Items:
AVERAGE (MEAN) =
Complete these examples on your own. Show your
Ill. PRACTICE SECTION:
work. Explain one example to your family partner.
1. List the ages of all your family and find the mean age.
DATA:
ADO:
DIVIDE by Number of Items
AVERAGE (MEAN) :;: Is your age close to the mean?_ _ _ __
2. Find the mean shoe size for all of your family (round half sizes up).
DATA:
ADO:
D
~
AVERAGE (MEAN) :;: Is your shoe size close to the mean?______

3. Find the mean height (in inches) of all of your family.
DATA:
ADO:
AVERAGE (MEAN) :;: Is your height close to the mean?_ _ ___
(continues)
543
IN THE REAL WORLD ...
People use averages or means to report survey results. Poll four family members or
friends. Include at least one family member.
ASK: How many hours each day do you work (at school, at a job, or at home)?
How many hours each night do you sleep? (Fill in the chart below with your data)
Names of people Number of hours of Number of hours

you surveyed work each day (at school, of sleep each day
at a job, or at home)
1.
2.
3.
4.
AVERAGE (MEAN) = AVERAGE (MEAN) =
Find the average (mean) amount of time the people you selected work and sleep each day.
WORKSPACE:
Explain your results to a family member. Discuss with your family member:
Would I find the same means if I surveyed only friends my own age? Why or why not?
AN9WER TO "NOW, TRY TH19":

ADD: 7 + 13 + 23 + 3 + 17 + 9 + 12 = 84
DIVIDE by Number of Items: 84 + 7 = 12
AVERAGE (MEAN) = 12
IV. HOME TO 9CHOOL COMMUNICATION:
Dear Parent/Family Partner,

Please give me your reactions to your child's work on this activity.
Write YE9 or NO for each statement.
__My child understood the homework and was able to complete it.
__My child and I enjoyed the activity.
__This assignment helped me know what my child is learning in math.
Any other comments: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Parent's signature:
Epstein, J.l., 9alinaa, K.C., & Jackoon, V. (revised 2000). Toachors Involve Paronto In 9choolwoolc (TIP9) lntoractivo Homework for tho Middle
Grades. Baltimore: Cantor on 9chool, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johns Hopkins University.
544
544
Student's Name Date
------------------------- ------
TIPS: LIVING THINGS--THE IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS

We are learning to identify useful products that come from animals. This activity will help build
science skills in observing, recording information, and drawing conclusions. I hope you enjoy this
activity with me. The assignment is due _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ,
Sincerely,
Student's signature
To identify useful products from animals and to draw

OBJECTIVE:
conclusions about the importance of animals in our lives.
MATERIALS: Pen or pencil
PROCEDURE:
1. Discuss with your family partner different kinds of products that come from
animals. Write a list of these products at the top of the Lab Report.
2. Observe objects in your living room, bedroom, and kitchen. In the kitchen,
make sure to look in the refrigerator and cupboards for products that come
from animals.
3. Record on the Lab Report the items that come from animals or animal
products.
4. Next to each item on the Lab Report, write the animal the item is from.
5. Read your list of animal products to your family member. Add any other items
that your family member suggests.
(continues)
545
DATA CHART:
Fill in the animal products you found and the animals the items come from:
ROOM ITEMS FROM ANIMALS OR WHICH ANIMAL?

ANIMAL PRODUCTS
LIVING ROOM 1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
BEDROOM 1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
KITCHEN 1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
Discuss the following questions with your
CONCLUSIONS:
family member. Write complete sentences.
1. Which animal gave important food products to your home? - - - - - -
2. Which animal gave important non-food items to your home?
3. Which animal do you think is the most important to people? Why? _ __
HOME TO SCHOOL COMMUNICATION:
Dear Parent/Family Partner,

Write YE9 or NO for each statement.
__My child understood the homework and was able to discuss it.
__My child and I enjoyed the activity.
__This assignment helped me know what my child is learning in science.
Any other comments:
Parent's Signature:
Epstein, J.L., & Salines, K.C. (revised !2000). Teachers Involve Parents in Qchoolwork (TIP9) Interactive Homework for the Elementary
Grades. Baltimore: Center on 9chool, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johne Hopkine University.
546
Student's Name_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Date- - - - - -
TIPS: ON YOUR MARK, GET SET, GO!
Dear Famil\j Partner,
In science we are stud\jing the phases of matter. This activit\j focuses on liquids to help build
skills in observing, recording, and drawing conclusions. I hope \jOU enjo\j this activit\j with me.
This activit\j is d u e - - - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - -
9incerel\j.
OBJECTIVE: To understand viscosity-a liquid's resistance to flow
MATERIALS: ONE TEASPOON of 3-5 liquids that have different

thicknesses-such as catsup, mustard, water,
syrup, honey, milk, or others that your family
partner will allow you to use.
Also, baking pan, teaspoon, clock with second hand
or count seconds.
PROCEDURE:
1. Explain the following to a family partner to share what we are learning in class:
Who is working with you?
Some liquids are thicker and more viscous than others. They flow slowly.
Some liquids are thinner and less viscous than others. Theij flow quickly.
2. With your family partner decide: Which 3-5 liquids will you test?
a. d. _ _ _ _ _ _ __
b. _ _ _ _ _ __ e. _________
c. _________
3. Tilt the pan and prop it up against something like a phone book so that it is at an
angle {between 45° - 60°). At about what angle is your pan tilted?_ _ __
One of you will put each liquid in the pan and identify the finish line. The other will
serve as the timer. You can check each other to get an accurate observation.
Start each teaspoon of a new liquid at the same level at the top of the pan at least
one inch away from the previous liquid. Make sure the pan remains tilted at the
same angle for each test. When you are ready with all of the materials, do these
steps:
a. Place one teaspoon of liquid at the top of \jOUr pan.
b. Time the seconds it takes for the liquid to reach the "finish line" at the bottom of the pan.
c. Record the information on the Data Chart.
d. Continue until \jOU have tested each teaspoon of liquid.
(continues)
547
DATA CHART
LIQUID SECONDS TO OBSERVATION

"FINISH" LINE HOW VISCOUS IS IT7
CONCLUSIONS:
1. Which liquid finished

first (fastest)
midwaiJ
last (slowest)
2. Which liquid has high viscositiJ?
3. Which liquid has low viscositiJ?
4. Wh!J was it important that !JOUr pan remained at the same angle for each test?
FAMILY SURVEY:
ASK: Can you think of any foods or other products that use viscosity (how fast or slow the
flow) as part of the advertising to get you to buy it?
FamiiiJ member's idea - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
M!Jidea ----------------------------------------------------
Wh!J is high viscositiJ (slow flow) a good feature (or a bad feature) of a product you use?
Wh!J is low viscositiJ (quick flow) a good feature (or a bad feature) of a product you use?

Dear Parent/FamiiiJ Partner,
Please give me !JOUr reactions to !JOUr child's work on this activitiJ.
Write YES or NO for each statement.
__MIJ child understood the homework and was able to discuss it.
__MIJ child and I enjo~Jed the activitiJ.
__This assignment helped me know what miJ child is learning in science.
AniJ other comments:
Parent's signature:
Epstein, J.L. , Salines, K.C., & Jackson, V. (revised !ZOOO) . Teachers Involve Parents In Ochoolwork (TIPil) Interactive Homework for the Middle
Orades. Baltimore: Center on Ochool, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johna Hopkins University.
548
Student's Narne_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Date
------
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·- · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · -· ···· · · · · · ·-. . . .. .. . . . !.~.~-~: ...~~!~.~ . !.~'.~~·· ·
I Dear Family Partner,
I In language arts I am working on using information gathered from others to write explanations.
J For this assignment, I am comparing today's hairstyles with those of the past. I hope that you
I enjoy this activity with me. This assignment is due----~---------·
Sincerely,
Student's signature
!... .. .. ... ............................................. ······- · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·-· · · --·· · ··· · · · ··· · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. .. .... ..............J
Family Interview
FIND A FAMILY MEMBER TO INTERVIEW. Ask your family member to show you a
Who is it?_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ picture of a hairstyle from the past.
Draw a picture of the hairstyle here.
Ask:
1) In what decade were you born? (1960s,
1970s, etc.) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2) What is one hairstyle that was popular
when you were my age?
For boys:._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
For girls:._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
3) What hairstyle did you have when you were
my age?_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
4) Did your family agree with your choice of
hairstyle?_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
5) What is your favorite current hairstyle
and why?_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
6) What is your least favorite current hairstyle
and why?_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
First Draft
Use the information from your interview to write a paragraph about hairstyles.
Remember to:
• Give a paragraph a title.
• Be sure all of your sentences related to your topic.
• Use descriptive words to help explain the ideas.
• If you compare hairstyles, tell how they are alike and how they are different.
(continues)
549
Write your paragraph here
Title: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Read your paragraph aloud to your family partner. Revise or add sentences, as
needed.
Extension Activity
Select another topic for comparison-for example, clothing styles, ways to have fun, or
rules at home or school. What topic did you choose? - - - - - - - - - - -
Next to each "Q" line, write a question about your topic. Use your questions to interview
a family member. Write the family member's answer next to each "A" line.
1. Q:
A:
2. Q:
A:
3. Q:
A:
Horne-to-9chool Connection
Dear Parent/Guardian,
Your comments about your child's work in this activity are important.
Please write YEQ or NO for each statement:
__My child and I enjoyed this activity.
__This assignment helps me understand what my child is learning in language arts.
Other comments:
Epstein, J.L .. 9allnaa, K.C.. & Jackson, V. (revised !2000). Teachers Involve Parents In !lchoolwork (TIP9) Interactive Homework for tho Middle
Grades. Baltimore: Cantor on !lchool, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johns Hopkins Univaralty. (Adapted for tho elementary grades.)
550
550
Student's Name_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Date_ _ _ __
TIPS: A HELPING HAND

We are writing narrative paragraphs that include the use of specific details. I hope you enjoy
this activity with me. This assignment is due - - - - - - - - - - -
Sincerely,
Student's signature
THINGS TO REMEMBER:
Narrative writing-
• Tells a story
• Includes a definite beginning, middle, and end
• Uses details to support the main ideas in a clear sequence of events
PROCEDURE:
1. Read the following prompt. You may discuss it with your family member.
~PROMPT: A Helping Hand ~

Think of a time when \jOU needed help and saneone helped you. This person may
have been a teacher, a neighbor, a classmate, a friend, or a family member. Write one
paragraph or more to tell your teacher about a time when someone helped you.
Before you write, think about how the situation began. Think about who was
involved and when and where it occurred. Think about what happened as it continued
and how it ended. Think about \jOUr feelings toward the person who helped \jOU.
2. Complete the pre-writing chart below.

Topic: Purpose:
Audience: Form:
QUESTIONS ANSWERS DETAILS

Who helped you?
What happened
first?
Second?
Next?
Next?
Last?
Reactions?
(continues)
551
3. Now, write the rough draft of your paragraph. Remember your title,
topic sentence, and closing sentence.
Title:
4. Read what you have written to your family member.

Who is listening to you?
Add or delete details, or make other changes to improve your work.
FAMILY SURVEY-Ask: What experience do you remember when you were a teen
and someone helped you? You write the example that your family partner shares.
Use complete sentences.

Dear Parent,
Write YES or NO for each statement.
__My child and I enjoyed this activity
__This assignment helped me know what my child is learning in language arts
Any other comments:
Parent's Signature:
Epstein, J.L. , Salinas, K.C., & Jackson, V. (revised !ZOOO). Teachers Involve Parents In 9choolwork (TIP9) Interactive Homework for the Middle
Oradee. Baltimore: Centar on 9chool, Family, and Community Partnarships, Johns Hopkins Unlvarslty.
552
Student: Class/Period:
Date Assigned: - - - - - Date Due:
TIPS: WHY DO WE NEED GOVERNMENT?

How have social conditions changed over time?
Interview a parent or other family partner who is at least 20 years older than you.
Ask the following three questions. You record your family partner's opinions.
1. Compared to twenty years ago, have the following social conditions gotten
better, stayed the same, or gotten worse? Please tell me in what way.
SOCIAL Got Stayed Got IN WHAT WAY?

CONDITIONS Better the Same Worse
Education
Environment
Crime/violence
Taxes
Unemployment
Poverty
Health care
Race relations
Standard of living
Individual freedom
Family values
Foreign Relations
(continues)
553
2. Which TWO of the above topics do you think have been helped by governmental programs
over the past 20 years, and IN WHAT WAY? You record your family partner's opinions •
TWO areas helped by government IN WHAT WAY?
1.
2.
3. Which TWO of the above topics do you think could use MORE or l E99 help from
governmental programs ·over the next 5 or 10 years, and IN WHAT WAY? You record
your family partner's opinions.
TWO areas that you think need
MORE OR LE99 help from government IN WHAT WAY?
(circle one)
MOREorlE99__________________
MORE or LE99_________________
STUDENT VIEW
Use a separate page to write your views, based on your interview of a family partner. Attach
your work to this assignment.
a. Write a short summary of your views on how social conditions have changed
over the past 20 years.
b. Choose TWO social conditions from the list on the first page. Discuss your views:
Should thera be more or less attention over the next 5-10 years from federal, state, or
local government on the two social conditions you selected, and why?
Home-to-School Communication
Please ask your family partner for his/her views:
_Yes _No This assignment helped me know what my student Is learning In Oovernment/9ocial Studies.
Comments:
Family Partner's Signature:
Epstein, J.l. (2000) . Teachers Involve Parents in 9choolwork (TIP9) Interactive Homework for High 9chools. Baltimore: Center on 9chool,
Family, and Community Partnerahips, Johns Hopkins University. (Assignment suggested by Chesapeake High 9chool, Baltimore County.)
554
READING 6.3
Organizing Productive Volunteers
in the Middle Grades
TEACHERS INVOLVE PARENTS IN SCHOOLWORK (TIPS)

VOLUNTEERS IN SOCIAL STUDIES AND ART
Studies consistently show a dramatic decline in parent volunteers at the school build-
ing in the middle grades (see Readings 3.3 and 3.6). Middle-grade educators report
that they do not seek volunteers because they believe that students do not want
their parents at the school. Parents report that they do not volunteer in their chil-
dren’s middle schools, in part because many are working during the school day and
in part because they are not invited to volunteer. There are few programs or guide-
lines available to help educators engage parents productively as volunteers in the
middle grades. This section introduces one process that organizes volunteers in new
ways to support student learning in the middle grades.
OVERVIEW
The Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) Volunteers in Social Studies and
Art process integrates art appreciation into the social studies curriculum in the mid-
dle grades and increases the number of productive volunteers in middle schools.
The volunteers present prints of important artwork to increase students’ knowledge
and appreciation of art and to demonstrate connections of art with history, geogra-
phy, and social issues. Over three years of monthly presentations (e.g., in grades
6–8 or 7–9), students are introduced to the work of at least 24 artists from different
eras with varied artistic styles. The artists and their artwork are linked to specific
social studies curricular units. For example, when students study American history,
they see and learn about American artists; world history is linked to the work of
artists from around the world; government and citizen participation is linked to art-
work on themes of government and citizenship.
GOALS OF TIPS VOLUNTEERS IN SOCIAL STUDIES AND ART
The TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art process helps solve three long-standing
problems in the middle grades: a lack of easily implemented interdisciplinary cur-
ricula, a lack of productive family volunteers, and a lack of art appreciation educa-
tion to develop students’ cultural literacy (Catterall, 2009; Jackson, 1987).

Create an Integrated, Interdisciplinary Curriculum
Although most educators in the middle grades talk about the value of interdiscipli-
nary curricula, relatively few schools have implemented such programs, in part be-
cause it requires a great deal of teachers’ time to develop these connections.
Teachers, administrators, and others must work together during common planning
periods to develop and test lessons and materials. In most middle schools, students
still study most subjects separately, without much awareness of their connections.
TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art infuses major social studies units with re-
lated art prints, discussions and critiques, writing across the curriculum, and art ac-
tivities for homework or classwork.
Improve Family Involvement in the Middle Grades
Although parent volunteers are highly visible in the elementary grades, they all but
disappear in the middle grades. TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art creates
productive partnerships of social studies teachers and parents or other volunteers.
Volunteers research the selected artist and prints and develop presentations and
discussions that integrate art with the social studies curriculum. Once a month, the
same or other volunteers present the art prints and conduct discussions with stu-
dents in their social studies classes. The process provides new, substantive roles for
volunteers without requiring a great deal of the parents’ or teachers’ time. Parents
and other family members may volunteer in any classroom, not necessarily their
own child’s class. Other community volunteers also may participate (e.g., museum
staff or docents, high school or college art students, senior citizens). The presentations
of art “masterpieces” require a minimum of 20 minutes of volunteer time each month.
Increase Art Appreciation in the Middle Grades
Art appreciation often is omitted from students’ education in the middle grades.
Required or elective art courses, if available at all, often are short-term, “ex-
ploratory” experiences in art techniques and media. These are important and nec-
essary but insufficient experiences for students, because short courses do little to
connect art with other subjects or to emphasize art history, criticism, and appreci-
ation. The TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art process organizes monthly pre-
sentations on artists and their work to extend all students’ understanding about art
in history and in the human experience.
Link with Curriculum
To show how the TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art works, 40 prints were
selected and prototype presentations were prepared that connect to three social

studies units: American History, World Cultures, and Government and Citizen Par-
ticipation (Epstein and Salinas, 1991). American History linkages are made in pro-
totype presentations of prints of artwork by Frederic Remington, Currier and Ives,
Edward Hicks, Horace Pippin, Georgia O’Keeffe, Romare Bearden, Robert
Rauschenberg, Andy Warhol, and others representing a range of artists from differ-
ent eras with diverse backgrounds and styles of painting. Similarly, prototype lessons
for social studies units on World Cultures include presentations of work by artists
from da Vinci to Picasso and the lessons on Government and Citizen Participation
include prints by artists from Vermeer to Mondrian.
EVALUATION
A case study evaluating the effects on student learning about art was conducted in
an urban middle school, serving approximately 80 percent African American stu-
dents and 20 percent white students. At the time of the study, about 40 percent of
the school’s students were eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. The school scored
higher in reading than most middle schools in the city, but did not meet the state’s
standards in math, writing, or student attendance. Approximately 400 students in
grades 6 through 8 were included in the study of how students reacted to the TIPS
Volunteers in Social Studies and Art program and what they learned (Epstein and
Dauber, 1995).
Results indicated that students increased their awareness of art and developed
attitudes and preferences for different styles of art. On their survey forms, about
80 percent of the students commented on an art print they liked, disliked, or would
choose for their own living room. Students’ comments reflected developmental
changes from concrete to abstract thinking. The evaluation confirmed that the
TIPS Volunteers process could be successfully implemented and that the results
were notable for student learning about art and for helping students think critically
about art.
Students recognized more artwork in the spring of the school year than they had
the prior fall. It was easier for students to match paintings with their subjects or
content than with their artists’ names. Although students with higher report card
grades knew more artists, students with Cs, Ds, and Fs also were able to recall paint-
ings and their content. Report card grades did not influence whether students en-
joyed the art presentations. Regardless of their school skills, students who enjoyed
the art remembered more about the prints they saw. Students who had been in the
program for at least two years also remembered more art prints. Most students pre-
ferred realistic art, but some, regardless of ability, preferred abstract art. Their prefer-
ences may have reflected students’ different stages of development of abstract thinking,
including the early adolescent stage of bridging concrete and abstract concepts.
The study indicated that the TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art process
helped students identify major artists and their work and describe and discuss art
with greater insight and sophistication than they did before. When time for art ap-
preciation is limited and teachers trained in art education are scarce, it is difficult

