Complete: Handbook

F*"'-
rf'
•
»
'
•WP'f' L
-* r- 'r
<-
i -Jjfi -.,
ARCO’S
,
'-^ti*'"! j-ii
s 7.. ^
-';v-
New Complete
Woodworking
Handbook
REVISED
by Jeannette T. Adams
Wood and Wood Products Sanders Exterior Wood Coverings
Woodworking Hand Tools Selection and Care of Floor Covenngs
Working with Wood Painting Tools and Ifjtetrter Doors, Frame:,
Working with Plywood Equipmwf i WT, ARC
Glues and Glueing Methods Paints, Painting, and Other Millwork
Hand-Power Tools Finishing Procedures Exterior Frames, Windows,
Radial-Arm Machine Woodworking Repairs and Doors
Bench or Circular Saws Interior Woodworking Projects Thermal Insulati^jf* Vapor
Wood-Turning Lathe Exterior Woodworking Projects Barriers, and
Band Saw Construction of Stairs Insulation
Jig Saw Floor Framing Porches and Garages
Drill Press Basement Rooms Roof Coveiings
Jointers and Shapers Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish Ventilation
Plus Hundreds of New Interior and Exterior Projects and improvements
more than 900 illustrations

The most complete and up-to-date book in the woodworking field
Contains all the latest advances in tools, materials, and methods.
NEW COMPLETE
WOODWORKING
HANDBOOK
by
Jeannette T. Adams
Here is most thorough book of in-
the
struction and reference that has ever been
written for the woodworking craftsman.
Under one cover, a complete, easy-to-
understand guide that is a must for every
home, school or industrial shop.
NEW COMPLETE WOODWORKING HANDBOOK
covers every phase of woodwork from the
proper selection of lumber, the proper
tools, right down to the finished project,
when the last stroke of paint has dried. The
craftsman is shown the structure and classi-
fication of ail types of wood and what types
to use for interior and exterior projects.
The complexity of plywood and other cross-
banded products are also fully explained.
He is shown the basic woodworking hand
tools, and how to care for and use them
to get the best results. Hand power tools
are also fully covered. There are helpful
chapters on the use and care of the Radial-
Arm Machine, Bench or Circular Saw, the
Wood Turning Lathe, the Band Saw, the Jig
Saw, the Drill Press, Jointers and Shapers,
and Sanders. In finishing the project special
attention is given to glues, proper gluing
methods, paints and painting procedures.
NEW COMPLETE WOODWORKING HANDBOOK
is more than a good buy — it is a worthwhile
investment for the craftsman. Home work-
shops, school manual training shops or
industrial woodworkers cannot afford to be
without a copy of this book.
{ Continued on back flap )
ARCO PUBLISHING COMPANY, Inc.

219 Park Avenue South, New York, N.Y. 10003
vJioic ui vm 1 1,1011
'.Department of Libraries
.
.
Northeast Regional Library
P. 0. Box 188
'
. SL Johnsbury, VI. 05819
^
‘
J I ^
i >
‘
i -f-
.ti
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2017 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation
https://archive.org/details/arcosnewcompleteOOadam
New Complete
Woodworking
Handbook
n
ARCO’S
New Complete
Woodworking
Handbook
REVISED
by Jeannette T. Adams
Arco Publishing Company, Inc.

New York
Revised Edition
First Printing, 1975
Published by Arco Publishing Company, Inc.

Copyright © 1960, 1975 by Arco Publishing Company, Inc.
All rights reserved. No

part of this book may be reproduced,
by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher,
except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief excerpts in
connection with a review in a magazine or newspaper.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 74-25024
ISBN 0-668-03822-5
Printed in the United States of America

Preface
®
This book has been produced to satisfy a demand for a complete

handbook on woodworking, and covers every phase of this im-
portant subject.
Emphasis has been placed on providing complete directions
for using and maintaining every hand- and power-driven wood-
working tool used in the workshop.
Instructions making new woodworking projects or for
for
making repairs, and finishing and polishing furniture are fully
illustrated with detailed and dimensional drawings, diagrams,
and photographs. Lists of required tools and materials are also
given.
Every been made by the author to give the worker

effort has
authoritative information on all up-to-date materials; as well as
information that will enable him to select the requisite tools
wisely, keep them in good condition, and choose the correct
material for any object he may desire to construct. This informa-
tion can be of inestimable value to the work^.
All projects and procedures described are well within the

abilities of the average worker who has the inclination to use
tools intelligently. Practicability has been the main consideration.
This book comprises descriptions of different kinds of wood

and wood products. A complete chapter on glues and gluing
methods; a chapter on painting tools and equipment; and a
chapter on paints, painting, aqd finishing procedures. To facili-
tate quick reference several tables have been included.
The Complete Woodworking Handbook has been planned
with the conviction that it will be a welcome and valued aid to
those who have long desired a complete handbook on the
subject.
j. T. A.
'
'
•'
iri -
^
h'y • •
Oy «> il aOO« 'Mf' V
• <2-- •
.ii fir.y'i • r 1 m .. fii>
#•1^4^ i<f/'
.
j J*' iv /m. '*1 ii^ vmI <
ft- %il2 . . 1- I
•
If
•
•
tft #:'j*^4»ry v- r *
.< :.A,. •. T<«
Gk'
ji''/*.* tj*
.<u\ ; -•!;; .;}.> • ’.• '*

'ik| bOi.
:r.
-i-yi ^— .
»h* I-'' f- . -t* "v
^ t> jini •• , : I iii: “'f. » i*1 % imr

alMol 'x-’- v ^..* rry. i£kw iio'laf' !ui
•wsaod-' Uiiai ,Ai* •
€-18::' ii^ k ^ 1 •> .5-*^
a'w.^’ ’'*«’»•: io «1 fi;*:? f^VrJ
.1 ^r; . Iti*.
»i»:
M. vx*-,-^.
f.-'
'
^ /' ^V ^ *
'
'i'
’ 0'
^ ^ **
rf*:"*.>i
^
V ‘ft’’ <’>
f**
<3111190)
JT
jiJV.' ii|4 ‘Ki-ni ^ K/
.»*rf^-
'•
*’
^
'
a.i' . J t; •'}'
Xf^f'- rsy- ^ pfisi’
^'- .. .-• * .
:^ <ri.-:./^> ^•. ..
-v-* r
b?; f
::r .’•'
J} 0tajt'‘'Jr‘/»K^’- «ti t\r , ,
'
V* ^ ,
• -
• 4 -
*’
' •« •
inps ;^='
-'Î'>. ,:.. o{^ -i-
d*< ‘
.
<•
::r.i, :. -
T»‘ V *’ >•>';»*.»}*'
Acknowledgments
— — •
The Author acknowledge with thanks the assistance

desires to
of the following national organizations and branches
of the
government that have co-operated in the production of this
book;
American Steel & Wire Co., American Brush Co., Armstrong

Cork Co., Atlas Press Co., Black & Decker Mfg. Co., California
Redwood Association, Carborundum Co., Cleveland Twist Drill
Co., Delta Power Tool Division — Rockwell Manufacturing Co.,
DeVilbiss Co., Devoe & Raynolds Co., DeWalt Division — Amer-
ican Machine & Foundry Co., Douglas Fir Plywood Association,
E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Franklin Glue Co., Henry
Disston & Sons, National Lumber Manufacturers Association,
National Paint, Varnish and Lacquer Association, National Re-
tail Lumber Dealers Association, Nicholson File
Co., Northern
Hemlock & Hardwood Manufacturers Association, Northern Pine
Manufacturers Association, Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. - Brush
Division, S. C. Johnson & Son, Sherwin-Williams Co., South
Bend Lathe Works, Southern Pine Association, Stanley Works,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, U. S. Forest Service — Forest
Products Laboratory,
United States Plywood Corp., United
States Steel Corp., Western Pine Association, and Yale & Towne
Manufacturing Co., American Institute of Timber Construction,
American Plywood Association, Insulation Board Institute, Mall,
National Bureau of Standards, Porter-Cable, United States De-
partment of Agriculture, United States Department of Commerce,
University of Wisconsin.
vii
»:• *
fi; -
iff '.
iJiii •
4h*i T* »£5’' i-' br- '{''O'. ^*î{ iGf^ ii^ttiu! . ^v;*
;;.t«?it?nrw .
* hatiti ii-aj 'iv.\ •. b »)(? 4'^'^P56PlA
fEr«TFj^Ô' ..'j3 it'' /'kifA 34^
(ih.
'
tn '•'J f’.-ri V .J i;,'
:
owl :WT TT>V Y-! cJ>Vj. ,oO
•> •
^:Azr r:-W-*0; *.«>> .
fêc. V /i’l i^^rk>C! o'J •.' o'i y. • ct^ "*.->1
<^ -> st5f3 <jir*'fi.^^ ./ .(» • it -i li* iS-<F. 1

. ^
VI* ;*>• 'T>{i

!, i
-->^ f>:?B ioi^vinV :^'iv;^*sM^v.XiA

<nStti&T‘».^ ,.f30 n^D()stf\ftojv' ,4|tMn ii&l
. i:f *>i'.^jfji*V- illMfliBsA; '

y, '<>ixa .i
i.'? ^#Nj aa7!iHli*'#V*®v>r^*:jdE /k??. >V j ^

*1
ai^'iiinX , ^tt-i'' i vl
.;d .U % hi-irnit^ 3^
.y
.<p<s^ <x>i^wv(^ t» th‘»U‘ .
fcdi:.!
fA *liiT btJsi iKH? M •

?jr\ . jqiir
*
tJSliTf. r ,,0^ .'tVfTf^'iiluQiiJ/r

?Ipr^ '! . hf.M; . i‘ i
t,ii»-*t *u »afe>i^*Llf£tfi i</ »/!’.' .*?* I

i M<ii^ jjci30>vai;A i« -'i.icrujq
tiif
Preface to the
Revised Edition
• ' ' —
A HOME should have the fundamental requirements that will
make it appealing for many years after it is built. Many wood
houses are in existencetoday that were built more than two hun-
dred years ago. The modern wood-frame house, with wood and
wood-product covering materials, is economical and long lasting.
Bring your dream house down to earth. Install the latest in
equipment and the most modern in treatment, but remember that
good taste, good planning, and good construction are necessary if
you want to obtain the ultimate in satisfaction from your home.
To help you acquire a better understanding of what is meant by
good construction the author has added a number of chapters to
the new Complete Woodworking Handbook covering suitable
materials and building fundamental principles. Because the things
that make good construction are largely hidden from view
for
and, therefore, may not appear to have much to do with the
complete house, most people are inclined to pay little attention
to this feature. This handbook is also meant as a guide for those
without this type of construction experience. It is not too tech-
nical an undertaking for the average homeowner to see that the
fundamental requirements for good construction are provided for
in planning and improving a home. You will be in a better posi-
and you can also protect your interests,

tion to evaluate bids, if
you know^ something about lumber as well as the principles of

construction.
Attractive design and sturdy construction need not be luxuries
enjoyed only by those who can afford more expensive homes.
They are qualities which should be included in even the humblest
homes.
IX
In the new Complete Woodworking Handbook you will find
information on various phases of construction, covered in such a
way to give you confidence that you are building, remodeling, or
adding fundamental requirements that will be sturdy and that
will not require costly repairs at a later date.
In addition to the chapters on hand- and power-driven wood-
working tools and machines, painting tools and equipment,
woodworking projects, glues and gluing methods, and working
with plywood, you will find new chapters on wood and wood
products; on paints, painting, and finishing procedures; added
information on working with wood; and additional portable
electric power tools. Many new reference tables have been in-
cluded throughout the handbook.
The final chapters add information and illustrations on con-
struction of stairs; floor framing; basement rooms; exterior wood
coverings; floor coverings; interior doors, frames, trim, cabinets,
and other millwork; exterior frames, windows, and doors; thermal
insulation, vapor barriers, and sound insulation; porches and
garages; roof coverings; and ventilation.
The author aims to prove that the new Complete Woodwork-
ing Handbook will be invaluable to the homeowner, builder, and
others.
J. T. A.
Table of Contents
• .
CHAPTER Page
1 Wood and Wood Products 1
Classification ofwoods for principal home uses, 2; suit-

ability of woods and wood-based products for various
house uses, 5; determining moisture content of wood, 28;
protection of wood from moisture, 29
2 Woodworking Hand Tools

and How to Use Them 31
Basic tools, 31; measuring and laying-out tools, 83; tool
storage and rust prevention, 91
3 Working with Wood 93

Basic characteristics of woods, 93; lumber grades, 108;
standard lumber items and wood-based products sold in
retail lumberyards, 113; preparing pieces for use, 127;
nails, screws, other fasteners, and hardware, 131; how to
make woodworking joints, 140
4 Working with Plywood 160

Laying out plywood plywood construc-
for cutting, 160;
tion joints, 162; plywood fasteners, 164; plywood con-
struction ideas, 166; finishing plywood edges, 173; pulls,
handles, and catches, 174; d6or hardware, 175
5 Glues and Gluing Methods 178

Gluing properties of different woods, 178; glues used for
various jobs, 180; choosing the right type of glue, 180;
gluing methods, 182; hints on applying glue, 184;
clamping, 186; types of glued joints, 190
6 Hand Power Tools 195
Portable electric saws, 195; combination electric screw-
drill, 202; electric hand finishing sander, 206; electric
hand power plane, 211; electric heavy duty hand router,

215; portable electric drill, 246; portable electric sander,
248; portable belt sander, 248; orbital sander, 248;
portable electric circular saw, 251; saber or bayonet saw,
253; reversible electric impact wrench, 254
7 Radial-Arm Machine 256

Principle of operation, 256; basic operation of the saw,
262; basic saw cuts, 278; special cutting operations of
the saw, 287; dado-head operations, 270; shaper-jointer
operation, 305; boring and drilling, 313; operation of
the saber or band saw, 315; the lathe, 319; disc, belt,
and drum-sander attachments, 321
8 Bench or Circular Saws 332

Design features, 332; checking and adjusting, 335; types
of blades, 337; mounting the saw, 338; molding cutters
and fences, 338; operations, 348; safety rules, 348
9 The Wood-Turning Lathe 349

Design features, 349; tools and accessories, 351; setting
up the lathe, 352; operation, 354; maintenance, 369
10 The Band Saw 370

Design features, 370; installation, 372; controls, 374;
blades, 374; operation, 375; maintenance and lubrica-
tion, 380
11 The Jig Saw 381

Design features, 381; 382; controls, 382;
installation,
blades, 384; operation, 386; lubrication and mainte-
nance, 389
12 The Drill Press 390

Design features, 390; installation, 392; operation, 398;
drilling practice in wood, 402; miscellaneous operations,
405
13 Jointers and Shapers 408
Design features, 408; 408; installation and con-
jointers,
trol, 409; operating the jointer, 411; shapers, assembly
and installation, 415; operating the spindle shaper, 419;
lubrication, 426; sharpening shaper cutters, 426
14 Sanders 427
Design features, 427; operation, 429; maintenance, 430
16
15 and Care
Selection of Painting Tools
and Equipment 432
Choosing the right brush for the job, 433; care of
brushes, 438; other tools, 441; spray guns and compres-
sors, 443
Paints, Painting, and

Finishing Procedures 451
Effect of wood properties, 451; natural finishes for exte-
rior wood, 452; paints for exterior wood, 457; interior
painting, 461; painting plywood, 469; painting contrac-
tors, 470; finishes for interior woodwork, 471; finishes
for floors, 475; moisture excluding effectiveness of coat-
ings, 478
17 Woodworking Repairs 479

Repairing floors, 479; covering floors and other surfaces
with linoleum, 486; stair and door repairs, 492; fitting
and hanging doors, 498; installation of door locks, 501;
window adjustments and repairs, 505
18 Interior Woodworking Projects 512

Planning the workshop, 512; constructing a workbench
and tool rack, 513; book and magazine table, 516; tele-
phone bench, 517; built-in magazine and book rack,
519; room divider with storage space, 520; record player
and radio cabinet, 523; hi-fidelity and TV room divider,
525; photography equipment and projector cabinet,
530; built-in bar cabinet, 533; dark-room cabinet, 537;
mixing center cabinet, 539; sliding spice rack, 541; sink
cabinet, 543; fruit-vegetable storage, 544
19 Exterior Woodworking Projects . 546
Construction of window, door, and porch screens, 546;
constructing and fitting storm sashes, 549; garden
fences, gates, trellises, and pergolas, 549; garden furni-
ture, 558; children’s outdoor gymnasium, 564; tool shed
and lath house, 565
20 Construction of Stairs 569

Types of stairways, 570; ratio of riser to tread, 570; stair
widths and handrails, 574; framing for stairs, 575; stair-
way details, 577; attic folding stairs, 581; exterior stairs,
581
21 Floor Framing 582

Design, 582; nailing practices, 583; posts and girders,
583; girder-joist installation, 587; wood sill constmction,
590; floor joists, 592; bridging, 595; subfloor, 595; floor
framing at wall projections, 598
22 Basement Rooms 600

Floors, 600; walls, 602; ceilings, 604
23 Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish 606

Types of finishes, 606; lath and plaster, 607; dry wall
finish, 612
24 Exterior Wood Coverings 622

Wood siding, 622; horizontal sidings, 623; sidings for
horizontal or vertical applications, 625; siding with sheet
materials, 627; wood shingles and shakes, 628; other ex-
terior finish, 629; installation of siding, 629; installation
of wood shingles and shakes, 640
25 Floor Coverings 643

Flooring materials, 643; wood-strip flooring, 644; wood ^
and particle board tile flooring, 652; base for resilient
floors, 652; carpeting, 653
26 Frames, Trim,
Interior Doors,
Cabinets, and Other Millwork 658
Decorative treatment, 656; trim parts for doors and
frames, 657; installation of door hardware, 662; wood
trim installation, 665; base and ceiling moldings, 667;
cabinets and other millwork, 669
27 Exterior Frames, Windows, and Doors . . 675

Types of windows, 675; double-hung windows, 676;
casement windows, 678; stationary windows, 680; awn-
ing windows, 681; horizontal sliding window units, 682;
exterior doors and frames, 682; types of exterior doors,
684
28 Thermal Insulation, Vapor Barriers,

and Sound Insulation 686
Classes of insulating materials, 686; flexible insulating
material, 687; loose fill insulation, 688; reflective insula-
tion,689; rigid insulation, 689; miscellaneous insulation,
690; where to insulate, 691; how to install insulation,
693; precautions in insulating, 696; vapor barriers, 697;
how sound travels, 700; wall construction, 701; floor-
ceiling construction, 703; sound absorption, 706
29 Porches and Garages 707

Porches, 707; garages, 711
30 Roof Coverings 717

Materials, 717; wood shingles,
719; asphalt shingles,
721; built-up roofs, 724; other roof coverings, 724; fin-
ish at the ridge and hip, 727
31 Ventilation 728
Area of ventilators, 729; gable roofs, 731; hip roofs, 731;
flat roofs, 733; types and location of outlet ventilators,
733; types and location of inlet ventilators, 736; crawl-

space ventilation and soil cover, 736
INDEX 741
ilUr- loheitni
'
V .-'BrfUO.feijw
»
• * 4f» Usl Jr* _
. ')
. .'
t'4'< ‘
V . -* >* /^.Xa
',-" .
kif> V !
rlidw ‘
. At*? .:.V 1^
t t
^ •
‘j
c«
• ^ J . » t-
rm V tit.
;-.V' j .
.
: ?r1V . .:
* f/X î
;.1' • s.^. ifftitt
.* i.'^r .'^*1».'
.•Tr .1\ ;
. < >". k* •>*-
t A>/mW
' a _
'
ik
S*
• , r' ^ ':
'
-4 ' it 5'*i**^
i-rjir-'
I'f.i;. r,,X-: :.i\ Vt' T J. 5SS«r:
--.*i '
jjiugji t*t ’AfOiJ ; '•;:-fj'< -jil <r..
-•ny-' l .1^; '\iil>MMO> .-'.fl^Wl fcw’ 'v^l-

- ’• -•
•
'‘yyi ...uifciiiifc *
Ac
1X ^ ;., 'J .f Wow <n « -.i'.'oo<f ’iS
r ^'îv t *• t"
» .. V
-»
T(
fij ,p'tKit(/r-:> I'.niin '

K’” •) >< ;*
• '
ItifK “'T -'»i
••' *'
....
(
^ "*•
V .. . .
J. •
i tr' * ,•,
',
.i.-
'
-
,
% % ; !<«*'•»« f'gi-^StnsV li
*<< !*
T •
: .
’’
t* fife .
.
,f
i,- . i-a J ^f
Jxti V io '
nig
r K!j f -'t;; -A»»
'^^
* -
.Ao» rir, V. jf ,.
-y*-- V.
'.;J*’%|J''‘’»
.‘V - 3l' -.• <
• *'
’:x^^ .,
xaosB
tJi. .
%
v.'«
CHAPTER 1
Wood and Wood Products

•
Aljout 25 billion board feet of wood products are used each

year by the construction industry in the United States. Much
of this is used for homes and farm buildings. In addition, more
than 6 billion board feet of lumber are used annually to main-
tain, repair, and remodel structures.
Today it is more important than ever most ap-
to select the
propriate wood product for each use in residential and farm
construction. Wood products are now being made in more forms
and from a greater variety of species than ever before. What
was most suitable for a particular use a few years ago may not
be so today.
The wood-based panel products (wood, particle board, hard-
board, and structural insulating board) industry produces an-
other 28 billion square feet of material in various thicknesses.
Most of this material is used in remodeling or in new construc-
tion.
This chapter presents in brief the essential requirements for the
usual wood-frame building purposes and shows how various
woods and wood-based products meet these specific requirements.
It also emphasizes some basic principles (often overlooked) that
should be followed in good construction. (See Chap. 3, Working
with Wood.)
While lumber is widely used in frame construction, sheet ma-
terials are also important. Wood-based panel materials are now
broadly of three types: plywood, building fiberboard, and par-
ticle board.
Plywood is a glued panel made up of layers of veneer (thin
1
2 WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS
sheets of wood) with the grain of adjacent layers at right angles
to each other. The kind of glue used determines whether it is
interior or exterior type. Plywoods are classified by kinds and

by qualities of faces (Fig. 1). Those with hardwood faces are
usually classed as decorative, and those with softwood faces, as
construction. Exceptions for softwood plywood include, jor ex-
ample, face veneers of knotty pine or clear, cabinet grades, which
are decorative. Plywood is graded on both front and back faces,
in that sequence. {For example, A-C, B-B, C-D.) (See Chap. 3,
section on Plywood.)
Building fiberboards are produced with fibers interfelted so
the board has some natural bonding. Additives improve the bond
and impart strength. Boards of this type are generally classified
by density into structural insulating boards (with a density of
between 10 and about 31 pounds per cubic foot), medium hard-
boards (with a density of between about 31 and 50 pounds per
cubic foot), and high-density or regular hardboard (with a den-
sity of over 50 pounds per cubic foot).
Particle boards are produced by gluing small particles of wood
together into a panel. Hotsetting resins produce the bond neces-
sary to give the panels form, stiffness, and strength. They are
generally classified as low-density when the board has a density
of less than 37 pounds per cubic foot, medium-density when the
density is between 37 and 50 pounds per cubic foot, and high-den-
sity when the board weighs more than 50 pounds per cubic foot.
CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS FOR PRINCIPAL HOME USES

To lumber and other wood-based material wisely, one
select
must first single out the key requirements of the job. Then it is
relatively easy to check the properties (distinguishing charac-
teristics, qualities, or marks common to a species or group, usu-
ally classified as physical, mechanical, or chemical properties)
of the different woods which ones meet these requirements.
to see
A builder or a property owner may believe that he needs a
strong wood for the siding of his house or barn when he really
requires a wood that takes paint well, is resistant to weathering,
and develops little or no warping. Or he may think he needs a
TYPES OF PLYWOOD AND CROSSBANDED CONSTRUCTION 3
/}
B
FACES^ CORE^
' 1
777777777777 PJS’Z^TTTTTTtttttttt^
EROSSBANDS
c
G
E Fig. 1.
Types of plywood and crossbanded construction: A, 3-ply (all

veneer); B, 3-ply (lumber core); C, 5-ply (all veneer); B, 5-ply
(lumber core) B, 7-ply (all veneer) F, 5-ply bent work (ail veneer)
; ;
G, 5-ply, spirally wrapped (all veneer); //, section of hollow-core door.

wood with high bending strength for the joists of his house,
whereas adequate stiffness is more important. Other considera-
tions include the moisture content of the wood, its ability to re-
sist distortion (warping), and its shrinkage characteristics.
In buying sheathing material, one should consider not only
the original cost but also the cost of application. Such factors
as relative nailholding qualities, insulation values, and the pos-
sible elimination of corner bracing should also be considered. It
is not necessary to purchase only the best quality lumber or
wood-based products. Lower and cheaper grades serve satisfac-
torily for many uses.
The number of uses and the service requirements of wood vary
so greatly that it is practically impossible to classify woods
precisely according to their suitability for different uses solely
on factual data. Such data, however, can be supplemented by
the mature judgment of technical workers who have been im-
partially studying and testing the various woods for years and
have observed the performance of many woods under widely
varying conditions. The opinion of such workers has been in-
cluded, therefore, in classifying common United States wood
species for })rinci})al home and farm uses.
Wood species are divided into two classes: hardwoods, which
have broad leaves, and softwoods or conifers, which have scale-
like leaves or needles. The terms hardwood and softwood do
not denote hardness or softness of the wood. In fact, some hard-
woods like cottonwood and aspen are less dense (or hard) than
some softwoods like southern pine and Douglas fir.
The native species listed here are in general use and are classed
conservatively for each specific purpose. Occasionally a species
may be underrated for a particular use, or its range of suitability
may be underestimated. But, from the general public’s stand-
point, the ratings are on the side of safety.
The following classification is simple and applies to average,
wood serves in a particular use.
typical conditions under which
No attempt has been made to draw fine distinctions between
woods. Neither is it to be implied that all species of woods in
the same class are equally suitable.
Grades vary considerably by species. Therefore, a sequence of
first-, second-, third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade material is given
SUITABILITY OF WOODS 5
for specific uses. In general, the first grade is for a high or special
use, the second, for better than average use; the third,
for average;
and fourth and fifth, for more economical, but still acceptable,
construction. {See Chap. 3, section on Lumber Grades.)
SUITABILITY OF WOODS AND WOOD-BASED PRODUCTS

FOR VARIOUS HOUSE USES
Foundations — Silis and Beams
Usual requirements; High stiffness and strength when used as
a beam, good decay resistance, good resistance to withdrawal
and
lateral movement of nails. Good strength in compression per-
pendicular to grain (sills). Most woods are satisfactory as sills
where dry conditions prevail, but predominantly wet condi-
for
tions, preservative-treated wood should be used.
{See Chap. 21,
section on Wood Sill Construction.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: White
oak. (Fine for sills and beams in crawl spaces. Heartwood has
high decay resistance, but wood that is all heartwood usually
costs more.) Douglas fir, western larch, southern yellow pine,
and rock elm. High in strength and nail-holding qualities. (Sills
and beams in basement or dry areas. Under moist conditions
they require preservative treatment.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree: Cedar
and redwood. (Sills only, as these species do not have the high
bending strength desirable for beams. Heartwood has high decay
resistance.) Poplar, eastern and west coast hemlock, and red
oak. (These woods require good preservative treatment if ex-
posed to moist conditions or long periods of high humidity.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a fair degree: Ash,
beech, birch, soft elm, maple, and sycamore. (Good as beams
and fair as sills,
but they require good preservative treatment if
exposed to moist conditions.) Northern white pine (eastern) and
Idaho white pine (western), ponderosa pine, sugar pine, spruce,
and white fir. (Satisfactory for but they require good
sills,
{)reservative treatment if exposed to moist conditions or high

humidity.)
tirades used: Softwood sills that might be used in houses with
crawl spaces are generally of second- or third-grade softwood
dimension material. For less exacting standards, but nonethe-
less satisfactory for secondary buildings, fourth-grade material
may be used. If lumber is not treated, all heartwood pieces
should be selected for sills near ground level and in moist areas
where condensed moisture may be absorbed by sills. Hardwood
sills are usually first-grade dimension in the best construction
and second-grade in ordinary construction.
Foundations — Plates and Sleepers

Usual requirements: Good natural decay resistance (or treated
with preservative) under moist conditions, good nail-holding qual-
itiesand medium density. (Used as plates on concrete slab walls
where top of wall is near finish grade, as sleepers on concrete
slabs for fastening of finish flooring, and similar uses.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: White
oak. (Heartwood has high decay resistance, but it costs more.)
Woods combining usual requirements to a good degree: Red-
wood, Douglas fir, western larch, southern yellow pine, rock
elm, and other medium-density species for normal conditions.
Fig. 2. Foundations of temporary or portable buildings.

FRAMING—JOISTS, RAFTERS, AND HEADERS 7
Pressure-treated southern yellow pine, red oak, hemlock, and

Douglas fir for damp conditions.
Woods combining usual requirements to a fair degree: North-
ern and Idaho white pine, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, spruce,
white fir, ash, beech, birch, maple, and sycamore for normal
conditions.
Grades used: Third-grade dimension lumber of most softwood
species under normal conditions.
Framing: — Joists, Rafters, and Headers

Usual requirements: High good bending strength, good
stiffness,
nail-holding qualities, and freedom from pronounced warp.
For
this use dryness and size are more important
factors than in-
herent properties of the different woods. Allowable spans
vary
by species.
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: Doug-
las fir, western larch, and southern yellow pine. (They are ex-
Fig. 3. Siding joints and downspout.

tensively used.) Ash, beech, birch, maple, and oak. (Seldom
used since they are more difficult to obtain in straight pieces
and harder to nail and saw than the preceding group.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree: East-
ern and west coast hemlock, eastern and Sitka spruce, lodgepole
pine, and white fir. Northern and Idaho white pine, ponderosa
pine, sugar pine, and redwood. (Seldom used because of adapta-
bility to more exacting uses such as millwork, siding, and finish.
Lower strength may be compensated for by using larger joists
and rafters.) Poplar. (Seldom used.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a fair degree: Elm,
gum, sycamore, magnolia, and tupelo. (Seldom used.)
Grades used: Second-grade dimension of most softwood spe-
cies is used in first-class construction. Third-grade is used in a
large percentage of lower-cost dwellings. The fourth grade is
satisfactory for small buildings but contains more crooked pieces
than higher grades. Lumber used in trusses is often first grade
and second grade, depending on the type of truss, span, species,
and the type of member. (See Chap. 21, sections on Floor
Joists.)
Framing — Studs and Plates
Usual requirements: Moderate stiffness and nail-holding qual-

ities, freedom from pronounced warp, and moderately easy work-
ability (easy to saw and nail).

las fir, western larch, and southern yellow pine. (Extensively
used.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree: East-
ern and west coast hemlock, spruce, white fir, balsam fir, lodge-
pole pine, and aspen. Northern and Idaho white pine, ponderosa
pine, sugar pine, and redwood. (Seldom used because of adapt-
ability to more exacting uses as finish.)
Woods combining usual requirements to a fair degree: Elm,
gum, sycamore, and tupelo. (Seldom used.)
Grades used: Because high bending strength is of secondary
importance for studs and ])lates, grades lower than those com-
monly used for joists and rafters are satisfactory. Third-grade
softwood dimension lumber is satisfactory for most dwellings
SUBFLOORS 9
built to good construction standards. Hardwoods in first- and

second-grade dimension are used in all types of construction.
Svibfloors
Usual requirements
Lumber. Requirements are not exacting, but moderate stiff-
ness, medium shrinkage and warp, and ease of working are de-
sired.
Plywood. Moderate stiffness when finish is strip flooring; high

stiffness for wood block or resilient finish flooring. Good nail-
holding qualities.
Softwood plywoods for use as subfloors with or without under-
layment are classified by density, hence stiffness and strength,
into groups. For each grouping a limit for span and loading is
established. This is shown on each piece of plywood by a num-
ber such as 32/16. The first number indicates maximum span
when used as roof sheathing, and the second number indicates
maximum span when used as subfloor. The 16 here indicates
that the maximum span for living area space is framing 16" on
centers.
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree:
Lumber. Douglas fir, western larch, and southern yellow pine.
(Commonly used.) Ash and oak. (Seldom used because of
adaptability to more exacting uses.)
Plywood. Group 1 and 2 softwoods: Douglas fir, southern
yellow and western larch.
i)ine,
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree:

Lumber. Hemlock, ponderosa pine, spruce, lodgepole pine,
aspen, balsam fir, and white fir. (Commonly used.) Northern
and Idaho white pine, sugar pine, and poplar. (Seldom used be-
cause of adaptability to more exacting uses.) Beech, birch, elm,
hackberry, maple, oak, and tupelo. (Not used extensively, harder
to work. Maple, elm, and oak often available locally.)
Plywood. Group 3 and 4 softwoods: Cedar, redwood, Sitka and
Englemann spruce, west coast hemlock, noble fir, and white fir.
Grades and types used (minimum recommended) :
Lumber. Third-grade softwood boards are used extensively

in better quality houses. In lower-cost houses, both third and
fourth grades are used. The fourth grade is serviceable and does
not entail much waste, but it is not as tight as the higher grades.
When hardwoods are used, second-grade boards are commonly
used in more expensive houses and third grade in lower-cost
houses.
Plywood. Standard interior grade (C-D) plywood under ordi-
nary conditions. In baths, kitchens, or when exposed to weather,
use standard grade with exterior glue. (See Chap. 21, section on
Subfloor.)
Wall Sheathing
Usual requirements:
Lumber. Easy working, easy nailing, and moderate shrinkage.
Plywood. Good nail-holding qualities, workability, and resist-
ance to racking.
Structural insulating board and hardboard. Good resistance to
water, to nailhead pull-through, and to racking if properly at-
tached.
Materials combining usual requirements in a high degree:
Lumber. Cedar, hemlock, northern and Idaho white pine, pon-
derosa pine, sugar pine, redwood, aspen, spruce, balsam and
white fir, basswood, lodgepole pine, and poplar. (Good racking
resistance when applied at 45° but not adequate when applied
horizontally without bracing.)
Plywood. Douglas fir, southern pine, and western larch.
Structural insulating board and hardboards. When applied
vertically in 4' by 8' or longer sheets with perimeter nailing.
Materials combining usual requirements in a good degree:
Lumber. Douglas fir, western larch, and southern yellow pine.
(Not as workable as previous lumber group.)
Plywood. Cedar, redwood, Sitka and Englemann spruce, west
coast hemlock, noble fir, and white fir.
Structural insulating board. Regular density structural insu-
lating board (about 18 pounds per cubic foot in density) is fur-
nished in 2' or 4' widths and, when applied with long edges
horizontal, do not provide necessary resistance to racking forces
of wind or earthquake. Other bracing must then be provided.
The more prevalent way to install insulating board sheathing
WALL SHEATHING 11
is widths with long edges vertical. With proper fastening

in 4'
around the perimeter and along interior framing, adequate re-
sistance to racking is provided. Manufacturers’ recommenda-
tions should be followed for fastening.
Hardboards. Hardboards are not generally used as wall
sheathing but may be used as combined siding sheathing.
Lumber. Most woods are satisfactory for sheathing, though
some woods are less time consuming to work than others. The
third grade of Common
softwood boards makes a serviceable
sheathing when covered with a good building paper. First and
second grades provide a tighter coverage but still require cover-
age with building paper. Fourth and fifth grades may be used
as sheathing in lower-cost houses, but they are not generally
available. Both entail some hardwood
loss in cutting. When a
is used for sheathing, second-grade boards are adaptable to more
expensive houses and third-grade to lower-cost houses.

Plywood. Most species of plywood can be used with satisfac-
tory results. For exterior finish such as shingles or shakes, thick-
ness of softer plywoods should be increased to obtain greater nail
penetration. Use standard interior (C-D) under ordinary condi-
tions; or, use standard interior with exterior glue if house is in
an unusually damp location.
Structural insulating board. Structural insulating board is
furnished in three grades: regular density, intermediate density,

and nail base. Regular density manufactured in both the
is I/
2
''
and thicknesses; the other two grades are only made

thick.
Intermediate density sheathing is somewhat more dense, hence
stronger and stiffer, than regular density. Furnished only in 4'
by 9' sizes. When properly applied with long edges vertical, it
racking requirements while the V2 thick regular density

satisfies ''
board usually does not. Nail base sheathing is more dense than
intermediate density and in addition to providing racking resist-
ance has sufficient nail-holding strength to hold some kinds of
siding on the wall when special nails are used. Insulating board
sheathing must be attached to framing with large-headed (roof-
ing) nails or special staples. These fasteners should have a cor-
rosion-resistant coating.
Roof Sheathing
Usual requirements:
Lumber. Moderate stiffness, good nail holding, little tendency
to warp, and ease of working.
Plywood. Adequate stiffness for span and roof loading.
Sheathing-grade plywoods are classified into groups by density,
therefore strength and stiffness.
Each grouping sets the distance
between supports for proper application and performance. Each
sheet is marked with a number such as 32/16.
Lumber. Douglas western larch, and southern yellow pine.
fir,
(Commonly used.) Ash, beech, birch, elm, hackberry, maple,

oak, and tupelo. (Not extensively used; harder to work.)
Plywood. Group 1 and 2 softwoods: Douglas fir, southern
yellow pine, and western larch.
Lumber. Hemlock, ponderosa pine, spruce, lodgepole pine,
aspen, and white and balsam fir. (Commonly used.) Northern
and Idaho white pine, sugar pine, redwood, and poplar. (Seldom
used because of adaptability to more exacting uses.)
Plywood. Group 3 and 4 softwoods: Cedar, redwood, Sitka
and Englemann spruce, west coast hemlock, noble fir, and white
fir.
Grades and types used:

Lumber. Third-grade Common softwood boards are used ex-
tensively in better-quality houses. In lower-cost houses, both
third and fourth grades are used. Fourth-grade is serviceable
but not as tight as third-grade. When hardwoods are used, sec-
ond-grade boards can be used in high-quality houses and third-
grade in low-cost houses.
Plywood. Use standard interior grade (C-D) under ordinary
conditions. For unusually damp conditions use standard interior
grade with exterior glue.
Piank Roof Decking
Usual requirements: Moderate stiffness and strength, moderate

stabilit}^ and moderate insulating value. (For short to moderate
spans of 2' to approximately 16' in length, flat and low pitch
roofs.)
SHINGLES AND SHAKES 13
Materials combining usual requirements in a high degree:

Solid or laminated wood decking (edge matched) of southern
yellow pine, Douglas nr, or other softwood (!%" to 3%" thick).
Materials combining usual requirements in a good degree:
Structural insulating roof deck.
Wood decking. With solid wood for high-quality houses, first
grade; slightly lower class, second grade; standard use (houses
and garages) ,
third grade. With laminated wood for high-qual-
grade (select or decorative one face) lower-cost
ity houses, first ;
houses and other buildings, second grade (service type).

Structural insulating roof deck. Specially fabricated products.
Types vary by (a) thicknesses (!%"? 2", and 3" depending on
span and insulation requirements), (b) surface treatment, and
(c) vapor barrier needs.
Shingles and Shakes
Usual requirements: High decay resistance, little tendency to

curl or check, and freedom from splitting in nailing. (Roof and
sidewalls.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: Cedar,
cypress, and redwood. (Principal shingle woods; heartwood only,
edge grain.)
Woods combining usual requirements to a good degree: North-
ern and Idaho white ponderosa pine, and sugar pine.
pine,
(Handmade shingles or shakes from locally grown timber; for
best utility require good preservative treatment.) White oak.
(Handmade shingles or shakes from locally grown timber. They
require care in nailing.)
Grades used:
Roofs. In western red cedar, cypress, and redwood, first-grade
shingles (all-heart, edge-grained clear stock) should be used for
the longest life and greatest ultimate economy. Other all-heart
but not edge-grained grades, such as second grade in redwood,
western red cedar, and cypress, are frequently used to reduce
initial costand for low-cost houses and secondary buildings.
(See Chaps. 24 and 30, sections on Wood Shingles and Shakes.)
Sideivalls. Same species as used for roofs. For best construc-
tion on single-course sidewalls use first grade (all-heart, edge-
grained clear). For double-course sidewalls use third grade for
undercourse and first grade for outer course for best construc-
tion. Use second-grade outer course to reduce costs.
Exterior Trim
Usual requirements: Medium decay resistance, good painting

and weathering characteristics, easy working qualities, and max-
imum freedom from warp.
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: Cedar,
cypress, and redwood. (Heartwood has natural decay resistance,
edge grain preferable for best paint-holding qualities. Most
adaptable to natural finishes and stains.) Northern and Idaho
white pine, ponderosa pine, and sugar pine. (Adaptable to or-
dinary trim.)
Woods combining usual requirements in good degree: West
coast hemlock, ponderosa pine, spruce, poplar, Douglas fir, west-
ern larch, and southern yellow pine. (Edge-grained boards and
special priming treatment advisable to improve paint-holding
qualities.)
Grades used: First grades (A, B, or B and Better Finish) are
used in the best construction. Second grades (C and D Finish)
are used in more economical construction and first- or second-
grade Common boards where appearance is not important. Clear
finger joint boards are often used when trim is to be painted.
Frames and Sash

Usual requirements: Good to high decay resistance, good paint
holding, moderate shrinkage, freedom from warping, good nail
holding, and ease of working.
Cypress, cedar, and redwood. Northern and Idaho white pine,
ponderosa pine, and sugar pine. (Principal woods used for sash
and window and outside doorframes. Usual preservative treat-
ment consists of a three-minute dip in water-repellent preserva-
tive.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree: Doug-

las fir, western larch, and southern yellow pine. (Require dip
treatment.) White oak. (Harder to work and higher shrinkage
than softwoods. Usually used for outside doorsills and thres-
SIDING 15
holds.) (See Chap. 27, Exterior Frames, Windows, and Doors.)

Grades used: Grades of lumber for sash and frames are shop
grades and are of primary interest to manufacturers rather than
users. The majority of door and window frames and sash are
treated with water-repellent preservative at time of manufacture.
Decay-resistant species should be considered for basement
frames and sash where resistance to moisture and decay is more
important. Under severe moisture conditions, pressure-treated
material is desirable.
Siding
I sual requirements: Good painting characteristics, medium

decay resistance, easy working qualities, and freedom from warp.
(For lap siding, drop siding, matched A^rtical boards, verti-
cal boards and battens, and others, see Chap.
24, sections on
Sidings.)
Lumber siding. Woods combining usual
requirements in a
high degree: Western red cedar, cypress, and redwood. (Exten-
sively used. Heartwood preferable; edge-grained siding has best
Fig. 4. Frames.
J6 fFOOD AND JVOOD PRODUCTS
paint-holding qualities. Most adaptable of species to natural

finishesand stains.)
Northern and Idaho white pine, sugar pine, and white cedar.
(Heartwood has medium decay resistance.) West coast hem-
lock, ponderosa pine, spruce, and poplar. (Edge grain for best
paint retention in such species as hemlock.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a fair degree: Doug-
las fir, western larch, and southern yellow pine. (Edge grain
only.)
Grades used: Redwood and cypress first siding grades (Clear
Heart) and western red cedar in a first-grade (Clear) for best
quality construction. In other softwoods the first grade (B and
Better) siding is used in best-quality houses. Siding in more eco-
nomical types of construction is usually of second grade (C or
D), but third grade (No. 1 and No. 2) is available in a number
of species. Rough-sawn siding patterns in the lower grades are
suitable for stain finishes.
Other siding matenals. plywood or lumber
Paper-overlaid
(resin impregnated in the paper overlay) in sheet form or in
manufactured forms for board and batten effect, and in patterns
for horizontal siding. Rough-textured plywoods in various pat-
terns and exterior grades are suitable for stain finishes.
Medium hardboard in densities of 32 to 50 pounds per cubic
foot. In sheet form or in manufactured widths for horizontal
siding. May be plastic-coated or factory-primed ready for fin-
ish paint coats.
High-density or regular hardboards in densities of 50 to 70
pounds per cubic foot. In panel form only. Four by 8 foot or
longer applied with long edges vertical. Such hardboards are
not usually recommended for use as lapped (clapboard) siding.
Combined sheathing siding. Wood-base panel products can
provide both the function of sheathing and siding when applied
in large sheets to provide racking resistance and reduction of air
infiltration. Special plywoods like rough-sawn western red cedar
and “Texture 111” with exterior gluelines are manufactured for
this use.
Medium-density hardboards and to a limited extent high-den-
sity hardboards are also manufactured for this use. They may
DECKING AND OUTDOOR STEPPING 17
have a plain or embossed surface. Plywood and
hardboard may
be grooved to create reversed board and batten
effects or may
have a plain surface and be applied with battens
to create the
board and batten effect.
Plywood is usually stained. Hardboard may be painted or
stained.
Deckings and Outdoor Steppings
I sual requirements:
High decay resistance, nonsplintering,
good stiffness, strength, wear resistance, and freedom
from warp-
ing. (If painted, should have good paint
retention.)
Woods combining
usual requirements in a high degree: White
oak. (Edge grain.) Locust and walnut.
(Usually unavailable
except when cut from locally grown timber.)
las fir, western larch, redwmod, cedar, and southern yellow
pine.
(Edge gram only, heartwood preferred.) For
moderate life,
Douglas fir and southern yellow pine require preservative
treat-
ment. woods not as wear resistant.)
(Softer
Glades used: Second (C Finish) or a higher
grade in soft-
woods and first and second Finish grades in
hardwoods are used
in high-quality construction. In lower-cost
construction, first-
grade Dimension in hardwoods and as low as second-grade Di-
ROOFINC FELT
WOOD SH INGLE
STARTING COURSE
WITH GOOD
PROJECTION
TER CARRIES WATER

TO DOWNSPOUT
GOOD CORNICE PROJECTION
PROTECTS SIDING
SHEATHING PAPER
REDUCES FT VENTILATION
AIR infiltration
Fig. 5. Cornice and gutter details.

mension in softwoods are and second grades
used. First in
softwoods are serviceable but wear unevenly around knots.
Interior Trim with Natural Finish

Usual requirements: Hardness, freedom from warp, pleasing
texture and grain.
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: Oak,
birch, maple, cherry, beech, sycamore, and walnut. Cypress
(pecky) and maple (curly or bird’s eye).
Knotty surface. Cedar, ponderosa pine, spruce, sugar pine,
gum, and lodgepole pine.
las fir, west coast hemlock, western larch, southern yellow pine,
redwood, aspen, and magnolia. (With conventional architectural
treatment.)
Grades used: High-class hardwood interior trim is usually
first-grade Finish (A grade). The softwood Finish Grade A or
B and Better is commonly used in high-quality construction. In
the more economical types of construction, C grade is service-
able. D grade requires special selection or some cutting to ob-
tain clear material. Special grades of knotty pine, pecky cypress,
and others are available to meet special architectural require-
ments in some types of high-quality construction.
{See Chap. 21, Interior Doors, Frames, Trim, Cabinets, and
Other Millwork.)
Interior Trim with Paint Finish

Usual requirements: Fine and uniform texture, moderate hard-
ness, absence of knots and discoloring pitch, good paint holding,
and freedom from warp and shrinkage.
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: North-
ern and Idaho white pine, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and poplar.
(Where likelihood of marring is negligible.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree: Hem-
lock, redwood, spruce, white fir, magnolia, basswood, beech, gum,
maple, and tupelo.
Douglas fir, western larch, and southern yellow pine. (Edge
grain most satisfactory.)
Grades used: C Finish is the lowest softwood grade commonly
UNDERLAYMENT FOR FINISH FLOORS ic
used for high-quality paint and enamel finish.

Finish canD
be used but requires some selection or cutting.
First-grade Com-
mon used for ordinary or rough paint finishes. In more
is
eco-
nomical homes second-grade Common may be used for
ordinary
or rough-paint finishes. Smooth-paint finishes
are difficult to
obtain and maintain over knots in first-, second-, and third-grade
Common softwoods.
First-grade Finish in the hardwoods is used for
exacting re-
quirements of high-quality paint and enamel finish in
more ex-
pensive homes. The second-grade Finish in
hardwoods is also
used but requires some selection or cutting.
Second-grade boards
in hardwoods may be used for interior
trim in the low-cost home,
but for interior trim that is to be painted,
softwoods are gen-
erally used.
(See Chap. 16, Paints, Painting, and Finishing Procedures.)
Underlay menl for Finish Floors

Ordinarily all finish flooring
except standard strip flooring and
V2 or wood-block floor are laid with an underlayment be-
tween the subfloor and the finish flooring. This is
especially
necessary for resilient floor surfacing (rubber, vinyl,
vinyl as-
bestos, or asphalt in tile or sheet form) because
of its thinness,
flexibility, and tendency to show through the pattern of the sur-
face beneath (See Chap. 21, section on Subfloor.)
it.
Floor underlayment serves the following functions:
1. Provides uniform support for finish flooring.

2. Bridges small irregularities in the subsurface.
3. Because joints in floor underlayment do not coincide with
those in subfloor, there is less chance for working of joints
to loosen or break finish flooring.
4. Provides a smooth, uncontaminated surface for gluing
to
the base those kinds of finish flooring requiring
it.
5. Permits vertical adjustment in floor levels so all rooms
are
at the same elevation even when different
floorings are used.
The subfloor usually serves as the working platform.
Dur-
ing the period between initial laying of
and instal-
subfloor
lation of finish flooring the surface
may be roughened from
wetting, dented from impacts, or contaminated
with plaster,
dirt, grease, and paint; in fact anything that is tracked or
brought into the house.
Some use of combined subfloor underlayment is developing,

particularly in factory-built or tract-built housing where sub-
floors are given special protection during construction or where
pad and carpet are installed.
Floor underlayments are plywood, hardboard, or particle
board.
Plywood underlayment. Plywood underlayment is a special
grade produced for this purpose from Group 1 woods (for inden-
It is produced in 72 ", %", and

^
tation resistance).
thicknesses, and the face ply is C plugged grade (no voids)
with a special C or better veneer underlying the face ply to
prevent penetration from such concentrated loads as high heels.
Particle board underlay 7nent. Produced in the same thick-
nesses as plywood, particle board underlajunent is often pre-
ferred because its uniform surface and somewhat higher density
make it more resistant to indentation than plywood when thin
resilient flooring is applied over it. Because it tends to change
more in length and width with changes in moisture content than
plywood, manufacturers’ directions for installation and specifi-
cations for adhesives should be followed for good performance.
Hardboard underlayment. Produced in 4' squares, 0.220"
thick and planed to uniform thickness, hardboard underlayment
should be installed to manufacturers’ specifications for proper
performance. It is mainly used on remodeling or in new con-
struction where minimum thickness buildup is desired.
Flooiiiig: — Strip and Wood Block
Usual requirements: High resistance to wear, attractive figure

or color, minimum warp and shrinkage. (Material should be
used at a moisture content near the level it will average in
service.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: Maple,
red and Avhite oak, beech, and (Most commonly used
birch.
hardwoods.) White asli and walnut. (Not commonly used.)
Hickory and pecan. (Not commonly available.) Harder to work
and nail. More suitable to woodblock flooring.)
FLOORING—STRIP AND WOOD BLOCK 21
Cheriy, gum, and sycamore (edge grain). (Not
commonly avail-
able. Highly decoiative and suitable
where wear is not severe.)
Cyjiress, Douglas fir, west coast hemlock, western larch, and
southern yellow pine (edge grain). (More suitable in low-cost
houses in bedrooms where traffic is light.)
Grades used: In beech, birch, and maple flooring the grade of
Firsts ordinarily used for better-quality homes, and
is
Seconds
and sometimes Thirds in economy houses. In oak,
the grade of
Clear (either flat grain or edge grain) used
is in better con-
stiuction, and Selects and sometimes No. 1 Common are
used
in lower-cost work or where small
tight knots i)rovide the de-
sired effect. Other hardwoods are ordinarily
used in the same
grades as oak.
When softwood fiooring is used (without covering) in better-
(piality homes. Grade A or B and
Better edge grain is used.
Grade D or C (edge grain) is used in low-cost homes.
The tliiee general types of material used for finish floors
are
wood-stri}), wood-block, and resilient flooring such as rubber,
vinyl, asphalt tile, or linoleum.
Strip floonng. Strip flooring is usually
laid over boards nomi-
nally 1" thick because the boards must
be thick enough to hold
the nail. (See Chap. 2.5, section on
WTod-Strip Flooring.) For
best results, the boards for subfloors are
laid diagonally and in
nominal widths no greater than 6" or 8". Plywood %" %"
or
thick is also satisfactory. One-half-inch
pl 3^wood is satisfactory
for subfloor when strij) flooring is
nailed to floor joists.
Wood-block flooring. Because wood-block flooring recpiires
an
even and uniform base for best results, plywood
subfloor is fre-
qucmtly used. (See Chap. 2.5, section on Wood-Block
Flooring.)
A or thickness should be used if block flooring is in-
stalled by Laminated block flooring i/?" thick or less
nailing.
may be used over a 1/4-' or plywood or particde board under-
lay nient that has b(;en naih'd to a woofl
subfloor.
Resilient fiooring. Because resilient floors
are usually quite
thin and are installed with adhesives,
it is necessary to
provide
a smooth base. (See Chap. 25, section on Base for Resilient
Floors.) 1 1}wood, jiaiticle board, or
hardboard (all of a special
underlayment grade) are most frequently used
over various
types of subfloors.Underlayment screws are commonly used to
fasten the underlayment and minimize popups that can occur
with other fastenings.
Miscellaneous Millwork
Interior millwork usually varies a great deal between houses,

both in the type and amount used. Uses in the average home
include doors, cabinet doors, shelving, and stairways. Other
homes may add the use of such millwork items as fireplace
mantels, wall paneling, ceiling beams, china closets, bookcases,
and wardrobes.
DOORS
Usual requirements: Freedom from warp (especially for out-
side doors), good finishing qualities, resistance to denting (hard-
ness), pleasing figure or grain for natural finish or good base for
paint.
Other attributes and sometimes requirements of doors include
resistance to fire and sound transmission, ability to hold special
hardware, means to accept cutouts or openings for windows, and
durability. An interior- or exterior-quality glue is used for as-
sembly of doors, depending on where they are to be used. (See
Chaps. 26 and 27.)
There are two ty])es of doors manufactured: the panel door
with insert panel and solid or veneered stiles and rails, and the
flush door with skins bonded to frames. The flush door is man-
ufactured in hollow-core construction (for interior doors) and
solid-core (for exterior doors in cold and moderate climates).
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: Oak
and birch. (Natural finish.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree: Pon-
derosa pine, Douglas fir, southern yellow pine, and spruce. Gum
for natural finish or painting.
CABINET DOORS
Usual requirements: Pleasing grain, freedom from warp, and
moderate hardness.
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: Maple,
oak, birch, and cherry. (Suitable for natural finishes and for
.
miscellaneous MILLWORK
23
plywood flush doors.)
Doug-
as fir, southern yellow pine,
gum, ponderosa pine, magnolia, and
poplar for pamt finish. (See Chap.
26, section on Cabinets and
Other Millwork.)
SHELVING
Usual requirements: Stiffness and freedom
from warp.
Woods combining usual requirements in a high
degree: Ash,
)irch, maple, oak, and
walnut. (Suitable for natural finishes.)
AVoods combining usual requirements
in a good degree:
Lumber. Hemlock, spruce, and western
larch.
Plywood. Natural finish: Oak and
birch. (Most available
species.) Painted finish: Douglas
fir, southern yellow
pine, and
other softwoods.
Particle board. Though only one-fourth to one-eighth as stiff
as wood or plywood, particle board is being used increasingly
w lere loading is light, extra
support is provided, or where spans
are short. Frequently veneered
or overlaid with higher stiffness
materials to provide additional stiffness.
STAIRWAYS
Usual requirements for treads, risers, and
stair parts: Hard-
ness and wear resistance (treads,
railings), freedom from warp
and pleasing grain. (See Chap.
20, Construction of Stairs.)
AA'Oods combining usual requirements
in a high degree: Oak,
birch, maple, wâlnut, beech,
ash, and cherry (exposed treads and
risers)
AVoods combining usual requirements in

a good degree: Doug-
las fir, southern yellow pine,
gum, and sycamore (basement or
secondary stairs or when stairs are to be
carpeted).
WALL PANELING
Usual requirements for natural finish or light staining: Pleas-
ing grain, figure or surface treatment,
freedom from warp and
shriiiKage, and some resistance to
abrasion.
Lumber. Oak, redwood, cypress (pecky),
walnut, cedar
(knotty), ash, birch, pine (knotty),
and cherry.
Plywood. Oak, birch, maple, pecan-hickory, and walnut.
Lumber. Gum, western larch, Douglas fir, beech, southern
yellow pine, hemlock, and ponderosa pine.
Plywood. Cedar, pine, Douglas fir, southern yellow pine, and
some imported species. (Some are specially treated to create a
variation in the grain for unique surface effects.)
Lumber. The best grade in hardwood for high-quality houses
is first grade. Softwood first or second grades are commonly
used in the better house. Third grade is more economical. Spe-
cial grades of knotty pine, pecky cypress, and sound wormy oak
are sometimes available for special paneling treatment.

Plywood. Unfinished: Good or special surface one side, in-
terior or exterior types. Pre finished: V-grooved and others (good
one side or equal).
Other materials. Hardboards with special-grain printing, em-
bossing, or other surface treatments or decorative laminate over-
lays. Structural insulating board in sheet or plank form for walls
and in tile form or lay-in j)anel for ceiling. (Factory-treated,
finished, or special acoustical effect.) Particle boards with
veneered plastic or other overlay face.
Barns
Wood and wood-based materials for barns and similar build-

ings are generally the same as those described for houses. Grades
are usually lower, but in some uses strength is the most impor-
tant factor. The need for the additional strength is often re-
flected in the recommended grades and species. Lowêr grades
can be used for siding, flooring, and trim than are ordinarily
used for houses.
Fence Posts
l^sual reciuirements: High decay resistance and little or no
sapwood for untreated posts. Good bending strength, straight-
ness, and high staple holding. Permanent installation requires a
good preservative treatment. High sapwood content is desirable
for fence posts to be preservative treated.
GATES AND FENCES 25
Woods combining usual requirements in a high degree: Black
locust and osage orange. (Meet most requirements but not
readily available in all parts of the United States.) White oak.
(Heartwood only. Generally available in the eastern states,
but life is shorter than preceding group if not treated.)
Cedar,
cypress, and redwood. (Heartwood only. Readily
available but
do not hold smooth shank staples and nails as well as
preceding
groups.)
Woods combiningusual requirements in a good degree: Doug-
las fir, V estern larch, and southern
yellow pine (preservative
treatment required).
Woods combiningusual requirements in a fair degree: Beech,
birch, maple, red oak, and elm. (Equal the best woods when
given a good preservative treatment.) Hemlock,
spruce, white
fir, basswood, cottonwood, gum, tupelo, poplar, and lodgepole
pine.
Grades used: Fence posts have no standard grades
but are
specified by top diameters and by lengths.
Treated posts should
be branded or stamped to identify the treatment
and source.
Gates and Fences

Usual requirements: Good bending strength, good decay
and
weather resistance, high nail holding, freedom from
warp. Treat-
ment desirable for severe conditions. (Should also be lightweight
for gates.)
Woods combining usual reciuircments in a high degree: Doug-
las fir, western larch, southern yellow pine, redwood, and
white
oak.
Woods combining usual reviuirements in a good degree: Cedar,
northern and Idaho white jiine, ponderosa ])ine, sugar
pine, and
pojilar. (Small tendency to warp, weather well, but are low in
strength and nail holding. All except cedar have
moderately low
resistance to decay.) Beech, birCp gum, maple, red oak, and
tupelo. (Strong, high in nail holding, but have greater
tendency
to warp, do not wx'ather so wadi as
preceding group, and are too
heavy for gates. All except gum and maple have moderately low
resistance to decay.) Eastern and wa'st coast hemlock, white fir,
and spiuce. (Intermediate (jualities excej)t for decay n'sistance,
which is moderately Iowa)
Grades used: Second- and third-grade softwood Common
boards and second hardwood board grades are used in better and
more substantial gates and fences. Third-grade hardwood boards
are used in smaller and more economical gates and fences. A
softwood grade as low as fourth-grade Common boards may be
used, but there is a loss due to cutting out the larger defects.
Scaflfolding
Usual requirements: High bending strength, high stiffness, high

nail holding, medium weight, and freedom from compression fail-
ures and crossgrain.
las fir, western larch, and southern yellow pine.
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree: Red-
wood, spruce, and west coast hemlock. (Lower bending strength.)
Birch, white ash, elm, maple, and oak. (Harder to saw and nail.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a fair degree: Sugar
pine, ponderosa pine, and Idaho white pine. (Low stiffness and
strength.)
Grades used: First-grade softwood dimension is usually re-
quired for scaffolding that must support loads under conditions
that involve hazards. Light scaffolding may be selected from
second-grade softwood dimension; in hardwoods, uprights can be
selected from first-grade dimension. Selection should eliminate
all pieces with compression failures, large or unsound knots, and
crossgrain.
Some state building codes designate the grades to be used for
scaffolding. Southern pine and western grading rules include spe-
cial scaffolding plank grades.
Exposed Porches and Platforms

Usual requirements: High decay resistance, good stiffness and
strength for framing, and good wear and splinter resistance for
decking. (Where wood is exposed to severe moisture conditions,
treated material is recommended.)
Wood combining usual requirements in a high degree: Red-
wood, locust, and white oak. (Heartwood only.)
Woods combining usual requirements in a good degree: Cedar,
Douglas fir, western larch, southern yellow pine, and rock elm.
(Edge grain.)
SHEATHING PAPERS 27
Grades used: First- or second-grade
dimension in softwoods
and first-grade dimension in hardwoods
are the grades ordinarily
Sheathing Papers, Vapor Barriers, and

Other Sheet Materials
Sheathing payer and vapor harriers have
several general uses
in the construction of houses
and other frame buildings. For
example, sheathing paper resists
moisture and wind infiltration
when used over unsheathed walls, over
lumber sheathing, over
all types of sheathing
materials with a stucco exterior finish,
and
as backing for masonry veneer.
The paper for such purposes
should be waterproof but of the breathing
type. This allows any
escaped water vapor to move through
the paper and minimizes
condensation problems. Many types of
materials are available
for this use, including 15-pound asphalt-saturated felt.
Paper (15- or 30-pound felt) is also used
as a roof underlay-
ment for asphalt shingles
when roof slopes are less than 7 in 12.
Such protection is usually not needed
under wood shingles except
as an eave flashing to prevent
moisture entry from ice dams.
Roll roofing in 45-pound and heavier
weights may be used
for roofing small buildings and
temporary structures. Built-up
roofing, consisting of a number of plies of 15-
and 30-pound
asphalt-saturated felt, is used on low-pitch
or flat roofs. For
wood decks, a nailed sheet is placed over the
deck before install-
ing alternate layers of felt and
asphalt or pitch. This type of
roof usually topjied with gravel or crushed
is
stone.
Paper or deadening felt is often desirable
under finish floor, as
It will stoj) a certain
amount of dust and deaden the transfer
of sound.
yapor are used in walls, floors, and ceilings,
usually
in conjunction with insulation,^ to minimize the
movement of
water vai)or to cold, exposed surfaces.
They consist of plastic
ms, laminated or coated papers, or
aluminum foil. For protec-
tion from cold weather condensation,
they should be applied as
close to the inner warm
surface as possible, usually just under
the interior coverings. They arc
also used under concrete slabs
to prevent ground moisture from
coming through. (See Chap. 28
’
section on Vapor Barriers.)

Vapor barriers are also used as ground covers in crawl spaces
to prevent wood framing and other wood materials from becom-
ing damp from ground moisture. These barrier materials consist
of duplex paper with asphalt laminate, plastic films, aluminum
foil backed with paper, roll roofing, and various combinations
of materials.
DETERMINING MOISTURE CONTENT OF WOOD

It is very difficult to tell how dry a piece of wood is by looking
at it or feeling it. How then can a determination be made? Two
means measurement are available: (1) by use of an electric
of
moisture meter or (2) by the ovendrying method. In addition,
there is one way an approximation.
of getting
The moisture meter is simple and fast to use and permits
determination of moisture content without cutting the board.
Several models are available. When used on wood with a mois-
ture content below about 30 per cent, these meters can be quite
accurate.
The most accurate method of determining moisture content is
by ovendrying specimens. This method by which

is a standard
degree of dryness is expressed for technical and commercial pur-
poses. The procedure involves cutting small sections and weigh-
ing them. These sections are dried to constant weight in an oven,
reweighed, and the moisture content computed. This method is
accurate through the whole range of moisture content. Because

of the equipment and time involved, it is used mainly where very
exact moisture determinations are necessary.
A rough approximation of moisture content can be made at
home by the following procedure.
Select several flat-grained boards from the lumber and cut a
sample from each. The sample should measure 1" along the grain
and be cut to include the entire width of the board (at least 6").
It should be cut about 6" to 8" from the end of the board. Trim
the sample so that it will measure exactly 6" in width and place
it in a warm, dry })lace such as near tlie furnace, on a heat duct,
on a radiator, or and leave it for 48 hours or until
in the oven,
it ceases to shrink. Then measure the 6" dimension to determine
how much it has shrunk.
PROTECTION OF WOOD FROM MOISTURE 29
wood is classed C in freedom from shrinkage, it should

If the
not shrink more than if it is to be used for interior trim or
finish, nor over twice that amount (^") if it is to be used for
framing, coverage, or where it is exposed to the weather.

Woods classed as B
freedom from shrinkage should not
in
shrink over % 2 '', and class A woods not over if they are to
be used for interior trim, finish, or floors. If they are to be used

exposed to the weather, B woods should not shrink more than
or A woods For lumber under 6" wide use 3" samples.
The shrinkage should not be over half that shown for flat grain.
It is best not to use edge-grained samples or samples shorter than
6"; not only are they more difficult to measure, but they do not
give a reliable indication of the adequacy of seasoning.
PROTECTION OF WOOD FROM MOISTURE

Dry wood takes up jnoisture not only from actual contact wdth
water but also from other sources commonl}^ overlooked. It may
collect moisture in tlie form of vapor from damp air or from
damj) j)laster, concrete, soil, or brickwork. Like many other
building materials, wood will absorb moisture that has condensed
on it, as well as rain or snow that has entered joints and crevices.
The protection of wood from moisture usually requires that it
be kept from contact with and water; tliat free circulation
soil
of air be provided in damp areas; and that exposed surfaces be
protected with paint, varnish, or other coatings. Protective coat-
ings reduce but do not entirely prevent moisture absorption and,
therefore, should not be relied uj)on to compensate for jôor drain-
age and j)oor ventilation.
Avoiding contact of wood with moisture is of prime importance
in considering construction details. Special care must be used at
tlie grade line of a structure or at any point where moisture
might come in. Protection from moisture in the ground should

be provided even in temporary or portable buildings.
A little additional care at the start in selection of material and
construction details will eliminate the later need for frequent re-
placement of skids, sills, and framing members (Fig. 2). The
use of treated wood sills or jilacing the structure on masonry
blocking for good air circulation is good practice. A ground cover
will minimize movement of water vapor from the ground and
prevent the wood from retaining high levels of moisture content.
Vapor barriers such as polyethylene, roll roofing, or duplex as-
phalt papers are satisfactory.
Clearance of wood parts above the finish grade and drainage
of water away from the building by means of a splash block or
tiling are also important factors (Fig. 3). It is difficult to miter
siding at corners to prevent moisture entry, especially in the
wider patterns. Generally, it is better practice to use corner
boards or metal corners. Plant growth against the siding or other
wood members should be removed as it encourages moisture re-
tention and possible decay. Downspouts and other attachments
should be clear of the siding.
Proper use of vapor barriers in walls and ceilings, in crawl
spaces, and under concrete slabs will prevent wood from becom-
ing wet and a possible decay hazard.
Correct construction details at window and door frames to pre-
vent rain leakage and reduce air infiltration are important (Fig.
4). Good carpentry will assure tight joints of the siding at the
casing and under the Proper flashing at the drip cap and
sill.
use of building paper around the framed opening will help as will
weatherstripping around the sash. Frames and sash are normally
treated with a water-repellent preservative at the factory and
paint will provide additional protection.
The cornice and gutter details are important if hazards of poor
roof drainage are to be eliminated (Fig. 5). Wide cornices and
good drip details eliminate many hazards. A width of roofing
paper under the shingles at the cornice and good soffit ventila-
tion, in addition to outlet ventilators, will minimize damage that
is often caused by ice dams.
CHAPTER 2
Woodworking Hand Tools and

How to Use Them
BASIC TOOLS
Before we
describe the various hand tools used in
woodworking,
the following important facts must be noted
by the home crafts-
man. He should purchase tools of good quality only.
The difference
in cost between an excellent tool and one of inferior
manufacture
is negligible when it is realized
that the performance of a good
tool is far superior to that of a cheap tool.
Good tools keep their
edges longer, are more easily sharpened, and
withstand harder
usage.
The following basic tools have, from experience, proved to
be
adequate for most needs;
Hammer, 16 oz. Nail set, He"

Screw drivers, 3" and 5" Awl
Handsaw Spokeshave
Bit brace, 8" Vise
Auger bits, and Marking gauge
Gimlet bit, %" Zigzag rule, 4'
Screwdriver bit, Try and miter square, 7^2
Chisels, and Combination oilstone
Pair of pliers
Additional tools to be secured as required are:
Hand ripsaw Jack plane

Compass saw Gouge chisels, 1/2 " and 1"
Coping saw Hand drill
31
32 WOODWORKING HAND TOOLS
Expansive drill Glass-cutter
Monkey wrench Grinding wheel (hand)
Countersink Handsaw set
Miter box Files
Steel tape Carriage makers’ clamps
Caliper rule Hand screws
WOODWORKING HAMMERS
The hammer, the most commonly used
essential parts of a claw
woodworking hammer, are shown in Fig. 1. Other types illustrated
are the ripping, upholsterer's, and tack hammers. Hammer sizes
Fig. 1.
are determined by the weight of the head, which ranges from 5 to

28 oz. The heavier hammers are for driving larger nails into soft
material or ordinary nails into harder wood. For general use, a
16-oz. hammer is recommended.
HAMMERS 3;
Smooth-face hammers are either plain or bell-face.

The helU
face type is slightly more convex than the
plain. While the novice
cannot drive a nail as straight and as easily
with a bell-face ham-
mer, this type is more frequently used
because, with
a little ex-
perience, a nail can be driven flush and
sometimes even below the
surface of the work without leaving any
hammer marks.
Correct method of using a hammer. Driving
fectiveness of a hammer is dependent on
nails The ef- —
its weight and the manner
in which the blow is struck. To
use a hammer correctly, grip it
firmly mthe right hand, close to the end of handle
(Fig. 1). Al-
ways strike with a free arm movement. Grasp
the nail with the
thumb and forefinger of the other hand and place it
exactly at the
point where it is to be driven. Unless the
nail is to be driven at
an angle, it should be held perpendicular to
the surface of the
work. To set the nail, center the face of the
hammer on the head
of the nail and give it several light
taps before removing the fin-
gers. Thendrive the nail in as far as desired with
a few firm
blows, using the center of the hammer
face. Nails that do not go
in straight or bend shoould be drawn
out and thrown away. If,
after several attempts, the nail continues
to bend or go in crooked,
the work should be investigated. If there
is a knot or some other
obstruction, drill a small hole through the
obstruction and then
drive the nail through.
—
Pulling out nails When nails are pulled
out with the claw end
of a hammer, the head of the nail
should clear the surface of the
work sufficiently to permit the claws to grip it. To
prevent marring
the work and to secure extra and safe leverage,
place a small block
of wood under the head of the hammer
as shown in Fig. 2. Be
careful to place the block of wood in the correct position, that is,
against the nail, to avoid enlarging the hole
from which the nail
is pulled.
Clinching nails —F or added holding power, nails are
sometimes
clinched. The nails used for clinching must be long enough to
penetrate the wood so that at least an inch and a half of the point
protrudes from the underside. The protruding
point is then bent
over in direct line with the grain of the wood
and hammered flat.
When clinching nails, rest the work on a solid surface and be
care-
ful to avoid splitting the wood (Fig.
2 ).
Toenailing—Driying nails obliquely called toenailing.
is This
type of nailing employed when the end of one piece of wood is
is
fastened to the side of another, as shown in Fig. 2.

—
Driving corrugated fasteners Corrugated fasteners, as shown
in Fig. 2, are often called wiggle nails. They are used to a large
extent in the making of screens and picture frames and for similar
purposes. They are procurable with either a plain or saw edge.
The plain-edged fastener is used for hard wood; the saw-edged

type for soft wood. When driving corrugated fasteners, use a
medium-weight hammer. Strike evenly distributed light blows. It
is important that the lumber being fastened together rest on a
solid surface while the work is being done.

—
Ripping ^To rip woodwork apart, insert the claw part of a
ripping hammer into a crack as near to a nail as possible. Use
a quick, jolting movement to loosen each nail. Pull out the nails
as previously described. Then rip out the boards or woodwork as
required (Fig. 1).
Replacing a broken hammer handle —Machine-made hickory
handles in various sizes can be secured at most hardware stores.
The portion of the broken handle that remains in the hammer
head must be removed. The simplest and most method
effective
of doing this is to drill through it with a twist drill to remove as
much wood as possible. It is then easy to split out several small
pieces and thus remove the old wedged-in handle.
HANDSAWS 35
The end of a new handle is usually larger than required and
must be scraped or pared slightly before it will fit into the head
of the hammer. However, do not pare it too much, since it must
fit very tightly. After the small fitted end
of the handle is inserted
into the opening in the head of the hammer, tamp the other
end
of the handle against a solid surface until the head is in
place.
To prevent the head of the hammer from flying off, the end of the
handle must be expanded, after it is in place in the hammer head,
by inserting several wooden or metal wedges (Fig. 1). Wooden
wedges can be made of either maple or hickory wood. Metal wedges
can be secured at any hardware store and are preferable. Do not
insert the wedges until the head is on the handle as far as it can
go. When using wooden wedges, make
a saw cut about as long
as the wedge in the end of the handle before inserting it into the
head of the hammer. Saw cuts are not necessary when using metal
wedges.
HANDSAWS
The handsaw are shown in Fig. 3.
essential parts of a
There are many types and sizes of handsaws. The ripsaw and
the crosscut saw are most commonly used.
The ripsaw is designed specifically for cutting with the grain
(Fig. 3). The teeth of the ripsaw are set alternately, that is, one
tooth is bent slightly to the left and the next one to the right for
the entire length of the saw to give the proper clearance when
cutting through the work. A good ripsaw usually has five and
one-half points to every inch, with each tooth acting like a ver-
tical chisel, chipping out a small portion of the wood from the
kerj, or cut.
Crosscut saws are designed to cut against, or across, the grain
of the wood. The teeth of a crosscut saw are ground to a true
taper for the additional clearance required when cutting across the
grain. Thefront faces of the teeth have an angle of 15°, and the
backs have an angle of 45°. The upper halves of the teeth are
set alternately to the right and to the left to insure proper clear-
ance. The teeth of a crosscut saw have an action similar to that
of a chisel (Fig. 3).
The hacksaw is useful for all types of cabinetwork. Its fine
teeth and stiff back make possible the smooth, accurate cutting
BUTT
BACKv
POINT
HANDLE-
TEETH BLADE
GRAIN
ACTION LIKE GROUPS

teeth "SET** PERMITS OF CHISELS WITH
BLADE CLEARANCE. ENLARGED DETAILS THE CRAIN.
OF RIPSAW TEETH
-//-
CROSSCUT -SE ACTION LIKE A PAIR OF

PREVENTS BLADE ENLARGED DETAILS STAGGERED CHISELS
BINDING. OF CROSSCUT TEETH SCORING ACROSS THE GRAIN.
/V\
Fig. 3.
necessary for making joints. It is the ideal saw to use for cutting
moldings and screen and picture frames. Back-
light stock, such as
saws are available in 8", 10", 12", 14", and 16" lengths, with from
12 to 16 points to the inch. The 12" length, with 14 points to the
inch, is the most popular size (Fig. 4).
There are a great many uses for a compass saw in the home
KEYHOLE SAW 37
workshop. It may
be used for cutting curves and circles and for
starting a cut from a hole bored in wood (Fig. It is extremely
5) .
useful for cutting holes in board and plaster walls

and in floor
boards to receive gas or water pipes. The compass saw is
taper-
ground from the tooth edge to a thin back, allowing for clearance.
It also tapers to a sharp point and is toothed to
the point for easy
access to holes and for cutting sharp curves.
An ideal type is an interchangeable compass saw. Different
lengths and types of blades
are available for it and the
handle can be adjusted to
any convenient angle. The
three blades shown in Fig. 5
can be used for a variety of
purposes. The compass blade
in the center of the illustra-
tion 14" long, with 8 points
is
to the inch, and can be used

for cutting curves and shapes
in material up to %" thick.
The top blade, known as a pruning blade,
16" long and, in
is
addition to being used for pruning trees, can also be
employed as
a general-purpose saw. The other blade in the
set is a keyhole
blade, 10 long, 10 points to the inch. can be used for cutting
It
keyholes, sharp curves, and similar small work.
The keyhole saw is a special-purpose saw for cutting keyholes
and for doing all kinds of cutout pattern, or fretwork, and similar
light work. (Fig. 6).
The coping saw is designed for cutting curves (Fig. 7). It is
also used for shaping the ends of molding, for

scrollwork, and
similar light work on thin wood or plastic. It
has very narrow
blades, only %" wide, fitted at each
end with a pin that is inserted
in a stretcher at
each end of the frame. A square nut forced into
the handle engages the threaded end of the stretcher.
By turning
the handle, the blade is tautened. The blade, when stretched tight
in the frame, may
be turned as required for cutting sharp angles.
The frame of a coping saw should be made of good steel. It is
usually %" wide, %e" thick, and 4%" deep from the tooth edge
to the inside of the back. The blades saw should be
of a coping
made of good spring steel Ys'' wide, 17 points to the inch, and
in length from pin to pin.
Using a handsaw. Each

type of saw is designed for a
specific purpose and should be
used for that purpose only. If
you value your tools and the
material on which you are
working, never use a crosscut
saw for work that requires a
Fig. 7. Coping saw. ripsaw, or vice versa. Rip-
saws are specifically designed
to cut with the grain of the wood. This is called ripping. Cross-
cut saws are designed for crosscutting (sawing against the grain).
To hold a saw properly, grasp the handle firmly with the right
hand, with the thumb and index finger touching the sides of the
handle (Fig. 8). This grip makes it easy to guide the direction
of the saw cut. Always start a saw cut with an upward stroke,
using the thumb of the left hand to guide the saw. Never under
any circumstances start a saw cut with a downstroke. Draw the
saw slowly upward several times at the point where the cut is to
be made (Fig. 8). Do this very slowly or your saw will jump;
instead of a well-cut piece of lumber you will have a badly cut
thumb. When the line of cut has been started properly, proceed
to cut on the downstroke.
For ripping, use a ripsaw to permit long, easy strokes. Cutting
with just a few inches of blade in the middle of the saw usually
makes it difficult to keep the line of cut straight. When ripping
lumber, support the work on sawhorses, and start the cut by using
the finer teeth at the end of the blade. If the work cannot be sup-
ported on sawhorses, place it in a vise. A cutting angle of 60°
between the edge of the saw and the face of the work gives best
results (Fig. 8).
To begin a crosscut, rest the blade on the waste side of the line
USING A HANDSAW 35
of cut, support the side of the blade
with the thumb, and draw the
saw upward a few times until a slight groove appears (Fig.
8).
When either crosscutting or ripping, it isgood practice to cut
on the outer, or waste, side of a line;
do not attempt to saw di-
rectly on the line.
In crosscutting, 45° the proper angle to maintain between the
is
saw and the face of the work. Extending the
forefinger along the
side of the handle aids considerably
in guiding the blade (Fig.
8).
Take long, easy strokes to utilize a maximum of the saw's cutting
edge. Always keep saw square with surface of wood (Fig. 9).
Fig. 8.
When the cut is nearly completed, support the piece to prevent

the wood from splintering on the underside. Never twist the piece
off with the saw blade or in any other way; cut right through to
the end, using light final strokes to avoid splitting.
Using a hacksaw. When using a hacksaw in a miter box, be
sure that the work lines up with the slots in the box. Hold the
work against the back of the
box (Fig. 10). Start the cut
carefully with a backstroke,
holding the handle of the saw
slightly upward. As the cut-
ting proceeds, level the saw
gradually and continue cutting
with the blade horizontal.
Hold the saw firmly for clean,
straight, accurate cutting.
If a miter box is not used, it
is advisable to support the

work with For
a bench hook.
Fig. 10. Using a hacksaw in a
miter box. long material, two bench hooks
are necessary. A bench hook
and its use is shown in Figs. 11 and 12.
SETTING AND SHARPENING A HANDSAW 4]
Using a coping saw. A coping saw is used to cut curves and

intricate patterns in thin wood or plastic. The correct position
for use IS shown in Fig. 13. A coping saw is generally used with
a saddle to support the work. The saddle consists of a board cut
BENCH HOOK-USED AGAINST

BENCH OR CLAMPED IN VISE.
SCREWS
DOWELED AND GLUED

FOR GOOD CONSTRUCTION.
/Vv
Fig. 11. Bench hook.
with a V-notch, about 3" wide and 31//'

deep, attached to a sup-
port. Hold the blade so that it
moves vertically. Cutting strokes
should be as long as possible to avoid
overheating the blade. In
cutting scrollwork, furniture overlay,
and
similar articles, the piece marked with
the
design to be cut out is held on the saddle
and shifted so that the saw can cut along
the curves as it progresses. To avoid
breakage of blades, change the angle of
the blade in the frame when making
sharp
turns.
Settingand sharpening a handsaw.
A good saw is a fine tool and will give a
lifetime of service if properly handled.
The saw Fig. 13. Coping saw.
teeth will
require settirlg and
sharpening from time to time. This may seem
to be an involved
operation, but if directions are followed
carefully, it is not diffi-
cult.
A special saw clamp (Fig. 14) and several files are all the equip-
ment needed. The following table indicates the file to be used.
Fig. 14.
Points to the Inch File to Be Used

4^, 5, 6 7" slim taper
7,8 6" slim taper
9, 10 5" to 5^" slim taper
11, 12, 13, 14, 15 4%" slim taper
16 or more 4%" or 5" superfine. No. 2 cut
For jointing teeth 8" or 10" mill bastard
Examine the teeth of the saw to see if they are uniform in size
and shape and are properly set. A good saw will not need resetting
of the teeth every time it is sharpened. If the teeth are touched
up occasionally with a file of the proper size, they will cut longer
and better and retain sufficient set to enable the saw to clear itself.
The proper amount of set is shown in Fig. 15.
Before proceeding to set and sharpen a handsaw, study the
shape of the teeth. The teeth of saws for crosscutting and for
ripping should be similar to those shown at A and B in Fig. 15. A
saw cannot do a good cutting job unless the teeth are even and
properly shaped. If the teeth are found to be uneven, it is neces-
sary to joint and file them, using the following procedure.
Jointing handsaw teeth. Jointing, or filing, the teeth to the
same shape and height is necessary when they are uneven or incor-
rectly shaped or when the tooth edges are not straight, or slightly
breasted. Unless the teeth are regular in size and shape it is
wasted effort to set and file a saw.

JOINTING HANDSAW TEETH 43
SET
A -CROSSCUT SAW SETTING
ot
_ FORESHORTENED VIEW OF ^ SET OR BEND TEETH ONE THIRD
teeth »SET« from handle. or ONE HALF THEIR HEIGHT. jet
GULLET
B - RIPSAW SETTING
Fig. 15.
To joint a saw, place ita saw clamp, with the handle of the
in
saw to the right (C and G, Fig. 15). Lay a mill file, of the
proper
size, flat lengthwise on the teeth.
Pass it lightly back and forth
across the tips of all the teeth, for the full length of the blade. If
the teeth are very uneven, it is better not to make all of them the
same height the time they are jointed. Joint only the highest
first
teeth first, then shape the teeth that have been jointed. Proceed
by jointing the teeth a second time, passing the file along the tops
of all the teeth until every tooth touched by the file. Never
is
allow the file to tip to one side or the other —

always file flat. The
use of a handsaw jointer is shown at E, Fig. 15.
Shaping handsaw teeth. After jointing, proceed with shaping
the teeth. All the teeth must be filed to the correct shape, with
all the gullets of equal depth (Fig. 15). The fronts and backs
must have the proper shape and angle. The teeth must be uniform
in size, disregarding the bevel, which v/ill be taken care of later.
To bring the gullets down to equal depth, place the file well into
each gullet and file straight across thesaw at right angles to the
blade (D, Fig. 15). Never hold the file at any other angle during
this operation. If the teeth are of unequal size, file in turn the
ones with the largest tops until the file reaches the center of the
flat top made by jointing; then move the file to the next gullet.
File until the rest of the top disappears and the tooth has been
brought up to a point. Do not attempt to bevel any of the teeth
at this time.
After all the teeth have been properly shaped and are even in
height, the next step is setting the teeth.
Setting handsaw teeth. As mentioned previously, the teeth of
a good handsaw do not need to be reset every time they require
a little sharpening. If it is not necessary to joint and shape the
teeth, carefullyexamine the saw to see if the teeth have the proper
amount of set {A and B, Fig. 15). If they have the proper set,
the saw is ready for filing; if not, they should be set. Always
set the teeth after they have been jointed and shaped but before
final filing, to avoid injury to the cutting edges.
The operation of setting saw^ teeth has a distinct purpose. A
and B, show end views of saw teeth; the teeth of both
Fig. 15,
crosscut saws and ripsaws are sprung alternately left and right
(not more than half the length of each tooth) for the entire length
of the tooth edge of the saw. This arrangement enables the saw
to cut a kerf, or path, slightly wider than the thickness of the
blade itself, giving the necessary clearance and preventing any
FILING HANDSAW TEETH 45
friction that would cause the saw to bind in the cut. The depth
of the set should never exceed half the
tooth, whether the saw is
fine or coarse. A
taper-ground saw requires very little set, be-
cause blade tapers thinner both toward the back and
its
along the
back toward the point, thus providing sufiicient
clearance for
easy running.
The simplest method of setting a saw is by the use of
a special
tool known as a saw set (Fig. 18).
Fasten the saw in the saw
clamp, as shown in Fig. 14. Start at one end of the saw and
place the saw set over the first
tooth bent away from you.
The plunger in the saw set
should strike the tooth firmly
and squarely. Holding the
saw set firmly in place, com-
press the handle: the tooth
will then bend against the saw
clamp. Work across the en-
tire length of the saw and set
alternate teeth. Reverse the
saw in the clamp and set the
remaining teeth in the same
manner. With the saw still in Fig. 16. Saw set.
the clamp, joint the teeth by

lightly rubbing a lengthwise over them until they
file
all have flat
tops, which will provide a proper guide for
filing.
Extreme care must be taken to see that the set is even
and
regular. It must be the same width from
end to end of the blade
and the same width on both sides of the blade, otherwise
the saw
will run out of line and cuts made with it
will not be true. After
the saw has been properly set, the next step is to file
the teeth.
Filing handsaw The type of file to use for
teeth. filing the
teeth is determined by the number of tooth points to the inch.
For a crosscut saw, measure one inch from the point of any tooth.
For a ripsaw having 51/2 or fewer points to the inch, the teeth
near the point of the blade are finer than the rest; therefore
measure the regular-size teeth at the butt of the blade. For the
best working position, align the top of the clamp with the
elbow.
Place the saw in the clamn with its handle at the right. Allow
the bottom gullets to protrude Vs'' above the jaws of the clamp,
otherwise the file will chatter or screech.
Filing a crosscut saw. To file a crosscut saw, stand at the
first position shown in Fig. 17. Start at the point and pick out
the first tooth that is set toward you. Hold the file in the posi-
tion shown in the illustration. Place the file in the gullet to the
left of the tooth, holding it directly across the blade. Swing the
file handle left to the correct angle, as shown in Fig. 17. Hold
the file and maintain this angle; never allow it to

level tip either
upward or downward. Be certain at all times that the file is set
well down into the gullet. Let it find its own bearing against the
teeth it For guidance in filing, study and duplicate the
touches.
shape and bevel of some of the least-used teeth, those near the
handle end.
File on the push stroke only: the back of the left tooth and
the front of the right tooth are thus filed simultaneously. File the
teeth until half of the flat tops previously made on them are cut
away; then lift the file from the gullet. Skip the next gullet to
the right and place the file in the second gullet toward the handle.
Repeat the filing operation as previously described, filing at the
ANGLE AND BEVEL OF TEETH 47
same angle as for the first set of two Proceed by placing
teeth.
the file in every second gullet until the handle end of the saw
has been reached.
For the second position, turn the saw around in the clamp
with
the handle to the left. Take the position shown in
Fig. 17 and
place the file in the gullet to the right of the first tooth set
toward
you. This is the first of the gullets skipped when the reverse
side
of the saw was filed. Now turn the
handle to the desired
file
angle toward the right. Proceed to file until the
other half of
the flat top made on each tooth as a guide has
been cut away
and the tooth is sharpened to a point. Continue by placing
the
file in every second gullet until the
handle of the saw is reached.
Be sure that in the final sharpening all the teeth are of
the
same size and height, otherwise the saw will not cut satisfactorily.
When teeth are of uneven sizes, stress
placed on the larger or
is
higher teeth, thus causing the saw to jump or bind
in the kerf.
Filing a ripsaw. The procedure for filing ripsaws
is similar
to that for crosscut saws, with a single exception
(Fig. 17). Rip-
saws are filed with the
held straight across the saw at a right
file
angle to the blade. Place the file in the gullet so
as to give the
front of each tooth an angle of 8° and the back an
angle of 52\
Place the saw in the clamp with the handle toward
the right.
Place the the gullet to the left of the first tooth set toward
file in
you. Continue by placing the file in every second gullet and

filing straight across. When the handle of the
saw is reached,
turn the saw around in the clamp. Start at the point again,'
placing the file in the first gullet that was previously
skipped
when filing from the other side. Continue to file in every second
gullet to the handleend of the saw.
One final precaution, never try to avoid reversing the saw in
the clamp or attempt to file all the teeth from the
same side of
the blade. This procedure is certain to make the saw
run to one
side.
Angle and bevel of teeth. Th^ angle of the teeth in crosscut

saws is of great importance. Imagine that Fig. 18 is a board,
across which a deep mark with the point of a knife is to be made.
If the knife is held nearly perpendicular, as at B, it will pull
harder and will not cut so smoothly as when it is inclined
forward, as at A. It follows, then, that the cutting edge of the
crosscut saw should be at an acute angle, as at C, rather than

perpendicular, as at D.
The angles of 15° front and 15° back for crosscut saws, and
8° front and 52° back for rip-
saws, as set at the factory,
prove most satisfactory for
general use. When a saw has
less angle at the front of the
teeth than specified above, it
is more hook or
said to have
pitch. If too much hook is
given to the teeth, the saw
often takes hold too keenly,
causing it to “hand up’’ or
stick suddenly in the cut, thus
kinking the blade. When there
is too much set, the teeth may
be broken, as the resulting
strain is out of proportion to
the strength of the blade.
In saws for crosscut-
filing
Fig. 18. Shapes and angles of saw
teeth. ting, the file is held at an
angle; therefore the teeth are
given an angle. This angle on the front and back of the teeth is
called bevel.
How to bevel teeth. The
proper amount of bevel to give
the teeth is important. If there
is too much bevel, the points of
the teeth will score so deeply
that the wood fibers severed
from the stock will not clear
and will have to be removed
with a file or rasp. In Fig. 19,
B shows a tooth (enlarged) of
a crosscut saw with the same
amount of bevel front and
back; suitable for softwoods
where rapid work is required. Fig. 19. Bevel of teeth.
SCREWDRIVERS 49
A, in Fig. 19, shows a tooth (enlarged) of a saw suitable

for
medium hardwoods. It has less bevel on the back, which gives a
shorter bevel to the point, as at B.
These illustrations show that the bevel on the front of the teeth
is about the same, but the bevel of the
point (looking lengthwise
along the blade) is quite different, depending on the difference
in
the angles of the backs of the teeth. Experience will
indicate
what bevel is best.
F or
the beginner, the instructions given under Filing the
Teeth
should be followed carefully.
Sideêssing saws. After jointing, setting, and filing the saw,
side-dress it by laying on a
surface and lightly rubbing the
it flat
sides of the teeth with an oilstone as shown in F, Fig.
15.
SCREWDRIVERS
Types of screwdrivers. There are many sizes and several
types of screwdrivers. The size is always given by the
length
of the blade: a 6" screwdriver has a 6" blade, and
so on. Narrow-
tipped blades are designed for small screws, and blades
with
larger tips for heavier screws. The following types are
in general
use: common screwdriver, ratchet, spiral ratchet, offset, Phillips.
Common —
screwdriver The common screwdriver is available
in many sizes, each for a specific size of screw. The various parts
of a common screwdriver are shown in Fig. 20.
Ratchet and spiral ratchet screwdrivers —Two variations
of the
common screwdriver are shown in Fig. 21. They are the ratchet
and the spiral ratchet types. Similar in operation to the common
screwdriver, the ratchet type drives screws in much faster
and
works semiautomatically. Blades of various sizes can be secured
for both types of ratchet screwdriver, and both types can be set
for driving screws in or extracting them. The handle
of the
ratchet screwdriver turns back and forth in the direction
set.
The spiral ratchet screwdriver operates even faster than the
ratchet. can be set for either in or out. To drive the screw,
It
set the blade in the screw slot and push on the handle,
steadying
the blade with the other hand. The blade makes several turns
for
each push.
Offset screwdriver —Offset screwdrivers are designed for driving
screws located where there is insufficient space to use the conven-
tional type of screwdriver (Fig. 22). The offset screwdriver is
made from a piece of either round or octagonal steel with two
Fig. 20.
blades at right angles to one another and to the shaft at opposite

ends. When screws have to be driven in or extracted in inacces-
sible places, it is sometimes necessary to use both ends of the
Fig. 21.
PHILLIPS SCREWDRIVER 51
offset screwdriver,turning the screw a short distance with one

end and then with the other.
Phillips screwdriver —The Phillips screwdriver is used only for
driving the Phillips screw (Fig. 22). Phillij>s
screws have a head
with two V-slots which cross at the center. The
tip of the Phillips
screwdriver blade is shaped like a pointed or
beveled cross to
fit into these slots. To keep the blade in the cross slots of the
FOR
CRAMPED
SPACES
OFFSET SCREW DRIVER
HANDLE
PHILLIPS SCREW DRIVER
Fig. 22.
screw more downward pressure is used. Phillips screws are used

to a great extent in radio sets, on moldings,
the trim of automo-
biles, and furniture and cabinetwork.
This type of screwdriver
cannot out of the slot or otherwise damage expensive
slip
finishes.
Correct method of using a screwdriver. Choose
the right
size of screw and screwdriver, and
be sure to use the longest
screwdriver that is available and convenient for
the particular
job. The blade of the screwdriver must fit the screw slots.
It
must be neither too small nor too large. If it is too
small, the
blade may break. If it is too large, it may slip
out and mar the
surface of the wood.
The quickest way to ruin any screwdriver to use
is it as a can
opener, a putty- or paint-mixer, or as a lever.
The tip of a screwdriver must be square. A round-tipped
screwdriver is dangerous: it is apt to slip when
driving a screw, ’
causing serious injury.

When driving screws with a common screwdriver, grasp the
handle with the thumb side of the hand toward the blade. Use
automatic screwdrivers according to directions given by the manu-
facturer of each type. Place the screw in the pilot hole, hold it
straight with the left hand, set the blade in the slot, and start
turning the screwdriver, exerting pressure with the right hand.
As soon as the screw has taken hold of the wood, remove the left
hand, and continue driving the screw in. Hold the screwdriver
steady, with the blade in a direct, straight line with the screw.
Before screws are driven, pilot holes should be bored. Locate
the exact positions for the screws, and with a small brad av)l
mark the places. For small screws, the holes can be bored with
the awl. For large screws, bits or twist drills should be used.
The pilot holes should be slightly smaller in diameter than the
screw. For softwoods, such as spruce, pine, and similar types,
the pilot holes should be bored only about half as deep as the
threaded part of the screw. For hardwoods, such as maple, birch,
oak, and mahogany, they must be drilled almost as deep as the
screw itself. In hardwood, if the screw is large or if you happen
to be using brass screws, the pilot holes must first be bored
slightly smaller than the threaded part of the screw, then en-
larged at the top with a second drill of the same diameter as the
unthreaded portion of the screw.
When two pieces of wood are to be fastened together with
screws, two must be drilled. The top piece is clamped
sets of holes
to the lower piece only by the pressure of the screw head, and for
this reason the holes are drilled so that the threaded portion of
the screw takes hold of only the under piece of the wood. Locate
the positions for the screws and mark each with a brad awl.
Bore the pilot hole of smaller diameter than the threaded por-
tion of the screw. This pilot hole must be bored all the way
through the upper piece of the wood and for about half the length
of the threaded part of the screw into the lower piece. Enlarge
the pilot hole in the upper piece of wood to the same diameter
as the unthreaded portion of the screw. Countersink the clear-
ance hole in the upper piece of wood. Drive all of the screws
firmly into place; then tighten each consecutively.
Where flathead or oval-head screws are used, the upper end of
the pilot hole should be bored out or countersunk to match in
size the diameter of the heads of the screws that are used. Coun-
DRIVING SCREWS 53
tcrsinking a simple operation, and the tool used is called
is
a
countersink (Fig. 23), its size depending on the size of
the screw.
It fits into a brace (Fig. 23).
Driving screws into hardware, hinges, and handles. While

steel screws are used generally in woodworking, brass screws
also
are used to some extent for fastening small hinges and hardware
on cabinets and furniture. Gen-
eral directions for the use of
brass screws are approximately
the same as for steel screws. SQUARE
END FITS
Directions for fastening IN BRACE
hinges and other types of hard-

ware, where a recess must be
made before the fixtures can be
SHANK
mounted, are described in
Chap. 3, devoted to hanging
TIP
doors and similar work.
When the work does not need
to be recessed, place the hard-
COUNTERSINK
ware in the required position /A
and mark the screw holes with Fig. 23.

a brad awl. Bore the pilot
holes, following the directions given in the previous
paragraphs
on the Correct Method of Using a Screwdriver. Where screws
are short, only a pilot hole is needed, but long screws require
a
clearance hole of the same diameter and length as the unthreaded
part of the screw.
Use the largest size of screw that will slip easily through the
holes in the hardware. If the holes in the hardware are counter-
sunk, oval-head or flathead screws to fit the countersink
should
be used, if they are not countersunk, use round-head screws.
Do
not tighten the screws until all of them have been driven in.
Concealing screws with plugs. It is sometimes necessary to
set screws below the surface of the wood and to conceal
them with
a plug of the same type of wood. For instance, the planking on
boats usually fastened to the frames in this manner. Wooden
is
plugs of various diameters, made from mahogany, oak, pine,

cedar, and cypress, can be bought from dealers in boat supplies
for this purpose.
To conceal screws with wooden plugs, bore a hole with the bit
and brace to fit the plug, then bore the pilot and clearance holes
for the screws, and drive the screws into place. To insure a tight
put glue or wood filler in the plug hole and drive in the plug
fit,
with a hammer. When the glue or filler is set, pare off the top of
the plugs with a chisel, and sandpaper it even with the surface
of the work.
Removing tight screws. To remove a tight screw, use a
screwdriver that has a blade with parallel sides, and fits the screw
slot perfectly. and shape of screwdriver is not
If the right size
used, the screw becomes “chewed,” making the job more difficult.
A tight screw sometimes can be started by giving it a slight twist
in a clockwise direction, that is, the same direction which drives
it in. If this does not help, twist the screw both ways, backing
it out as far as it will go easily, and then turning it part way
back in again. Each time this is repeated, the screw usually will
back out a little farther until it is all the way out. In some cases,
a screw with a damaged slot can be backed partly out, and then
turned the rest of the way with a pair of pliers.
Dressing screwdriver blades. A screwdriver is not a cutting
tool and for that reason does not have to be sharpened, but it
must be dressed or kept in condition. This is done by occasion-
ally grinding it on an emery
wheel or by filing the blade
with a flat file. Correct and in-
correct shapes for a screwdriver
are shown in Fig. 20.
When dressing a screwdriver
with a file, hold the screw-
driver in a vise and file the tip
absolutely straight across both
ends, at right angles to the
shank and the sides, with the
faces near the tip as parallel as
possible to each other (Fig. 24)
Never bevel or round the tip of
a screwdriver.
Whenusing an emery wheel for dressing a screwdriver, do not
hold the blade against the wheel too long, or the friction wheel
PLANES 55
willheat the steel and draw the temper

or soften the blade.
When dressing a screwdriver, dip the blade in water
at frequent
intervals.
PLANES
Planes are used for roughing down the
surface of lumber and
as finishing tools. They are classified
as either bench or block.
The bench plane is always used with the grain
of the wood; the
block plane for cutting across the grain.
Bench planes are made
in several types, each of which
has outstanding features.
The bench planes in common use are the smoothing,
jack, fore
and jointer types (Fig. 25). The smoothing plane, the shortest
of these, is used for finishing or leveling flat surfaces
after the
rough surface and unevenness has been
removed with a jack
plane. It is handy to use where only
small areas are to be leveled
off, as its short length makes
it simple to locate and
remedy these
uneven spots.
The smoothing plane smaller than a jack plane, but con-
is
siderably larger than the block plane.
It does not cut the end
grain of lumber as well as a block plane.
It ranges in size from
51/2 " to 10" in length and
is made like a jack plane,
but has a
shorter sole or bottom. A plane-iron
cap to coil and break the
shavings is attached to the plane iron.
The cutting edge on the
blade of a smoothing plane must be
set rather close to make a
fairly fine shaving.
A fore plane
merely a shorter type of jointer plane, and
is
is
sometimes preferable because of its light weight.
When it is
necessary to true up edges of boards preparatory
to fitting them
closely or jointing them, the jointer
plane is used. These four
types of planes are shown in Fig. 25.
Roughing or scrub plane. When more than l/i" of waste is
to be removed from a board, a roughmg or scrub plane
is used.
This plane is available in two sizes, 9i/^" and
10^^" long. A
roughmg or scrub plane is equipped with heavy
rounded blades.
It is used to clean up rough, dirty timber and to
true up large
pieces of wood to approximate size, preliminary
to doing a finish
job with either the smoothing or jack plane.
Circular plane. This special-type plane has
a flexible steel
bottom which is adjustable to form a curve for
planing either
BEGIN PLANING WITH

PRESSURE ON KNOB--
START OF
WORK
SMOOTH PLANE --APPLYING PRESSURE TOWARDS

5 '/2 TO 10" LONG. CENTER OF WORK SURFACE ON BOTH
KNOB AND HANDLE EVENLY--
JACK PLANE II* TO 15" LONG.

--FINISHING WITH REDUCED KNOB.j^
PRESSURE AND INCREASED HANDLE
PRESSURE--
FORE PLANE ie"LONG.
COMPLETING
END OF PLANING. .
JOINTER PLANE 22"TO 24" long for planing long surfaces.

^
Fig. 25.
concave or convex surfaces down to a minimum radius of 20".

Rabbet plane. Rabbet planes are used to cut out rabbets,
which are rectangular recesses at the ends or edges of a plank
to form what is known as a rabbet joint. Rabbet joints are de-
scribed more fully in Chap. 3 (page 125). The sole, or bottom,
of this plane is cut away so that the edge of the cutting iron is in
s
MODELMAKEWS PLANE 57
line with the side of the plane. When

with a special iron
fitted
called a spur, the rabbet plane can be used also
for planing across
the grain (Fig. 26).
Modelmaker’s plane. The modelmaker' plane, also called a
violin plane, is only 3" to 4" in length. The sole is curved in
both directions and the blade is rounded, conforming to the same
CORNERS
Fig. 26. Parts of a rabbet plane.
curvature. can be used to remove excess wood from a flat,

It
convex, or concave surface of any radius down to a
minimum of
12 , used by patternmakers, violin- and other instrument-
It is
makers, and professional modelbuilders. It can be bought only
on special order.
Spokeshave. While a spokeshave is not strictly a plane, it
sometimes is used for the same purpose and in the same manner.
It is an excellent tool for shaping curved pieces.
Adjustment of plane irons. A plane is a cutting tool set in
a block of metal or wood which serves to act as a guide
to regu-
late the depth of the cut. The plane iron, a chisel-like
tool, does
the actual cutting. Like all cutting tools, it must have a keen,
sharp edge and be adjusted correctly.
Bench planes, that is, the smoothing, fore, jointer, and jack
planes, have a plane-iron cap clamped to the cutting blade to
stiffen the iron and break and curve the shavings as they come
up through the throat of the tool. The position of the cap in
relation to the plane iron is adjustable by loosening the clamping
screw. In general, the edge of the cap should be about back
of the cutting edge of the iron. To regulate the thickness of
shavings, turn the plane upside down, holding the knob in the
left hand and the handle in the right. Look along the bottom
of the plane, and with the right hand begin turning the adjusting
screw until the blade projects about the thickness of a hair.
Then turn the adjusting lever left or right to straighten the
blade: the blade should never be at an angle.
In block planes, the blade is locked in position by a lever cap
or by a cam lever, which differ slightly in planes produced by dif-
ferent companies. Moving the lever-cap screw, or the lever, in
one direction locks the plane iron; moving it in the opposite
direction unlocks the iron when it is necessary to remove it from
the plane. By means
an adjusting screw, the sharpened lower
of
edge of the plane iron can be moved in and out of the mouth of
the plane. A block-plane iron is beveled on only one side of the
sharpened edge, and it is set in the frame of the plane with the
bevel up.
To up with the toe, or front, of
adjust a block plane, hold it
the plane facing forward, and the bottom level with the eye.
To regulate the thickness of shavings, turn the adjusting screw
until the sharp edge of the iron projects slightly through the sole.
This is called a vertical adjustment. To produce even shavings,
a lateral adjustment is made by loosening slightly the lever-cap
screw or the lever cam. Sight along the bottom of the plane.
Press the upper end of the blade near the adjustment screw either
to the right or left to bring the cutting edge of the blade parallel
to the bottom of the plane. Never
one corner of the blade
set
farther out of the throat of the plane than the other. Do not set
the blade too far out of the throat; it should project just enough
for the edge to be visible and to be felt with the fingertips (Figs.
27 and 28)
Correct method of using a plane. Grasp the handle of the
plane with the right hand, holding the knob firmly between the
thumb and forefinger of the left hand, with the finger joints of
the left hand protruding slightly over the edge of the plane. At
ADJUSTING A PLANE 59
Fig. 27. Adjusting a plane
the beginning of each stroke, the

pressure and driving force is
exerted by the left hand. As the stroke
progresses, the pressure
of the left hand is gradually lessened,
and that of the right hand
correspondingly increased until the pressure
from both of the
hands is approximately equal. Continue increasing the pressure
Fig. 28. Adjusting a plane.
from the right hand. At the end of the cut, the right hand will
be exerting the power and driving the plane, while the left hand
will be guiding the tool (Fig. 26)
When planing, always hold the plane level. If the plane is
tilted, it will produce uneven, thick shavings and ruin the trueness
of the work. To avoid dulling the cutter unnecessarily, lift the
plane above the work on all return strokes. When working on
long surfaces, begin at the right-hand side of the board, taking
a few strokes; then step forward and take the same number of
strokes, repeating until the entire surface of the board has been
planed, always with the grain. As the work progresses, use a try
square and level to determine the accuracy. For the first cuts
on any wide surface, a jack plane should be used. Its long face
rides over the low spots and dresses down the higher ones. The
cutter on a jack plane is ground convex form, which
in a slightly
facilitates the removal of thick shavings, and at the same time
avoids a rectangular shaving that would tend to choke up the
throat of the plane. Thus all parts of the blade coming in contact
with the work cut smooth, even shavings. This important fact is
SHARPENING A PLANE IRON 61
w
less. ^Th
The convex
® convexity is slightly
cutters of both planes will leave
a series of slight
groovy, but these are easily
removed with either a smoothing or
a jointer plane.
For cutting against the grain, the
block plane is used. Only
one hand IS employed; grasp
the sides of the tool between
the
umb and the second and third fingers, with the forefinger rest-
ing m
the hollow of the finger rest
at the front of the tool, and
with the lever cap under the
palm of the hand. Pressing down
and forward at the beginning of
each stroke and maintaining an
even pressure throughout the
forward motion is the secret of
proper y using a block plane.
To avoid splitting, plane the end
gram halfway, alternately from each
edge. If the plane is pushed
all the way across an
end grain, the comers and the edge
of the
work are apt to split off.
Sharpening a plane iron. Sharpening
a plane iron involves
two operations: grinding and whetting.
As a rule, the cutting
edge can be whetted several times
before grinding is necessary.
A plane iron requires grinding only when its bevel has become
short or when the edges have been nicked.
Because whetting is
P''°®c®s of grinding is described
here first
While the grinding of a plane iron
is similar to grinding
a
chisel or gouge, two important
points must be considered;avoid-
ing urning the cutting edge and
maintaining the correct bevel
H a motor-driven grinder is not
available, use a small hand-
driven grinder equipped with a
carborundum wheel of the right
type for chisels and plane irons.
Either type of grinding wheel
must be provided with an ad-
justable tool rest, which is set
to a grinding angle of 25° -30°
to produce the desired bevel
(Fig. 29).
Grinding a plane iron on a
dry emery or carborundum
wheel requires considerable care
and some experience. Burring
can be avoided by grinding
r,. 39 . Grinding a plane iron.
very lightly and by dripping either kerosene or water onto the
wheel to keep it from getting too dry, and by frequently dipping
the plane iron in water. If these precautions are not taken the
edge will overheat or burn, turning a blue-black color, and will
lose its temper. Steel that has lost its temper is softened and can
never be resharpened.
The edge must always be dressed smooth.
of a grinding wheel
If it becomes grooved or out of true, dress it with a carborundum
stick especially made for the purpose. Hold the carborundum
stick against the revolving wheel until the wheel has been
smoothed out.
Preparatory to grinding, the plane iron must be removed from
the plane. If it is a double plane-iron type, the iron must be
separated from the cap by loosening the screw and sliding it along
to the end of the slot, where its head
pass through the hole.
will
The right bevel or grinding angle for plane irons is 25° to 30°.
Maintaining it throughout is a simple matter if the adjustable
tool rest is used. Turn the wheel toward the tool, at the same
time moving the tool from side to side against the wheel. Exert
only a slight pressure against the wheel, as too much will cause
overheating, thus spoiling the tool. Grind the plane iron until a
fine bevel or wire edge appears.
Whetting a plane iron. A plane iron must be whetted after
grinding to remove the burr and to produce a clean
or wire edge
cutting edge. When a plane iron has become only slightly dull,
whetting it without prior grinding will usually restore a keen cut-
ting edge. A common oilstone with a fine surface on one side and
a rough surface on the other is used, with a light oil, such as
kerosene or kerosene mixed with a light motor oil, to float the
particles of steel and prevent them from filling up the pores of
the stone. The whetting bevel is usually 30° to 35°, slightly
greater than the grinding bevel. The bevel must at all times be
kept straight. With a steady motion, move the tool parallel to
the stone and with a figure-eight movement make certain that
all parts of the cutting edge come in contact with the stone (Fig.
30). To maintain the correct bend, use the toolholder shown in

the same illustration. After this bevel is cut, or if the blade has
been ground, the back of the blade will have a wire edge. Re-
move this edge by reversing the plane iron and taking several
CHISELS AND GOUGES 53
strokes with the blade flat on the stone
(Fig. 30). Then com-
plete the whetting by drawing the edge
over a small wooden block
or a leather strap. Hold the blade up
to the light to determine
its sharpness. A sharp edge does not reflect light. A dull edge
willshow as a fine white line; if this occurs, repeat
both operations.
Reassembling a plane iron. Reassemble a newly
sharpened
plane iron with extreme care to avoid nicking
keen edge. Lay
its
the plane-iron cap across the flat side
of the iron with the screw
m the slot. Pull it down and away from the cutting edge, and
turn the cap parallel to the iron when
it is almost at the end
of
the slot. Hold the cap and iron together
and slide the cap for-
ward until its edge is about back of the cutting edge of the
iron. To avoid nicking or dulling the blade, do not
move the
cap or drag it across the cut-
ting edge. When the cap is in
proper position, hold the cap
and iron firmly together and
tighten the screw that will hold
the two parts of the double
plane iron together. When not
in use, lay the plane down on
its side to protect the blade,
and set the blade far in so that
it cannot be damaged by other
tools falling against it (Figs.
31 and 32).
CHISELS AND GOUGES

Theremany kinds of
are
woodworking chisels and
gouges: paring, firmer, framing,
packet, sikh, corner, gouge,
butt, and mill chisels (Fig. 33).
Those most generally used in
the home workshop are the
framing, butt, and packet types,
each of which is available with
either a straight or a bevel
edge, according to its intended 30. whetting a plane iron.
use. and gouges come in two types known as the tang

All chisels
and the socket (Fig. 34). For general use the socket type is
preferable because it is more durable. One end of the steel blade
of the socket chisel is formed into a funnel-shaped socket that fits
over the tapered end of either a wood or plastic handle. The
HANDLE
RESTING INCORRECTLY BEVEL BLADE
CUTTJNC EDGE OF BLADE WILL

BE DAMAGED IN THIS POSITION. PARING
SOCKET
TYPES
RESTING CORRECTLY
TO PROTECT BLADE ALWAYS
SET PLANE DOWN ON ITS SIDE.
GOUGE
Fig. 31.
CORNER
TANG TYPE
Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Types of chisels.

WOODCARVING CHISELS AND GOUGES 65
lighter chisels range

from Vs" to 1" in width in gradations of i/g".
The heavier type range from 1" to 2" in width in
gradations of
While each type of chisel is designed for a
specific job, a set
of nine or ten, which includes four or
five of each of the firmer
and framing type, is considered sufficient for
general work. The
firmer chisel is sturdier than
the paring chisel, capable of
is
doing fairly heavy work, and is TANG TYPE

used for paring and light mor-
tising work. The framing chisel
is a heavy-duty tool that cuts
deeply, and it will stand con-
siderable hard handling. firmer gouges
OUTSIDE GROUND TYPES
The keen cutting edge of a
chisel demands constant care. OFFSET SHANK
A never should be used
chisel
as a can opener, wedge, putty
PARING GOUGE
knife, INSIDE GROUND
nail remover or screw-
driver. When a chisel is not in Fig, 34. Types of gouge.
use, protect its cutting edge
from rust with a coat of oil and hang it up to
prevent damage.
Gouges are chisels with rounded edges. There are two main
classes of gouges: firmer and paring. The firmer gouge
either is
outside- or inside-ground. The paring gouge is ground on the
inside only. Firmer gouges are used for cutting hollows or
grooves. Paring gouges are used to cut surfaces
or ends in irregu-
lar forms, and are used by patternmakers
almost exclusively for
the shaping of core boxes and patterns. Both
types are available
with either socket or tang handles, and the sizes
range from Vg"
to 2" in gradations of i/g".
Wood-carving chisels and gouges. Wood-carving chisels and

puges differ considerably from the ordinary types. The sides,
instead of being parallel, taper toward the shoulder,
and they
are beveled. For general wood-carving, gouges
are available in
eleven different curves, graduating from almost
flat to a deep
U-curve. They are classified according to their shape (Fic^s 35
^ v <= •
and 36).
The small, deepU-shaped gouges are called veiners. Fluters
are the larger ones that have quick turns. Flats
are those that
have a and are almost flat. In addition to

slight curve these,
there are three V-shaped gouges also known as parting tools,
further classified as being acute,
medium, and obtuse.
Wood-carving chisels are
classified as firmers and skew
firmers, and are either square
or oblique on the ends (Fig.
37). Skew firmers with bent
i 1 i
1*
1 £ X
W w
w ^ V-/ V-/
W
w
V V-/
c-/
w U u yj \J yj
W U Kj yj yj KJw^
V V V V V V V V
¥ V V V V V V V
V V V' \/
1-INCH
i'
Fig. 36. Chart of sizes and cutting

Fig. 35. Wood-carving chisels and edges of wood-carving chisels and
gouges. gouges.
USING A CHISEL 67
shanks are also available for either right- or left-hand use.

W ood-carving chisels are available in eighteen different sizes,
from y^2 to 1 ' in gradations. They are fitted with either
straight or bent shanks. The firmers range from ^4" to T' in
Mfi gradations. The
other wood-carving chisels are available in
six sizes from 1" to 2" in 14 " gradations.
All the smaller sizes
are available with either spade- or fishtail-shaped
blades. These
specially shaped blades afford greater clearance
back of the cut-
ting edge and are used only
when carving intricate designs
(Fig. 35).
Using a chisel. To preserve
the fine cutting edge of a chisel
or a gouge, use another tool,
such as a saw, auger, or plane,
to remove as much of the waste
part of the wood as possible. A
chisel should be used oniy for Fig. 37.
the finishing cuts.
Grasp the handle of the chisel firmly with the
right hand,
which supplies the driving power. Hold the blade
with the left
hand to control the direction of the cut. Secure the
work in a
vise, and keep hands away from the cutting
edge of tool to avoid
injury. Donot start to cut directly on the guideline, but slightly
away from it, so that any accidental splitting will occur in
the
waste portion rather than in the finished work. