One problem in understanding the brain is that it is difficult to get a good picture of what

is going on inside it.But there are variety of empirical methods that allow scientists to look

at brains in action,and the number of possibilities has increased dramatically in recent

years with the introduction of new neuroimaging techniques.In this section we will

consider the various techniques that psychologists use to learn about the brain.Each of

the different techniques has some advantages,and when we put them together,we begin

to get a relatively good pictures of how the brain functions and which brain structures

control which activities.Perhaps the most immediate approach to visualizing and

understanding the structure of the brain is to directly analyze the brains of human

cadavers.An advantage of the cadavers.An advantage of the cadaver approach is that

the brains can be fully studied,but an obvious disadvantage is that the brains are no longer

active.In other cases,however,we can study living brains.The brains of living human

beings may be dagamed as a result of strokes,falls,automobile accidents,gunsgots,or

tumours,for instance.These dagames are called lesions.In rare occasions,Brain lesions

may be created intentionally through surgery,such as that designed to remove brain

tumours or ( as in split-brain patients) reduce the effects of epilepsy.

RECORDING ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY IN THE BRAIN

A less invasive approach,and one that can be used on living humans,is

electroencephalography(EEG).The EEG is a technique that records the electrical activity

produced by the brain’s neurons through the use of electrodes that are placed around the

research participant’s head.An EEG can show if a person if asleep,awake,or anesthetized

because the brainwave patterns are known to differ during each state.EEG can also track

the waves that are produced when a person is reading,writing,and speaking,and are
useful for understanding brain abnormalities,such as epilepsy.A particular advantage of

EEG is that the participant can move around while the recordings are being taken,which

is useful when measuring brain activity in children,who often have difficulty keeping

still.Furthermore,by following electrical impulses across the surface of the

brain,researches can observe changes over very fast time periods.

PEEKING INSIDE THE BRAIN:NEUROIMAGING

Although the EEG can provide information about the general patterns of electrical activity

within the brain,and although the EEG allows the researcher to see these changes quickly

as they occur in real time,the electrodes must be placed on the surface of the skull,and

each electrode measures brainwaves from large areas of the brain,As a result,EEGs do

not provide a very clear picture of the structure of the braini images,Functional magnetic

resonance imaging (fMRI) is a type of brain scan that uses a magnetic field to create

images of brain activity in each brain area. The patient lies on a bed within a large

cylindrical structure containing a very strong magnet.

Neuroimaging techniques have important implications for understanding our

behaviour,including our responses to those around us.Naomi Eisemberger and her

colleagues (2003) tested the hypothesis that people who were excluded by others would

report emotional distress and that images of their brains would show that they

experienced pain in the same part of the brain where physical pain is normally

experienced.In the experiment ,13 participants were each placed into an fMri brain-

imaging machine.The participants were told that they would be playing a computer

“Cyberball” game with two other players who were also in fMRI machines ( the two

opponents did not actually exist, and their responses were controlled by the computer ).
Each of participants was measured under three different conditions.In the first part of the

experiment,the participants were told that as a result of technical difficulties , the link to

the other two scanners could not yet be made,and thus at first they could not engage

in,but only watch ,the game play.This allowed the researchers to take a baseline fMRI

reading .Then,during a second ,inclusion,scan ,the participants played the game

,supposedly with the two other players .During this time , the other players threw tha ball

to the participants .In the third , exclusions ,scan , however the participants initially

received seven throws from the other two players but were the excluded from the game

because the two players stopped throwing the ball to the participants for the remainder of

the scan (45 throws) . The results of the analyses showed that activity in two areas of the

frontal lobe was significantly greater during the exclusion scan than during the inclusion

scan. Because these brain regions are known from prior research to be active for

individuals who are experiencing physical pain, the authors concluded that these results

show that the physiological brain responses associated with being socially excluded by

others are similar to brain responses experienced upon physical injury. Further research

(Chen, Williams, Fitness, & Newton, 2008; Wesselmann, Bagg, & Williams, 2009) has

documented that people react to being excluded in a variety of situations with a variety of

emotions and behaviours. People who feel that they are excluded, or even those who

observe other people being excluded, not only experience pain, but feel worse about

themselves and their relationships with people more generally, and they may work harder

to try to restore their connections with others.

Key Takeaways
• Studying the brains of cadavers can lead to discoveries about brain structure, but these
studies are limited because the brain is no longer active.

• Lesion studies are informative about the effects of lesions on different brain regions.

• Electrophysiological recording may be used in animals to directly measure brain activity.

• Measures of electrical activity in the brain, such as electroencephalography (EEG), are

used to assess brainwave patterns and activity.

• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures blood flow in the brain during
different activities, providing information about the activity of neurons and thus the
functions of brain regions.

• Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to temporarily and safely deactivate a

small brain region, with the goal of testing the causal effects of the deactivation on
behaviour.

The brain is one of the body’s major organs that is needed for the survival.We actually

cannot live after the brain no longer shows activity ,unless we have the assistance of

medical equipment .However , only some parts of the brains are neede for everyday

living.Each part of the brain serve a different function . That’s where the brain’s control

center becomes important.

The brain’s control center ( the limbic system) is a four-level system within the brain that

is responsible for regulating emotions and providing us motivations for our actions.It is

comprised of hypothalamus,amygdala,hippocampus,and the limbic cortex ,although there

are some variations in this definition.

A psychological disorder is, broadly, a condition characterized by distressing,
impairing, and/or atypical thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Psychopathology is
the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (their
causes),and treatment. The term psychopathology can also refer to the
manifestation of a psychological disorder. Although consensus can be difficult, it is
extremely important for mental health professionals to agree on what kinds of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are atypical in the sense that they indicate the
presence of psychopathology. Certain patterns of behavior and inner experience
can easily be labeled as distressing, impairing, or atypical and more clearly signify
some kind of psychological disturbance. A person who feels compelled to wash
their hands 40 times per day or a person who claims to hear the voices of demons
exhibits behaviors and inner experiences that most would regard as atypical and
impairing, if not distressing: beliefs and behaviors that suggest the existence of a
psychological disorder. But, consider the nervousness someone may feel when
giving a speech or the loneliness a freshman may experience during the first
semester of college these feelings are not unusual, and it may be difficult to
determine when these experiences can be categorized as appropriate
nervousness or sadness compared with clinically significant anxiety or depression.
Perhaps the simplest approach to conceptualizing psychological disorders is to
label behaviors, thoughts, and inner experiences that are atypical, distressful,
dysfunctional, and sometimes even dangerous to self or others as signs of a
disorder. For example, if you ask a classmate for a date and you are rejected, you
probably would feel a little dejected. Such feelings would be normal. If you felt
extremely depressed so much so that you lost interest in activities, had difficulty
eating or sleeping, felt utterly worthless, and contemplated suicide your feelings
would be atypical, would deviate from the norm, and could signify the presence of
a psychological disorder. Just because something is atypical, however, does not
necessarily mean it is disordered.
There are some examples of disorder .

• Intellectual Development Disorder

Sometimes called intellectual disability, this type of developmental disorder
originates prior to the age of 18 and is characterized by limitations in both
intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviors.
• Global Developmental Delay
This diagnosis is for developmental disabilities in children who are under the age
of five. Such delays relate to cognition, social functioning, speech, language, and
motor skill.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social interaction and

communication in multiple life areas as well as restricted and repetitive patterns
of behaviors.
 • Bipolar and Related Disorders

Bipolar disorder is characterized by shifts in mood as well as changes in activity and

energy levels. The disorder often involves experiencing shifts between elevated moods
and periods of depression. Such elevated moods can be pronounced and are referred to
either as mania or hypomania.

• Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive and persistent fear, worry, anxiety and
related behavioral disturbances. Fear involves an emotional response to a threat, whether
that threat is real or perceived. Anxiety involves the anticipation that a future threat may
arise. Types of anxiety disorders :

✓ Generalized anxiety disorders (GAD)

✓ Social anxiety disorder
✓ Specific Phobias
✓ Panic Disorder
✓ Separation anxiety disorder

• Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

Trauma- and stressor-related disorders involve exposure to a stressful or traumatic event.

These were previously grouped with anxiety disorders but are now considered a distinct
category of disorders. Disorders included in this category:

✓ Acute stress disorder

✓ Adjustment disorder
✓ Post-Traumatic Stress Dsorder ( PTSD )
✓ Reactive attachment disorder

• Somatic symptom Disorders

Formerly referred to as somatoform disorders , this category is now known as somatic

symptom disorders.Somatic symptom disorders are a class of psychological disorders
that involve prominent physical symptoms that may not have a diagnosable physical
cause. Disorders included in this category are:

✓ Somatic symptom disorder

✓ Illness anxiety disorder
✓ Conversion disorder
✓ Factitious disorder

• Feeding and eating disorders

Eating disorders are characterized by obsessive concerns with weight and disruptive
concerns with weight and disruptive eating patterns that negatively impact physical and
mental health. Types of eating disorders:

✓ Anorexia nervosa
✓ Bulimia nervosa
✓ Rumination Disorder
✓ Pica
✓ Binge Eating disorder

• Sleep-wake Disorders

Sleep disorders involve an interruption in sleep patterns that leads to distress and affects
daytime functioning . Examples of sleep disorders :

✓ Narcolepsy
✓ Insomnia disorder
✓ Hypersomnolence
✓ Breathing-Related sleep disorders
✓ Parasomnias
✓ Restless legs syndrome
 • Depressive Disorders

The category of depressive disorders includes a number of conditions .They are all
characterized by the presence of sad , empty,or irritable moods accompanied by physical
and cognitive symptoms .They differ in terms of duration,timing and causes.Some
include:

✓ Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

✓ Major depressive disorder
✓ Persistent depressive disorder
✓ Other specified depressive disorder
✓ Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
✓ Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder
✓ Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

• Personality Disorders

Personality disorders are characterized by an enduring pattern of maladaptive

thoughts,feelings ,and behaviours that can cause serious detriments to relationships and
other life areas.Types of personality disorders :

✓ Antisocial personality disorder

✓ Avoidant personality disorder
✓ Borderline personality disorder
✓ Dependent personality disorder
✓ Histrionic personality disorder
✓ Narcissistic personality disorder
✓ Obsessive-Compulsive personality disorder
✓ Paranoid personality disorder
✓ Schizoid personality disorder
✓ Schizotypal personality disorder

• Substance use and addictive disorders

Substance related disorders are those that involve the misuse of different substance such
as cocine,methamphetamine,opiates,and alcohol. These disorders may include
substance induced conditions that can result in many associated diagnoses including
intoxication,withdrawal,or the emergence of psychosis ,anxiety ,and delirium .Examples
of substance-related disorders include:

✓ Alcohol
✓ Cannabis
✓ Inhalant
✓ Stimulant
✓ Tobacco

• Neurocognitive Disordes

Neurocognitive disorders are characterized by acquired deficits in cognitive function.

These disorders do not include those in which impaired cognitive disorders include:

✓ Delirium
✓ Other Neurocognitive disorders
References: https://www.verywellmind.com/a-list-of-psychological-disorders-2794776