for schools to include art in all students’ education. The TIPS Volunteers in Social
Studies and Art process is a useful tool for meeting the diverse goals of involving
families, integrating subjects, and providing students with experiences in art aware-
ness, appreciation, and criticism.
HOW TO DEVELOP AND IMPLEMENT TIPS VOLUNTEERS
The TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art process links art prints to specific so-
cial studies units or topics. It is necessary to select the prints and develop presenta-
tions that match the social studies curriculum. Some of the prototype presentations
for units of American History, World Cultures, or Government and Citizenship Par-
ticipation may match units taught in a school or new prints and new presentations
will be needed for other social studies units.
The TIPS Volunteers Social Studies and Art process can be implemented in any
school with the following ten steps.
1. Select a Teacher-Coordinator or Teacher Co-Coordinators. This may be the chair

of the Social Studies Department, a team leader, or a social studies teacher who is
committed to implementing an interdisciplinary program and who supports family
and community volunteers. The teacher may be a member of the Action Team for
Partnerships or a designated leader for this program.
2. Select a Parent-Coordinator or Parent Co-Coordinators. This person will recruit

volunteers, coordinate the schedules of the parent or other volunteers, and help train
the volunteers. The assistant or co-coordinator may assume leadership for the vol-
unteers in the next school year. The parents may be members of the Action Team
for Partnerships (see Chapter 7), school council, PTA/PTO committee for this proj-
ect, or designated leaders who are interested in art appreciation and willing to co-
ordinate and work with parent volunteers and teachers.
3. Select and order the prints that fit the social studies curriculum at each grade
level. Prints, dry mounted and laminated, may be ordered at a reasonable price from
Shorewood Fine Art Reproductions/New York Graphics Society. Mailing address:
Art Beats, 130 Scott Road, Waterbury, CT 06705. Telephone: (800) 677-6947. A
catalogue of art prints, art reference guide, and art biographies guide can be ordered.
These references will enable teachers and parents to select prints for the school’s
social studies units. Download order form at www.nygs.com.
Shorewood and other art reproduction collections also are online at www.lieber
mans.net. Click on “Publishers We Carry” and “Shorewood Fine Arts” for the mu-
seum collection.
Order enough prints for monthly rotations among participating teachers for eight
months of the school year. A minimum of eight prints are needed per year per grade
level. The maximum number of prints is determined by the number of teachers, their
curricula, and the budget for the program. For example, a school with up to eight

social studies teachers per grade level who teach different units in grades 6, 7, and
8, will need at least 8 prints per grade level to rotate over eight months of the school
year, for a total of 24 art prints. If the same units are taught at the same time of the
school year, then multiple copies of the selected prints will be needed so that teachers
have the “right” prints for their classes each month. If the prints are dry mounted
and laminated, the prints will last for several years. This is a thrifty investment in
art appreciation for student learning.
4. Outline the schedule of art prints to be presented and discussed each month by
the volunteers for each grade level.
5. Recruit volunteers to make classroom presentations. There should be one vol-

unteer for each teacher or one volunteer for every social studies class. If there are
not enough volunteers, then teachers must conduct the presentations in the classes
without volunteers. The parents, other family members, or community volunteers
who make classroom presentations need not be experts in art, but they must enjoy
art and they must like talking with students in the middle grades.
If new art prints are selected, some volunteers will conduct research and prepare
the presentations, following the style, content, and format of the prototypes. Addi-
tional information for presentations is available from the Getty Museum at www
.artsednet@getty.edu. The research volunteers may or may not present the prints in
class. Some parents who cannot come to school during the school day are happy to
develop the presentations because they can do that work on their own schedule.
6. Train the volunteers so they are comfortable about making presentations to stu-
dents in their assigned social studies class(es). The manual for TIPS Volunteers in
Social Studies and Art describes, in detail, how to conduct an orientation session
for volunteers in about an hour. The manual and prototype presentations may be
ordered at www.partnershipschools.org in the TIPS section, under “Resources.”
Duplicate training sessions should be offered during the day and in the evening,
if needed, to meet the varied schedules of the volunteers. At the training workshop,
the parent coordinators describe the program, schedule, and volunteers’ responsi-
bilities and demonstrate how to conduct a successful presentation with students in
the middle grades.
If volunteers are employed during the school day, letters may be sent to employers
requesting permission for the volunteers to assist the school for one hour once a
month. Cooperating employers should be recognized as school business partners.
7. Schedule monthly presentations at times that are mutually convenient for the
volunteers and the teachers. Volunteers will meet with the same class or classes each
month for a 20-minute presentation and discussion. Each presentation includes in-
formation on the artist’s life, style and technique, the specific artwork, and connec-
tions to social studies. Discussions include anecdotes and interesting information
about the artist and artwork that should interest middle grade students. Time is al-
lotted in each presentation for students’ reactions, likes and dislikes, thoughts, and

questions about the art and artists. The print remains on display in the classroom
for one month, until the next presentation. Students are asked to examine the
print and form their own opinions about the art. Teachers may use follow-up
activities included in the manual or design their own social studies, art, and home-
work activities.
8. Check in. Parent coordinators will check in with volunteers and teachers after
the first visit and periodically through the year to see that the program is working
as planned. Each month, the parent coordinators remind volunteers about their
schedules, serve as substitutes if needed, and address any questions that may arise
as volunteers prepare their presentations.
9. Evaluate results. Teachers will evaluate the program to determine if students gain
knowledge of the artists and artwork and develop an understanding and apprecia-
tion of art. Sample end-of-unit tests for students are included in the manual. Parent
and teacher coordinators may conduct other annual or periodic evaluations of vol-
unteers, teachers, and students to gather reactions to the program and suggestions
for improvements.
10. Make improvements in implementing the program, training volunteers, moni-

toring results, replacing prints, and continue the program. These steps run smoothly
as the parent coordinators and teacher coordinators become familiar with their roles
and as the volunteers and teachers work together.
ADAPTING AND EXTENDING TIPS VOLUNTEERS
The guidelines for implementing TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art may be
used to develop other productive work by volunteers, such as interdisciplinary con-
nections of art or music with English or science. The TIPS Volunteers process was
designed for the middle grades, but it may be adapted for younger or older students.
Indeed, TIPS Volunteers grew from an art appreciation activity called “Picture Par-
ents” in the elementary grades. In that program, parent volunteers discussed artwork
in elementary classes from kindergarten through grade 5, but mainly to expose
young students to great art prints and to elicit reactions, not to help them link the
art to social studies or other subjects. At the high school level, TIPS Volunteers may
include parents, family members, community volunteers, or visiting artists. Also,
high school students may be paired with volunteers to conduct research, prepare
the presentations, or make the monthly presentations in their classes.
MATERIALS AVAILABLE AND PROGRAM COSTS
About forty prototype presentations, developed by researchers and volunteers and

tested in grades 6, 7, and 8, are available for social studies units on American His-

tory, World Cultures, and Government and Citizenship Participation. Each presen-
tation includes information on the artist’s life, technique, specific artwork, connections
to social studies, connections to other school subjects, connections among two or
more artists and prints, where to see original work by the artist, and topics for class
discussions and follow-up projects. The prototype presentations can be adapted to
other social studies units, other grade levels, or other interdisciplinary combinations
(e.g., art and English, music and social studies).
An implementation manual for TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art includes
ideas for written assignments and art activities that teachers may use as classwork
or homework to extend the volunteers’ presentations (Epstein and Salinas, 1991).
The manual also includes guidelines for field trips to art museums; questionnaires
to assess reactions to the program by teachers, students, and volunteers; and sample
quizzes to assess students’ knowledge and reactions to the program. The manual
and packets of prototype presentations may be ordered at www.partnership
schools.org in the TIPS section. This section also includes a sample presentation on
the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci.
In most schools, the total cost of the art prints, implementation manuals, proto-
type presentations, training of volunteers, mailing reminders, recognition or celebra-
tion events at the end of the year, and other program costs will total under $2,500
in the first year and under $1,000 in subsequent years, depending on the size of the
school and the need for replacement materials. Schools may decide to invest addi-
tional funds in art materials, trips to museums, and other enrichment activities.*
REFERENCES
Catterall, J. S. (2009). Doing well and doing good by doing art: A 12-year longitudinal study
of arts education. Los Angeles: I-Group Books.
Epstein, J. L., and S. L. Dauber. (1995). Effects on students of an interdisciplinary program
linking social studies, art, and family volunteers in the middle grades. Journal of Early
Adolescence 15: 114–144.
Epstein, J. L., and K. C. Salinas. (1991). TIPS social studies and art manual and prototype
presentations. Baltimore: Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johns
Hopkins University.
Jackson, P. W. (1987). Mainstreaming art: An essay on discipline-based art education. Edu-
cational Researcher 16(6): 39–43.
* For more information, guidelines, and examples, see the TIPS Social studies and art manual and pro-
totype presentations (Epstein and Salinas, 1991) and examples at www.partnershipschools.org (follow
the links to “TIPS Social Studies and Art Volunteers”).

chapter. Key concepts are summarized. Questions and activities are provided for
class discussions, debates, and homework assignments. They may suggest other ex-
ercises, field activities, and research projects.
KEY CONCEPTS
Purposes of Homework. Ten purposes of homework influence the design

and content of assignments. Homework may be designed to increase
student learning, develop home and school connections, and improve
school programs.
Interactive Homework. Interactive homework is a method of designing
homework that enables students to share interesting things they are
learning in class with family members, friends and peers, or members of
the community. This kind of homework requires students to share ideas,
gather information, or interact with someone in other ways to complete
the assignments.
Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) Interactive Homework. TIPS
is one approach for designing and implementing interactive homework.
Used on a regular schedule, TIPS activities help parents remain aware of
what their children are learning in school subjects. The activities
encourage students and family members to engage in positive
conversations about homework.
Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) Volunteers in Social Studies
and Art. This process is one approach for organizing productive
volunteers in the middle grades. Volunteers present and discuss art prints
to increase students’ art appreciation and awareness of interdisciplinary
connections between art and history.
COMMENT
Key Components of Interactive Homework
Interactive homework is more interesting and effective when the following five fea-
tures are built into the design.
Student-directed interactions. Students—not parents—must do the work of con-

ducting interviews, gathering reactions, and completing the homework. Parents
should not be required to teach school subjects, nor read or write for students.
Homework is always the students’ work.

Family input. Family members should be asked by students to share ideas, listen
and react to something that the student reads aloud, recall experiences or memories,
and participate in other kinds of conversations. The guided interactions should not
depend on family members’ formal education but rather on their care for and in-
terest in their children.
Completed homework returned to class on time. Students and family members must
do more than talk. Students must record something of the interactions in writing
or in other forms. An activity sheet, data chart, or other papers or products must be
completed and returned to class as regular homework. Interactive homework should
be collected, reviewed, graded, discussed, or treated in the same way as other daily
homework. If a parent cannot participate in a particular assignment, then another
family member, neighbor, or peer may “substitute” for a parent to ensure that each
student talks with someone about the work.
Positive, thoughtful, and enjoyable exchanges. Students and family partners should
enjoy the interactive homework assignments. The activities should be important
(linked to the class curriculum), challenging (not too hard or too easy for students
to conduct), and enjoyable for students and parents.
Two-way communications. Interactive homework should include two-way commu-

nications. The assignment comes from school to home, but observations, questions,
and reactions may come from home to school. Activities should include an easy-
to-read checklist for parents’ reactions, a place for a signature, and space for op-
tional notes or questions.
The five features outlined above emerged from the analyses of data collected from
parents about their children’s homework.
1. From Reading 6.1 or Reading 6.2, add one feature to the above list that
you think is another key element for successful interactive homework.
2. Give one reason why you think each of the six features of interactive
homework (the five listed above and the one that you added) is
important to each of the following:
a. parents
b. students
c. teachers
3. Review the TIPS Math, TIPS Science, and TIPS Language Arts
approaches in Reading 6.2.
a. Identify two similarities in the approaches for interactive homework
in different subjects, and explain why the similarities are important.
b. Identify two differences in the approaches for interactive homework
in different subjects, and explain why these differences are important.

c. What is one challenge that may arise in implementing TIPS
interactive homework? What is one potential solution to that
challenge?
4. TIPS interactive homework activities are designed to be distributed once
a week, twice a month, or on another regular schedule in conjunction
with particular class lessons. Some teachers revised this approach and
put many assignments together in a “homework packet” for students to
take back and forth over the course of a unit of work or marking period.
Controlled studies are needed on the effectiveness of alternative formats,
but field experience suggests that packets of assignments are less
successful in encouraging all families to become involved with their
children than are individual weekly activities.
a. Identify a grade level and subject that interest you.
b. Fold a page in half. Label one half of the page (1) Weekly TIPS
Activities and label the other half (2) Packet of many TIPS activities.
For the grade level and subject you selected, give two pros and two
cons for each of the two formats.
c. Discuss the pros and cons in class to hear others’ ideas about these
options.
ACTIVITY
How Many Ways Can Homework Be Interactive?
Using the information in Readings 6.1 and 6.2 and your own ideas, list some ways
that students and parents may converse and interact on homework.
A. Select and identify a grade level that interests you and two school subjects
in which teachers assign homework.
B. Label three columns: (1) Interactions, (2) What the Student Does, (3)
What the Family Partner Does. For each subject:
1. In the first column, list at least five different kinds of interactions
that students might conduct with family partners (e.g., show-and-
tell, interviews).
2. In the second column, briefly explain what a student might do to
engage a family partner in each kind of interaction (e.g., student
reads sentences aloud; student demonstrates math skill).
3. In the third column, briefly explain what a family partner might do
to assist or respond to the student (e.g., family partner shares ideas,
listens to student).
4. Also, in the third column, put an X next to any interaction that
requires a parent or family partner to read or write on the student’s
homework (other than for a home-to-school communication and

parent signature). For each X that you marked, explain whether all
families could conduct the activity or which families would not be
able to participate in that interaction.
5. Examine the interactions that you listed for the two subjects that
you selected. Write a short summary of the similarities or
differences in your lists that result from the nature or demands of
the different subjects.
COMMENT
Helping All Parents Do What a Few Do on Their Own
Although some parents know how to help their children with homework because
of their own school experiences, most parents say they do not know how to ap-
proach school subjects and topics across the grades. In the past, many teachers be-
lieved they should not try to involve parents in learning activities at home, because
there always were a few parents who could not or would not participate. Studies
indicate that about 20 percent of parents become involved with their children and
the schools on their own, but over 70 percent of parents say they want to become
involved and could do more if they were guided in how to do so.
TIPS interactive homework may help because it is assigned to students and asks
them to show their skills and discuss ideas with a parent or other family partner. In
the youngest grades, before students read with ease, parents are asked to guide their
child to show what they are learning in school. In kindergarten and grade 1, most
parents have no trouble in guiding their child and celebrating the learning that oc-
curs from week to week. By grade 2, students can conduct the interactions with
their family partner. With well-designed interactive assignments for students from
kindergarten or first grade on, just about all parents would be able to continually
monitor their children’s work and progress and discuss ideas with their children.
1. Select and identify a grade level and subject that interest you.
2. List two reasons why the TIPS approach might help students and
families conduct conversations about student work in the grade and
subject you selected.
3. List two problems that might occur with interactive homework for
students or for parents in the grade and subject you selected and a
potential solution to each problem you listed.
4. If about 20 percent of parents already are involved with their children in
learning activities at home and if about 70 percent would like to be so,
which is more important:

a. guiding all parents’ involvement, even if a few cannot become involved
or
b. leaving involvement up to parents to figure out on their own?
Explain why you think a or b is a better approach.
COMMENT
Common Questions about TIPS
Following are common questions that teachers raise about TIPS and answers based
on TIPS studies and teachers’ work.
1. What if a parent is not able to interact with the student about math (or any sub-
ject) on a particular night? It is highly recommended, based on data from parents,
that teachers assign TIPS interactive homework over two or three days (e.g., as-
signed Tuesday, due Thursday or Friday, or assigned over the weekend). Research
shows consistently that most parents (over 90 percent on several surveys) say they
have time over the weekend to talk and work with their children on homework.
This is the very time that some schools do not give homework.
Students should be guided to share their work with other family partners if a
parent is not available. This includes older siblings, grandparents, other relatives,
after-school teachers, child care providers, or a neighbor or friend. Most parents
are available in the evening, in the morning, or on the weekend. Teachers’ schedules
for TIPS assignments should take into account when students’ parents are avail-
able for interactions. An orientation for parents and follow-up calls should help
all parents understand the TIPS process and their roles in encouraging their chil-
dren to complete their homework and in motivating their children’s interest
in school.
2. What if a family does not have the materials needed for a science activity on a
given night? TIPS Science materials must be common, inexpensive, and readily avail-
able at home. Unusual or costly items should be provided by the school. Students
whose families cannot afford any extra expenses should be provided with the ma-
terials needed for each science activity. If the TIPS schedule is family-friendly, stu-
dents and families will be able to find time and the common materials for TIPS
Science activities.
3. What if a parent does not read English well? All homework is the student’s re-
sponsibility. Parents do not have to read or write English to talk with their children
or to listen to their children talk about schoolwork. Students complete TIPS, just as
they complete all homework assignments. Their families can be involved speaking
any language that is spoken at home. For example, teachers should explain that in
TIPS Language Arts, the student will write their stories in English for homework,

but may read them aloud to a parent by translating the work into whatever language
is spoken at home. Students often serve as “interpreters” for a parent on the memos
or notices that are sent home from school. In some schools, teachers or district lead-
ers translate the letter to parents and home-to-school-communication section of
TIPS into one or more languages spoken by large numbers of families served by
the school.
One interesting application of TIPS was in a Japanese foreign language class for
English-speaking students. The teacher knew that the students’ parents did not know
Japanese and could not “help” their children with their homework. She knew, how-
ever, that the children could show and share the new words and skills that they were
learning in Japanese because TIPS guided students to conduct these interactions.
The same would be true for students in homes where parents speak languages other
than English. Students can demonstrate their skills and share ideas in the language
that they speak with their parents at home.
4. Can you give the same TIPS activity to students who are slower learners and to
those who have advanced skills? Like other homework, TIPS activities must match
students’ levels of ability. If homework is too hard, it will be frustrating and will
not be completed. If homework is too easy, it will be boring, and students may dis-
engage. TIPS activities should be written at an appropriate reading level for all stu-
dents in a group or class. Teachers may assign struggling students some or all
sections of an assignment, and advanced students may be assigned extra sections
or sections for extra credit. Or groups within classes may be assigned different TIPS
activities, if they are assigned different homework on other days.
The four topics discussed above are about equity.
1. What is the equity issue that underlies each of the four questions about
TIPS homework?
2. Explain how the TIPS interactive homework process addresses each issue.
ACTIVITY
Design an Interactive Homework Assignment
A. Identify a grade level, a subject, and one specific skill in that subject that
interest you.
B. Design one interactive homework activity using the TIPS format that
requires children to talk with a family member to complete the
assignment. Use your computer to store the assignment to permit easy
editing.

1. For useful formats, see the samples of TIPS Math, Science/Health,
and Language Arts in this chapter. For social studies, foreign
language, family life, or other subjects, adapt one of the existing
TIPS formats to fit the subject and skill that you selected.
2. Include a short and clear introductory letter to parents about the
assignment. The letter would be signed by the student.
3. Develop the assignment using the information on the components of
math, science, and language arts activities in this chapter.
4. End the assignment with a section for a home-to-school
communication and for a parent’s signature.
C. Class activity:
1. Share the draft designs of TIPS interactive homework in class. Work
with a partner. Take the roles of student and parent as if the
assignments were being conducted at home.
2. Exchange design and editing suggestions about how to make the
assignments clear, family-friendly, and feasible for students to
conduct at the grade levels selected for each design.
3. Edit the homework design to take into account your classmates’
suggestions. Polish the assignment so that it is attractive, well
spaced, and includes graphics, as needed.
4. Collect examples of good activities for a resource notebook or
electronic file of ideas.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Test a TIPS Assignment
A. Work with a cooperating teacher to develop and assign one TIPS

interactive homework to match a specific class lesson or use an existing
TIPS prototype activity that matches a specific class lesson.
B. Review with the cooperating teacher the steps needed to use a TIPS
activity:
1. Provide more than one night to allow students and families to find
time for their interactions.
2. Orient the students to the work they will do on the assignment at
home. (Because this field experience involves just one class and one
experimental assignment, it should not be necessary to conduct the
full orientation process with parents that is needed when TIPS is
used as a regularly scheduled approach to homework.)
C. The cooperating teacher will assign the TIPS activity to students in at
least one class, after taking time to explain the sections where they will
conduct conversations, demonstrations, or activities with a family
partner.

D. The cooperating teacher will collect the TIPS interactive homework
assignments when they are due.
E. Review the students’ work with the cooperating teacher. Write a
summary of your reactions to:
• the rate and quality of students’ completion of the homework
• evidence of participation by family partners
• parents’ home-to-school communications and comments
• other observations that you have about the clarity of the assignment,
the student-family interactions, the teachers’ views of the sample
activity, and other issues.
COMMENT
Creating a Leadership Structure for Volunteers
To implement TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art, one school created the po-
sition of parent coordinator for volunteers as one of its standing committees of its
parent-teacher organization (PTO). Some schools that have Action Teams for Part-
nerships ask members to take leadership for the six types of involvement, resulting
in a Type 3—Volunteering chair or co-chairs and related committee of volunteers
for the school. These organizational approaches solve the problem of having to
scramble to identify a parent coordinator for the TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies
and Art program each year. Other schools solve the ongoing leadership problem by
asking the parent co-coordinator to become the main parent coordinator the fol-
lowing year, with a new co-coordinator who follows in the same way. With ongoing
and backup leaders, there is greater likelihood that the TIPS Volunteers in Social
Studies and Art program will continue from year to year.
By creating a PTA/PTO committee for TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art,
a school also increases options for publicizing the program and for recruiting vol-
unteers. This strategy also may encourage the parent association to contribute funds
to purchase new or replacement art prints and other supplies or materials for the
volunteers’ presentation or for teachers’ follow-up art activities. Similarly, a Type
3—Volunteering committee or specialist on an Action Team for Partnerships will
strengthen and stabilize school volunteer programs and practices.
1. Imagine that a school principal asked you for advice about organizing a
TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art program. Select a school level
that interests you (e.g., preschool or elementary, middle, or high school).
2. Identify a grade level that interests you, and specify the number of social
studies teachers for that grade level in the hypothetical school.

3. Review the program components for TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies
and Art in Reading 6.2.
4. List one idea to guide the teachers in the selected grade level to organize
the following aspects of the TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art
program.
HOW COULD THIS SCHOOL: ONE IDEA:
A. Select a teacher coordinator? _________________

B. Select a parent coordinator and co-coordinator? _________________
C. Recruit parent volunteers? _________________
D. Train volunteers to present art prints to students
in one teacher’s class? _________________
E. Schedule volunteers for the teachers at the
selected grade level? _________________
F. Monitor the work of the volunteers? _________________
G. Examine results for students? _________________
COMMENT
Reactions to TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art
When we first developed TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art, some teachers
worried that middle school students would not want their parents to participate.
Our studies indicated that middle-grade students did not want their parents to work
with them and their teachers in the same ways as in elementary schools—that is no
waving or hugging allowed! However, middle-grade students were positive in their
evaluations of TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art. The vast majority appre-
ciated the mothers, fathers, grandparents, aunts, and other volunteers who brought
art to their social studies classes. The students liked viewing art prints and discussing
their likes and dislikes.
Most volunteers in the middle grades did not work in their own child’s classroom
but were assigned to work with any teacher who needed a volunteer. Initial evalua-
tions revealed no systematic differences in the success of the program based on
whether parents were in their own children’s or other classrooms. Teachers appreci-
ated the parents’ contributions to the program. The parent volunteers were particu-
larly enthusiastic, with some obtaining permission from their employers to participate
once a month and others taking personal time off from work to participate.

Ideas and Interview about

Volunteers in the Middle Grades
A. Should educators in the middle grades base their family involvement

policies and practices on the belief that “students do not want their parents
at school”? Explain your ideas.
B. Give two examples of how parents might be helpful volunteers in the
middle grades.
C. 1. Identify two concerns that teachers or principals might have about
volunteers who are asked to visit the same social studies class each
month to share a new art print.
2. List one idea to solve each of these concerns.
D. 1. Identify two concerns that parents or other volunteers might have
about visiting the same social studies class each month to share a
new art print.
2. List one idea to solve each of these concerns.
E. Check your ideas and solutions (in A, B, C, and D above) with a middle
school teacher, parent, or student.
1. Identify your source, and report whether he or she believes your
ideas in B are realistic.
2. Ask your source for two more examples of how parents may be
helpful and productive volunteers in the middle grades.
3. Ask your source if the concerns in C1 and D1 are serious, and why.
4. Ask your source if the solutions in C2 and D2 are realistic, and why.
5. Record your questions and the responses you obtained.
ACTIVITY
Designing Other Interdisciplinary

Connections for Volunteers
The TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art process was designed to integrate art
appreciation in social studies classes, but other interdisciplinary linkages may be
made. Using parallel strategies with Social Studies and Art, how might volunteers
be organized to link music and social studies, or art or music with English, a foreign
language, or science?
A. Identify a grade level that interests you.

B. Select and identify one interdisciplinary connection (not art and social
studies) that might productively use volunteers to help teachers enrich

students’ understanding and experiences in the grade level that you
selected. You may use the above examples or one of your own.
C. Give two reasons why the interdisciplinary connection you selected is
important for student learning.
D. Design one activity that a volunteer might conduct (e.g., a presentation,
demonstration, or discussion) to make the interdisciplinary connection
come alive for students in the grade you selected.
Note: Check the components of the TIPS Volunteers in Social Studies and Art
process to guide your design. For example, an activity could highlight a musician
who composed music when an early American writer was creating her work. The
presentation might take about 20 minutes of class time with students at the grade
level you selected. Include a suggestion for how the teacher could follow up and
build on the volunteer’s activity with a class discussion or homework assignment.
The activity should develop or extend students’ awareness, knowledge, and experi-
ences about an important topic.
E. Share and critique the draft designs for interdisciplinary volunteer

activities. For each one, consider:
1. Is the interdisciplinary connection important?
2. Is the topic of the activity compelling and appropriate for the grade
level selected?
3. Would the activity engage all students at the grade level selected?
4. Is the activity using the time and talents of volunteers well?
5. Collect some of the best examples for a resource notebook or
electronic file of ideas.
For other information about volunteers, see comments and activities on Type 3—
Volunteering in Chapter 5.

7
Strategies for Action in
Practice, Policy, and Research
T HIS CHAPTER SERVES AS A SUMMARY and as a starting point. What have we

learned about school, family, and community partnerships? What can we do
with what we have learned? How should educators in schools, districts, and
states develop policies and programs of partnership that improve schools, strengthen
families, and help more students succeed? How might new teachers, principals,
counselors, and others who work in schools and with families be prepared to con-
duct effective partnership practices? How could researchers contribute new knowl-
edge that will help policy leaders and practitioners with their work?
One important question raised by all of the research and applications in this vol-
ume is: Who is responsible for developing and maintaining school, family, and com-
munity partnerships? The answer, of course, is that everyone with an interest or
investment in children is responsible for producing and maintaining good schools,
productive partnerships, and successful students. This includes state and district
leaders whose policies and assistance support the development of excellent schools.
It includes teachers, administrators, parents, and students who work together in
each school to help students develop and learn. It includes members of the broader
community, whose lives tomorrow depend on the skills of students today. And it
includes researchers who conduct studies that contribute to wise policies and to
research-based practices for excellent schools.
It is abundantly clear that one principal, teacher, or parent working alone cannot
create a comprehensive and lasting program of partnership. Many partners in states,
districts, schools, homes, communities, and research settings must work together to
improve knowledge, policies, plans, and programs. It also is well known that if
everyone is in charge of something, then no one is really responsible.
A crucial question, then, is: How can partnership programs be organized and
sustained? Over the years, our work with educators and families in many commu-
nities has shown that state and district leaders for partnerships and school-based
Action Teams for Partnerships are needed to develop and sustain successful programs.
573
Leaders must be identified; structures must be set; processes must be selected; bud-
gets must be allocated; annual action plans must be written; and evaluations must
be conducted to implement and continually improve programs of school, family,
and community partnerships in schools, districts, and states.
Leadership, teamwork, written plans, implementation, evaluations, funding,
internal and external support, and continuous improvement make a difference in
whether, which, when, why, and how families and communities become involved
in children’s education. These “essential elements” have emerged from analyses of
data from hundreds of schools, scores of districts, and many state departments
of education whose actions have been evaluated to learn what it takes to establish
and maintain programs of school, family, and community partnership. When these
organizational components are well organized, educators and families develop the
capacity and expertise to implement partnership programs as part of regular
school practice.
This chapter builds on Reading 5.1 with a detailed discussion of the structure
and activities of school-based Action Teams for Partnerships (ATP). The ATP is the
“action arm,” official committee, or work group of a school improvement team or
school council. The members of an ATP—educators, parents, and others—work to-
gether to plan, implement, monitor, delegate leadership and tasks, evaluate, and con-
tinually improve school, family, and community partnership practices that will
engage all families in ways that create a welcoming climate and help students reach
school and classroom goals. The ATP turns partnership plans into actions and part-
nership goals into results.
Without an ATP, this teacher or that leader may conduct selected partnership
projects or activities with some parents. With an ATP, every preschool and elemen-
tary, middle, and high school—and all teachers—could have a full and feasible plan
for involving all families in their children’s education at all grade levels. With well-
functioning ATPs, programs of school, family, and community partnership should
be as regular as reading, as expected as English, as methodical as math, and as stan-
dard as science or other subjects. Along with the school’s curriculum, instruction,
and assessments, a program of partnership should be viewed as an essential aspect
of school organization—a regular part of school life.
This chapter also summarizes the central themes and major conclusions about
school, family, and community partnerships that have been presented in the read-
ings, discussions, and activities throughout the volume. Having a school-based
action team or clear district and state leaders for partnerships to organize a part-
nership program is about structure. Program plans and practices must be based on
key principles that get to the heart of the matter.
All of the studies, comments, and activities in this volume point to the need for
mutual trust and respect by educators and parents for partnerships to succeed, the
need for equity in partnership programs so that all families are informed about and
involved in their children’s education, and the simultaneous need for diversity in
partnership programs to address the different situations and requirements of some
families. Here, we explore these central themes. Finally, eight crosscutting conclu-
sions not only summarize what has been learned from many studies but also raise
574 STR ATEGIES FOR AC TION IN PR AC TICE, POLICY, AND RESEARCH

new questions about how to effectively involve all families in their children’s schools
and education.
If you are a researcher, you are encouraged to establish connections with school,
district, and/or state partners to bring research-based approaches to school, family,
and community partnerships into education policy and practice and to study the
results of these efforts. If you are an educator, this chapter should lead you from an
understanding of the theory, research, and policies of partnership to the application
of useful strategies in the real world. The fact is, all that you have learned about
partnerships must be tailored to the goals and conditions of the specific school and
classroom, district, and state in which you work. Thus, for researchers and for prac-
titioners, the readings, discussions, debates, and projects in this volume are just the
beginning of your work on school, family, and community partnerships.
This book is designed to lead educators and researchers to programs and research
on the implementation of programs of school, family, and community partnerships
in diverse communities. It is important to see how the research-based structures
and processes discussed throughout the volume actually work in urban, suburban,
and rural communities; at the preschool, elementary, middle, and high school levels;
in schools that serve families with diverse backgrounds; and with students at all
ability levels. This volume leads to a companion book for the implementation of ef-
fective programs of family and community involvement (Epstein et al., 2009) to en-
able educators and researchers put new knowledge to work in practice.
STR ATEGIES FOR AC TION IN PR AC TICE, POLICY, AND RESEARCH 575

The comments in this section extend and update actions needed to organize part-
nership programs in schools. The comments also review the central themes and
crosscutting conclusions from all readings and activities in this volume. Key concepts
are summarized. Questions and activities are provided for class discussions, debates,
and homework assignments. They may suggest other exercises, field activities, and
research projects.
KEY CONCEPTS
1. Comprehensive program of school, family, and community partnerships. A full

program of partnerships includes activities for all six types of involvement so that
families and community members may be involved at home, at school, and in other
locations. Partnership activities are selected and designed to focus on specific goals;
meet key challenges; and produce results for students, families, teachers, schools,
and the community. Comprehensive programs are ongoing. Teams in schools and
leaders in districts and state departments of education plan and implement com-
prehensive programs of school, family, and community partnership as a regular part
of their work every year.
2. Action Team for Partnerships (ATP). The Action Team for Partnerships is the basic
school structure for implementing an ongoing, comprehensive partnership program
tailored to school improvement goals. The ATP, including teachers, parents, admin-
istrators, and others, is the “action arm” or official committee of a school improve-
ment team. The ATP is responsible for turning policies and expectations for family
and community involvement into annual plans, implemented actions, and evaluated
practices in a comprehensive program of school, family, and community partnerships.
3. Leadership for Partnerships. A dedicated, expert leader for partnerships is re-

quired in every school district and every state’s Department of Education, with ad-
justments to time required in small districts (see Chapter 4). In all districts and states,
leadership may be shared, and teamwork is required. A leader for partnerships will
work with colleagues across departments who are responsible for various federal,
state, and local programs that include family and community involvement in chil-
dren’s education.
District leaders for partnerships not only conduct activities for the district as a
whole but also guide and support all elementary, middle, and high schools to create
and maintain site-based partnership programs. This includes helping educators, par-
ents, and others in every school gain the knowledge and skills they need to plan and
implement partnership programs to meet school goals. State leaders not only estab-
lish their offices and guide work for the state but also encourage effective programs
at the district and school levels.

4. Action plans. Written “One-Year Action Plans for Partnerships” are essential for
making progress in involving families and communities in children’s education. Writ-
ten plans systematize “hopes” for partnerships by specifying activities for all six types
of involvement that are linked to important academic, behavioral, and school-climate
goals in school improvement plans. Action plans include detailed schedules and clear
responsibilities to ensure that the activities will be successfully implemented.
5. Central themes. There are several crosscutting characteristics of strong programs

of school, family, and community partnerships. High-quality partnership programs
build trust and mutual respect among partners in children’s education, attend to is-
sues of equity, value diversity, and celebrate progress.
When partnership programs are equitable they inform and involve all families,
not just a few. When programs are responsive to all families, they recognize and
meet special needs of diverse families and students. The simultaneous, seemingly
contradictory, goals of ensuring equity and responding to diversity can be met only
if educators, parents, and community partners develop mutual respect for their in-
dividual and collaborative work with children. Thus, in addition to the instrumental
structure of ATPs and detailed procedures of One-Year Action Plans for Partner-
ships, the expressive and humane qualities of trust, respect, equity, diversity, and
celebration are at the heart of school, family, and community partnerships.
COMMENT
Program Versus Activities of School,

Family, and Community Partnerships
What is a program of partnership? How does it differ from the parent involvement
activities that most schools or individual teachers already conduct? Most principals
and teachers communicate with families occasionally, not regularly, and in isolation
from one another, not as part of a coherent and continuing schoolwide program.
Typically, involvement activities are conducted by one teacher or a few, with some
families but not with all.
By contrast, a comprehensive program of partnership is based on long-term goals
to involve all families, and annual, detailed plans and schedules of activities for all
six types of involvement that are linked to school improvement goals. In compre-
hensive partnership programs, each of the six types of involvement is represented
by several activities, not just one. As programs develop, there should be many ways
for parents, other family members, community groups, and other citizens to gain
and share information about parenting (Type 1); communicate with educators and
each other about school programs and children’s progress (Type 2); volunteer at
school, at home, or in the community (Type 3); interact with children in classwork,
homework, and academic decisions such as course choices (Type 4); become informed
about and involved in school decisions (Type 5); and connect with organizations,

services, and other opportunities in the community (Type 6). In a comprehensive
partnership program, the extent of outreach and the quality of the activities are re-
viewed and improved from year to year to involve all families of students at all
grade levels and to incorporate community connections that promote student suc-
cess in school.
1. What difference might a program of school, family, and community

partnerships make to parents? In the chart in Figure 7.1, list two ways in
which a typical parent might be differently informed or involved by a
school with and without a comprehensive partnership program. Consider,
as examples, a parent whose child is (a) entering kindergarten and (b)
progressing from middle to high school.
What might a typical parent expect from:
Time in child’s schooling a school with a well- a school without a planned

planned comprehensive program of partnerships?
program of partnerships?
A child is being enrolled A B

in kindergarten 1. 1.
2. 2.
A student is moving from C D

a middle school to a high 1. 1.
school 2. 2.
FIGURE 7.1 Parent Expectations
2. Think of four hypothetical students represented in sections A, B, C, and

D of Figure 7.1.
a. Give each student a name.
b. Explain how each student may be affected by the kinds of family-
school connections that you listed.
COMMENT
Understanding Action Teams for Partnerships (ATP)
Many schools have school councils, school improvement teams, or other site-based
advisory committees that oversee progress on all school improvement plans and

goals. School councils usually identify changes that are needed in the curriculum,
instruction, staffing, management, family involvement, community connections, and
other areas of school and classroom organization. These decision-making or advi-
sory bodies often set ambitious goals and write broad plans for school improvement,
but do not often organize clear structures, processes, schedules, and responsibilities
for turning plans into action.
In working with schools over many years, my colleagues and I have found that
school councils, improvement teams, or other planning and advisory committees
need an “action arm” (i.e., an official committee) to ensure that activities to involve
all families and the community in students’ education are planned, implemented,
and improved from year to year. The team of teachers, parents, administrators, and
others focus explicitly and exclusively on implementing partnership activities that
contribute to the major goals in a school improvement agenda. For example, if
teachers are working to help students improve their reading and math skills and
scores, then the Action Team for Partnerships will involve families and the commu-
nity with students on reading and math activities. Action teams are needed to turn
plans into actions that will create a welcoming partnership climate and help all stu-
dents reach major school improvement goals.
1. Give two reasons why a school improvement team needs an “action arm”
or committee to take responsibility for implementing specific family and
community involvement activities that support the goals of a school
improvement plan.
2. Why must an ATP include both educators and parents, not only teachers
and administrators?
3. List and explain three activities that are, typically, the responsibility of a
school improvement team or council but should not be conducted by the
action arm or committee that focuses on school, family, and community
partnerships.
COMMENT
ATP Organization and Committee Structure
There are two main ways to organize the work of an ATP. The goal-oriented
approach organizes plans and committees to conduct and improve involvement ac-
tivities that are directly linked to school improvement goals. The process-oriented
approach organizes plans and committees to conduct activities for the six types
of involvement.

Focus on School Improvement Goals
The goal-oriented approach to school, family, and community partnerships creates

ATPs dedicated to understanding, organizing, and conducting involvement activities
that are directly linked to school improvement goals. In this approach, each member
of the ATP becomes a chair, co-chair, or expert member in linking family and com-
munity involvement to one major school improvement goal for student success. This
ensures that the school’s partnership program will focus each year on involving fam-
ilies and the community in improving the school climate and in improving students’
math, reading, writing, attendance, behavior, or other major goals in the school im-
provement plan.
Each ATP member may select whether they will lead, delegate, and oversee family
and community involvement activities that help create a positive school climate or
that improve students’ reading skills, attendance, the school climate for partnerships,
or another goal from the school improvement plan that is detailed in the One-Year
Action Plan for Partnerships.
For example, some members of the ATP may form a subcommittee to engage
families and the community in helping students improve attendance. The school’s
written Action Plan for Partnerships would include activities for some or all six
types of involvement to reduce unexcused absences or improve on-time arrivals. Ac-
tivities could guide families to conduct positive actions that get children to school
on time every day, clarify report card statistics on attendance, train volunteers to
telephone absent students’ families, and help families pick up homework for stu-
dents who are absent.
In the goal-oriented approach, the ATP will establish subcommittees to oversee
plans and progress toward specific goals and will implement or coordinate activities
that involve families and the community in all six types of involvement. The school’s
improvement goals are the basis for the action plan for partnerships, and the pro-
gram is evaluated on whether progress is made toward those goals.
Focus on the Six Types of Involvement
The process-oriented approach to school, family, and community partnerships cre-

ates ATPs dedicated to understanding, organizing, and enacting the framework of
six types of involvement (parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home,
decision making, and collaborating with the community). In this approach, each
member of the ATP becomes a chair, co-chair, or expert member for one of the six
types of involvement.
For example, in a well-functioning, process-oriented ATP, one or two members
will be the school’s experts in Type 1—Parenting. These Type 1 co-chairs will plan,
organize, or delegate leadership for parent workshops on child development, parent-
to-parent connections, activities for families to inform the school about their chil-
dren’s needs or family goals, and other Type 1 activities. Other members of the ATP
will become experts in Type 2—Communicating. The Type 2 co-chairs will plan,
organize, monitor, or delegate leadership for activities that improve the clarity of

communications, create two-way channels of communication, secure translators
needed at parent-teacher conferences, develop new technologies for communicating,
and other Type 2 activities. Still other ATP members will become the experts in or-
ganizing and assisting volunteers (Type 3 co-chairs), teachers’ designs of interactive
homework and curriculum-related involvement activities (Type 4 co-chairs), training
parent representatives for committees and councils (Type 5 co-chairs), and identi-
fying resources in the community (Type 6 co-chairs).
The process-oriented ATP evaluates its progress based on whether and how well
activities for the six types of involvement effectively involve all families; whether
the program is balanced with activities that are conducted at home, at school, and in
the community; and whether various activities contribute to student success and
other school goals.
In the process-oriented approach, the ATP will have subcommittees for each of
the six types of involvement and implement or coordinate activities that involve
families and the community in ways to contribute to school goals for student suc-
cess. As the chairs or co-chairs for each type of involvement build their compe-
tencies, they will be better able to select and implement activities that link to
school improvement goals. The types of involvement are the basis for the action
plan for partnerships, and the program is evaluated on whether and how progress
is made so that activities for all six types of involvement contribute to student
success in school.
The Two Organizational Structures
The two approaches for organizing the work of ATPs are not mutually exclusive. A
goal-oriented ATP that focuses on family and community involvement linked to
school improvement goals still will select activities that cover the six types of in-
volvement. A process-oriented ATP that focuses on the six types of involvement still
will choose activities that help students reach important school goals. The main
differences between the two approaches are in how the ATP’s plans are written
and evaluated each year and how the ATP members select their areas of expertise
and describe how their work is linked to the overall school improvement plan. Tools
for implementing the two approaches are included in an implementation guidebook
ACTIVITY
How Family and Community Involvement

Helps Reach School Improvement Goals
Whether a school uses a goal-oriented approach or process-oriented approach, the

activities to involve families and the community should contribute to the attainment
of important school goals.

Suppose a school is working to meet the following goals:
• Improve attendance.
• Improve math skills.
• Improve attitudes toward science.
• Improve student behavior.
• Improve the school climate for partnerships.
• Add one common, important goal: _____________________
In the chart below:
A. List one family or community involvement activity that you think would
directly contribute to reaching these goals.
B. Note the major type of involvement that the activity addresses.
C. Tell how the activity directly affects the listed goal.
Goal Family or Type of How Would the

Community Involvement Activity Help
Involvement Produce the Goal?
Activity
1. Improve attendance.
2. Improve math skills.
3. Improve students’ atti-
tudes toward science.
4. Improve students’
behavior.
5. Improve the school
climate for partnerships.
6. Another goal that you
select:_______________
COMMENT
Action Team Members and Leaders
Effective partnership programs cannot be developed by just one person or by an

elite group. Every year, some school principals and teachers move, are promoted,
or retire. Many active parents move or “graduate” with their children to new
schools. Programs and practices that depend on just one leader may disappear com-
pletely if that person leaves the school. A small group of a few active parents may

be viewed as a clique that makes other parents or teachers feel unwelcome, uncom-
fortable, and unlikely to participate in school activities. Sometimes programs that
depend on one person or the same few leaders are viewed as somebody’s program
and not as the school’s program of partnerships.
Action Team Members
An ATP should have a minimum of six members. Members include at least two
teachers, at least two parents, an administrator, and other school and family leaders
who have important connections with families and students (e.g., the nurse, social
worker, Title I parent liaison, a PTA/PTO officer or representative, special education
leader, or others). The ATP also may include representatives from the community.
High school ATPs must include two students. The diverse members contribute many
points of view to plans and activities for school, family, and community partnerships.
Many schools have larger teams, as parents or teachers elect to join the Action
Team for Partnerships. Some schools have one parent and one teacher from each
grade level on the team. Some add other key representatives to the ATP, including a
teacher of students receiving special education services, or parents from major neigh-
borhoods or language groups.
Very small schools may adapt these guidelines to create smaller ATPs. Very large
middle and high schools may adapt these guidelines to create multiple ATPs for
schools-within-the-school, grade levels, houses, career academies, or other large sub-
divisions. Indeed, other appropriate structural and procedural adaptations will be
needed to accommodate the characteristics and constraints in diverse schools.
The ATP provides a stable structure that should endure even if some team mem-
bers leave each year. New team members are selected to replace those who leave
and then are oriented to the work of the ATP. Thus, teachers who leave the team
are replaced by teachers, parents by parents, and so on.
Action Team Leaders
Many people play important leadership roles in organizing an ATP, implementing

plans, conducting activities, and evaluating results of partnership programs.
The principal plays an essential role in supporting and maintaining the work of
an ATP and in guiding the ATP’s connections to the school improvement team or
council. Ideally, the principal should not be the chair of the ATP but should be an
active member and strong supporter of the action team. Principals should call all
teachers’ attention to the importance of planning and conducting school, family,
and community partnerships with their students’ families. Principals also should
stress the importance of the participation of educators and families in schoolwide
activities that help develop a welcoming school climate. The principal should evaluate
each teacher’s activities to involve families as part of the teacher’s annual or periodic
professional reviews of work and progress. Principals and other administrators also

should recognize the various leaders, participants, and successful involvement ac-
tivities that are conducted throughout the school year (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009).
Guidance counselors, school psychologists, school social workers, assistant prin-
cipals, and other social service professionals may be members of an ATP and may
serve as team chairs or co-chairs. Guidance counselors and assistant principals are
particularly helpful team leaders or co-leaders in middle and high schools because
their professional agendas link directly to students, families, and communities (Ep-
stein and Van Voorhis, in press). These school professionals have time, training,
and experience to plan and conduct meetings and to guide teachers, parents, stu-
dents, and community members to work effectively together. Even if other admin-
istrators and counselors are on the ATP, the principal’s leadership and support still
are essential.
Master teachers, lead teachers, department chairs, or classroom teachers must be
members of an ATP and may serve as team chairs or co-chairs. At least two or three
teachers should be members of the ATP. The teachers on the ATP will work with all
teachers in the school to reinforce the importance of their connections with students’
families at all grade levels and to encourage teachers’ participation in schoolwide
partnership activities and events. In some schools, one teacher from each grade level
serves on the ATP to ensure that family involvement activities are planned, imple-
mented, and shared across the grades.
Paraprofessionals. Parent liaisons (also called parent coordinators, parent leaders,
or family liaisons) are paid aides who help educators connect and communicate
with parents and other family members. Parent liaisons must be members of the
ATP. They may serve, with educators, as co-chairs of the ATP or as leaders of ATP
committees (Sanders, 2008). They may have particular strengths for leading work-
shops or activities that directly assist families. Other paraprofessionals (e.g., instruc-
tional aides, assistants in school libraries, computer labs) and other school staff (e.g.,
secretarial, cafeteria, custodial, and transportation staff) also may serve as members
of the ATP.
Parents, family members, and community partners must be members of the ATP
and may serve as co-chairs of the team, along with an educator. They also may serve
as chairs or co-chairs of ATP committees on the six types of involvement or specific
school goals. Some schools match the number of educators and parents on an ATP,
some include one parent from each grade level on the team, and some make sure
that at least one parent has a child with special needs to ensure that an Action Plan
for Partnerships includes the interests of and outreach to parents of children receiv-
ing special education services.
Parents on the ATP should come from different neighborhoods or groups served
by the school. If the school has a PTA or PTO, one representative should be on the
Action Team for Partnerships. With diverse representation, all parents in the school
should see that they have a voice on the ATP and a contact with whom to share
ideas and questions.
Business and other community partners may serve on an ATP. Some ATPs include
a business partner, librarian, police officer, city council official, scientist, medical ex-
pert, and faith-based leader as team members. Community partners bring expert

knowledge, useful connections, and various resources to ATP committees. Commu-
nity members may take appropriate leadership roles, such as co-chairing an ATP
committee or leading an involvement activity. If community partners are on the
ATP, they, too, experience the one-day team training workshop as “professional de-
velopment” to build their expertise on partnerships.
Students must serve on the ATP in high schools. Although they may not serve as
ATP chairs or co-chairs, they may share leadership with an educator, parent, or com-
munity partner for specific activities in the One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships.
Student members of the ATP communicate with other high school students in var-
ious ways to gather ideas about which school, family, and community partnerships
are important and acceptable to students and their families. Only with student in-
volvement and support will programs of school, family, and community partner-
ships succeed.
All members of a school’s ATP receive “team training,” help write the One-Year
Action Plan for Partnerships, and share responsibilities for leading the activities that
are scheduled in the annual plan for partnerships. This approach changes definitions
of professional development and shared leadership to recognize and ensure parents’
contributions to partnership programs.
District leaders play important roles in providing professional development and
ongoing support for the work of schools’ ATPs. Superintendents and school boards
may officially evaluate progress on school, family, and community partnerships as
part of principals’ and teachers’ annual or periodic professional reviews. This policy
links the district’s mission statements about the importance of partnerships with a
high-stakes evaluation and encourages school leaders to work diligently on improv-
ing and maintaining their partnership programs.
In large school districts, district-level facilitators for school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships are needed to guide from 15 to 30 elementary, middle, and high
schools to organize their ATPs and partnership programs. The facilitators provide
ongoing facilitation activities that enable all ATPs to develop their capacities in plan-
ning, implementing, and maintaining comprehensive programs of partnership. They
also help all schools in the district share ideas with each other, evaluate their work,
and continue to improve their programs from year to year. In small districts, part-
time facilitators may work with fewer than 15 schools to help them develop and
maintain their programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
State leaders also have important leadership roles in encouraging successful part-
nership programs in districts and in schools. State superintendents, state boards of
education, and leaders of many departments, divisions, and programs that concern
families and communities need to conduct activities that support schools and dis-
tricts in understanding and developing partnership programs.
At the district and state levels, leaders for partnerships develop and implement
policies and activities that support and advance school, family, and community con-
nections. This includes two types of actions. Leaders conduct and coordinate state-
level or district-level policies and programs that affect all schools, such as staff
development workshops; state, regional, or district conferences; competitions for
small grants to support partnership practices; dissemination of best practices; and

other activities. District leaders also must facilitate individual schools’ Action Teams
for Partnerships on program development. (See Chapter 4 on state and district lead-
ership and activities.)
Other organizations also have roles to play in leading and participating in school,
family, and community partnership programs. For example, professional develop-
ment providers, state and local PTAs, community organizations, teacher or admin-
istrator unions, chambers of commerce, business and labor leaders, and others may
be part of leadership and action teams at the state, district, and school levels to im-
prove programs of school, family, and community partnerships.
Chair or Co-Chairs of the Action Team for Partnerships
At the school level, there must be a chair or, better, co-chairs of the ATP. The chair
must be someone whose leadership is recognized and accepted by all members and
who communicates well with educators, parents, and community members. Most
often, this is a teacher, counselor, or assistant principal who understands the impor-
tance of family involvement in children’s education.
Some schools select an educator and a parent to serve as co-chairs of the ATP.
Chairs and co-chairs also must be selected to lead the various ATP committees that
conduct specific activities that are written in the One-Year Action Plan for Partner-
ships. Having educators and parents as co-chairs or co-leaders of the ATP and its
committees sends an important message to everyone in the school community about
teamwork. The co-chair structure also gives greater stability to the ATP in the event
that one leader leaves the school. The chair or co-chairs of the ATP also may serve
as “linking members” on the school council or school improvement team.
Linking ATP Members with the School Improvement Team
A common question about organizing partnerships is whether the school improve-

ment team (sometimes called the SIT) should also be the ATP. If the school im-
provement team or council is very large or if its mission is unclear, it may be
subdivided into “action teams,” “work groups,” or committees dedicated to particular
topics, with one committee dedicated to school, family, and community partnerships.
In most schools, however, the school improvement team has a clear mission
to oversee all areas of the school’s program and progress and to serve as an advisor
to the principal. Because educators and parents who serve on the school improve-
ment team have limited time for meetings, it is best to recruit other teachers, parents,
and community members to serve on the ATP—to meet, plan, implement, oversee,
evaluate, and continually improve programs of family and community involvement.
With different people on the policy-advisory and action teams, a school will en-
sure that the same leaders are not trying to do too many things and that leadership
skills are developed by many teachers, administrators, parents, and community part-
ners. One “linking” member in addition to the principal may serve on both the

school improvement team and the Action Team for Partnerships to ensure an on-
going exchange of information between the policy group and its “action arm.”
1. Select a policy level that interests you (i.e., school, district, or state level).
2. Identify two job titles at the level you selected that you believe are
typically represented by people who could take leadership roles for
improving school, family, and community partnerships.
3. Next to each job title that you listed, note (a) the professional training,
(b) goals, and (c) one other characteristic that people in these positions
typically have that would help them facilitate and support the work of
teachers, parents, and administrators in developing programs of school,
Policy Level of Interest: _______________________
Two positions of Professional Goals in this How could these

leadership training? position? leaders support
family and commu-
nity involvement?
1.
2.
ACTIVITY
Ideal Members of an Action Team for Partnerships
Suppose that you are in a school that wants to create an ATP whose members will
work together on all types of family and community involvement. Let us say that
you are one member of a six- to twelve-person team. Who else would you want on
an ideal ATP? How might the ATP divide responsibilities to develop expertise in
partnerships among its teachers, parents, and administrator?
A. Select the level of schooling that interests you (preschool or elementary,

B. Give your hypothetical school a name.

C. Give the ATP a name. You may call it “ATP” or a name of your choice
that sends a message of partnerships.
School Name _________________________________
Action Team for Partnerships
Team Members’ Names Team Members’ Positions Team Members’ Special

Talents or Interests
1. You
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Add boxes as needed
FIGURE 7.2 ATP Member Chart
D. In Figure 7.2, identify:

1. Your own position on the ATP (e.g., teacher, principal, counselor,
parent, or some other position).
2. The other members of the ATP. Include at least two or three
teachers, two or three parents, and an administrator. Give all
members hypothetical names, and list their positions.
3. For each team member, note one of his or her special talents or
interests that may contribute to the work of the ATP.
E. Note: You may extend the table to include more than six members of
your ideal ATP.
F. List three challenges that could prevent these team members from
working well together to write and implement plans and activities for
school, family, and community partnerships. For each challenge, provide
one solution that might help the team succeed with its work on
partnerships.
COMMENT
Action Team Responsibilities
In elementary, middle, and high schools, the ATP plans, implements, coordinates,
and oversees action; monitors progress; solves problems; presents reports; and de-

signs new directions for positive connections with families and communities to in-
crease student success. Members of the ATP do not work alone on the planned ac-
tivities; they work with other faculty, parents, community members, and the school
council or improvement team (if one exists). The ATP gathers input from and pres-
ents ideas to the full faculty, school improvement team, and parent association for
the school’s one-year action plan. The ATP also recruits other teachers, parents, stu-
dents, administrators, and community members, or delegates leadership to help de-
sign, conduct, and evaluate family and community activities for each type of
involvement or for each major school goal.
Whether it uses the goal-oriented approach or the process-oriented approach to
organize involvement activities, the ATP will do the following:
• Document present and new practices of partnership so that everyone

knows how individual teachers and the school as a whole communicate
and work with families.
• Develop a detailed One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships linked to
school improvement plans, including activities for all six types of
involvement that involve families in ways that help students reach school
goals.
• Identify the budget(s) and resources that will support the activities in the
One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships.
• Meet monthly as a whole team to ensure continuous progress in plans
and activities and to evaluate activities that were implemented in the
past month.
• Meet in smaller committees, as needed, to implement activities in the
One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships.
• Publicize the partnership plans and practices to parents, students, and
teachers, and, as appropriate, the broader community. All teachers,
parents, school staff, community members, and students should know
how they can help select, design, conduct, enjoy, benefit from, and
evaluate partnership activities.
• Report its work and progress semiannually (or on a regular schedule) to
the school improvement team (or council), parent organization, faculty,
and broader community.
• Recognize and celebrate excellent participation from parents, other
family members, students, and others in the community who contribute
to the success of the planned partnership activities.
• Evaluate progress in improving the quality of implemented activities and
the results of various involvement activities. This includes results for the
school and teachers, results for parents and other family members, and
results for students.
• Solve problems that impede progress on partnership activities.
• Gather ideas for new activities and solves problems that impede
progress.

• Write a new One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships each year to ensure
an ongoing program of partnerships in the life and work of the school.
• Replace teachers, parents, administrators, or other members who leave
the ATP with new members so that a full team is always ready to
conduct a planned program of partnerships at the school.
• Integrate new projects, grants, and activities for home, school, and
community connections into a unified program of partnerships. Many
activities that enrich and extend partnerships of home, school, and
community come and go each year. These activities should be viewed as
part of, not separate from, the school’s ongoing, dynamic, comprehensive
program of partnerships.
The ATP recognizes all of the family and community involvement activities that
are conducted by individual teachers and other groups (e.g., PTA/PTO, after-school
program, and business partners). The school’s partnership program includes all fam-
ily and community involvement activities that are conducted for the school as a
whole, in specific grade levels, and by individual teachers each year.
If the ATP conducts its leadership activities well, then everyone in the school
should know that the school has an active program of school, family, and community
partnerships. All teachers, parents, school staff, community members, and students
should know how they are contributing to the design, conduct, and evaluation of
partnership activities. From year to year, the number and quality of activities in each
One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships should improve, along with positive results
of the activities. Details on organizing an effective ATP are in Epstein et al. (2009).
1. Which of the ATP actions listed above do you think is:

a. easiest to accomplish, and why?
b. most difficult to accomplish, and why?
2. Select three of the leadership actions of the ATP listed above that you
believe are most important for a high-quality program of partnerships.
Explain how each of the actions you selected would help make a school’s
program of school, family, and community partnerships permanent and a
regular part of school life.

COMMENT
Using Tools to Take Action
To fulfill the responsibilities listed above and to develop and strengthen its program
of partnerships from year to year, an ATP must address the following questions:
1. Where is this school starting from in its present practices at each grade
level on each of the six major types of involvement? What do teachers do
individually, and what does the school do as a whole, to involve families
and communities?
2. What are this school’s major goals for improving or maintaining student
success?
3. What will be different about this school’s program of family, school, and
community partnerships three years from now?
4. Which partnership practices that are currently being conducted should
be maintained or improved?
5. Which new practices should be added to involve families and the
community in ways that help students attain specific learning goals? To
activate all six types of involvement? To reach more families?
6. How is this school progressing? What indicators are used to measure the
quality of partnerships and progress toward goals for student success?
What activities should be monitored, documented, and formally evaluated
to learn about the effects of school, family, and community partnerships?
7. How will the results of the assessments and evaluations be used to
improve the next One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships?
Educators and researchers working together have developed several tools to help
ATPs address these basic questions. The following tools are discussed in the imple-
mentation guidebook School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook
for Action (Epstein et al., 2009).
A. Starting Points. An inventory of present practices for the six types of

involvement, accounting for the grade levels in which activities are
presently implemented.
B. One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships. An annual, detailed plan that
outlines activities, dates, and specific responsibilities for members of the
ATP and others to implement the planned practices. Options include a
goal-oriented or process-oriented action plan.
C. Annual Evaluation of Activities. A reflective assessment of quality of
each activity that is implemented throughout the school year. The format
matches the goal-oriented or process-oriented action plan so that plans
and evaluations are parallel.

D. Measure of School, Family, and Community Partnerships. An inventory
and rating system that extends Starting Points to assess how well the
school is implementing partnership practices for the six types of
involvement and how well the program is meeting key challenges for
involving all families in their children’s education.
E. Annual Review of Team Processes. Assess the quality of teamwork at the
end of each year by rating 18 team processes to help an ATP become even
more effective in the future.
Question Which tool and why? What other information

A, B, C, D, and/or E? might be needed?
1. Where is this school start-

ing from in its present
practices of the six major
types of involvement?
2. What are this school’s

major goals for improving
or maintaining student
success?
3. What will be different

about this school’s part-
nership program three
years from now?
4. Which partnership prac-

tices that are currently
being conducted should
be maintained or
improved?
5. Which new practices of

family and community
involvement should be
added to help students
attain specific learning
goals?
6. How is this school pro-

gressing in improving the
quality of its partnership
program?
7. What should be included

in the next One-Year
Action Plan for
Partnerships?
FIGURE 7.3 Matching Tools to Tasks

ACTIVITY
Matching Tools to Tasks
A. Use the chart in Figure 7.3. Tell which of the above tools (A, B, C, D, or
E) would help an ATP address the seven major questions listed above.
(Tools may be used more than once.)
B. Fill in other school information that might be needed or helpful, whether
the tools listed above are used or not.
COMMENT
Scheduling Meetings—Not Too Many, Not Too Few
In its One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships, an ATP must create a realistic schedule
for full-team meetings, committee meetings, and periodic reports to other school
groups so that all teachers, parents, students, and members of the community will
know about the school’s plans and activities for partnerships. A recommended
schedule includes the following team meetings and reports:
• Team Meetings. The full ATP should meet on a regular, realistic schedule
(at least monthly for at least one hour) to plan and schedule activities,
coordinate actions, conduct events, evaluate results, identify problems,
and celebrate progress. The meetings should be designed and conducted
to keep the planned program moving forward.
• Committee Meetings. ATP committees should meet as needed to
implement specific activities in the one-year action plan for which they
are responsible. For teams using the process-oriented approach, six ATP
committees on the six types of involvement will meet, as needed,
throughout the year to implement their planned activities. For teams
using the goal-oriented approach, ATP committees will meet to
implement the activities planned on their specific goals.
• Reports or Presentations on Partnerships. The chair, co-chairs, or
designated members of the ATP should report regularly (at least twice a
year) to the school improvement team (school council), the full faculty,
and the parent association on plans for and progress on school, family,
and community partnerships. These also are occasions to gather
information and ideas for needed changes and improvements and to
recruit leaders and participants for various activities.
• Reports or Presentations on Partnerships. The chair, co-chairs, or
designated members also should report the ATP’s plans, activities, and
progress to all families, students, and the community in school or
community newsletters and in other forums where the work, plans, and
goals of the school are discussed.

ACTIVITY
How Many Meetings?
A. Interview a teacher or administrator to discuss some of the challenges

educators and parents might face in finding time to meet and work
together on an ATP and some workable options. This activity may be
conducted individually or invite an educator to discuss these issues with
the class. First set the stage or scenario:
Suppose that the teachers, administrators, and parents in your school

formed an Action Team for Partnerships—a committee that works together
to improve the plans and practices of family and community involvement.
The ATP wrote a One-Year Action Plan for Partnerships so that involvement
activities, conducted throughout the school year, would contribute to goals
for student success. Now the team is meeting to determine a reasonable
schedule for team and committee meetings. They want to have just enough
meetings—not too many, but not too few—to ensure that their work is well
organized and that planned activities are well implemented.
Given the realities of school life in your school, what are your
recommendations on the following?
1. Team Meetings: If your school had an ATP that included teachers,

parents, and an administrator, how often should the whole team
meet to plan, conduct, and monitor their work and progress? What
might be a reasonable schedule, time, and place for whole-team
meetings?
2. Committee Meetings: If your ATP had committees to conduct
involvement activities to contribute to specific school goals (e.g.,
helping students improve attendance, math achievement, etc.), how
often should each committee meet to plan, conduct, and monitor their
specific activities? What might be a reasonable schedule, time, and
place for committee meetings?
3. Reports on Partnerships: If your school had an ATP, how often
should reports about partnership plans and progress be made to
the following groups? What form should those reports take: oral
report, computerized phone message, written summary, detailed
written report, or some other form?

Action Team for Partner- How often? In what form?
ships should report to:
1. School improvement
team or council
2. PTA/PTO or parent
organization
3. All parents in the school
4. All teachers in the school
5. Students
6. Community members
7. Local media
8. Any others?
4. Assessments and New Plans: If your school had an ATP, how much
time should be spent evaluating its work and writing new one-year
action plans for the next school year? What might be a reasonable
schedule, time, and place for these activities?
B. Summarize the questions and the interviewee’s responses.
C. From the responses to the interview questions and from your readings in
this chapter on the ATP, create and label a realistic meeting schedule over
one school year (12 months) for ATP meetings and reports. Include in
the calendar time for the ATP to:
• orient new members of the team
• write a one-year action plan
• meet as a whole team
• meet as committees on activities linked to school goals for student
success
• report their work and progress to major stakeholder groups
• evaluate their work and progress
• write plans for the next school year
• conduct other meetings or responsibilities that you identify.
COMMENT
Establishing Permanent Partnership Programs—

As Regular as Reading!
A school’s partnership program should be organized to operate as efficiently, effec-

tively, and predictably as a school’s reading, math, science, and other curricula and

testing programs. For example, a school’s reading program accounts for all of the
reading and literacy activities that are conducted with students at all grade levels.
Reading skills are planned, taught, tested, reported, and continually improved. Every
principal, teacher, student, and parent knows that the school has a reading program
that students experience daily. If new reading activities or opportunities come along
(such as a grant for improving reading instruction, for purchasing new books, or
for teachers’ professional development in linking reading and writing), the additions
are woven into the fabric of the school’s reading program.
Similarly, a well-organized, comprehensive program of school, family, and com-
munity partnerships accounts for all home-school-community connections that are
planned and conducted with students and families. Some activities are conducted
by classroom teachers, some activities are grade-level events, and other activities are
schoolwide. Some are individual connections between a parent and teacher, admin-
istrator, or counselor; others are group activities; and still others involve all students,
families, educators, and the community.
Like reading, partnership programs and practices must be planned, reviewed, and
improved each year. If new partnership projects, grants, and activities are initiated,
they should be integrated into the school’s ongoing partnership program. This
simple analogy—partnership programs must be planned and conducted “like
reading”—is key to sustaining school, family, and community partnerships that in-
form and involve all families in their children’s education every year.
ACTIVITY
How Are Partnerships Like and Unlike Reading?
A. Invite a school principal, or teacher, or school district or state education

leader to discuss how one “regular” or “permanent” program (such as
reading, math, science, other subject, or testing program) is organized to
ensure that it continues and improves from year to year. Fill in the chart
on page 597 to summarize the information about the selected, permanent
program. Ask:
1. What is one program in your school(s) that is permanent, regular,
and expected from year to year?
2. How do the following organizational features help make the selected
program permanent? (Fill in column 1.)
3. Do the same organizational features contribute to the development
of a program of school, family, and community partnerships in your
school(s)? If yes, how does each feature apply? If no, why not? (Fill
in column 2.)
B. From what you learned in the interview, how permanent do you think
the selected program is, and how permanent do you think the school,
family, and community partnership program is in this educator’s
school(s)? Explain.

One permanent program in our school is: _____________________________.
How does each feature help make the How does each feature presently apply to
selected program “permanent”? your school’s program of family and
community involvement?
a. A policy
b. A written plan
c. Funding
d. Leadership and supervision
e. Teamwork
f. Materials and equipment
g. Orientation of new participants
h. Evaluations
i. Any other feature? _________________
COMMENT
What’s in a Name?
A school may call its team the (School Name) Action Team for Partnerships; or the
(School Name) School, Family, and Community Partnership Team; or the Home,
School, Community Partnership Team. Or a school may choose a unique name for
its team, such as the Parent-Educator Network (PEN), Teachers Getting Involved
with Families (TGIF), Partners in Education (PIE), Partners for Student Success
(PASS), or Teachers and Parents for Students (TAPS).
Sometimes districts name their partnership initiatives to link all of the schools in
their own local “network.” For example, districts have called their initiatives the (Dis-
trict Name) School, Family, and Community Partnership Program; (District Name)
Network of Partnership Schools; and Building Educational Success Together (BEST).
1. Give two reasons why a school or district might want to give its ATP or
partnership program a unique name.
2. Why are the above names for school teams and district programs better
than names that focus only on parents (such as Parent Network, Family
Focus Group, or Parents Involved in Education), and better than names
that focus only on community connections (such as Community
Education Committee)? Give two reasons why names of ATPs or district
initiatives should have a “partnership” focus.

ACTIVITY
How Effective Are School Improvement Committees?
A. Select a school level that interests you (i.e., preschool or elementary,

B. Interview a teacher or administrator about the current and ideal
committee structures in that person’s school. Ask:
1. About how many students are in this school?
2. About how many teachers and administrators are in this school?
3. What are four major goals or objectives that this school has for
improving or maintaining the quality of the school’s program and
students’ success?
Goal 1: ________________________________________
Goal 2: ________________________________________
Goal 3: ________________________________________
Goal 4: ________________________________________
C. Create a chart like the one below that outlines the interviewee’s
responses to the questions in this chart.
School conditions and What is the What is ideal for

committee structure current situation? this school?
1. What advisory or grade

level committees meet
regularly with the
principal?
a. Who serves on these
committees?
2. What action-oriented
committees are there that
plan and implement
activities?
a. Who serves on these
committees?
3. How well do these

committees link their
work to the four goals or
objectives listed in
question B3, above?
4. Add a question of your

own:

D. Look over the information from the interview. How would you describe
the school’s current committee structure? Is there evidence of teamwork?
Is there broad representation of teachers, parents, other staff, and
community members on the various committees?
E. Do you agree with the interviewee’s ideas for the ideal committee
structure for the school? Explain.
F. List two actions that you would recommend to help this school improve
its committee structure and representation. Give one reason for each of
your recommendations.
CENTRAL THEMES
The readings and discussions in this volume provide an understanding of the theory,
research, policies, and implementation of programs and practices of school, family,
and community partnerships. The next sections review the central themes and major
conclusions that crosscut the readings and activities across chapters.
Central Theme Number 1: Building Mutual Trust

and Respect of Teachers and Parents
Everyone agrees that mutual trust and mutual respect between parents and teachers
are basic and required qualities of good partnerships. Programs of school, family,
and community partnerships will not be sustained unless teachers, administrators,
parents, and others who share an interest in children understand each other; respect
the hard work they each do for children; convey their mutual respect to each other;
and demonstrate their mutual trust in the way that they design and conduct pro-
grams of school, family, and community partnerships.
Trust and respect are not just words; it takes concerted action to establish these
underlying qualities for successful partnerships. Trust and respect cannot be legis-
lated or mandated but must be developed over time within school communities.
1. Discuss one way in which mutual respect and trust between parents and
teachers are prerequisites for some practices of partnership.
2. Discuss one way that mutual respect and trust between parents and
teachers facilitate good partnerships.
3. Discuss one way that mutual respect and trust between parents and
teachers are the result of good practices of partnership.
4. Suppose that a school or district wanted to make sure that its work on
school, family, and community partnerships increased parents’ and
teachers’ mutual trust and respect for each other.

a. Select a level of schooling that interests you (e.g., preschool or
b. Select one type of involvement that interests you.
c. Describe one activity for the type of involvement you selected that
you think would help build mutual respect and trust between
parents and teachers at the school level you selected.
d. Explain why you think this activity would produce trust and mutual
respect between teachers and parents.
e. Analyze the following features of the activity you described at the
school level you selected:
(1) Would all families benefit from this activity—even parents who
work during the school day or cannot come to the school
building for other reasons?
If yes, describe how the activity involves all parents.
If no, add one idea about how to inform and include families,
even if they were not able to participate.
(2) What is one way that the activity you described might involve
or affect students, in addition to parents?
COMMENT
Resolving Conflicts and Concerns
Activities to inform and involve families in children’s education at school and at

home are not always successful on the first try. Some teachers and principals need
practice in relating to and cooperating with parents. Some parents may not see eye-
to-eye with their children’s teachers. Sometimes good partners have honest disagree-
ments and must work out their differences.
Parents may have different opinions from teachers and from each other about
homework (e.g., too much or too little), student placements (e.g., the group or spe-
cial program in which the child should be placed), improvements needed in school
subjects and programs, and other topics. Some differences in opinions occur when
educators are not aware of parents’ views or when teachers or administrators are
inflexible about responding to requests from families. Differences in opinions may
occur if parents are not well informed and included in decisions about their chil-
dren’s education from preschool on. Without information and involvement every
year that children are in school, gaps are created in parents’ and educators’ knowl-
edge of and comfort with each other. Such gaps, if not addressed, become increas-
ingly hard to bridge.
Even when parents and teachers share mutual respect and trust each other, prob-
lems may arise, but solutions should be easier to achieve. For example, by knowing
and respecting the families of their students, many schools have redesigned winter
holiday concerts and celebrations to prevent offending or excluding students of dif-
ferent cultures or religions. Some schools have “detracked” courses to offer chal-

lenging programs to all students, not just to a few who are labeled “gifted.” One
school in a large urban area served many families who, because of their religious
beliefs, objected to some curricular topics. Instead of ignoring or criticizing the par-
ents, teachers created alternative learning activities for students to select to develop
the same important skills in reading, writing, or social studies. Schools in many
communities now give parents and students choices of whether or not to attend
classes or activities that counter family beliefs.
A well-functioning action team will design ways to review and discuss parents’
concerns and opinions. Indeed, good communications help build an important base
of trust and respect needed to address questions and resolve differences.
1. How might an ATP respond to the following parental concerns? Give

one possible solution to each of the following issues:
Parental Concern One Strategy That May Address

This Concern
a. Parent complains that the family’s
religious beliefs are contradicted by the
school program or policy (a Type 1
challenge).
b. Parent wants to meet with the child’s
teacher but does not speak English (a
Type 2 challenge).
c. Parent feels unwelcome by other volun-
teers (a Type 3 challenge).
d. Parent says that the child is being
given too little homework (a Type 4
challenge).
e. Parent thinks that children in the after-
noon kindergarten class have fewer
hours of school than in the morning
class (a Type 5 challenge).
f. Parent is worried that children are
unsafe walking to and from school
(a Type 6 challenge).
2. Not all strategies will fully address parental concerns. Some actions may
help a concerned parent understand and accept the school’s point of
view and some may help the school understand and accept the parent’s
point of view. Discuss the suggested strategies in class: Are the actions
realistic? What is the likely result if the suggested strategy were enacted?
Will the exchange build trust or distrust between parents and educators?

Central Theme Number 2:
Recognizing the Diversity of Families
1. The diversity of family cultures and languages will continue in the nation’s schools.
Students come to school from families with diverse cultural and linguistic back-
grounds, religions, customs, talents, and experiences. Cultural and linguistic diversity
will increase as the nation welcomes new groups of immigrants and as generations
of immigrant children and families not only assimilate but also maintain pride in
their heritage.
2. The diversity of family structures will continue in the nation’s schools. Students
come to school each day from one-parent and two-parent homes, blended fami-
lies, extended families, foster families, same-sex parents, and other family arrange-
ments. Some children are from large families, others from small families. Some have
grandparents nearby; others do not. Families have diverse forms and members.
3. The diversity of family work experiences will continue in the nation’s schools. In
most families, one or both parents work full-time or part-time outside the home.
Some parents are or may become unemployed, are in training for new jobs, have a
disability, receive federal or state assistance, or are moving to a new location. Fam-
ilies have diverse work schedules and experiences.
4. The diversity of family economic situations will continue in the nation’s schools.
Some parents are wealthy, many are middle class, others are working hard and get-
ting by, and still others are poor. Some children have economic advantages that fa-
cilitate educational experiences. Other children and their families need various
kinds of assistance to participate fully in educational programs at school and in
the community. Families have diverse resources even in seemingly homogeneous
communities.
5. Diverse families are similar in many ways. Despite important cultural, structural,
and economic differences, families are similar in profound ways. All families care
about their children and want them to succeed in schools with excellent educational
programs. All families want to feel welcome at their children’s schools, respected
by their children’s teachers, and safe in their communities. All students are eager to
succeed, want their families to be appreciated by their schools, and want their fam-
ilies as knowledgeable partners in their education.
1. Add to the list above one more way in which you believe families within
a school are different from one another, and explain.

2. Add to the list above one more way in which you believe families within
a school are similar to one another, and explain.
3. Identify one of the features of diversity from the list that interests you.
a. Identify one type of family involvement and one grade level that
interest you.
b. Describe one activity for school, family, and community partnerships
for the type of involvement and grade level you selected that you
believe would:
• help diverse families and students appreciate their differences;
• help diverse families and students appreciate their similarities;
and
• help teachers or principals learn more about the strengths,
interests, needs, or goals of diverse families.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
How Do Communities Address Diversity?
A. Identify a community that interests you.

B. Select a parent, educator, or other individual in that community to
interview about whether and how the community recognizes similarities
and differences of families and students. Ask:
1. How diverse is this community’s population, and in what ways?
2. Are the students in the local schools more or less diverse than people
in the surrounding community, or about the same? Explain.
3. Are similarities, common goals, and interests of families in this
community discussed and celebrated? If so, give one example of how
this is done. If not, give one reason why this is not done.
4. Are differences in the goals and interests of families in the
community discussed and celebrated? If so, give one example of how
this is done. If not, give one reason why this is not done.
C. Write one more question to ask the parent, educator, or other individual
about similarities or differences in the community.
D. Summarize the questions and your interviewee’s responses. From this
interview, how would you describe the “sense of community” in this
location? Provide one idea that you think would strengthen this
community’s understanding of its families.

ACTIVITY
Appreciating Family Diversity
Family histories, cultures, talents, values, and religions are rarely discussed in school.
These topics are important, however, for increasing students’ understanding and
appreciation of others who are different from themselves. Comprehensive partner-
ship programs include activities that illuminate family backgrounds and strengths
to help students, families, and educators understand and appreciate each other’s
similarities and differences.
A. Identify a grade level that interests you.

B. Design a bulletin board for a classroom, school hallway, or community
location for the grade level you selected that focuses attention on the
strengths, similarities, or diversities of families. For example, consider
displaying student drawings, stories, or photographs about aspects of
family life that students may enjoy sharing (e.g., favorite foods, sports,
holidays, sayings, histories, hopes and dreams, talents, hobbies and
interests, stories of coming to America, or other topics of interest).
1. Show a diagram of how you think the display will look.
2. Explain the purpose and content of your design.
3. Design one classroom or homework activity for students to plan,
create, or react to the bulletin board.
C. “Bulletin boards may celebrate the diversity of families in a school, but
they are not enough to help students develop an understanding and
appreciation of their similarities and differences.”
1. Do you agree or disagree with the above statement?
2. Write or discuss at least two arguments to support or refute this
statement for the grade level you selected.
3. In addition to a bulletin board, what is one activity that might
strengthen a school’s focus on the similarities and differences of its
students and families?
Website Exploration Diversity of Students and Families
Explore the annual collections of Promising Partnership Practices at

www.partnershipschools.org in the section “Success Stories.”
A. Select one year’s book, and click on “Multicultural Awareness.”

B. Select one activity reported by a school, district, state, or organization
and critique it.
1. What were two positive features of the activity that increased
awareness of and interactions by diverse students and families in a
school?

2. What were two weaknesses or limitations to the activity that could
be corrected for even greater success? Tell how.
Central Theme Number 3: Equity in School, Family,

and Community Partnerships
Can family involvement at home ever be equal for all children and families?
• Some parents have more formal schooling than other parents.

• Families have different skills to share, such as music, sports, arts,
cooking, carpentry, car repair, sewing, and child care.
• Some parents have more time to spend with their children than others.
• Some families have more money to spend on tutoring, lessons, and
summer experiences.
• Some communities have more free activities for families and for children
than do other communities.
• Some families have older children who can help the younger ones with
schoolwork.
• Some families have only one child, who receives all of the parents’ attention.
• Add one or two other inevitable inequalities that exist for children and
families at home that you believe have an impact on student success in
school: ________________________
The inequalities listed above are not all associated with wealth or formal edu-
cation. For example, some parents, though economically strapped, may spend
more time with children than do other families. Some communities in distressed
neighborhoods help students and families participate in enriching activities. All
families, regardless of socioeconomic status, have useful skills and knowledge to
share with children.
Almost all families want to do the best they can for and with their children, but
many conditions and resources are different and unequal. What do these inequalities
mean for producing greater equity in school, family, and community partnerships?
1. Select one of the inequalities in the list above.

2. Discuss the importance of the factor you selected for children’s success
in school.
3. Describe one activity in a program of school, family, and community
partnerships that might help to increase equality on the factor you selected.

COMMENT
Choices That Respond to Diverse Students’ Needs
From preschool on, decisions are made for, about, and with students and their fam-
ilies that affect students’ experiences in school. Some states, districts, and schools
offer families and students options in their education, including choice of:
• schools
• courses
• teachers
• special programs in schools
• activities in programs
• after-school activities
• summer school or enrichment programs
• ways to make up a failing grade
• add one more choice that may be made: ____________
To make wise choices, families and students need good information in useful
forms and understandable language. For example, some families prefer information
in print form, while others prefer to talk with other parents, educators, or others in
the community. Or a combination of verbal and written exchanges might be needed.
1. Identify one of the choices that interests you from the bulleted list above.
2. For the choice you selected:
a. What do parents need to know to make an informed choice?
b. Discuss at least one equity issue associated with this choice that
determines whether all families or some families exercise their
options.
c. Describe two strategies that schools might use to provide the kinds
of information that all families need to make good decisions for this
choice. Describe each strategy and the results you anticipate.
COMMENT
Luck Versus Equity in Partnerships
Parents speak of involvement in their children’s education in terms of “luck.” A par-

ent may say: “I’m really lucky this year. Paul’s teacher is so open and encouraging.

I can call with my questions, and I know she will return the call.” Or “We are so
lucky. Adrienn’s teacher is so helpful. He keeps us informed about how she is doing
and how to help at home.” These parents may not feel so lucky the next school year.
Families also talk about their children’s schools in the same way. Parents may
say: “We are so lucky that our school welcomes ideas from parents. In the last school
our children attended, the principal was not interested in what we had to say.” Fam-
ilies feel lucky if they are welcomed, informed, and involved.
Teachers also speak of luck. A teacher says: “I am so lucky this year. My students’
parents are so easy to reach. They are eager to help me and my class at school, and
they work with their children at home.” Teachers appreciate parents’ help. They talk
about being lucky if they have good relationships with their students and families.
This volume suggests that it is possible to take school, family, and community
partnerships out of the realm of luck and put them into regular teaching practice.
This can be done by planning and implementing a comprehensive, permanent pro-
gram of partnerships that involves all teachers, all families, and the community every
year that students are in school.
FIELD EXPERIENCE
Do Parents Feel Lucky or Confident about Partnerships?
A. Select a parent whose child has been in the same school for more than
one year. Identify the child’s grade level and whether the school is public
or private. Ask:
1. This year, how do your child’s school and teacher(s) inform and
involve you in your child’s education?
2. How do you feel about the information and opportunities you
receive?
3. How did you feel last year about the information and opportunities
for involvement that you received from the school or your child’s
teacher(s)?
B. Add one question of your own.
C. Record the questions and responses.
D. Summarize the parent’s reports about contacts with the school to tell:
1. Were the parent’s experiences consistent or different from one year
to the next?
2. Were parents expecting information and opportunities for
involvement, or did they feel “lucky” this year or last year?
E. Add other reflections.
F. Optional class activity. Compare responses with others in class for an
overview of parents’ reports of consistency of information from year to
year.

COMMENT
Real or Imagined Families
We need to design and implement family involvement activities that meet the needs
of today’s families, not real or imagined families of the past. This means understand-
ing families’ conditions and constraints. Not all families can come to all workshops,
meetings, or events on the school’s schedule. Not all who are employed can leave
work to come to parent-teacher conferences. Not all parents can volunteer at school
during the day. Not all parents can help with homework on a specific evening. Not
all parents want to serve on school committees. Not all parents can work in their
communities at specifically scheduled times.
These are not new problems. There always were diverse situations and con-
straints on time that restricted family involvement. There always were one-parent
and two-parent homes where parents were employed during the school day, or in
one, two, or more jobs, who could not come often or easily to the school building.
There always were immigrant parents and others who did not feel welcome at
school. In the past, most parents had very limited knowledge of their children’s
schooling across the grades, and most had limited information about how to work
with their children’s schools to maximize student success.
The imagined “golden years” of parent involvement never existed in all or most
schools for all or most families. Most parents have always needed more and better
information than they were given, and more and different opportunities for in-
volvement at school and at home. Because of advances in research, policy, and
practice, we know more now than in the past about the organization of programs
and practices that enable all families to be involved in their children’s education
across the grades.
ACTIVITY
Meeting the Needs of

Twenty-first-Century Families
A. Figure 7.4 shows six of many crucial challenges to excellent progress on

the six types of involvement. Give one example of an activity that would
help meet each of the following challenges so that more of today’s
families might become more involved in their children’s education.
B. Discuss ideas about the challenges and suggested solutions in class.
How would each suggestion address the simultaneous challenges of
equity in partnerships to involve all families and meeting the needs of
diverse families?

Selected Challenges One Strategy or Activity That Schools
to Excellent Partnerships Could Use to Meet Each Challenge to
Involve All (or Most) Families
Type 1 Challenge: Provide information to
families who cannot come to a meeting at
school.
Type 2 Challenge: Schedule conferences so
that employed parents can attend.
Type 3 Challenge: Organize volunteer
work that can be done at home or in the
community.
Type 4 Challenge: Keep families informed
about what their children must learn and
do to pass each subject, without requiring
parents to “teach” school subjects.
Type 5 Challenge: Organize committees so
that parent leaders from the major recial,
ethnic, socioeconomic, and other groups in
the school are involved.
Type 6 Challenge: Organize business and
other community partnerships so that
attention and resources focus on school
improvement goals for student success
FIGURE 7.4 Challenges to Partnerships
COMMENT
Conclusions and Looking Ahead
This volume takes readers on a journey from theory to research, to policy, and to
the development of school, family, and community partnership programs in practice.
From the collection of readings, activities, and other research, we draw eight con-
clusions to help you think about, talk about, and take action on school, family, and
community partnerships as you proceed to use and build on what you have learned.
1. School, family, and community partnerships are about children and their success
as students in school. In the past, parental involvement was, too often, about the
parents. Because schools are responsible and accountable for students’ success, it is
necessary to redirect programs of family and community involvement to focus on
helping all students succeed in school.
Teachers, parents, administrators, and community members care about their chil-
dren and want them to succeed in school and in life. Indeed, children are the reason

these partners communicate and work together. Research suggests that children who
have multiple sources of support at home, at school, and in the community are more
likely to succeed in school, graduate from high school, and make postsecondary
plans for the future. Well-designed partnership programs and practices should help
all of the people who care about children organize their interactions and mobilize
their resources in ways that help youngsters define themselves and work as students.
Some partnership activities also will benefit parents, educators, and others, but these
results are the means to the main goal of promoting students’ learning, development,
and success.
2. School, family, and community partnerships are for all families. Partnerships are
not just for families who are formally educated, easy to reach, or able to come often
to school. They are not just for families whose children are doing well in school and
not just for those whose children are in trouble, not just for families who live close
to the school or only those who have telephones and computers with Internet access,
not just for those who speak English or read it well, not just for those with two par-
ents at home, and not just for families who always agree with school policies. Com-
prehensive programs of school, family, and community partnerships are designed
to inform and involve families of all races, cultures, family structures, and educational
backgrounds. Schools with excellent partnership programs reach out to mothers and
fathers, foster parents and guardians, grandparents, and others who are raising chil-
dren in all families.
When comprehensive programs of partnership are conducted, schools send pow-
erful messages to students:
Your school respects all families. Your school will communicate and collaborate with
your family to help you succeed.
Partnership programs say to teachers:
Involving families in children’s education is part of educators’ professional work. This

school does not stereotype or dismiss any families as irrelevant to their children’s learn-
ing and development.
Crucial messages also are sent to families:
All students and all families are important in this school. We communicate with families,
and we encourage families to communicate with educators to help students succeed.
3. School, family, and community partnerships are important at all grade levels,
from preschool through high school. Families are important in their children’s lives
every year, not just in infancy, preschool, and the primary grades. Community ser-
vices and programs assist families and their children from infancy on, not just in
the upper grades.

Of course, practices of partnership change each year as children mature and as-
sume more responsibilities for their own learning; school programs become more
complex; and families accumulate information about their children’s education, tal-
ents, and interests. Partnerships are particularly important at times of transition,
when children and their families move to new schools or are promoted from one
grade level to the next. To do their best for their children, families need good infor-
mation about their children’s development, school programs, community services,
and how to help at home at every grade level.
4. Students are key to the success of school, family, and community partnerships.
Not only are students the reason for partnerships, they also are essential partners.
Students are important couriers, messengers, interpreters, negotiators, interviewers,
decision makers, and discussants in school, family, and community partnership ac-
tivities for all six types of involvement. Students help teachers, counselors, and ad-
ministrators reach their families, and they help their families communicate with
their schools. They often are the main source of information for families about
school and community programs. Without students’ participation in communica-
tions between school and home, there will be few successful partnerships of any
type at any grade level. Most important, students are the main actors in their own
education and, ultimately, in charge of their own success in school. Still, teachers,
parents, and others in the community must work with students and with each other
to help students succeed.
5. The community is important for the success of partnership programs. Community

includes the family and the school, and it extends to the neighborhood, the city or
township, and all of society. The vastness of the term means that every school, dis-
trict, or state must identify its community and design productive connections that
will strengthen the school programs, assist families and students, and advance the
interests of the community.
Community resources include people, programs, policies, facilities, finances,
and other less tangible norms, beliefs, and attitudes that can be targeted to help
students succeed. Business partners; cultural, civic, religious, and educational
groups; the media; and others in the community may contribute to comprehensive
partnership programs in ways that help prevent students’ academic and behavioral
problems and that promote student success. All communities, not just wealthy ones,
have traditions, talents, and opportunities that can be organized to enrich the lives
of children.
Connections with the community do not take the place of connections with all
students’ families. Even when schools organize and use community programs,
people, and resources well (e.g., mentors, tutors, educational programs, recreational
opportunities), students’ families need to be informed and involved. They must
know about their children’s opportunities, work, and progress. From year to year,
families remain students’ main support system.
Community is an attitude and feeling of connectedness. When educators, parents,
other citizens, and organizations work together to help students succeed, they
strengthen the sense of community in and beyond the school.

6. Developing and implementing programs and practices of school, family, and com-
munity partnerships are processes, not events. Programs of partnership are devel-
oped over time, not overnight. It takes time to plan, implement, evaluate, and
improve school-level partnership programs. It takes time to develop insightful and fa-
cilitative district and state policies, organize staff, implement inservice education,
award grants, and conduct conferences and other leadership activities that support
and assist all schools. Planned programs make the difference in whether, which, and
how families and communities become involved in children’s education. At least
three years are needed for schools, districts, and states to establish strong leadership
for and effective processes and practices of school, family, and community partner-
ships. After that, annual plans, thoughtful evaluations, and continuous improve-
ments are needed to sustain excellent programs of partnership.
7. School, family, and community partnerships focus on results to help students

succeed in school. After establishing a welcoming school environment that sends
messages of trust, respect, and welcome to all families, schools’ programs of part-
nership must focus on results for student success in school. Annual plans for school,
family, and community partnerships must include activities that involve families
and communities in productive ways to help promote, improve, or maintain school
goals and high standards for student success. Involvement activities must be bal-
anced to include some conducted at school, at home through homework, and in
community settings. It is no longer enough to count “bodies in the school building”
to measure family involvement.
Involvement activities may be designed to help students increase skills in reading,
math, writing, or other subjects. And productive partnerships may focus on improv-
ing student attendance, behavior, or attitudes toward school and learning so that
students are in school, on time, and motivated to learn and do their best.
A focus on results requires schools, districts, and state departments of education
to monitor the quality of partnership programs and to measure the impact of family
and community involvement on student success. Clear measures are needed, first,
of the quality of involvement activities to learn whether planned activities are im-
plemented, who is involved and who is excluded, and how well the activities are con-
ducted. Next, clear measures of results are needed to learn whether there are added
benefits for all or some students or others as a result of participating in the activities
that are implemented. This two-step approach to evaluation ensures that results
cannot be expected unless involvement activities are effectively implemented. A
focus on results affirms that school programs of family and community involvement
must be periodically reviewed and continually improved.
8. School, family, and community partnerships do not substitute for other school
improvements and innovations that are needed to increase student learning and suc-
cess. The best way to ensure student success and high achievement is for all students
to have excellent teachers every day, every year, in every subject. Schools must pro-
vide all students with talented teachers; challenging curriculum; effective instruction;
up-to-date technology; equal opportunities to learn; responsive assessments; enrich-

ing educational resources and activities; and excellent school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships.
In sum, school, family, and community partnerships are about children, include
all families, at all grade levels, give key roles to students, involve the community,
are planned and ongoing, and are evaluated for their quality and results. Along with
all other aspects of excellent schools and excellent teaching, school, family, and com-
munity partnerships are necessary for increasing students’ test scores, reducing
dropout rates, improving attendance, or increasing other indicators of student suc-
cess. The eight conclusions lead, full circle, back to the first chapter’s list of facts
and call for action for better professional preparation of educators about school,
1. Based on the eight conclusions listed above and your other readings, in
the chart below list one reason why each of the following is important in
a comprehensive program of partnership. Then, list one reason why each
focus is not enough for ensuring trust, respect, equity, and diversity in
Focus Why is this important? Why is this not enough for

a comprehensive partner-
ship program?
A. Involve parents of young

children.
B. Involve families in work-
shops on parenting.
C. Involve families with
many years of formal ed-
ucation who understand
schools.
D. Involve families when
students are in trouble.
E. Involve families and the
community in one big
event at school each year.
F. Have an active PTA/PTO
or other parent
organization.
2. Discuss classmates’ ideas of why each focus is necessary but not sufficient
in excellent programs of partnership.

COMMENT
20/20 Vision of School, Family, and

Community Partnerships
Today’s students are tomorrow’s parents. They are witnessing and experiencing how
their schools treat their families and how their families treat the schools. They are
learning by example how parents are involved at school and at home in their chil-
dren’s education.
In 10 years, some elementary school students (now 6–10 years old), more middle-
grade students (now 11–14 years old), and many high school students (now 15–18
years old) will be parents. By 2020, many of their children will be in day care, pre-
school, and elementary school. Will tomorrow’s parents be good partners with their
children’s schools? Will the schools be good partners with tomorrow’s parents?
Based on the articles you read and the discussions and activities you conducted,
how do you think school, family, and community partnerships should be con-
ducted in the future?
1. Identify a school level that interests you (i.e., preschool or elementary,

middle, or high).
2. For the school level you selected, write an essay on your vision of ideal
school, family, and community partnerships in 2020.
a. Address these questions:
• In the year 2020, how should schools connect with families and
communities?
• How should parents connect with their children’s schools,
interact with educators, and influence their children’s education?
b. Include ideas about the policies and actions that will be needed to
realize your vision. These may include school, district, state, and/or
federal policies; educators’ preparation; family factors and
approaches; and other requirements.
c. How likely is it that your vision of school, family, and community
partnerships will be fulfilled by 2020? Explain.

COMMENT
Shaping the Future

We cannot change past patterns of school, family, and community partnerships, but
we can shape the future. This includes improving preservice, advanced, and inservice
education so that all teachers and administrators understand school, family, and
community partnerships and can apply what they know.
From all of the studies, fieldwork, discussions, and activities discussed in this vol-
ume, one thing is very clear. It is unreasonable to expect parents, on their own, to
create the knowledge needed every year to interact productively with their children
as students or to connect with their children’s schools and teachers. By contrast, it
is reasonable to expect all schools, districts, and state departments of education to
organize ongoing programs of school, family, and community partnerships so that
all parents are well informed and productively involved every year with their chil-
dren and schools.
This volume for preparing educators to understand school, family, and commu-
nity partnerships takes readers one step toward improving policies and practices of
involvement. When well-prepared teachers, administrators, counselors, and other
professionals take positions in schools, districts, and state departments of education,
the real work to organize, implement, and sustain programs of partnership begins.
REFERENCES
Epstein, J. L., and F. L. Van Voorhis. (In press). School counselors’ roles in developing partner-
ships with families and communities for student success. Professional School Counseling.
Sanders, M. (2008). How parent liaisons can help bridge home and school. Journal of Edu-
cational Research 101: 287–297.
Sanders, M. G., and S. B. Sheldon. (2009). Principals Matter: A Guide to School, Family, and
Community Partnerships. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Index
AACTE (American Association of Adolescence, 487 (fig.), 529
Colleges of Teacher Education), 8 See also Middle schools; Teenagers
Academic problems African-Americans
partnership programs and, 55–56 art evaluation and, 557
student mobility and, 288–289 parental involvement studies and,
Academic subjects, 143 227
See also specific academic subjects single parents and, 171
by name as teachers, 96, 97 (table)
Accreditation teens of, 45
for new partnership involvement in American Association of Colleges of
school systems, 9–10 Teacher Education (AACTE), 8
for teachers state and federal, Art, 555–558
372–376 ATP. See Action Team for
Achievement of students. See Student Partnerships (ATP)
achievement; Student Attitudes of students
achievement, teachers’ practices activities and discussion regarding,
of parent involvement and 274 (fig.), 274–275
Action, strategies for, 573, 577 in homework practices of
Action Team for Partnerships (ATP), elementary school students, 242,
48, 54, 403–407 244
action strategies of, 573–575 reactions to teacher practices of
activities and discussion regarding, parent involvement, 251–252,
576, 577, 578–581 253 (table), 254
continuing improvement of, Attitudes, of teachers regarding
407–408 homework, 504–505
creating, 403–404, 404–405 Authority
funds and other support for, activities and discussion regarding,
404–405 289–290
leaders and members of, 582–588 five types of involvement and, 131,
meetings for, 593–594 135, 136–137
names for, 597 understanding of in partnerships,
one-year action plans for, 406–407 77–78
responsibilities and tools of,
588–593 Back-to-School Night, 429
Administrators Baltimore City Public Schools, 91
conclusions regarding, 615 Baltimore School and Family
goals of, 11–12 Connections Project, 145
needs of, 4–6, 10–11 Behavior
and overlapping spheres of activities and discussion regarding,
influence theory, 44–45 274 (fig.), 274–275
See also Principals homework and, 244
617
Behavior (continued) Children, caring for, 29, 30
partnership programs and, 55–56, action teams for partnerships in,
122 403–407
student mobility and, 288–289 activities and discussion regarding,
student reactions to teacher 412, 415–416
practices of parent involvement, characteristics of successful
251–252, 253 (table), 254 programs for, 407–409
Benefits of parental involvement, 117, charting the course for, 397,
292, 317 399–400, 402
expected benefits and, 118–120 core of caring and, 410
greater overlap and, 38–39 how partnerships work in practice,
overview, 3 392–393
teacher attitudes and, 504–505 overlapping spheres of influence
Birth, partnership programs starting and, 390–392
at, 368–369 overview, 389–390
Books. See Literacy; Reading research regarding, 393–394
Buffalo, New York, 312, 324–327 summary and next steps regarding,
410–412
California Achievement Test (CAT), See also Six types of involvement
216 Classroom conditions and
California state policies, 312–314 organization, inner-city, 141
Changes (table), 142–143
of pattern in family-school Collaborating with communities. See
relations, 28–31 Communities
regarding school system, 7–9 Committees, 598–599
effects of measures of, 182 (table), Communication
184, 186 (table), 187, 189 (table) as one of five types of involvement,
in fifth grade classrooms, 251 135, 136–137
(table) between parents and children,
math achievement test scores and, 498
222 (table) between parents and teachers, 98,
reading achievement test scores 499
and, 220 (table) from school-to-home, 154, 155
Child development theories, 26–27, (table), 166
498 six types of involvement and, 46,
increasing student learning and 394, 395 (table), 396, 396
development and, 51–56 (table), 398 (table), 399 (table),
of overlapping school and family 400 (table), 401 (table), 424–437
spheres, 31, 32 (fig.), 33–36 Communities
patterns of, 30–31 annual school improvement plans
and time in family and school regarding, 49
environments, 37 diversity and, 603–605, 606
Children equity of, 56–58
central role of in partnerships, five types of involvement and,
76–77 131–132
as main focus of partnership goals regarding, 3, 11–12
programs, 609 as important for success of
See also Students partnerships, 611
618 INDEX
increasing student learning and Deficit theories of single parenting,
development, 51–56 173–174
multidimensional concepts and, Designs for family involvement and
46–48 homework, 505–507, 508
multilevel partnerships for, 49–51 (table), 509 (table), 510–512,
overlapping model of, 31, 32 (fig.), 513 (table), 514
33–35, 39–40 Dilemmas and problems of parental
overview, 12–14, 16–21, 493–495 involvement, 121–122, 125
school system pattern changes and, See also Parental involvement,
28 debatable issues of
six types of involvement and, 394, Discussions, parent and child learning
395 (table), 396, 396 (table), 398 through, 101 (fig.), 102–103
(table), 399 (table), 400 (table), District level leadership. See No Child
401 (table), 459–471, 480 Left Behind Act (NCLB)
summary regarding, 471–481 District level policies
See also School-family-community activities and discussion regarding,
partnerships 348, 360–362, 369–372, 384
Comprehensive School Education Buffalo, New York, 312, 324–327
Plan (CSEP), 49 implications of, 301
Conferences Middletown, Connecticut, 312,
home, 448–449, 514 324, 327–329
parent, student and teacher, overview, 318
432–436 responsibilities of, 318–319
Conflict resolution, 600–603 Saint Paul, Minnesota, 312, 324,
Connecticut state policies, 312–318 330
Contracts, between teachers and District partnership programs, 50
parents, 102 (fig.), 104–105 Diverse families, 259–260
Coordinators, for parental See also Single mothers; Single
involvement, 120–121 parents and parent/teacher
Cost-benefits of homework, 281–282 interactions
Courses on partnerships, required or Diversity, 603–605, 606
elective, 13–16 Divorce. See Single parents and
Credentialing parent/teacher interactions
for new partnership involvement in (DPI) Wisconsin Department of
school systems, 9–10 Public Instruction, 322–323
for teachers state and federal,
372–376 Early Childhood Longitudinal Study
for working parents, 376–378 (ECLS-K and B), 60
CSEP (Comprehensive School Ecological theories, 44
Education Plan), 49 Education
community forums and advocates
Decision making for, 469–470
five types of involvement and, 131, inservice, 15–16
135, 136–137 of mothers, 29, 177
six types of involvement and, 46, of parents, 57, 108, 109 (fig.), 110
394, 395 (table), 396, 396 (fig.), 111, 119–120, 130, 141,
(table), 398 (table), 399 (table), 152–153, 504
400 (table), 401 (table), 454–459 for parents, 421–422
INDEX 619
Education (continued) of parental involvement,
of parents in parents’ reactions 129–148
survey, 157, 158, 158 (table), activities and discussion regarding,
166, 167 264, 270–271
of single parents, 177 discussion of, 142–145
of teachers, 96, 97 (table) effects of school level and student
See also Elementary schools; High teacher characteristics and
schools; Middle schools; School teacher practices on, 137–138
systems five types of involvement and,
Education Commission of the States, 130–132, 134–135, 136–137,
9 143–144
Education for All Handicapped implications for improving school
Children Act, 29 and family connections, 145–146
Elementary and Secondary Education introduction to, 129–130
Act (ESEA), 331, 358–359 method of research regarding,
Elementary schools 133–134
art and, 560 questions to ask about, 146–147
and effects on measures of results of research regarding,
involvement, 205 134–142
future of students in, 614 school climate and program
hypothetical studies of, 293–294 strength, 140–142
parents’ attitudes towards, 153–154, summary regarding, 147–148
165 support for parental involvement,
six types of involvement and, 46 143
survey data from, 96, 97 (table) teachers and different subjects
See also Homework practices of regarding, 139–140
elementary school students Employer’s support for family
Elementary schools, inner-city, involvement, 378
parents’ attitudes and practices Employment, 468–470
of involvement in Equity, 74–75, 82, 85
activities and discussion regarding, all partnership programs about,
265–266, 270, 270–271 55–57
characteristics of parents and, 203 in out-of-school activities, 380–382
(table) of partnership programs, 605,
classroom-level reports of school 606–607
practices, 207–209, 208 (table) Elementary and Secondary Education
discussion regarding, 212–214 Act (ESEA), 331, 358–359
effects on, 205–207, 206 (table) Experiments, 58–59
measures for, 203–204
overview, 200 Families
parents’ reports of schools’ changing structures of, 30
practices involve parents, 204, characteristics of, 205, 206, 206
204 (table), 205 (table), 211 (table)
student time on homework and crucial messages sent to, 610
parent involvement, 209–212, educators’ needs regarding, 4–5
211 (table) five types of involvement and,
study design of, 201–202, 203 130–131
Elementary schools, inner-city, school gap between schools and, 5–7
programs and teacher practices goals regarding, 3, 11–12
620 INDEX
increasing student learning and importance of, 163–164
development, 51–56, 86–87 parental involvement and, 504
like schools, 35–37, 73–75 teachers’ uses of parental
meeting 21st century needs of, involvement and, 107–108
608–609 transitions to new, 287–288
multilevel partnerships for, 49–51 See also Elementary schools; High
overlapping with school spheres, schools; Middle schools
31, 32 (fig.), 33–35
overview, 12–14, 16–21, 493–495 Hard-to-reach parents, 200, 270
responsibilities of, 26–27, 321 Head Start programs, 29, 46, 107–108
See also Parental involvement; Health issues, partnership programs
School-family-community and, 56
partnerships Healthy Start, 313
Federal agencies and policies Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM),
accreditation of teachers and, 52, 59–60, 345
372–375 High schools
activities and discussion regarding, education of parents, 152 (table),
356–358, 383 178 (table), 203 (table)
policies of, 302–303 future of students, 614
See also State education agencies goal setting in, 452
and policies homework during, 231–232, 244,
Federal funding 246, 501–503
and district advisory councils, 50–51 hypothetical studies of, 293–294
for parental involvement, 29 increasing student learning and
Title I programs, 120–121 development in, 52
Focus on Results (series of school- links to inservice education and, 15
level studies), 53 part-time jobs and, 468–470
Follow-Through programs, 29, six types of involvement and, 46,
107–108 52
Funding, 516, 574 women and, 29
activities and discussion regarding, See also Teenagers
364, 365 (table), 366 (table), History, theories and, 83–84
366–368 Home conferences, 448–449, 514
for ATP, 404–405 Home “lab” activities, 529
federal, 29, 50–51, 120–121 Home learning
for social studies and art, 561 facts about parents’ attitudes of,
Future of students, 515, 614–615 165–166, 168
five types of involvement and, 131,
Goals, 52–54, 452–453 135, 136–137
for helping students to succeed in interactive homework for, 488
school, 11–12 (fig.)
of interactive homework, 532 parent involvement in, 101 (fig.),
(table), 535 102 (fig.), 102–104, 155–156
introduction to, 3 six types of involvement and, 46,
Grade levels 394, 395 (table), 396, 396
and academic subject differences, (table), 398 (table), 399 (table),
286–287 400 (table), 401 (table), 442–453
as factors affecting gains in math, student achievement and,
273 521–522
INDEX 621
Home Learning (continued) summary and discussion of,
for summer and parent 243–246
involvement, 124–125 teacher practices and, 242–243
See also Homework Homework, teachers’ roles in
Home visits by teachers, 111–112, 124 designing, 496–516
Homemade homework, 449–450, 514 conclusion regarding, 516
Homework implications for future research and
activities and discussion regarding, practice, 515
444–447, 449–452, 488 (fig.) new designs for family involvement
attitudes regarding, 250, 255 in, 505–507, 508 (table), 509
experiments and, 58–59 (table), 510–512
family involvement and, 48, 52–53 other new homework designs and,
field experience regarding, 282–283 512, 513 (table), 514
grade level and academic subject overview, 496–497
differences of, 286–287 purposes of homework and,
one-and two-parent homes and, 497–500
184, 187, 188 (table), 189 research on homework and,
(table), 190 500–503
paired data from students and research on parent involvement,
parents regarding, 284–286 503–505
purposes of, 232–233, 497–500, Hypothetical studies, 293–294
562
reading to understand, 283–284 Implications
student time on homework and of district level policies, 301
parent involvement, 209–210, for future research and practice on
211 (table), 211–212 homework, 515
studying and improving, 275, 276 for improvement of school and
(fig.) family connections, 145–146
variables regarding, 277–282, 281 See also Policies, implications of
(fig.) Inner-city schools. See Parental
See also Home learning; Interactive involvement in inner-city schools;
homework Parental involvement, school
Homework practices of elementary programs and teacher practices
school students, 231–246 of, inner-city elementary and
activities and discussion regarding, middle schools
274 (fig.), 274–275 Inservice education, 15–16
data and approach regarding, Interactive homework, 488 (fig.), 513
237–238 (table)
exploratory analyses of, 238, 239 activities and discussion regarding,
(table), 240 562–569
homework time and, 241–242 for language arts, 530–531, 532
introduction to, 231–232 (table), 533–534
overview, 232–236 for math, 508 (table), 509 (table),
parent abilities and resources and 510, 523–526
other factors regarding, 243–244 new approaches to, 506
results of research regarding, overview, 493–495, 562
240–243 for science, 508 (table), 509 (table),
student attitudes and, 242 511, 526–530
622 INDEX
See also Teachers Involve Parents in See also No Child Left Behind Act
Schoolwork (TIPS) (NCLB)
Interdisciplinary programs, 556, 558, Learning at home. See Home learning
560, 571–572 Letter writing, 430, 513, 529, 533
Internet Technology. See Websites Literacy, 53, 57
Interstate New Teacher Assessment See also Reading
and Support Consortium “Living Things” (TIPS activity page),
(INTASC), 10 545–546
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Lump-sum funding, 364, 365 (table),
Consortium (ISLLC), 10 366 (table)
Involvement. See Types of
involvement; Parental Marital status. See Single parents and
involvement; parent/teacher interactions
Married parents
Jobs of students, 468–470 characteristics of, 177, 178 (table)
Johns Hopkins University teachers’ reports of helpfulness of,
changes in parental involvement in 183–184, 185 (table), 186 (table)
schools, 7 See also Single parents and
interactive homework and, 495 parent/teacher interactions
NNPS program, 334, 335, 344 Maryland schools
homework studies and, 237–238
Labeling (as stereotyping), 260 parental involvement studies in,
Labor, division and multiplication of, 5–6, 151, 165
77–79 single parent studies in, 175–176
Language Arts, 507, 508 (table), 509 statewide study of 1980 and 1981
(table) overview, 91–94
TIPS activity pages, 549–552 student achievement studies in, 216
for TIPS process, 530–531, 532 Math
(table), 533–534 achievements compared to reading,
Languages, 378–380 223, 224 (table), 225–226
Laws and credentialing activities and discussion regarding,
for new partnership involvement in 261–262, 272–273
school systems, 9–10 family involvement and, 53
for working parents, 376–378 homework and, 244, 488 (fig.)
Leadership hypothetical studies of, 293–294
activities and discussion regarding, students’ achievement and parental
576 involvement with, 221, 222
in communities and responsibilities (table), 223
of, 321 TIPS activity pages, 541–544
conclusion regarding, 574 for TIPS process, 508 (table), 509
institutes of, 327, 328 (table), 510, 523–526
multilevel for partnerships, 49–51 Measures and methods, using
state, 300, 306–311 multiple for understanding
of teachers and one- and two- family and students, 291
parent homes, 180 (table), 182 Middle schools
(table), 183, 184, 185 (table), common beliefs among, 494
186 (table), 188 (table), 189 and effects on measures of
(table), 190, 194 involvement, 205
INDEX 623
Middle Schools (continued) support for parental involvement,
future of students, 614 143
part-time jobs and, 468–469 teachers and different subjects
six types of involvement and, 46 regarding, 139–140
See also Volunteers, organizing Middletown, Connecticut, 312, 324,
productive for middle grades 327–329
Middle schools, inner-city, parents’ Mobility, 288–289
attitudes and practices of Mothers
involvement in education of, 29, 177
activities and discussion regarding, single and working, 30, 119, 171,
265–266, 270, 270–271 176, 177
characteristics of parents and, 203 Multidimensional concepts, of school,
(table) family and community, 46–48
classroom-level reports of school Multilevel analyses of research,
practices, 207–209, 208 (table) 59–60
discussion regarding, 212–214 Multilevel leadership, 50–51
effects on, 205–207, 206 (table) Multivariate models of research, 59
measures for, 203–204
overview, 200 National Board for Professional
parents’ reports of schools’ Teaching Standards (NBPTS),
practices involve parents, 204, 374–375
204 (table), 205 National Council for Accreditation of
student time on homework and Teacher Education (NCATE), 10,
parent involvement, 209–212, 373, 375
211 (table) National Network of Partnership
study design of, 201–202, 203 Schools (NNPS), 46, 50, 53, 57,
Middle schools, inner-city, school 333, 334, 335, 344, 416
programs and teacher practices NCLB. See No Child Left Behind Act
of parental involvement, 129–148 (NCLB)
activities and discussion regarding, New schools and grade levels,
264, 270–271 287–288
discussion of, 142–145 Newsletters
effects of school level and student activities and discussion regarding,
teacher characteristics and 430
teacher practices on, 137–138 as school-to-home
five types of involvement and, communications, 425, 426, 431,
130–132, 134–135, 136–137, 465, 476, 490
143–144 summary regarding, 481
implications for improving school NNPS. See National Network of
and family connections, 145–146 Partnership Schools (NNPS)
introduction to, 129–130 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB),
method of research regarding, 51, 56
133–134 conclusion regarding, 345
questions to ask about, 146–147 data and measures regarding,
results of research regarding, 334–335
134–142 discussion regarding, 340, 341
school climate and program (table), 341–344
strength, 140–142 framework of policy instruments
summary regarding, 147–148 for, 332–333
624 INDEX
limitations and future studies of, activities and discussion regarding,
344–345 483, 485
national network of partnership ATP and, 405, 583, 584, 594, 613
schools and, 333 parent-coordinators for, 558
overview, 331–332 participation and leadership of,
results of research regarding, 335, 454, 569
336, 336 (table), 337 (table), Parental involvement, 3–4, 45, 112,
337–338, 339 (table), 339–340 129
TIPS Science and, 527 about children and not parents, 609
See also District level policies activities and discussion regarding,
Nontraditional families, 259–260 257–259, 291
See also Single mothers; Single basic obligations of, 154
parents and parent/teacher changes regarding, 7–9
interactions communication and, 154
Northern Illinois University, 9 designs for, 505–507, 508 (table),
509 (table), 510–512, 513
One-Year Action Plans for (table), 514
Partnerships, 577, 593 developmental patterns of children
Organization of school and and, 30–31
classrooms, 48–50 dilemmas of, 121–122, 125
Overlapping spheres of influence equity and, 56–58
activities and discussion regarding, five types of, 130–132, 134–137,
69–73 135 (table), 136 (table), 143–144
caring for children and, 390–392 history of, 28–30
classic and new theories regarding, homework and, 498, 504–505
43–45 increasing student learning and
emphasis on the overlap in, 172–175 development, 51–52
of family and school spheres, 31, integrated theory of school system
32 (fig.), 33–35 and, 28–31
family-like schools and school-like mechanisms for producing, 27
families, 35–37 multidimensional concepts and,
overview and conclusion, 37–40 46–48
separateness and, 172 partnerships as better term for,
See also Partnership programs; 43–45
School-family-community partnerships subsuming, 81–83
partnerships pattern changes in, 28
school district policies and, 312,
Parent Leadership Training Institutes 324–330
(PLTI), 327, 328 school systems support for, 113,
Parent Teacher Association (PTA), 143
327, 328, 417, 433 shared responsibilities with schools,
activities and discussion regarding, 26–27
458–459, 483, 485 single parents and parent/teacher
ATP and, 405, 583, 584, 594, 613 interactions, 177, 178–179, 180
parent-coordinators for, 558 (table), 181
participation and leadership of, six types of involvement and, 394,
454, 569 395 (table), 396, 396 (table), 398
Parent Teacher Organization (PTO), (table), 399 (table), 400 (table),
327, 328 401 (table)
INDEX 625
Parental involvement (continued) student time on homework and
state education agencies and, parent involvement, 209–212,
304–311 211 (table)
summary regarding, 471–481 study design of, 201–202, 203
teacher-leaders and, 156, 156 Parental involvement, school
(table), 157, 158 (table) programs and teacher practices
techniques for, 101 (fig.), 102 (fig.), of, inner-city elementary and
102–107 middle schools, 129–148
three perspectives regarding, activities and discussion regarding,
26–27 264, 270–271
Title I programs and, 120–121 discussion of, 142–145
volunteering as, 112–113 effects of school level and student
See also Families; Parents; Parents’ teacher characteristics and
reactions; Student achievement; teacher practices on, 137–138
Student reactions; Teachers five types of involvement and,
Involve Parents in Schoolwork 130–132, 134–135, 136–137,
(TIPS) 143–144
Parental involvement, debatable implications for improving school
issues of and family connections, 145–146
activities and discussion regarding, introduction to, 129–130
263 method of research regarding,
expected benefits and, 118–119 133–134
parents’ time, 116–117 questions to ask about, 146–147
problems with parental assistance results of research regarding,
and, 121–122 134–142
students’ time and feelings, school climate and program
117–118 strength, 140–142
subgroup differences, 119–120 summary regarding, 147–148
successful efforts, 122–125 support for parental involvement,
summary and discussion of, 143
125–128 teachers and different subjects
teachers’ time, 115–116 regarding, 139–140
use of parental involvement Parental involvement, survey of
coordinators, 120–121 teacher practices, 95–113
Parental involvement in inner-city activities and discussion regarding,
schools 270–271
activities and discussion regarding, characteristics of teachers in, 97
265–266, 270, 270–271 (table)
characteristics of parents and, 203 continuing studies of, 113
(table) differences in teachers’ uses of,
classroom-level reports of school 107–108, 109 (fig.), 110 (fig.),
practices, 207–209, 208 (table) 111–113
discussion regarding, 212–214 feasibility of, 99–100
effects on, 205–207, 206 (table) overview, 95–96
measures for, 203–204 techniques for, 100, 101 (fig.), 102
overview, 200 (fig.), 102–105, 106 (table),
parents’ reports of schools’ 106–107
practices involve parents, 204, traditional teacher-parent
204 (table), 205 communications in, 98
626 INDEX
Parents parents’ awareness of teacher
abilities and resources regarding practices, 159–160, 162 (table)
homework practices of parents’ evaluations of teachers’
elementary school students, merits, 164–165, 270–271
243–244 parents’ knowledge about schools
contacts and meetings with, and, 163
431–436 results of research regarding,
contracts with teachers, 102 (fig.), 153–165
104–105 summary and discussion of,
developing teaching skills in, 102 165–168
(fig.), 105–106 Parent-teacher conferences, 432–436
education of, 97 (table), 108, 109 Partnership programs, 3–4, 81–82, 610
(fig.), 110 (fig.), 111 action strategies and conclusions
mutual respect and, 78–79 regarding, 573–575
partnership feelings of, 607 activities and discussion regarding,
single and working, 119, 141 577–578
single mothers and, 30, 119, 171, authority and, 77–79
176, 177 caring for children and, 392–393
six types of involvement and, challenges regarding, 53–55,
417–424 473–475
survey data from, 92–93, 94 children’s central role in, 76–77
time and involvement of, 116–117 of decision-making and not power
TIPS volunteers and, 558 plays, 455–457
See also Characteristics of parents; development of, 611–612
Married parents; Single parents effects on students of, 292
and parent/teacher interactions establishing permanent, 595–596
Parents As Teachers (P.A.T.), 368–369 as more effective than solitary, 67
Parents, Students, Teachers overview, 51–52
Characteristics of students, 137, required or elective courses for,
206–207, 251 (table) 13–16
Parents’ reactions, to teacher practices starting at birth, 368–369
of parent involvement, 150–168 subject-specific goals for students
activities and discussion regarding, and, 52–54
265–266 See also Communities; Parental
characteristics of parents and, involvement; School systems;
151–153, 152 (table) School-family-community
effects of involvement on parents partnerships
and, 159, 161 (table) Partnership Schools Comprehensive
experiences with specific types of School Reform (CSR) Model, 54
parent involvement and, Part-time employment, 468–470
154–158, 155 (table), 156 P.A.T. (Parents As Teachers), 368–369
(table), 158 (table) Pattern changes, in family-school
importance of grade level, 163–164 relations, 7–9, 28, 28–31
method of research regarding, Personal development
151–153 partnership programs and, 55–56
overview, 150–151 through homework, 498
and parents’ attitudes to See also Child development theories
elementary schools and teachers, “Picture Parents” (art appreciation
153–154 activity), 560
INDEX 627
PLTI (Parent Leadership Training responsibilities of, 319, 326
Institutes), 327, 328 support for parental involvement,
Policies 98, 106, 106 (table), 120, 140
action strategies for, 573–575 surveys of, 38–39, 113, 175–176,
homework and, 499 247
for partnerships and school teacher-leaders and, 156
systems, 9–10, 384 Problems of parental involvement,
Policies, implications of 121–122, 125
activities and discussion regarding, See also Parental involvement,
347–353, 354 (fig.), 355 (fig.), debatable issues of
382 Promising Partnership Practices
at district level, 301 (NNPS), 416–417, 441, 604–605
ebb and flows, 360–361 PTA. See Parent Teacher Association
at federal level, 302–303 (PTA)
introduction to, 299–300 PTO. See Parent Teacher
schools and, 302 Organization (PTO)
at state level, 300 Public relations, homework and,
summary regarding, 303 499–500
top-down bottom-up or side-by- Punishment, homework and, 236, 500
side, 359–360
See also District level policies; Race, 96, 97 (table)
Federal agencies and policies; Reactions. See Parents’ reactions;
State education agencies and Student reactions, teacher
policies practices of parent involvement
Policy instruments, 331–333, Reading, 52–53, 57
358–359 achievements compared to math,
See also No Child Left Behind Act 223, 224 (table), 225–226
(NCLB) activities and discussion regarding,
Position Statement on School-Family- 261–262, 272–273
Community Partnerships for with children and parental
Student Success (Connecticut involvement, 122–123
State Board of Education), 314, homework and, 244
318 hypothetical studies of, 293–294
Practice partnership programs and, 595–597
action strategies for, 573–575 students’ achievement and parental
to involve parents, 204, 204 (table), involvement with, 219, 220
205 (table), 221
research meets, 331–333 techniques for involving parents,
See also specific practices by name 100, 101 (fig.), 102 (fig.)
Principals Reference group theory, 27
ATP and, 583–584, 586–587 Relocating, 288–289
attitudes of, 126 Reporters, using multiple for
authority and, 77–78 understanding family and
data from, 237 students, 291
discrepancies and, 141, 143 Research
independent variables and, 249, action strategies for, 573–575
251 (table), 251–252, 253 (table) caring for children and, 393–394
ratings of, 159, 161 (table), 167, changing the question of, 84–85
219, 221, 227 conclusion regarding, 61–62, 575
628 INDEX
equity and, 56–58 School Improvement Plan (SIP), 49
experiments and, 58–59 School subjects
focused on increased student for parental involvement at home,
learning and development, 51–56 112
future of, 42–43, 86–87, 515 in TIPS process, 506–507, 508
importance of reading original, (table), 509 (table), 510–512
294–296 See also specific school subjects by
leading to TIPS, 522–523 name
multidimensional concepts and, School systems
46–48 changes regarding, 7–9, 195
multilevel analyses of, 59–60 communities of, 459–460
and multilevel leadership, 49–51 developmental patterns of children
multivariate models in, 59 and, 30–31
partnership as best term for, 43–45 equity and, 56–58
regarding homework, 500–505 families new to, 436–437
school and classroom organization five types of involvement and, 131
and, 48–49 further readings and links to
seven principles for researchers, courses about, 13–16
43–60 gap between families and, 5–7
small and in-depth studies for, 60 goals regarding, 3, 11–12
See also specific research topics by history of, 28–30
name; Studies; Theories improvement plans for, 27, 49–50,
Respect 470
school-family-community increasing student learning and
partnerships, 599–600 development, 51–56
of teachers and parents, 79–80 integrated theory of family and,
Responsibilities 28–31
of community leaders, 321 like families, 35–37, 73–76
of families, 321 multidimensional concepts and,
of parents, 326–327 46–48
of school districts, 318–319, 325 multilevel partnerships for, 49–51
of schools, 319–320 needs of, 10–11
separate, shared and sequential of organization of and partnerships as
schools and families, 26–27 important for, 48–49
shared, 80–81 overlapping with family spheres,
of State Department of Education, 26–27, 31, 32 (fig.), 33–35,
318 257–259
of students, 322 overview, 12–14, 16–21
Results, 612 parental involvement in, 113,
Roles, for schools, families and 140–142, 143, 154, 155
communities in achieving goals, pattern changes in, 28
3 policies and, 9–10, 302, 384
responsibilities of, 26–27, 319–320
Saint Paul, Minnesota, 312, 324, 330 school programs and, 140–142,
School districts, 312, 318–319, 144–145
324–330 three perspectives regarding,
See also District level policies 26–27
School improvement committees, transitions to new and new grade
598–599 levels, 287–288
INDEX 629
School systems (continued) parents’ awareness, knowledge and
See also Elementary schools; High evaluation of teachers, 190–191
schools; Middle schools; Parental parents’ reports of teachers’
involvement, school programs practices of parent involvement,
and teacher practices of, inner- 177, 178–179, 180 (table), 181,
city elementary and middle 182 (table)
schools; Teachers reports about school from single
School-family-community and married parents, 191–193
partnerships samples, variables and approaches
2020 vision, 614 regarding, 175–177
action strategies, 573–575 summary and discussion of,
activities and discussion regarding, 193–195
352–364, 365 (table), 366 teachers’ reports of homework
(table), 366–367, 576, 581–582, quality and, 184, 187, 188
614 (table), 189 (table), 190
benefits of, 317 teachers’ reports of single and
characteristics of successful, married parents helpfulness,
316–317, 408–411 183–184, 185 (table), 186 (table)
comprehensive approach towards, theoretical perspectives on,
315–316 172–175
conclusions regarding, 573–575, Single School Plan, 49
609–615 Social and emotional development, 56
defined, 315 See also Child development
equity and, 605, 606–607 theories
future of, 614, 615 Social capital, 44
resolving conflict and concerns, Social Studies
600–603 TIPS activity pages, 553–554
trust and respect of teachers and volunteers, organizing productive
parents, 599–600 for Middle grades for,
Science 555–557
TIPS activity pages, 545–548 Spanish speaking families
for TIPS process, 508 (table), 509 changes in parental involvement in
(table), 511, 526–530 schools and, 8–9
Separate, sequential and shared communicating in languages
responsibilities, 26–27 understood by, 379–380
Side-by-side policies, 359–360 partnership challenges and, 54
Single mothers, 30, 119, 171, 176, State education agencies and policies,
177 300
Single parents and parent/teacher activities and discussion regarding,
interactions 348, 360–362, 383–384
activities and discussion regarding, California state policies, 312–314
265–269 Connecticut state policies, 312–318
characteristics of parents and, 177, overview, 312
178 (table) and parental involvement, 304–311
debatable issues of parental teaching credentials and, 375–376
involvement and, 119 Wisconsin state policies, 312–314,
deficit and strengths theories, 322–323
173–174 See also District level leadership;
introduction to, 171 District level policies
630 INDEX
Stereotypes, 259–260 time and feelings of, 117–118
Student achievement transitions to new schools and new
activities and discussion regarding, grade levels, 287–288
274 (fig.), 274–275 Summer learning, 124–125
homework and, 244 Symbolic interactionism, 27
Student achievement, teachers’
practices of parent involvement Teacher-leaders, 156, 156 (table), 157,
and 158 (table)
activities and discussion regarding, Teachers
261–262, 272–273 children’s schoolwork and parents’
data and approach regarding, awareness of, 123–124
218–219 communication with parents and,
discussion regarding, 225–228 98, 499
introduction to, 216–217 competency of and parental
results of research regarding, 219, involvement, 8
220 (table), 221, 222 (table), conclusions regarding, 575
223, 224 (table), 225–226 contracts with parents, 102 (fig.),
TIPS program and, 521–522 104–105
Student reactions, teacher practices of differences of use of parental
parent involvement involvement, 44, 107–108, 109
characteristics of students and (fig.), 110 (fig.), 111–113
teachers in, 251 (table) encouraging parental involvement,
overview, 247 48–49, 259–260
results of research regarding, 250, as focused on children, 609
251, 251 (table), 252, 253 home visits by, 111–112
(table), 254 inner-city schools and parental
student attitudes and behaviors, involvement, 129–148, 200–214
251–252, 253 (table), 254 measures of practices of, 242–243
study background, 247–248 messages of partnership programs
study data, 248–250 to, 610
summary and discussion of, mutual respect and, 79–80
254–255 need for excellent, 612
See also Attitudes of students new qualifications for, 9–10
Students overlap theories and, 38
attitudes of in homework practices as parents, 271–272
in elementary school, 244 strong opinions about parent
conferences and, 448–449 involvement, 150–151
effects of partnerships on, 292 survey data from, 92, 94, 96, 97
focus on learning and development (table)
of, 51–56 time and parental involvement,
goal setting of, 452–453 115–116
grade levels of and parent TIPS volunteers and, 558
involvement, 107–108, 109 (fig.) transitions of students to new
as key to success of partnerships, schools and grade levels, 287–288
611 See also Parental involvement and
part-time employment of, 468–470 all listings for; Single parents and
responsibilities of, 322 parent/teacher interactions;
success of, 489–491 Student achievement; Student
survey data from, 93–94 reactions
INDEX 631
Teachers, characteristics of, 96, 97 See also Interactive homework;
(table), 137, 138 (table), 251 Language Arts; Math; Science;
(table) Volunteers, organizing
effects of measures of, 182 (table), productive for middle grades
186 (table), 187, 189 (table) Teachers’ practices of parental
in fifth grade classrooms, 251 (table) involvement
math achievement test scores and, activities and discussion regarding,
222 (table) 263
by parents’ evaluations, 164 expected benefits and, 118–119
reading achievement test scores parents’ time, 116–117
and, 220 (table) problems with parental assistance
Teachers Involve Parents in and, 121–122
Schoolwork (TIPS), 59, 226–227 students’ time and feelings, 117–118
activities and discussion regarding, subgroup differences, 119–120
565–569 successful efforts, 122–125
developing interactive homework summary and discussion of,
program for, 535–536 125–128
“Fractional Parts” (TIPS activity teachers’ time, 115–116
page), 541–542 use of parental involvement
future research regarding, 515 coordinators, 120–121
goals of interactive homework of, Teachers’ practices of parent
532 (table), 535 involvement, parents’ reactions
“Hairy Tales” (TIPS activity page), to, 150–168
549–550 activities and discussion regarding,
“Helping Hand, A” (TIPS activity 265–266
page), 551–552 characteristics of parents and,
“I Mean It!” (TIPS activity page), 151–153, 152 (table)
543–544 effects of involvement on parents
implementing interactive and, 159, 161 (table)
homework program of, 536–539 experiences with specific types of
interactive homework and, parent involvement and,
506–507, 508 (table), 509 154–158, 155 (table), 156
(table), 510–512, 513 (table), (table), 158 (table)
535–539 importance of grade level, 163–164
“Lab” activities, 529 method of research regarding,
and Language Arts, 530–531, 532 151–153
(table), 533–534, 549–552 overview, 150–151
and Math, 508 (table), 509 (table), and parents’ attitudes to
510, 523–526, 541–544 elementary schools and teachers,
“On Your Mark, Get Set, Go!” 153–154
(TIPS activity page), 547–548 parents’ awareness of teacher
overview, 493–495, 562 practices, 159–160, 162 (table)
research leading to, 522–523 parents’ evaluations of teachers’
sample activities for, 540–554 merits, 164–165, 270–271
and Science, 508 (table), 509 parents’ knowledge about schools
(table), 511, 526–530, 545–548 and, 163
and Social Studies, 553–554 results of research regarding,
student achievement and, 521–522 153–165
“Why Do We Need Government?” summary and discussion of,
(TIPS activity page), 553–554 165–168
632 INDEX
Teachers’ roles in designing of mechanisms for family-school
homework, 496–516 relations, 27
conclusion regarding, 516 of overlap of schools and families,
implications for future research and 37–40, 44–45
practice, 515 of pattern changes in family-school
new designs for family involvement relations, 28
in, 505–507, 508 (table), 509 See also Research; Studies
(table), 510–512 Time
other new homework designs and, on homework, 501–503
512, 513 (table), 514 in overlapping theories, 33, 37
overview, 496–497 of teachers, parents and students,
purposes of homework and, 115–118
497–500 Title I programs, 120–121, 328–329,
research on homework and, 344
500–503 Transitions, to new schools and grade
research on parent involvement, levels, 287–288
503–505 Trust and respect, 599–600
Teenagers Types of involvement, parental,
adolescence and, 487 (fig.), 529 130–132, 134–137, 135 (table),
African-American, 45 136 (table), 143–144
increasing learning and activities and discussion regarding,
development of, 52 415, 416–417, 577–578, 580–581
and middle school parent basic and advanced practices of,
volunteering, 494 475–479
Television beyond “bodies in the building,”
active use of parental involvement 479–480
techniques, 109 (fig.) charting the course for, 398 (table),
advanced activities regarding, 477 399 (table), 400 (table), 401
dilemmas of parental involvement, (table)
125 important for educators to
experiences with parent understand, 493
involvement and, 156, 156 as six types of caring, 394, 395
(table), 157 (table), 396, 396 (table)
home visits and, 111–112 summary regarding, 471–473,
homework variables and, 240, 240 481–491
(table), 243 See also six types of involvement by
NAEP study regarding, 232 name
techniques for involving parents at
home, 101 (fig.), 102 (fig.), 103, University of California, 6
106, 106 (table) University of North Texas, 9
Theories University of Texas, 8–9
connecting literature with, 68–69 Update surveys, 334, 336
emerging, 67–68 U.S. Department of Education, 516,
of family-school connections, 526–527
26–27
history and, 84–85 Volunteering
integrated of family-school as one of five types of involvement,
relations, 28–31 135, 136–137
interview to discover how it works overview, 494–495
in practice, 88–89 parents in school and, 112–113
INDEX 633
Volunteering (continued) for organizing volunteers, 441
six types of involvement and, 46, regarding interactive homework,
394, 395 (table), 396, 396 539
(table), 398 (table), 399 (table), Wisconsin Department of Public
400 (table), 401 (table), 437–442 Instruction (DPI), 322–323
workshops and materials for Wisconsin state policies, 312–314,
instruction on, 167–168 322–323
Volunteers, organizing productive for Women
middle grades education of and changes to school
activities and discussion regarding, systems, 29
562–572, 569–572 as most knowledgeable in survey,
adapting and extending, 560 151
and evaluation of student learning as single and working mothers, 30,
about art, 557–558 119, 171, 176, 177
how to develop and implement, as teachers, 96, 97 (table)
558–560 Working parents
materials and program costs for, debatable issues of parental
560–561 involvement and, 119
overview, 555, 562 as hard to reach, 141 (table)
for social studies and art, 555–557 laws supporting, 376–378
as single moms, 30, 119, 171, 176,
Websites 177
activities and discussion regarding, Workshops
348–352, 355–356 on caring for children, 422–424,
diversity of students and families 486, 487 (fig.)
and, 604–605 for parents on helping in schools,
of NNPS, 416 167–168
634 INDEX

School Family and Community Partnerships

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School, Family, and

Preparing Educators and

New York London

Published 2018 by Routledge

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2016 by Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

Type set in 10 point Sabon by the Perseus Books Group.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Epstein, Joyce Levy.

ISBN 13: 978-0-8133-5025-7 (pbk)

2 Theory and Overview 25

4 Policy Implications 299

5 A Practical Framework for Developing Comprehensive

7 Strategies for Action in Practice, Policy, and Research 573

3.1 Characteristics of Teachers in Survey 97

4.1 Variables Affecting District-Level Leadership and 336

xii TABLES AND FIGURES

5.1 Epstein’s Framework of Six Types of Involvement for 395

6.1 Summary of TIPS Interactive Homework Intervention 508

2.1 Overlapping Spheres of Influence of Family, School, 32

3.1 Opinions of Maryland Teachers about Parent Involvement 99

5.1 Type 1 Challenges 421

TABLES AND FIGURES xiii

7.1 Parent Expectations 578

xiv TABLES AND FIGURES

Funding and Collegial Support

xvi PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Ongoing Research and Development

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii

What Is New in the Second Edition?

xviii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix

MATCHING RHETORIC WITH PRACTICE

POLICIES ENCOURAGE PREPARATION ON PARTNERSHIPS

• add an understanding of school, family, and community partnerships to

The professional preparation of educators must include the information they

USING THIS VOLUME

A Comprehensive Required or Elective Course

Supplementary Readings in Other Required or

Linkages to Courses on the Methods of Teaching

Readings on school, family, and community connections should be included in meth-

Links to Inservice Education

Chapter 2: Theory and Overview. Two readings provide a broad perspective

FEATURED TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

Selection of assignments. There are more questions and activities in each

T HE FIRST READING IN THIS CHAPTER examines theories of family and school

THREE PERSPECTIVES ON FAMILY-SCHOOL RELATIONS

Three perspectives currently guide researchers and practitioners in their thinking

1. Separate responsibilities of families and schools

These perspectives are profoundly different. Assumptions based on the separate

26 THEORY AND OVERVIEW

Understanding the Contrasting Theories:

THEORY AND OVERVIEW 27

AN INTEGRATED THEORY OF FAMILY-SCHOOL RELATIONS

28 THEORY AND OVERVIEW

THEORY AND OVERVIEW 29

30 THEORY AND OVERVIEW