HLTAAP001 Recognise Healthy Body Systems: Learner Guide
HLTAAP001 Recognise Healthy Body Systems: Learner Guide
HLTAAP001 Recognise Healthy Body Systems: Learner Guide
Learner Guide
Student Name:
Copyright © This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright
Act 1968 (Amendment Act 2006), no part may be reproduced by any process without prior
written permission of the author Andrea Kelly - Resource Learning:
www.resourcelearning.com.au
You will find review learning activities at the end of each section. The learning activities in this
resource are designed to assist you to learn and successfully complete assessment tasks. If you are
unsure of any of the information or activities, ask your trainer or workplace supervisor for help.
The participant will be required to demonstrate competence through the following means:
Methods of assessment
Observation in the work place
Written assignments/projects
Case study and scenario analysis
Questioning
Role play simulation
Learning activities
Class discussion and group role-plays
Assessment tasks
Consult your
coach or trainer
Asking for help
If you have any difficulties with any part of this unit, contact your facilitator. It is important to ask for
help if you need it. Discussing your work with your facilitator is considered an important part of the
training process.
Unless otherwise stated, diagrams are viewed from front to back (anterior to posterior). The
following table outlines some directional definitions and examples.
Inferior Below or lower than other structures Toes inferior to the femur
Anterior Front part of the body Structures include nose, sternum, pelvis,
knee, toes
Posterior Back part of the body Structures include head, neck, back,
heels, back of hands, palmer surface of
the feet
Medial Towards the mid-line of a structure Thumb is medial to the little finger when
hand is placed as per directional
diagrams
Lateral Towards the side or away from mid- Position of lying on one’s side, eg: while
line of a structure resting in bed
Distal Furthest from the source Furthest from insertion point when
describing action of a skeletal muscle
Proximal Nearest the source Nearest the insertion point when
describing action of a skeletal muscle
External Outer Skin surface exposed to the environment
Internal Inner Major body organ
Abdominopelvic Regions
Homoeostasis is a condition in which the body’s internal environment remains relatively constant
within certain physiological limits. In general, the body is in homoeostasis when its needs are
adequately met and it is functioning smoothly. Almost every organ system plays a role in maintaining
the constancy of the internal environment.
All sorts of factors affect the suitability of our body fluids to sustain life; these include
properties like:
1. Temperature
2. Salinity
3. Acidity
4. Carbon dioxide
5. And the concentrations of nutrients and wastes (urea, glucose, various ion, and oxygen)
Since these properties affect the chemical reactions that keep bodies alive, there are built-in
physiological mechanisms to maintain them at desirable levels. This control is achieved with various
organs in the body. For example:
Thermal regulation
The skeletal muscles can shiver to produce heat if the body temperature is too low
Non-shivering thermogenesis involves the decomposition of fat to produce heat
Sweating cools the body with the use of evaporation.
Chemical regulation
The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon to control blood-sugar concentration.
The lungs take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.
The kidneys remove urea, and adjust the concentrations of water and a wide variety of ions.
Most of these organs are controlled by hormones secreted from the pituitary gland, which in
turn is directed by the hypothalamus.
Eukaryotic cells: These cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and numerous membrane-
enclosed organelles, for example, mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus. The membrane
surrounding the nucleus is a double membrane with many nuclear pores through which material
enters and leaves. Animals, plants and fungi are all eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are more complex
than prokaryotic cells and are found in a great many different forms. These cells tend to be larger
than the cells of bacteria and have developed specialised packaging and transport mechanisms that
may be necessary to support their larger size.
Most multi cellular organisms are eukaryotic. All eukaryotic cells have within them a functionally
interrelated membrane system, the endomembrane system consisting of the nuclear envelope,
endoplasmic reticulaum (ER) and Golgi apparatus, vesicles and other organelles derived from them,
and the plasma membrane. Many materials are moved around the cell by the endomembrane system,
including some proteins.
Structures and organelles in eukaryotic cells: Although diverse in their organisation all
eukaryotic cells have common structures that perform unique functions. The following are
structures and organelles that commonly occur in these cells.
This outer boundary of the cell consists of a thin membrane that separates the intracellular fluid
within cells and the extracellular fluid outside cells. In many respects, the plasma membrane is one of
the most important parts of the cell. It acts as a semi-permeable structure that separates the
intracellular and extracellular environments. It provides receptors for hormones and other
biologically active substances, participates in the electrical events that occur in nerve and muscle
cells, and aids in the regulation of cell growth and proliferation.
The cell membrane is made up of a lipid bilayer in which protein is embedded. Most of the specific
functions are carried out by the proteins. Some of these proteins provide pathways for transport
and regulate the flow of materials into and out of the cell. Other proteins serve as receptors for
chemical signals coming from other cells.
Nucleus: The nucleus of the cell appears as a rounded or elongated structure situated near the
centre of the cell and is the control centre of the cell. It contains the genetic material – genes, DNA
and chromosomes. By expressing information stored in genes the nyucleus directs everyday cell life
and reproduction.
The nucleus contains a smaller body, the nucleolus, that consists of densely packed chromosomes
regions together with some protein and some RNA strands. The nucleolus initiates the formation of
ribosomes, structures that are required for protein synthesis. The nucleus is surrounded by a double
membrane that is riddled with pores involved in transporting materials between the nucleus and the
rest of the cell.
Cytoplasm: Occupying the space between the nucleus and the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm
contains various organelles which function as the organs of the cell. These organelles include the
ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, mitochondria, lysosomes, microtubules,
filaments and Centrioles.
Ribosomes: These serve as sites of protein synthesis in the cell. They can be found attached to the
wall of the ER or as free ribosomes.
Parts of the cell
Cell qualities:
The cell is the most basic unit of life
There are cells that are organisms themselves, such as bacteria cells
There are cells that only function when part of a larger organism
In the body, there are brain cells, skin cells, liver cells, blood cells and many more
All of these cells have unique functions and features.
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Although cells may be very different and highly specialised, they all have the same basic structure.
They all have:
An outer covering: which is called the membrane
A main substance: which is called the cytoplasm
A control centre: known as the nucleus
Organelles: dispersed within their cytoplasm.
The cell membrane: that protects the cell and regulates the passage of materials into and out
of the cell.
The nucleus is the control centre of the cell. DNA, which makes up the genes, is found
within the chromatin granules and within the nucleolus is the RNA.
Organelles, which are structures found in the cytoplasm, are the:
Mitochondria, the “powerhouse” of the cell, function in cellular metabolism and respiration
Endoplasmic reticulum produces proteins and lipids and transports these substances within
the cell
Lysosomes function in intracellular digestion and form the “self-destruct” system of the cell
Golgi complex concentrates some secretions, adds carbohydrates to some secretions and
packages secretions for export from the cell
Vacuoles are small cavities within the cell used to store secretions or waste products
Centrioles, cilia and flagella are composed of microtubules
Centrioles are contained in the centrosome and are involved in mitosis (cell division)
Cilia aid in the movement of materials outside the cell. For example, trapping of dust particles in
the respiratory tract
Flagella are important in the locomotion of sperm cells.
Functions of the cell
1 Respiration: all cells require oxygen to metabolise food.
2 Ingestion and assimilation: cells are able to select chemicals from the surrounding fluid for
their structure.
3 Growth and repair: cells can synthesise new cytoplasm so that growth can occur and repair
worn out parts.
4 Excretion: waste products are eliminated into surrounding tissue to be transported by the
blood for elimination via organs.
5 Irritability and activity: cells are able to respond to stimuli. For example a stimulus causes a
muscle to contract or relax.
6 Metabolism: cells are able to break down and use substances from food as fuel.
7 Reproduction: cells reproduce by simple division but some cells can never be replaced once
destroyed. For example, central nervous system cells.
Tissues are made up of lots of cells of the same type, for example, muscle tissue is made up of many
muscle cells.
Groups of cells form tissues and there are four main types. The structure of tissues reflects their
function.
Epithelial tissue
The cells of epithelial tissue pack tightly together and form continuous sheets that serve as linings in
different parts of the body. Epithelial tissues serve as membranes lining organs and help to keep the
body’s organs separate, in place and protected. Some examples of epithelial tissue are the outer
layer of the skin, the inside of the mouth and stomach and the tissue surrounding the body’s organs.
There are many types of connective tissue in the body. Generally speaking, connective tissue adds
support and structure to the body. Most types of connective tissue contain fibrous strands of the
protein collagen which add strength to the connective tissue. Some examples of connective tissue
include the inner layers of skin, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bone and fat tissue. In addition to these
more recognisable forms, blood is also considered a form of connective tissue. Blood is the only
fluid tissue in the body.
Functions of connective tissue
1. Binding of organs.
2. Support.
3. Physical protection.
4. Immune protection.
5. Movement.
6. Storage.
7. Heat production.
8. Transport.
Categories of connective tissue
Fibrous connective tissue (a.k.a. connective tissue proper)
Supporting connective tissue
Fluid connective tissue
Consists of 2 cell types: Neurons and glia. Detects stimuli, integrates information, and transmits
signals. Nerve tissue has the ability to generate and conduct electrical signals in the body. These
electrical messages are managed by nerve tissue in the brain and transmitted down the spinal cord to
the body.
Changes to cells and tissues
Cells differ in shape, size, number and their arrangement in tissues. Cells also differ in their response
to injurious agents. Cells have mechanisms enabling them to adapt to altered conditions in the body.
Adaptation occurs in response to both normal (physiologic) conditions and adverse (pathological)
conditions. For example, pregnancy induces increased breast and uterine tissue and a prolonged
exercise program will increase the mass of skeletal tissue. Both of these are normal physiological
states. In an adverse condition, such as high blood pressure, myocardial cells are stimulated to
enlarge by the increased demand of pumping by the heart.
ORGAN FUNCTION
Heart Circulation
Stomach Digestion
Brain Communication/coordination
Uterus Reproduction
Here: this place (opposite of there) Hear: sense with the ears
Threw: past tense of throw Through: in one side and out the other
Weather: e.g. rain, sunshine, storms Whether: alternative, one or the other
Wether: male sheep
Whose: belonging to whom Who’s: short for "who is" or "who has"
Abdominocentesis ab-dom-ih-no-sen-TEE-sis
Acoustogram ah-KOOS-toh-gram
Adenocarcinoma ad-eh-no-kar-sih-NO-mah
Adenoiditis ad-eh-noid-EYE-tis
Adenoids AD-eh-noids
Adhesion ad-HE-zhun
Aerobe air-robe
Amniocentesis am-nee-oh-sen-TEE-sis
Anaemia ah-NEE-me-ah
Anaesthesia an-es-THEH-zhia
Anaphylactic ana-fie-LACK-tick
Anastomosis ah-nas-toh-MOH-sis
Aneurysm AN-you-rizm
Aneurysmectomy an-you-rizm-ECK-toe-me
Aneurysmorrhaphy an-you-rizmo-RAF-ee
Angiitis an-je-EYE-tis
Angina an-JIGH-nah
Angina pectoris an-JIGH-nah-PECK-toh-riss
Angiocardiography an-jee-oh-kar-dee-OG-rah-fee
Angiography an-jee-OG-rah-fee
Angionecrosis an-jee-oh-neh-KROH-sis
Angiospasm AN-jee-oh-spazm
Angiostenosis AN-jee-oh-steh-NO-sis
Ankylosing spondylitis an-kih-LOH-sing spon-dih-LYE-tis
Ankylosis an-kih-LOH-sis
Anoplasty AN-oh-plas-tee
Anorexia an-oh-RECK-see-ah
Anoscopy an-OSS-koh-pee
Anthracosis an-thrah-KOH-sis
Aorta ay-OR-tah
Aphonia ah-FOH-nee-ah
Aphthous stomatitis AF-thus stoma-TYE-tis
Apnoea ap-NEE-ah
Appendicitis ah-pen-dih-SIGH-tis
Arrhythmia ah-RITH-me-ah
Arteriectomy ar-teh-ree-ECK-toh-me
Arteriosclerosis ar-tee-ree-oh-skleh-ROH-sis
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Arteritis ar-ter-RYE-tis
Arthralgia ar-THRAL-jee-ah
Arthrectomy ar-THRECK-toh-me
Arthritis ar-THRIGH-tis
Arthrocentesis ar-throh-sen-TEE-sis
Arthrodesis ar-throh-DEE-sis
Arthrography ar-THROG-rah-fee
Arthrolysis ar-throw-LIE-sis
Arthroplasty AR-throw-plas-tee
Arthroscopy ar-throw-SKOH-pee
Asbestosis ass-bess-TOE-sis
Aspergillosis ass-per-jil-OH-sis
Asphyxia ass-FICK-see-ah
Asphyxiation ass-fick-see-AY-shun
Asthma ASS-mah
Asymptomatic ay-simp-toe-MAT-ick
Ataxia ah-TACK-see-ah
Atelectasis at-ee-LEK-tah-sis
Atherosclerosis ath-er-oh-skleh-ROH-sis
Atonic ah-TON-ick
Autoimmune aw-toh-im-YOON
Biopsy BYE-op-see
Blastoma blas-TOH-mah
Borborygmus bor-boh-RIG-mus
Bradycardia brad-ee-KAR-dee-ah
Bronchiectasis bron-kee-ECK-tah-sis
Bronchitis bron-KYE-tis
Bronchoconstrictor bron-koh-kon-STRICK-tor
Bronchodilator bron-koh-dye-LAY-tor
Bronchopneumonia bron-koh-neh-MOH-nee-ah
Bronchorrhagia bron-koh-RAY-jee-ah
Bronchorrhoea bron-koh-REE-ah
Bronchoscope BRON-ko-scope
Bronchoscopy bron-KOS-koh-pee
Bruxism BRUCK-sizm
Bursectomy bur-SECK-toh-me
Bursitis bur-SIGH-tis
Byssinosis biss-ih-NO-sis
Callus KAL-us
Candidiasis kan-dih-DYE-ah-sis
Carcinoma kar-sih-NO-mah
Cardiocentesis kar-dee-oh-sen-TEE-sis
Cardioplegia kar-dee-oh-PLEE-jee-ah
Cardiopulmonary kar-dee-oh-PUL-mon-eh-ree
Cardiorrhexis kar-dee-oh-RECK-sis
Carditis kar-DYE-tis
Catheterisation kath-eh-ter-eye-ZAY-shun
Chemonucleolysis kee-moh-new-klee-oh-LIE-sis
Cholecystectomy ko-leh-sis-TEK-tah-mee
Cholecystitis koh-lee-sis-TYE-tis
Choledocholithotomy koh-lee-DOH-lih-THOT-oh-me
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Cholelithiasis koh-lee-LITHY-assis
Cholesterol koh-LES-ter-ol
Chondromalacia kon-droh-mah-LAY-she-ah
Chondroplasty KON-droh-plas-tee
Cirrhosis sir-ROH-sis
Colectomy koh-LECK-toh-me
Colposcopy KOL-po-scop-ee
Complement COM-ple-ment
Contracture kon-TRACK-chur
Craniectomy kray-nee-EK-toh-me
Cranioplasty KRAY-nee-oh-plas-tee
Craniotomy kray-nee-OT-oh-me
Crepitation krep-ih-TAY-shun
Croup KROOP
Cryptococcal meningitis krip-toh-KOCK-al men-in-JIGH-tis
Cyanosis sigh-ah-NO-sis
Defecation deh-feh-CAY-shun
Defibrillation dee-fib-rih-LAY-shun
Diastolic die-ah-STOL-ick
Diphtheria dip-THEE-ree-ah
Diskectomy dis-KECKtoh-me
Diverticulectomy dye-ver-tick-you-LECK-toh-me
Diverticulitis dye-ver-tick-you-LYE-tis
Dyspepsia dis-PEP-see-ah
Dysphagia dis-FAY-jee-ah
Dysphonia dis-FOH-nee-ah
Dyspnoea DIS-nee-ah
Dystaxia dis-TACK-see-ah
Dystonia dis-TOH-nee-ah
Echocardiography eck-oh-car-dee-OG-rah-fee
Echocardiogram eck-oh-CAR-dee-oh-gram
Eclampsia eh-KLAMP-see-ah
Ectopic eck-TOP-ick
Edema eh-DEE-mah
Effusion eh-FEW-zhun
Electrocardiography ee-leck-troh-car-dee-OG-rah-fee
Electrocardiogram ee-leck-troh-CAR-dee-oh-gram
Electromyography ee-leck-troh-my-OG-rah-fee
Electroneuromyography ee-leck-troh-new-roh-my-OG-rah-fee
Embolism EM-boh-lizm
Emesis EM-e-sis
Emphysema em-fih-SEE-mah
Empyema em-pye-EE-mah
Endarterectomy end-ar-ter-ECK-toh-me
Endocarditis en-doh-kar-DYE-tis
Endotracheal intubation en-doh-trah-KEY-al in-tew-BAY-shun
Enteritis en-ter-EYE-tis
Enterocolostomy en-ter-oh-koh-LOSS-toh-me
Epiglottitis ep-ih-glot-TYE-tis
Epistaxis ep-ih-STACK-sis
Eructation eh-ruk-TAY-shun
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Erythrocytosis eh-rith-roh-sigh-TOH-sis
Exostosis eck-sos-TOH-sis
Exudate ECKS-you-dayt
Faeces FEE-sees
Fasciectomy fas-ee-ECK-toh-me
Fasciitis fas-ee EYE-tis
Fascioplasty fash-ee-oh-PLAS-tee
Fasciorrhaphy fash-ee-OR-ah-fee
Fasciotomy fash-ee-OT-oh-me
Fibrillation fih-brih-LAY-shun
Fibroma figh-BROH-mah
Fibromyalgia figh-broh-my-AL-jee-ah
Fibrositis figh-broh-SIGH-tis
Flatus FLAY-tus
Foetal FEE-tell
Fontanelle fon-ta-NELL
Frenectomy freh-NECK-toh-mee
Gastrectomy gas-TRECK-toh-me
Gastritis gas-TRY-tis
Gastroenteritis gas-troh-en-ter-EYE-tis
Gastrorrhagia gas-troh-RAY-jee-ah
Gastrorrhexis gas-troh-RECK-sis
Gastrorrhoea gas-troh-REE-ah
Gastroscopy gas-TROS-koh-pee
Gastrosis gas-TROH-sis
Gastrostomy gas-TROS-toh-me
Gastrotomy gas-TROT-oh-me
Gingivectomy jin-jih-VECK-toh-me
Gingivitis jin-jih-VYE-tis
Gouty arthritis gow-tee ar-THRIGH-tis
Haemangioma he-man-jee-OH-mah
Haematemesis heem-ah-TEM-eh-sis
Haematoma hem-ah-TOH-mah
Haemolytic hee-mo-LIGHT-ik
Haemolytic anaemia he-moh-LIGHT-ick ah-NEE-me-ah
Haemophilia hee-moh-FILL-ee-ah
Haemorrhage HEM-or-idj
Haemorrhoidectomy hem-oh-roid-ECK-toh-me
Haemorrhoids HEM-oh-roids
Haemostasis hee-moh-STAY-sis
Haemothorax hee-moh-THOH-racks
Hemiparesis hem-ee-PAR-ee-sis
Hemiplegia hem-ee-PLEE-jee-ah
Hepatectomy hep-ah-TECK-toh-me
Hepatitis hep-ah-TYE-tis
Hepatomegaly hep-ah-toh-MEG-ah-lee
Hepatorrhagia hep-ah-toh-RAY-jee-ah
Hepatorrhaphy hep-ah-TOR-ah-fee
Hepatorrhexis hep-ah-toh-RECK-sis
Hepatorrhoea hep-ah-toh-REE-ah
Hepatotomy hep-ah-TOT-oh-me
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Hernia HER-nee-ah
Herniated HER-nee-ayt-ed
Herniorrhaphy her-nee-OR-ah-fee
Herpes labialis HER-peez lay-be-AL-iss
Hiatal hernia high-AY-tal HER-nee-ah
Hodgkin’s HODJ-kinz
Hyperemesis high-per-EM-eh-sis
Hyperkinesia high-per-kye-NEE-zee-ah
Hyperpnoea high-perp-NEE-ah
Hypertonia high-per-TOH-nee-ah
Hyperventilation high-per-ven-tih-LAY-shun
Hypokinesia high-poh-kye-NEE-zee-ah
Hypopnoea high-poh-NEE-ah
Hypotonia high-poh-TOH-nee-ah
Hypoxia high-POCK-see ah
Ileectomy ill-ee-ECK-toh-me
Ileitis ill-ee-EYE-tis
Ileostomy ill-ee-OS-toh-me
Immunisation im-you-nigh-ZAY-shun
Immunity im-YOU-nit-ee
Immunodeficiency im-you-no-deh-FISH-en-see
Immunoglobulin im-you-no-GLOB-you-lin
Immunosuppressant im-you-no-sup-PRESS-ant
Immunosuppression im-you-no-sup-PRESH-un
Immunotherapy im-you-no-THER-ah-pee
Influenza in-flew-EN-zah
Interferon in-ter-FERRON
Intubation in-tew-BAY-shun
Intussusception in-tus-sus-SEP-shun
Ischemia iss-KEE-me-ah
Jaundice JAWN-dis
Kaposi’s sarcoma KAP-oh-seez sar-KOH-mah
Kyphosis kye-FOH-sis
Laminectomy lam-ih-NECK-toh-me
Laryngectomy larrin-JECK-toh-me
Laryngitis larrin-JIGH-tis
Laryngoplasty lah-RING-goh-plas-tee
Laryngoplegia larrin-go-PLEE-jee-ah
Laryngoscopy larrin-GOSS-koh-pee
Laryngospasm lah-RING-goh-spazm
Lateral LAT-er-al
Leucoblast LOO-koh-blast
Leucocyte LOO-koh-site
Leukaemia loo-KEE-me-ah
Leukopenia loo-koh-PEE-nee-ah
Lordosis lor-DOH-sis
Lumbago lum-BAY-go
Luxation luck-SAY-shun
Lymphadenitis lim-fad-eh-NIGH-tis
Lymphadenopathy lim-fad-eh-NOP-ah-thee
Lymphangioma lim-fan-jee-OH-mah
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Lymphocytes LIM-fo-sites
Lymphoma lim-FOH-mah
Lymphosarcoma lim-foh-sar-KOH-mah
Mammography mam-MOG-ruff-fee
Melanoma mel-ah-NO-mah
Melaena meh-LEE-nah
Meningitis men-in-JIGH-tis
Metastasis meh-TAS-tah-sis
Metastasise meh-TAS-tah-sighz
Metatarsal met-ta-TAR-sal
Mittelschmerz MIT-uhl-schmehrts
Monocytes MON-oh-site
Mononucleosis mon-oh-new-klee-OH-sis
Multiple schlerosis skleh-ROH-sis
Muscular dystrophy mus-kew-lar DIS-troh-fee
Myalgia my-AL-jee-ah
Myasthenia gravis my-as-THEE-nee-ah GRAY-vis
Myectomy my-ECK-toh-me
Myeloma my-eh-LOH-mah
Myocardial infarction my-oh-KAR-dee-al in-FARK-shun
Myocarditis my-oh-kar-DYE-tis
Myocele MY-oh-seel
Myolysis my-OL-ih-sis
Myomalacia my-oh-mah-LAY-she-ah
Myonecrosis my-oh-neh-KROH-sis
Myoparalysis my-oh-pah-RALL-eh-sis
Myoparesis my-oh-PAR-eh-sis
Myoplasty my-oh-PLAS-tee
Myorrhaphy my-OR-ah-fee
Myorrhexis my-oh-RECK-sis
Myosarcoma my-oh-sahr-KOH-mah
Myosclerosis my-oh-skleh-ROH-sis
Myositis my-oh-SIGH-tis
Myotomy my-OT-oh-me
Myotonia my-oh-TOH-nee-ah
Nasogastric intubation nay-zoh-GAS-trick in-tew-BAY-shun
Nasopharyngitis nay-zoh-far-in-JIGH-tis
Neuralgia new-RAL-jee-ah
Neuritis new-RYE-tis
Neuroblastoma new-roh-blas-TOH-mah
Neuroma new-ROH-mah
Neuromalacia new-roh-mah-LAY-she-ah
Nocardiosis no-kar-dee-OH-sis
Oedema eh-DEE-mah
Oesophageal varices OSSO-fay-jee-al VAR-ih-seez
Oesophagoplasty OSSO-fay-go-plas-tee
Oesophagoscopy OSSO-fay-go-skoh-pee
Oncology ong-KOL-oh-jee
Orchitis or-KYE-tis
Ostealgia oss-tee-AL-jee-ah
Ostectomy oss-TECK-toh-me
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Osteitis oss-tee-EYE-tis
Osteitis deformans oss-tee-EYE-tis dee-FOR-manz
Osteoarthritis oss-tee-oh-ar-THRIGH-tis
Osteoarthrosis oss-tee-oh-ar-THROW-sis
Osteoclasis oss-tee-oh-CLAY-sis
Osteochondroma oss-tee-oh-kon-DROH-mar
Osteodystrophy oss-tee-oh-DIS-tro-fee
Osteoma oss-tee-OH-ma
Osteomalacia oss-tee-oh-mah-LAY-she-ah
Osteomyelitis oss-tee-oh-mah-my-eh-LYE-tis
Osteonecrosis oss-tee-oh-nee-KROH-sis
Osteoplasty OSS-tee-oh-plas-tee
Osteoporosis oss-tee-oh-poh-ROH-sis
Osteorrhaphy oss-tee-OR-ah-fee
Osteosarcoma oss-tee-oh-sar-KOH-mah
Osteotomy oss-tee-OT-oh-me
Paediatrics pee-de-at-riks
Palatoplasty PAL-ah-toh-plas-tee
Palpitation pal-pih-TAY-shun
Pancreatitis pan-kree-ah-TYE-tis
Papanicolaou pap-ah-nick-oh-LAY-ooh
Paralysis pah-RAL-ih-sis
Paraplegia par-ah-PLEE-jee-ah
Paroxysmal par-ock-SIZ-mal
Pelvimetry pel-VIM-eh-tree
Percutaneous diskectomy per-kyou-TAY-nee-us dis-KECK-toh-me
Pericardial perry-CAR-dee-al
Pericardiocentesis perry-kar-dee-oh-sen-TEE-sis
Pericarditis perry -kar-DYE-tis
Periodontitis perry -oh-don-TYE-tis
Periosteotomy perry -oss-tee-OT-oh-me
Periostitis perry -oss-TYE-tis
Peritonsillar perry -TON-sih-lar
Pharyngitis fah-rin-JIGH-tis
Pharyngoplasty fah-RIN-go-plas-tee
Pharyngorrhagia fah-ring-go-RAY-jee-ah
Pharyngorrhoea fah-ring-go-REE-ah
Phimosis figh-MOH-sis
Phlebitis fleh-BYE-tis
Phlebography fleh-BOG-rah-fee
Phlebotomy fleh-BOT-oh-me
Phlegm FLEM
Phonocardiography fo-no-card-ee-OG-ra-fee
Plasmapheresis plaz-mah-feh-REE-sis
Pleural effusion PLOOR-al ah-FEW-zhun
Pleuralgia ploor-AL-jee-ah
Pleurectomy ploor-ECK-toh-me
Pleurisy PLOOR-ih-see
Pneumoconiosis new-moh-koh-nee-OH-sis
Pneumocystis carnii new-moh-SIS-tis CAR-nigh
Pneumonectomy new-moh-NECK-toh-me
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Pneumonia new-MOH-nee-ah
Pneumorrhagia new-moh-RAY-jee-ah
Pneumothorax new-moh-THOR-racks
Polyarteritis pol-ee-ar-teh-RYE-tis
Polymyositis pol-ee-my-oh-SIGH-tis
Preeclampsia pree-ee-KLAMP-see-ah
Proctectomy prock-TECK-toh-me
Proctopexy PROCK-toh-peck-see
Proctoplasty PROCK-toh-plas-tee
Proctoscopy prock-TOSS-kop-ee
Prothrombin pro-THROM-bin
Psychologist sy-kol-o-gist
Pyloroplasty pye-LOH-roh-plas-tee
Quadriplegia kwad-rih-PLEE-jee-ah
Raynaud’s ray-NOHZ
Regurgitation ree-gur-jih-TAY-shun
Retinoblastoma ret-ih-no-blas-TOH-mah
Rheumatic roo-MAT-ick
Rheumatoid arthritis ROO-mah-toyd ar-THRIGH-tis
Rhinoplasty RYE-no-plas-tee
Sarcoma sar-KOH-mah
Sciatica sigh-AT-ih-kah
Scoliosis skoh-lee-OH-sis
Septicaemia sep-tih-SEE-me-ah
Septoplasty sep-toh-PLAS-tee
Sequestrectomy see-kwes-TRECK-toh-me
Sequestrum see-KWES-trum
Sickle cell anaemia sick-el cell ah-NEE-me-ah
Sigmoidoscopy sig-moi-DOS-koh-pee
Silicosis sill-ih-KOH-sis
Singultus sing-GUL-tus
Sinusitis sign-you-SIGH-tis
Sphincter SFING-ter
Spina bifida SPY-nah BIF-ih-dah
Splenectomy splee-NECK-toh-me
Splenomegaly splee-no-MEG-ah-lee
Splenorrhagia splee-no-RAY-jee-ah
Splenorrhaphy splee-NOR-ah-fee
Spondylolisthesis spon-dih-loh-LIS-thee-sis
Spondylosis spon-dih-LOH-sis
Sputum SPYOU-tum
Squamous SKWAY-mus
Sterility stir-RILL-it-ee
Streptococcal strep-toe-COCKLE
Synovectomy sin-oh-VECK-toh-me
Systolic siss-TOH-lick
Tachycardia tack-ee-KAR-dee-ah
Tenalgia ten-AL-jee-ah
Tendinectomy ten-dih-NECK-toh-me
Tendonitis ten-doh-NIGH-tis
Tenectomy tee-NECK-toh-me
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Tenodesis ten-ODD-eh-sis
Tenodynia ten-oh-DIN-ee-ah
Tenolysis ten-OL-ih-sis
Tenoplasty TEN-oh-plas-tee
Tenorrhaphy ten-OR-ah-fee
Thalassaemia thal-ah-SEE-me-ah
Thoracocentesis thoh-rah-coh-sen-TEE-sis
Thoracostomy thoh-rah-KOS-toh-me
Thoracotomy thoh-rah-KOT-toh-me
Thrombocytopenia throm-boh-sigh-toh-PEE-nee-ah
Thrombosis throm-BOH-sis
Thrombotic occlusion throm-BOT-ick ock-LOO-zhun
Tonsillitis ton-sih-LYE-tis
Torticollis tor-tih-KOL-is
Toxoplasmosis tock-soh-plaz-MOH-sis
Tracheitis trah-kee-EYE-tis
Tracheoplasty TRAH-kee-oh-plas-tee
Tracheorrhagia trah-kee-oh-RAY-jee-ah
Tracheorrhaphy trah-kee-OR-ah-fee
Tracheostomy trah-kee-OS-toh-me
Tracheotomy trah-kee-OT-oh-me
Triglycerides try-GLIS-er-eyeds
Tuberculosis too-ber-kew-LOH-sis
Valvulitis val-view-LYE-tis
Valvuloplasty VAL-view-loh-plas-tee
Varicose veins VAR-ih-kohs VAYNS
Vasculitis vas-kyou-LYE-tis
Venipuncture VEN-ih-punk-tyour
Volvulus VOL-view-lus
American English and Australian English
Spelling differs between American English and Australian English. This can be confusing when using
different dictionaries, when referring to certain texts, and when using the spell check on the
computer. Therefore, it’s important to recognise and understand both variations, but when using
health terminology, Australian English is recommended.
Pronunciation of medical terms
Incorrect pronunciation can also have serious consequences. When verbal instructions are
incorrectly written down, or if the person to whom you are communicating misunderstands the
message, it is possible that the wrong treatment or drugs could be given. Even worse is the
possibility that a person could undergo the wrong procedure. There are many tragic stories from
around the world of people having the wrong kidney removed or the wrong limb amputated. For
example, laryngoscopy (la-ring-goskohpee) refers to viewing the larynx, and laryngectomy (larin-
jektemee) refers to removal of the larynx. Obviously there is no room for misunderstanding here.
Even though there are correct ways to pronounce medical terms there are many variations due to
individuals' accents and training. Your best guide to correct pronunciation is to listen actively to the
health professionals where you work and to refer to the dictionary whenever something is not clear.
The golden rule for clinical support workers is that if you are not sure, or if there is any possibility
for error, you must clarify the terms being used. It is much better to take the extra few seconds to
be sure rather than risk a serious mistake. The process of breaking medical words down into their
component parts will make them easier to pronounce. Look for the combining form/s, prefix and
suffix, and pause between each one.
TERM MEANING
Afferent Conveying towards the centre.
Anterior More to the front of the body than another structure.
Describing the front part or surface of the body, limbs, or an organ.
Central Close to the middle or centre point.
Cephalic Relating to, or situated near the head.
Coronal Relating to the crown of the head.
Deep Away from the surface of the body or an organ.
Distal Further away from the origin, point of attachment or midline of the
body.
Dorsal Relating to the back or posterior part of an organ.
Efferent Conveying from the centre to the periphery.
Extension The straightening out of a joint. The application of traction to a
fractured or dislocated limb.
External Situated outside the body or an organ.
Flexion Bending or moving a joint so that the bones forming it draw towards
each other.
Inferior Lower in the body than another structure or surface.
Internal Inside the body or an organ.
Lateral Further away from the midline or centre of the body or an organ.
Medial Closer to the centre of the body or an organ.
Peripheral Away from the centre point.
Posterior More to the back of the body than another structure.
Describing the back part or surface of the body, limbs or an organ
Prone Lying facing downwards.
Proximal Closer to the origin, point of attachment or midline of the body.
Superficial At, or close to, the surface of the body or an organ.
Superior Above another structure or surface.
Supine Lying on the back facing upwards.
Transverse Lying across.
Ventral Pertaining to a hollow structure or belly. Situated on the abdominal side
of the body.
TERM EXPLANATION
Assault The threat (perceived or real) of the application of force to another without
consent.
CMR Confidential Medical Record – Whenever there is a service provided where
the issue with the patient is regarded as extremely sensitive, a CMR is
generated eg an abuse report, children at risk report etc.
Confidentiality Health workers have a legal, ethical and professional duty to maintain the
privacy of a patient or client in relation to any information. This duty applies
to the living and the dead, the healthy and the infirm, the aged and the
young.
Consent Patients have a right to be involved in decisions about their health care. This
includes the right to receive information in such a form that will enable them
to make an informed decision about whether or not they wish to proceed
with treatment. Informed patients or other legally appropriate person must
then be able to agree or not agree to undergo particular forms of treatment
or care.
Contributory An action or set of circumstances in which a person or organisation has
Negligence contributed to an act of negligence.
Coroner’s Act All deaths occurring under certain conditions must be notified to the
Coroner. Health records must be provided to the Coroner.
Disclosure There are three situations in which confidential information can be
disclosed: Disclosure by consent, disclosure required by law and disclosure
in the public interest. Police may only have access to confidential information
where it falls within one of these three categories. Police do not have
privileged access to confidential information.
Ethical Behaviour Behaviour which is consistent with the values and obligations of the
individual and their profession.
Freedom of A person has the right to apply for access to health records held by certain
Information agencies under the Freedom of Information Act. Other Acts including the
(FOI) Privacy Act also govern access to information.
Neglect Potential or actual harm to a child or young person caused by omission to
provide physical and emotional security or commission of acts harmful to a
child.
Negligence Negligence is where an appropriate standard/duty of care owed to another
person is breached and as a result causes harm to the other person. There
are three requirements for a negligence action (1) owing a duty of care, (2)
breaching the standard of care owed and (3) damage is caused as a result.
Next of Kin (NOK) The Guardianship Act provides the legal framework for obtaining consent to
Significant Other/s treat those persons incapable of giving consent. These provisions provide for
a substituted consent by a “person responsible” (the correct term). In this
context “next-of-kin” and “significant others” do not have power to give a
substituted consent unless they also meet the requirements for being the
person responsible. A “senior available next of kin” may have a role in organ
donation or autopsy decisions. In other cases, the patient will nominate the
person responsible for notification.
SYMBOL MEANING
ß Beta
U Dead, Death, Died
ò Decreased
? (delta) Disease, Diagnosis, Dextrose, Diathermy
8/24; 4/24 8th hourly; 4th hourly
# Fracture
> Greater than
ñ Increased
l Litre
< Less than
à Leading to
μ Micro (Symbol now condemned)
2° Secondary
ß Resulting from
] or Rx (recipe) "prescription"
+ ve Positive
- ve Negative
References
Refer to a medical encyclopaedia: Breaking words down into prefixes, roots and suffixes is a
good way to work out the meaning of medical terms. In some instances you will not be able to use
this strategy, but you may like to use a medical encyclopaedia or dictionary. Many medical reference
books can be found online, which provides ready access.
Refer to anatomical models, charts and labelled diagrams: The body is complex. Reading
about the body’s systems is one way to gain knowledge. You may find it difficult to gain a good
understanding of the body’s structures and systems through reading words alone. Some people find
that accessing anatomical models, charts and labelled diagrams helps make the location of, and the
relationship between the body’s various systems and structures much clearer.
Keep a notebook: Keeping a notebook provides two benefits. By making notes you reinforce the
information and increase the likelihood that you will remember the information. The notebook also
acts as a reference point and may prevent you from having to ask the same question twice.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Ingestion and assimilation Cells are able to break down and use substances from
food as fuel
Irritability and activity Cells can synthesise new cytoplasm so that growth can
occur and repair worn out parts
Respiration Waste products are eliminated into surrounding tissue to
be transported by the blood for elimination via organs
Metabolism Cells are able to select chemicals from the surrounding
fluid for their structure
Excretion Cells reproduce by simple division but some cells can
never be replaced once destroyed eg. Central nervous
system cells
Growth and repair All cells require oxygen to metabolise (process) food
Reproduction Cells are able to respond to stimuli for example, a
stimulus causes a muscle to contract or relax
b) Root word.
c) Suffix.
5. Briefly describe how the prefixes change the meaning of these words.
Hypo-calc-aemia
Megalo-mania
Meningitis
Micro-cephaly
Multiple sclera-osis (MS)
Narco-lepsy
Neuralgia
Onycho-malacia
Oto-scler-osis
Pharyng-itis
Photo-phobia (
Retino-blast-oma
Thyroid-itis
Tonsill-itis
Ur-aem-ia
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Vulvo-vagin-itis
Xero-derma
Zoo-phobia
7. Why is it important for support workers in either the aged care, or disability sector to identify
the information sources that are available to them in the workplace to assist them in using the
correct term appropriately?
The Australian health system is world-class in both its effectiveness and efficiency: Australia
consistently ranks in the best performing group of countries for healthy life expectancy and health
expenditure per person (WHO 2003).
These achievements are largely the result of partnerships between individual Australians and families
and health care professionals. People’s decisions about lifestyle, self-care, and seeking and acting on
professional help, and their participation in the development of public policy at many levels, all
contribute to shaping the Australian health system. Increasingly, individuals are using information
from sources such as the World Wide Web to actively manage their health in partnership with
health care providers.
Overall coordination of major components of the health care system is provided by the Australian
Health Ministers’ Advisory Council (AHMAC)—a committee of the heads of the Australian
Government, state and territory health authorities, and the Australian Government Department of
Veterans’ Affairs. AHMAC advises the Australian Health Ministers’ Conference on policy, resources
and financial issues. Specific national bodies have been established by AHMAC or the ministers to
coordinate information, advice and program implementation, such as the:
National Health Priority Action Council: which aims to drive improvements in priority
health areas;
Australian Council for Safety and Quality in Health Care: which leads national efforts to
improve the safety and quality of health care, with a particular focus on minimising the likelihood
and effects of error;
National Public Health Partnership: which plans and coordinates national public health
activities;
National Health Information Group: coordinates and directs the implementation of the
National Health Information Agreement.
The foods we eat provide nutrients needed to maintain our health, including carbohydrates,
adequate amounts of nutrition required to nourish our bodies while avoiding harmful excesses of
some nutrients. The National Health and Medical Research Council recommend a diet that is high in
fruits and vegetables, with sufficient amounts of iron, calcium and fibre, but is low in fat, salt and
sugar. A poor diet can contribute to chronic diseases directly or indirectly through a range of other
risk factors such as high blood cholesterol and high blood pressure.
It typically includes overconsumption of food in general, or diets high in energy-rich components
such as fat. It may also be low in dietary fibres or complex carbohydrates, and/or deficient in certain
vitamins and minerals. The 2004–05 National Health Survey (NHS) indicated that most adults have
inadequate fruit (46%) and vegetable (86%) consumption (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
2006).
Lack of physical activity and exercise
Australia is one of the most obese nations in the world. An increasingly sedentary lifestyle coupled
with the increasing availability of highly processed food means that Australia is considered one of the
world’s fattest nations. The 2004-05 NHS reported that 34% of Australian adults engaged in very
low physical activity.
One of the strongest and best-known trends in Australia’s health has been the marked and steady
increase in bodyweight over the past few decades. Obesity is becoming a huge issue in health care.
Fast food is not the only culprit. Lack of knowledge about food groups and the components of a
healthy diet can lead to the consumption of foods with little nutritional value and a high fat and
glucose component. Families may have insufficient resources to buy the healthier products offered in
our supermarkets so a healthy diet can be out of reach of the people who most need it — children.
The rise in overweight and obesity has occurred among Australian males and females of virtually all
ages. Many experts are concerned about the effect this may have on our rates of diabetes, heart
disease and other disorders, perhaps even on our life expectancy. Based on measured height and
weight in 2007–08, 25% of children aged 5–17 years were overweight or obese and this rose to 61%
of adults.
Work/life balance
The 2004-05 National Health Survey reported that: risky alcohol consumption increased significantly
from 1995 (8%) to 2004-05 (13%). The National Alcohol Strategy indicates that nearly 3,000 people
die each year as a result of excessive alcohol consumption. Heavy consumption over a long period
can cause permanent damage to vital organs such as the brain and liver. It is also associated with
cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological damage as well as psychiatric problems such as
depression, anxiety, and antisocial personality disorder. Illicit drug use contributes directly and
indirectly to HIV, arthritis and other rheumatologic problems, respiratory and heart problems.
Alcohol and drug use also contribute to infant morbidity and mortality. Drug dependence can be
classified as a chronic disease in itself.
Tobacco smoking
Tobacco smoking is the largest single preventable cause of death, followed closely by high blood
pressure and obesity (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2008). It is a key risk factor in heart
disease, Cerebrovascular disease and lung cancer and is attributed to around 80% of all lung cancer.
According to the 2004-05 National Health Survey (NHS) 3.2 million Australian adults are daily
smokers and there are still large numbers of young people becoming addicted to nicotine despite the
clear evidence between smoking and chronic disease.
Various published stress scales (measures of the stress imposed by various factors in peoples’ lives),
consistently place the death of a spouse at the top of their lists as being the most stressful event that
can take place.
Other factors which rate highly on these scales include the following:
Death of a close family member
Personal injury or illness
Retirement
Changes in the health of a family member
Sex difficulties
Changes in financial state
The death of a friend
Spouse stopping work
Changes in the living environment
Changes in personal habits
Moving house
Less recreation
Poor diet
Changes in sleeping habits.
Defining stress is like describing happiness, everybody knows it when they feel it but it may feel
differently for different individuals. Generally, stress is the psychological and physical experience of
being faced with a challenge that is difficult for us to cope with. Research completed by the
psychiatrists, Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe in the late 60’s made the connection between stress
and illness. They looked at thousands of clients and the life events that surrounded their illness and
found that the more stress that was present in the person’s life, the higher the incidence of illness.
As a result they developed ‘The Social Readjustment Scale’ in 1967.
When people filled in the stressful incidents in their lives on the questionnaire it provided an
indication of the likelihood of them developing an illness. Holmes and Rahe tried the questionnaire
on many different nationalities and found it was a good predicator for all nationalities. A modified
scale was also developed for younger people. It is similar to the adult scale, where stress points for
life events in the past year identified and added and then compared to the indicators for how stress
affects health but the questions are more meaningful to young people.
The most common issues that affect a person’s oral health are:
The buildup of plaque: This is a problem as it is responsible for dental cavities. Plaque corrodes
the tooth enamel and causes inflammation of the gums (periodontal disease). It is caused by the
build-up of micro-organisms from food debris left for too long in the mouth. If the teeth are not
regularly brushed and flossed, plaque will build up. Another factor that increases the build-up of
plaque is sugar. All sugars and sweet foods, such as cordial, soft drinks, flavoured milks, honey and
dried fruits increase the risk of cavities.
Dry mouth (xerostomia): Production of saliva may be slowed by some medications and as people
age. This affects the person’s ability to chew food. An adequate fluid intake and the chewing of raw
vegetables can assist this. If the person is not able to do this, specific toothpastes and gels are
available to assist with saliva production.
Tooth wear and damage: Cracks and rough edges on teeth can cause ulcers, pain and
discomfort. This is causes poor mastication and a reluctance to brush and floss the teeth.
Tooth loss :This can impact on a person’s bite and swallowing and the person may need partial or
complete dentures.
Poor mastication (ability to chew): Chewing of food is the first part of the digestive process.
Poor mastication may slow the process of digestion and reduce the absorption of vital nutrients.
Ill fitting dentures: If dentures do not fit properly they can cause pain and ulceration, poor
mastication and changes to the appearance of the person, which can affect their self-esteem and
mental and social health.
People at great risk of dental disease and poor dental hygiene
These include those who:
Do not regularly attend the dentist
Are smokers
Are financially disadvantaged
Are physically frail
Are physically dependent
Have cognitive impairment
Are not able to hold and manage a toothbrush
Have impaired sensory function
Have swallowing problems
Have carers who are not aware of the need for dental hygiene.
Health Promotion is the process of enabling people to mange and improve their health. To reach a
state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, an individual or group must be able to
identify and to realise aspirations, to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment.
Health is a positive concept emphasising social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities.
Therefore, health promotion action is not just the responsibility of the health sector, but goes
beyond life-styles to well-being.
Health promotion can be described as any activity that improves public awareness of disease, health
services or risk factors for disease. Brochures, television and radio advertisements, community
programs, school based programs, flyers, etc, are all typical methods that may be employed to
promote health in your community.
There are five approaches to health promotion, these are explained as follows:
1. The Medical approach: This is a preventative approach that aims to keep diseases such as
cancer, heart and lung disease or other illnesses at bay. This includes immunisation against
diseases, screening for cervical cancer, regular blood tests and screening for diabetes.
2. The Behavioural approach: This approach aims to change the attitudes and beliefs of the
individual to encourage then to adopt a healthy lifestyle.
3. The Educational approach: This approach is as it sounds, it involves educating the older
person with knowledge and understanding of health issues how to live and maintain a healthier
lifestyle. The basis of this approach is to ensure that information is given that is correct and
relevant to the individual. The individuals are then encouraged to make their own decisions
about their health and lifestyle.
4. The Client-centred approach: This approach involves working with the client to assess their
needs and wants in order to adopt a holistic approach to the decisions that affect their lifestyle.
Client-centred involves listening to the client and discussing their options with them.
5. The Societal approach: This approach may be adopted by a health care and aged care facility
with the aim to change the physical, social and economic environment so that it encourages a
healthy lifestyle. The aim is to change the overall attitudes of the individuals within a residential
facility rather than the individual people themselves. An example of this would be converting the
facility to be non-smoking and prohibiting smoking in closed public areas.
Remember, however, that in this situation, the individual who chooses to smoke still has the right to
do so in designated areas, depending on the facilities of the organisation. While working in the aged
care industry it is important that you promote a healthy and positive lifestyle at all times. By doing
this you will find over time that your clients will slowly adopt a positive healthy lifestyle themselves.
QUESTIONS YES NO NA
Does the plan include medical check-ups?
Is nutrition covered?
Does the plan provide the client with the opportunity to
exercise regularly?
Does the plan provide opportunities to stimulate their
mind?
Does the plan include a strategy designed to support the
client to cease smoking if applicable?
Does the plan include a strategy designed to assist the
client to achieve a healthy weight if they are underweight
or overweight?
Does the plan include a strategy designed to assist the
client to use aids safely?
Does the plan include strategies designed to support
them in meeting new people and participating in
activities?
The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. Every thought,
action and emotion reflects the activity of the nervous system. The nervous system uses electrical
signals to communicate rapidly and specifically to the body. These signals are received from the
external environment, conditions outside the body, and from the internal environment, conditions
inside the body. The nervous system allows the body to detect changes in the environment and
respond to those changes to maintain homeostasis (the human body’s ability to regulate itself in
response to changes in the external environment).
The nervous system operates in three ways:
1. It uses sensory receptors to monitor changes and gather information (inputs) occurring both
inside and outside the body.
2. It processes and interprets the sensory input and decides appropriate responses.
3. It causes a response by activating effector organs (muscles and glands).
There are two principal divisions of the nervous system:
1. Central nervous system: this contains the brain and the spinal cord.
2. Peripheral nervous system: this contains the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal
cord and the receptors.
Major role; The main role of the nervous system is to relay electrical signals through the body. The
nervous system directs behaviour and movement and, along with the endocrine system, controls
physiological processes such as digestion and circulation.
Major organs: Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.
The central nervous system (CNS) receives information from the body via the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). It integrates the information it receives and activates muscles and glands via the PNS.
Location and protection
The brain and the spinal cord are contained and protected within the dorsal cavity (cranium and
vertebral column). The structures surrounding the CNS are:
Bone which forms the cranial cavity and vertebral column
Meninges, the multilayered ‘wrapping’ of the brain and spinal cord
Cerebrospinal fluid in ventricles and subarachnoid space.
Components of the Central Nervous System
The brain
The brain is a mass of soft nerve tissue, which is encapsulated within the skull. It is made up of grey
matter, mainly nerve cell bodies, and white matter which are the cell processes. The grey matter is
found at the periphery of the brain and in the centre of the spinal cord. White matter is found deep
within the brain, at the periphery of the spinal cord and as the peripheral nerves.
The brain is divided into:
This is the largest part of the brain which is made up of the two hemispheres of the forebrain.
Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is responsible for conscious thought processes and intellectual functions. It is
also responsible for memory storage and processing, conscious and subconscious regulation of
skeletal muscle contraction. Being composed of gray matter, the cerebral cortex consists of neuron
cell bodies, dendrites and unmyelinated axons, but no fibre tracts.
It contains three kinds of functional areas:
1. Motor areas: control voluntary movement
2. Sensory areas: concerned with conscious awareness of sensation (namely the parietal,
temporal and occipital lobes)
3. Association areas: areas that communicate (‘associate’) with the motor cortex and with other
sensory association areas to analyse and act on sensory inputs with regards to past experience,
and others that are not connected with any of the sensory cortices. Each hemisphere is generally
related to the sensory and motor functions of the opposite side of the body. There is some
specialisation of cortical functions. However, no functional area of the cortex acts alone. The
entire cortex is involved in conscious behaviour in some way.
Cerebral white matter/cerebral medulla; This is responsible for communication between
cerebral areas and between the cerebral cortex and lower CNS centres.
Basal nuclei or basal ganglia: These are clusters of cell bodies or gray matter located deep
among the tracts of cerebral hemisphere. They are important in controlling and coordinating skeletal
muscle activity, inhibiting excessive/unnecessary movements and initiating accessory and often
involuntary actions.
Diencephalon: The diencephalon forms the central core of the forebrain and is surrounded by the
cerebral hemispheres. It integrates conscious and unconscious sensory information and motor
command. It consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus.
This fluid provides a cushion for the brain and spinal cord. It is a clear, almost colourless liquid, with
a concentration of electrolytes, glucose and protein. It forms constantly in the choroid plexuses in
the ventricles from where it flows into the subarachnoid space and circulates around the brain and
spine. It is absorbed into the venous blood through the arachnoid villi. This maintains a relatively
constant pressure within the skull (intracranial pressure).
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to the organs and limbs of the body. The
PNS reacts to impulses carried to and from the brain by the cranial nerves and to impulses carried
to and from the spinal cord by the spinal nerves.
Neurons are the structural units of the nervous system. They are highly specialised cells that
transmit nerve impulses/messages from one part of the body to another. They have extreme
longevity but cannot replace themselves if destroyed. Neurons cannot undergo cell division. In the
PNS, axons may be able to regenerate if the cell body is viable. Neurons are highly irritable and
stimulate other cells via action potentials. These action potentials, or nerve impulses, are electrical
impulses carried along the length of axons. They are always the same regardless of stimulus and are
the underlying functional activity of the nervous system. Neurons: require continuous and large
supplies of oxygen and glucose as they have an exceptionally high metabolic rate. They are complex
cells which vary in structure.
Neurons have three components:
1. Cell body: The plasma membrane is the site of electrical signaling. Most cell bodies are located
within the CNS; those in the PNS usually are found in groups called ganglia. The cell body
contains a nucleus.
2. Dendrites: Dendrites of motor neurons are diffusely branching extensions and are the main
receptive or input regions. These provide a huge surface area for receiving signals from other
neurons. They convey incoming messages toward the cell body and on to the axon. Therefore
impulses always move in one direction only.
3. Axon: The axon is the conducting component of the neuron, carrying nerve impulses and
transmitting them away from the cell body toward an effector site or connecting neuron. Each
neuron has only one axon which can be very short, or absent, or nearly the entire length of the
neuron.
Classification of neurons
Neurons are classified structurally and functionally.
Structural classification
Neurons are structurally classified on the basis of the number of processes (projections) extending
from the cell body.
They can be:
1. Unipolar: one process that branches shortly after leaving the cell body.
2. Pseudo-unipolar: also have one process but originated as bipolar.
3. Bipolar: have two distinct processes arising from the cell body.
4. Multi-polar: have multiple processes capable of extensive branching.
Functional classification: Neurons are functionally classified according to the direction in which
the nerve impulse travels relative to the CNS. Sensory or afferent neurons transmit impulses from
sensory receptors in the skin or internal organs toward the CNS. Motor or efferent neurons carry
impulses away from the CNS to the effector organs (muscles and glands). Motor neurons are multi-
polar. Interneurons lie between motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways shuttling signals
through CNS pathways where integration occurs.
Neurons have specialised projections called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring information to
the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body. Information from one neuron
flows to another neuron across a synapse. The synapse contains a small gap separating neurons.
The synapse consists of:
1. A presynaptic: ending that contains neurotransmitters, mitochondria and other cell organelles.
2. A postsynaptic: ending that contains receptor sites for neurotransmitters.
3. A synaptic cleft: or space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic endings.
There are two types of synapses:
1. Electrical synapses: the current moves directly from one cell to the next via gap junctions. It
is less common than a chemical synapse and occurs in the CNS.
2. Chemical synapses: the transmission of signals across chemical synapses depends on the
release, diffusion, and receptor binding of neurotransmitter molecules. This results in
unidirectional communication between neurons which convert electrical signals to chemical
signals (neurotransmitters) across the synapse to the post synaptic cells which convert them
back into electrical signals. The best understood chemical synapse is the neuromuscular junction
(motor nerve and skeletal muscle fibre).
The sensory system is vital for survival, growth, development, and the experience of bodily pleasure.
Smelling smoke, we interpret a potentially life threatening situation. Seeing a person smile and
hearing we did a great job bolsters our self-esteem. Feeling someone's hands stroking our body
gives us a feeling of pleasure and sensual delight.
Sense perception depends on sensory receptors that respond to various stimuli. When a stimulus
triggers an impulse in a receptor, the action potentials travel to the cerebral cortex, where they are
processed and interpreted. Only after this occurs is a particular sensation perceived. Some senses,
such as pain, touch, pressure, and proprioception, are widely distributed in the body. These are
called general senses. Other senses, such as taste, smell, hearing, and sight, are called special senses
because their receptors are localized in a particular area. Other senses such as taste, smell, hearing,
and sight, are called special senses because their receptors are localized in a particular area.
The sensory system is part of the nervous system that processes information in response to an
impulse from a sensory organ or peripheral components like the skin, muscles and joints. The
resulting response is called a ‘sensation’ and it is a conscious process in the brain.
Sensation requires four stages to occur:
1. A stimulus that activates a sensory neuron.
2. A receptor made up of specialised nervous tissue, responds to the stimuli and converts it to a
nerve impulse.
3. The nerve impulse is conducted along a neural pathway to the brain.
4. The sensory reception area in the brain interprets the impulse.
A point to remember is that although it is the brain that interprets the message it is projected back
to the initial receptor site and is actually felt in the contact area. Each sensory organ is structured to
only be receptive to the particular stimulus for that sense eg sound waves are the stimulus for the
auditory nerve in the ear and will have no effect on the nose or eyes.
Receptors: are involved in the production of a sensation. These are:
Exteroceptors: located near the surface of the body and transmit sensations of sight, smell,
hearing, taste, pressure, temperature and external pain.
Enteroceptors: located inside the body in blood vessels and organs and transmit sensations of
hunger, thirst, internal pain and nausea
Proprioceptors: located in the muscles and joints and internal ear and transmit sensations of
external pain from body movement and posture that produce muscle, tendon and joint tension.
General senses
General senses are found throughout the body. The visceral organs control these senses with the
skin, muscles, and joints.
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The general senses include:
Touch
Pressure
Proprioception
Temperature
Pain.
Sense of touch (tactile sensation) (skin)
Minute sensory areas are situated in the skin and they correspond to various nerve endings. The
number of receptors for one type of sensation can vary on different areas of the skin and thus can
be more sensitive in one area than another eg fingertips sense more pain than upper arms. The
sensations felt by the skin are touch, pressure and vibration and are detected by mechanoreceptors.
The sensation of touch is picked up by receptors directly under the skin. They are located in hair
roots, in the dermal papillae of the skin, especially in fingertips, eyelids, tip of tongue and other
sensitive areas. Pressure is detected in deeper tissues and is usually sensed over a wider area, lasts
longer and its intensity can vary. Receptors are located in subcutaneous tissues around joints,
tendons, muscles, in mammary glands and external genitalia. Vibrations are detected by receptors
associated with the touch sensation – a very rapidly repeated sensory signal produces the vibration.
The receptors are located in the dermal papillae of the skin and in the subcutaneous tissue.
Thermoreceptive sensation
Thermoreceptors are free nerve endings and are not uniformly distributed but in discreet points on
the skin surface. They sense heat and cold from as low as 10 °C to as high as 45 °C. Once below 10
°C and above 45 °C, pain receptors are activated and the sensations of freezing or burning are
produced. Thermoreceptors are able to adapt to constant stimulation and this can easily result in
frostbite or burns.
Temperature
The temperature receptors lie directly under the skin and are widely dispersed throughout the
body. The sense of temperature is stimulated by cold and heat receptors. There are many more
cold receptors than heat receptors. The degree of stimulation depends on the number of each type
of receptor stimulated.
These receptors are strongly stimulated by an abrupt change in temperature. Extremes in
temperature stimulate pain receptors. Below 10 degrees C, pain receptors produce a freezing
sensation. As the temperature increases above this measurement, pain impulse cease but cold
receptors begin to be stimulated. At temperatures about 25 degrees C, heat receptors begin to be
stimulated and cold receptors fade out. Finally, as temperatures approach 45 degrees C, heat
receptors fade out and pain receptors are stimulated to produce a burning sensation.
The sense of sight relies on the eye. Measuring about 2.5 cm in diameter, the eye sits in the orbital
socket of the skull. The eye is protected by the socket, the eyelids and the eyelashes.
Anatomy of an eye
Cornea: The cornea is a transparent tissue in the front part of the eye. It is a curved spherical
structure that is responsible for focusing the light onto the inside of the eye. Contact lenses sit on
top of the cornea to change its curvature and eliminate the need for glasses. The Vision Correction
Procedures discussed in this website attempt to improve vision by changing the shape of the cornea.
Iris: The iris is the colored part of the eye. It opens up in dark rooms and at night to let more light
into the eye. Conversely, in bright lights the iris constricts to decrease the amount of light that
enters the back of the eye.
Pupil: The pupil is the black spot in the center of the iris. Actually, the pupil is the name given to the
opening in the iris through which light passes.
Lens: The lens is responsible for helping to fine adjust the focus of the eye. The lens changes shape
to allow clear vision both in the distance and for reading.
Vitreous: The vitreous is a clear jelly-like material which fills the inside of the eyeball. Light passes
through the vitreous on its way to being focused onto the retina.
Retina: The retina is a thin film of tissue (like film in a camera) where images are brought into focus.
The retina lines the inside surface of the eyeball. The retina is connected to the brain where the
visual signals are processed.
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Anterior Chamber: Between the cornea and the iris, is a space called the anterior chamber. This
space is filled with a clear water-like solution.
Eye lubrication
Tears, secreted by the lacrimal glands located above the lateral end of the eye, constantly bathe the
eye and drain into the lacrimal canals and sacs located at the medial end, and finally into the
nasolacrimal duct that drains into the nasal cavity. The meibomian glands on the edges of the eyelids
are sebaceous glands that produce an oily secretion to lubricate the eyes. Modified sweat glands, the
ciliary glands, are located between the eyelashes. The conjunctiva, a delicate membrane that covers
part of the eye, secrets mucous which also keeps the eye moist.
The Tooth
The tooth is an amazing sensory organ. The outside of the tooth, the enamel, is the hardest tissue
in the human body. The enamel surrounds another layer of the tooth called the dentin. The tooth
pulp lies in the middle of the tooth. The pulp contains blood vessels, nerve fibers and other
connective tissue. Although the pulp has several functions, including the formation of dentin, the
sensory function of teeth is quite interesting.
The nerve fibres inside teeth are exquisitely sensitive to stimulation when they can be activated. If
you have ever had a cracked tooth or had a cavity in a tooth, you know that the message sent to the
brain by the teeth is PAIN! (The existence of a non-painful sensory function of teeth is being
debated in the current scientific literature). Children usually have 20 baby teeth (also called milk
teeth). Adults have 32 permanent teeth. The 32 teeth in adults include the 3rd molars, also called
the wisdom teeth. In some people the wisdom teeth do not come in at all.
Sense of smell (olfactory) disorders
There are several types of olfactory disorders:
Anosmia: is the absence of the ability to smell
Hyposmia: is the decreased ability to smell
Hyperosmia: is increased sensitivity to an odorant
Dysosmia: is distortion in the perception of an odour
Phantosmia: is perception of an odorant where none is present
Agnosia: is the inability to classify, contrast, or identify odour sensations verbally, even if one
can normally distinguish or recognize between odorants
Presbyosmia: is the decrease or loss of sense of smell due to aging.
Major role
The main role of the respiratory system is to provide gas exchange between the blood and the
environment. Primarily, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and carbon dioxide
is expelled from the body.
Major organs
Nose, trachea and lungs.
Respiration
The four main events of respiration are:
1. Pulmonary ventilation/breathing: movement of air into (inhalation) and out of (exhalation)
the lungs so the gases are continuously exchanged.
2. External respiration: movement of oxygen from the lungs to the blood and carbon dioxide
from the blood to the lungs.
3. Transport of respiratory gases (via the cardiovascular system): transport of oxygen
from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
4. Internal respiration: movement of oxygen from blood to the tissue cells and of carbon
dioxide from tissue cells to blood.
Major role: The main role of the skeletal system is to provide support for the body, protect
delicate internal organs and provide attachment sites for the organs.
Major organs: Bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments.
Bones and skeletal tissue
The human skeleton is initially made up of cartilages and fibrous membranes; however, most of these
early supports are soon replaced by bone during growth.
Skeletal cartilages
Skeletal cartilage consists primarily of water. It has the ability to bounce back to its original shape
after being compressed. It contains no blood vessels or nerves and is surrounded by the
perichrondrium. It is dense, irregular connective tissue that resists outward expansion. There are
three types of cartilage tissue: hyaline, elastic and fibro cartilage. Cartilage growth ends during
adolescence when the skeleton stops growing. The cartilage remaining in adults are found in areas
where flexible skeletal tissue is required.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and a network of vessels that carry blood. The term
cardio refers to the heart and the term vascular refers to the blood vessels. The main role of the
cardiovascular system is to supply oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells and remove waste
products from these tissues. The system consists of the heart which pumps blood through the
blood vessels which act as pipes throughout the body carrying the blood to and from the tissues.
The heart
The heart is about the size of a clenched fist with a mass between 250 and 350 grams. It rests on the
diaphragm between the two lungs, well enclosed within the mediastinum, the medial cavity of the
thorax.
Drawing of a hand felling the neck of a Drawing of a hand feeling the wrist of a person
person
The radial pulse
The carotid pulse
Blood pressure is the amount of force exerted against the walls of an artery by the blood. The heart
muscle contracts and relaxes. The period of contraction is called systole and the period of relaxation
is called diastole
Systolic blood pressure: is the force with which blood is pushing against arterial walls during
ventricular contraction. It is a clue to the integrity of the heart, arteries and the arterioles.
Diastolic blood pressure: is the force exerted by the blood remaining in the arteries during
ventricular relaxation. The diastolic pressure which is constantly present on the arterial walls
directly indicates blood vessel resistance.
Pulse pressure: is the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressure.
The pulse pressure tends to parallel the stroke volume.
The following factors may affect the accuracy of blood pressure readings:
White coats (just seeing a health professional can elevate blood pressure)
Caffeine consumption
Smoking
Heavy physical activity
Rushing
Emotional upset.
Taking blood pressure
Requirements:
BP is measured in the brachial artery in the left arm. Avoid using this arm if there has been
damage to vessels, removal of axillary lymph nodes, or there is a shunt in-situ for dialysis.
The following are required when taking blood pressure:
Sphygmomanometer of appropriate size for person (note that sphygmo means pulse). The cuff
bladder should be 20% wider than the diameter of the extremity in use
Stethoscope
Quiet, relaxed atmosphere
Client seated or lying with arm supported and level with the heart.
Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are biconcave discs with no nucleus and essentially have no
organelles. They are filled with haemoglobin (Hb), a protein that functions in gas transport. They
contain the plasma membrane protein spectrin and other proteins that give them flexibility and allow
them to change shape as necessary.
Erythrocytes are an example of how structure and function are complementary. The structural
characteristics of red blood cells contribute to their gas transport function. Their biconcave shape
has a huge surface area relative to volume which makes them particularly effective at gas exchange in
the body. Discounting water content, erythrocytes are more than 97% haemoglobin. Erythrocytes
are dedicated to respiratory gas transport. Haemoglobin binds to and transports respiratory gases.
Adenosine thriphosphate (ATP) is generated anaerobically by erythrocytes because they lack
mitochondria. Therefore, they do not consume the oxygen they transport.
Hematocrit: is the percentage of red blood cells in blood. A hematocrit value of 50 means that
50% of the blood volume is red blood cells. A sharp drop in hematocrit can indicate anaemia, but the
value can vary considerably depending on a person’s lifestyle and their level of fitness.
Function
Leukocytes are white blood cells (WBC). These are the only blood components that are complete
cells. They make up less than 1% of the total blood volume and are crucial to our defence against
disease. They can leave capillaries via diapedesis. They move through tissue spaces where they are
needed to mount inflammatory or immune responses. Leukocytes are made up of granulocytes and
agranulocytes.
Granulocytes: These include neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils and make up about
75% of WBC and are made in bone marrow. They contain cytoplasmic granules and are larger
and usually shorter-lived than RBCs. They have lobed nuclei. All granulocytes are phagocytic
cells which are able to engulf and digest bacteria and other harmful matter.
Agranulocytes: These include lymphocytes and monocytes and lack visible cytoplasmic
granules. They are mostly produced in the lymphatic system.
Platelets are fragments of megakaryocytes which are not cells in the strict sense. Their granules
contain serotonin which enhances vascular spasm. They also contain calcium ions, enzymes, ADP
which attract more platelets to the area and cause them to release their contents and platelet-
derived growth factor (PDGF). Platelets are essential for the clotting process. They form a
temporary plug that helps seal breaks in blood vessels by sticking to a damaged site. The stem cell
for platelets is the hemocytoblast.
Red blood cell plasma membranes have antigens – glycoproteins – on their surface which give us our
unique identity. There are 30 varieties of naturally occurring RBC antigens. The presence or absence
of each antigen therefore allows us to be classified into several different blood groups, ABO and Rh
blood groups. The person’s ABO blood group will be A, B, AB or O depending on what the
person inherited. There are at least 8 different types of Rh factors.
Type O blood groups: lack A and B antigens and are therefore considered the universal donor
because type O blood can be given to a person of any blood type.
Type AB: is the universal recipient because a person with this blood type can receive blood from
all other blood groups.
The Rh factor: may cause blood incompatibility if the mother is Rh-negative and the foetus is Rh-
positive. In cases of emergencies where blood volume needs to be replaced immediately to restore
adequate circulation, plasma can be administered without a concern about a transfusion reaction.
The antibodies it contains are harmlessly diluted in the recipient’s blood. Colloidal solutions or
isotonic salt solutions are other options. As people have different blood groups, blood matching is
critical before a blood transfusion takes place. Transfusion of incompatible blood can lead to death.
The nervous system controls the body through electrical impulses delivered by neurons. The body’s
other control system, the endocrine system, and affects bodily activities by releasing chemical
messengers, called hormones, into the bloodstream from a variety of glands and organs. The
nervous and endocrine systems interact to coordinate and integrate their activities to direct the
functioning of the cells in the body. For example, this can be compared to the canal-linked city of
Venice. A telephone call can deliver a message instantaneously, just like a nerve transmission.
However, a slower message can be sent by using a fleet of gondolas through the canals of Venice –
one of them will reach any specific destination in the city, just like a chemical message that is sent in
the blood.
The endocrine system has a profound influence on the regulation of:
Energy and metabolism
Stress response
Growth and development
Behaviour
Fluid, electrolyte and nutrient balance
Immunity.
All body systems are affected by hormonal influence. Hormones influence metabolic activity in cells
by increasing or decreasing the normal metabolic process by activating enzymes. Endocrine glands
secrete hormones to maintain homoeostasis. These actions may be targeted to specific cells or
broad-based to target organs.
Specific response
The lymphatic system is responsible for transporting fluids around the body and also plays a vital role
in the operation of the immune system to protect the body from disease.
Major role
The main role of the lymphatic system is to return fluid to the cardiovascular system. This includes
proteins and fluids that have not been absorbed. The lymphatic system also removes fat and excess
fluids from the blood. The immune system is part of the lymphatic system. Its role is to destroy and
remove invading microbes and viruses from the body.
Major organs
Lymph, lymph nodes and vessels, white blood cells, T and B cells.
Function of the lymphatic system
The lymphatic system consists of two semi-independent parts:
1. A meandering network of lymphatic vessels.
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs scattered throughout the body.
Nutrients, wastes and gases are exchanged between the blood and the interstitial fluid (tissue fluid)
as the blood circulates around the body. The osmotic pressures, which operate at the capillary beds,
force fluid out of the blood at the arterial ends of the bed and cause much to be reabsorbed at the
venous ends. However, the fluid that remains behind in the tissue spaces can be as much as three
litres per day. This leaked fluid (interstitial fluid) and plasma proteins are collected and returned to
the bloodstream by the lymphatic vessels or lymphatics. Once this fluid enters the lymphatics it is
called lymph. Note that lymph means ‘clear water’. The lymphatics ensure that the cardiovascular
system has enough blood volume to operate properly.
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Structures of the Lymphatic System
Lymphatic vessels
These vessels form a one-way system in which lymph fluid flows towards the heart.
Lymph vessels include:
Microscopic, permeable, blind-ended lymphatic capillaries
Lymphatic collecting vessels
Trunks and ducts.
Lymphatic capillaries
The capillaries weave between the tissue cells and blood capillaries in the loose connective tissues of
the body.
They are similar to blood capillaries, however:
They are remarkably permeable
The walls are loosely joined endothelial mini-valves
They withstand interstitial pressure and remain open.
The mini-valves in the capillaries function, as one-way gates that allow interstitial fluid to enter lymph
capillaries. They do not allow lymph to escape from the capillaries. When tissues are inflamed, lymph
capillaries can absorb even larger particles such as cell debris, pathogens (bacteria and viruses) and
cancer cells. Pathogens and cancer cells can travel via the lymphatics around the body. However, the
lymph travels through lymph nodes where it can be cleansed of debris and ‘examined’ by cells of the
immune system.
Lacteals: are highly specialised lymphatic capillaries found in the villi of the intestinal mucosa. At this
point the lymph is milky white (called chyle) because the lacteals absorb digested fats from the
intestine. It is received into the cisterna chy’li, a pouch at the beginning of the thoracic duct. From
here, it is carried up the duct to the bloodstream.
Lymph capillaries drain lymph into collecting vessels called lymphatics. These vessels are similar in
structure to veins with smooth muscle walls but the walls are thinner with more internal valves. As
the vessel collects more lymph it enlarges. It is called the afferent lymph vessel as it enters a
lymph node. The vessel that removes lymph from a lymph node is called the efferent lymph
vessel. Lymph is transported to progressively larger vessels within the body which end in the right
lymphatic duct (for lymph from the right side of the upper body) and the thoracic duct (for the rest
of the body).
Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes are the principal lymphoid organs of the body. Nodes are imbedded in connective
tissue and clustered along lymphatic vessels. Aggregations of these nodes occur near the body
surface in cervical, Axillary and inguinal regions of the body.
Their two basic functions are:
1. Filtration: they destroy microorganisms and debris.
2. Immune system activation: they monitor antigens and can mount an attack against them.
Lymphatic trunks are formed by the union of the largest collecting ducts.
Lymph is delivered into one of the two large trunks:
1. The right lymphatic duct: which drains the right upper arm and the right side of the head
and thorax.
2. The thoracic duct: drains the rest of the body.
Lymph is delivered from the large trunks back into veins called the subclavian veins.
Lymph transport: The lymphatic system lacks an organ that acts as a pump. Lymphatic vessels are
low pressure conduits. The lymphatic system uses the same mechanisms as veins to propel lymph
fluid. This is created by the ‘milking’ action of active skeletal muscles and the pressure changes in the
thorax during breathing. The valves in the lymphatic vessels prevent backflow of fluid. Lymph flow is
promoted by pulsations of nearby arteries and contractions of smooth muscle in the walls of the
lymphatics.
Lymphocytes develop in red bone marrow and mature into T cells. T cells (T lymphocytes) or B cells
(B lymphocytes) both protect the body against antigens.
T cells manage the immune response. Some T cells directly attack and destroy foreign cells
B cells produce plasma cells that secrete antibodies into the blood.
Antigens are immobilised by antibodies until they can be destroyed by phagocytes. Lymphoid tissue
stores and provides a proliferation site for lymphocytes. The tissue acts as a surveillance vantage
point for lymphocytes and macrophages. Lymphocytes reside for short periods in the lymphoid
tissue, then leave to patrol the body again.
Other lymphoid organs
Spleen: The spleen is situated in the left hypochondriac region of the abdomen. It curls around the
anterior aspect of the stomach. The spleen cleanses blood by extracting aged and defective blood
cells and platelets from the blood. Its macrophages remove debris and foreign matter from the
blood flowing through it. The spleen stores some of the products of red blood cell breakdown for
reuse and releases others for processing in the liver. The spleen is the site of erythrocyte
production in the foetus where it stores blood platelets. It provides a site for lymphocyte
proliferation as well as immune surveillance and response.
Thymus: The thymus is large at birth. It is a lymphatic mass low in the throat near the heart. The
thymus is most active during childhood, and then shrinks with age. It does not directly fight antigens.
The thymus is the site of lymphocyte maturation. It stimulates the lymphocytes to become immuno-
competent.
Tonsils: The tonsils are lymphatic tissue which line the throat. They trap bacteria and particulate
matter which work their way into lymphoid tissue.
Peyer’s patches: Peyer’s patches resemble tonsils and are located in the wall of the distal part of
the small intestine. They prevent bacteria from penetrating the wall of the intestine by capturing and
destroying it. All of these lymphoid organs are composed of reticular connective tissue and all help
protect the body, however, only lymph nodes filter lymph.
The integumentary system is the largest organ system. It is the system that covers and protects the
human body from damage – the word integument means covering. It includes the skin and its
appendages such as hair and nails. The skin covers our entire body and accounts for about 7% of our
total body weight.
Functions of the integumentary system
The integumentary system has many functions that assist the body’s homeostasis (the body’s ability
to regulate itself in response to changes in the environment).
Protection: Skin provides chemical barriers (skin secretions and melanin) and physical or
mechanical barriers (continuity of skin, the hardness of its keratinised cells, waterproofing glycolipids
of the epidermis) that protect the body and its organs.
Body temperature regulation: Temperature regulation is accomplished by vasodilation (cooling)
and vasoconstriction (warming) of dermal vessels. The skin can increase sweat gland secretions to
cool the body. Under normal resting conditions as long as the environmental temperature is below
31 – 32 °C, we lose about 500 ml of sweat a day.
Cutaneous sensation: Exteroceptors, which are part of the nervous system, exist in the
integumentary system. These allow us to sense touch, pressure, pain, cold and heat and to recognise
objects from their feel and shape.
Metabolic functions: The exposure of the skin to ultraviolet light (UV) enables the synthesis of
Vitamin D in dermal blood vessels which is required to maintain organ systems. The liver and
kidneys also produce enzymes which work in conjunction to produce Vitamin D.
Blood reservoir; Skin blood vessels store up to 5% of the body’s blood volume. They hold 8 – 10%
of blood volume at rest. When exercising blood is pumped to the muscles and other organs.
Excretion: Limited amounts of nitrogenous wastes are eliminated from the body in sweat.
The skin has two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and the dermis (inner layer).
Epidermis: The epidermisis the outer epithelial layer is composed of epithelial cells. It varies in
thickness depending on the degree of protection a part of the body requires, eg: the soles of the feet
require more protection than eyelids. The epidermis layer contains no blood vessels. Epithelial tissue
also lines the inside of the nostrils.
Cilia are attached and help trap unwanted particles before being inhaled. For ease of defining what
happens to the cells in the epidermis, there is a three-tier process. The outer layer is composed of
dead cells, where the nucleus and organelles are replaced by a protein known as keratin. The
conversion of the cells to keratin is part of the waterproofing process of the skin. This layer of dead
cells constantly flakes off, is removed when bathing and normally we are not aware of this process.
Then there are two to three layers where the conversion process to keratin occurs.
The number of layers depends on the area of the body and the thickness of the skin, eg: the soles of
the feet are thicker than the eyelids. The cells nearest the dermis (inner layer) are pushed upwards,
becoming flatter. They lose moisture as they near the surface, become dry and flake off the skin. Skin
cells become dry due to the fact that there is no blood supply to the epidermis, except where the
layers nearest the inner layer are able to receive moisture from the dermis.
The inner layer immediately next to the dermis is capable of cell division – it’s where new cells are
constantly being produced. Also found in this layer is melanin, which produces cells that protect the
skin against ultraviolet rays. It takes approximately 28 days for new cells to move to the top to flake
off as dead keratinised cells. This process is faster in small children and slows down as we age.
Dermis: The dermislies beneath the epidermis. It is a thick, dense layer, with a network of
connective tissue. It has a rich blood and nerve supply. Other structures include hair follicles, sweat
and sebaceous glands. Beneath the dermis lies a fat layer known as adipose tissue, which serves as an
anchorage for underlying tissues and organs
The function of the kidneys is to keep the blood healthy by filtering it. All unwanted materials, water
and salts are removed in urine, thus maintaining the composition of the blood at a constant level.
The kidneys are bean-shaped structures which lie in a retroperitoneal position in the superior
lumbar region (extending approximately from T12 to L3). They are surrounded by three layers of
supportive tissue.
The renal capsule: is a fibrous transparent capsule that prevents infections in surrounding areas
from spreading to the kidneys.
The adipose capsule: is a fatty mass that secures the kidney to the posterior body wall and also
protects it. Renal ptosis is an event where one or both kidneys may drop to a lower position. This
may cause a ureter to become kinked and urine to back up into the kidneys, exerting pressure on its
tissue, leading to kidney damage.
The renal fascia: is an outer layer of dense fibrous connective tissue that secures it to surrounding
structures.
There are three distinct regions in the kidneys.
1. The renal cortex is the most superficial region in which the majority of glomeruli are located.
2. The renal medulla is the inner section consisting primarily of the tubules and collecting ducts.
3. The renal pelvis is a flat, funnel shaped tube which is continuous with the ureter which
transports the urine to the bladder to be stored.
Branching extensions of the pelvis form major calyces which subdivide to form several minor
calyces that enclose the papillae.
The structural and functioning units of the kidney are called nephrons. They have a particular
structure that allows for the capillary exchange of substances. It is in the nephrons that filtration, re-
absorption of selected substances and the formation of urine occurs. The various functional
elements or parts of the nephron ensure that the body has the correct balance of fluids, electrolytes
and various minerals for its needs. All of these structures are quite easily seen by the naked eye.
However, the complicated process by which the blood is filtered takes place in microscopic units
called nephrons. There are approximately one million nephrons in each kidney.
A nephron consists of:
Bowman’s capsule
Glomerulus
First convoluted tubule
Loop of Henle
Second convoluted tubule
Straight collecting tubule.
Ureters: Ureters are slender tubes that convey urine from the renal pelvis of the kidneys to the
urinary bladder. The mucosal lining is transitional epithelium, middle is smooth muscle, and external
surface is fibrous connective tissue. They conduct urine by peristalsis.
Urinary bladder: The urinary bladder is a distensible muscular sac that lies posterior to the pubic
synthesis which functions to store urine temporarily. In males, the prostate gland surrounds the
bladder neck inferiorly where it empties into the urethra. In females, the bladder is anterior to the
vagina and uterus. The bladder wall consists of transitional epithelium-containing mucosa, a three
layered muscular layer and an adventitia. Bladder capacity and tone decrease with age, resulting in
frequent micturition, (frequent use) and incontinence.
Urethra: The urethra is a muscular tube that conveys urine from the bladder to outside the body.
Mucosal lining is mostly stratified columnar epithelium. Where the urethra leaves the bladder, it is
surrounded by an internal urethral sphincter. This involuntary smooth muscle sphincter keeps the
urethra closed when urine is not being passed as well as preventing leaking between voidings.
The external urethral sphincter, formed of skeletal muscle, surrounds the urethra where it passes
through the urogenital diaphragm. It is voluntarily controlled. In females the urethra is 3 – 4 cm long
and conducts only urine. Being very short and because its external orifice is close to the anal
opening, bacteria can easily be carried into the urethra. Those with improper toilet habits as well as
sexually active women are prone to urinary tract infections. In males the urethra is 20 cm long. It
runs within the prostate gland, through the urogenital diaphragm, and through the penis. It conducts
both urine and semen.
The main role of the reproductive system is to manufacture cells that allow reproduction. The
primary sex organs, or gonads, are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the female. The gonads
produce sex cells or gametes and secrete sex hormones. The remaining reproductive structures are
referred to as accessory reproductive organs. These are the ducts, glands and external genitalia. The
male’s reproductive role is to manufacture male gametes called sperm and deliver them to the
reproductive tract.
The complementary role of the female is to produce female gametes, called ova or eggs. When these
events are appropriately timed, a sperm and egg fuse to form a fertilised egg, the first cell of the new
individual, from which all body cells will develop. The sex hormones are not only essential in both
the development and function of the reproductive organs but influence the growth and development
of many other organs and tissues of the body. Sex hormones also influence sexual behaviour and
sexual drives. The reproductive system is in a juvenile state during the first decade of life. Hormone-
directed changes start to occur in both sexes at about age ten. This period, where secondary sexual
characteristics begin to develop, is called puberty. The potential for sexual reproduction is then
reached.
Penis
The penis is a passageway for the ejaculation of semen and the excretion of urine. It consists of an
attached root and a body that ends in an enlarged tip called the glans penis. In an uncircumcised
penis the loosely fitting covering of the glans penis is called the prepuce, or foreskin. The body of the
penis is composed of three cylindrical masses of tissue bound together by fibrous tissue called tunica
albuginea. Within the penis, are the spongy urethra and three long cylindrical bodies of erectile
tissue (a spongy network of connective tissue and smooth muscle with many vascular spaces).
The Scrotum
Encloses and protects the testes
Testes
Produce spermatozoa. Produce and secrete male sex hormones (testosterone)
Vas deferens
Store spermatozoa
Convey spermatozoa to ejaculatory ducts
Ejaculatory ducts
Receive sperm and additives to produce seminal fluid.
The testes
The testes develop near the kidneys and usually begin their descent into the scrotum through the
inguinal canals towards the end of the seventh month of foetal development.
Major role: The main role of the digestive system is to break down and absorb nutrients that are
necessary for growth and maintenance.
Major organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and the large intestines.
Functions of the digestive system
Ingestion: Is the taking in of food via the mouth into the digestive system.
Propulsion: Involves movement of food through the alimentary canal by two processes:
1. Voluntary process – swallowing
2. Involuntary process or peristalsis – which is the process of contraction and relaxation of
muscles in the organ walls which results in the squeezing and mixing of food in the digestive
tract.
Mechanical digestion: Involves the following processes:
Chewing or mastication, when saliva is mixed with the food by the tongue
Churning of food in the stomach (peristalsis)
Segmentation, which occurs in the intestines by rhythmic local constrictions wherein food is
mixed with digestive juices. The repetitive movement of different parts of the food in the
intestinal wall makes absorption more effective.
Chemical digestion: Is the stage when food molecules are broken down by enzymes. This
enzymatic action on the food starts in the mouth and ends in the small intestine.
Absorption: Is when the digested food is passed from the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract
through the mucosal cells, either by active or passive transport, into the blood or lymph. The small
intestine is the site of major absorption.
Defecation: Is when indigestible substances are eliminated from the body in the form of faeces via
the anus.
This is the tube that connects the pharynx with the stomach. It lies between the trachea and the
spine. It passes down the neck, pierces the diaphragm just to the left of the midline and joins the
cardiac upper end of the stomach. When food is swallowed, the muscular walls of the esophagus
contract to push food down into the stomach. Glands in the lining of the esophagus produce mucus
which keeps the passageway moist and facilitates swallowing.
A sac-shaped digestive organ that is located in the upper abdomen under the ribs. The upper part of
the stomach connects to the esophagus and the lower part leads into the small intestine.
Small intestine
This is the longest portion of the digestive tract – it is more than 6 metres long and is located within
the middle of the abdomen. It has three sections, the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The function of
the small intestine is to digest fats, proteins and carbohydrates. The resulting nutrients produced are
absorbed through the lining of the small intestine and transferred to the bloodstream.
Large intestine
This is the part of the digestive system where waste products from food is collected and processed
into faeces. The large intestine is about 1.5 m long and consists of the caecum, appendix, colon and
rectum – which are distributed in the abdominal cavity.
The large intestine performs the following functions:
Reabsorbs water and maintains the fluid balance of the body
Absorbs certain vitamins
Processes undigested material (fibre)
Stores waste before it is eliminated.
Anus: This is an opening at the opposite end of the digestive tract from the mouth. Its function is to
expel faeces, the unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion.
Accessory digestive organs: These contribute to the breakdown of food.
Teeth: These are structures found in the jaw that are used to tear and chew food. There are thirty-
two permanent teeth, twenty of which are primary teeth.
The tongue lies on the floor of the mouth and fills up the oral cavity when the mouth is closed. It
consists of skeletal muscle fibres that are interlaced.
There are:
Intrinsic muscles: which are attached to the tongue only They allow the tongue to change
shape as required for swallowing and speech
Extrinsic muscles: which extend from the bones of the skull or the soft palate to the tongue.
They change the tongue’s position, protrusion, retraction and side to side movement.
Salivary glands
Extrinsic salivary glands: Lie outside the oral cavity and produce most of the saliva. These
glands are paired compound tubuloalveolar glands that developed from the oral mucosa
Intrinsic salivary glands: Assist the extrinsic salivary glands in producing saliva
Parotid glands: Are located anterior to the ear between the masseter muscle and the skin.
The facial nerve branches pass through the parotid gland onto muscles that control facial
expression. Facial paralysis can result from surgery to parotid glands.
Submandibular glands: Lie along the medial aspect of the mandibular body. The size of a walnut,
its duct goes under the mucosa of the oral cavity floor and opens at the base of the lingual frenulum
Sublingual glands: Are anterior to the submandibular gland under the tongue. They have 10 – 12
ducts that open into the floor of the mouth.
Composition of saliva
Saliva is 97% – 99.5% water and is hypo-osmotic. The osmolarity depends on the glands that are
active and the type of stimulus for salivation. It is slightly acidic with a variable pH of 6.75 to 7.00.
The liver is the largest gland in the body and plays a major role in metabolism. It has a number of
functions, including glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis and
detoxification. It lies below the diaphragm in the thoracic region of the abdomen. It produces bile, an
alkaline compound which aids in digestion, via the emulsification of lipids. It also performs and
regulates a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions requiring very specialised tissues.
Gall bladder
The gall bladder (or cholecyst) is a small non-vital organ which aids in the digestive process and
concentrates bile produced in the liver. The gall bladder stores about 50 ml of bile, which is released
when food containing fat enters the digestive tract, stimulating the secretion of cholecystokinin
(CCK). The bile, produced in the liver, emulsifies fats and neutralises acids in partly digested food.
After being stored in the gall bladder the bile becomes more concentrated than when it left the liver,
increasing its potency and intensifying its effect on fats.
The urinary bladder is a solid, muscular and distensible (or elastic) organ that sits on the pelvic floor.
It is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. Urine enters
the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra. In males, the base of the bladder lies between
the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate and separated from the rectum by
the rectovesical excavation. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the
vagina. It is separated from the uterus by the vesicouterine excavation. In infants and young children,
the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.
2. In this activity you will revise the functions of the different body systems. Match the body
system listed in Column 1 to the correct group of organs in Column 2. Write the letter
next to the body system.
COLUMN 1 COLUMN2
______ Integumentary. A. Heart, vessels, blood.
The heart
4. Check the diagram of a cross-section of the heart. You can trace the flow by following the
arrows. You may like to colour in this diagram.
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Right lung
Bronchiole
Pleura
b) Progesterone
c) Testosterone
Ear
Nose
Tongue
Skin
Blood
9. Besides distributing body temperature and nutrients to cells, what other functions does blood
have? Refer to your resource materials for information and then complete the following chart to
identify how the components of the blood carry out their function.
Type of activity that the blood How does the blood undertake these functions?
undertakes
Transportation Uses a network of blood vessels.
Supply
Protection
Regulation
Prevention
2. Give two reasons why clients must be supported to establish networks and encouraged to meet
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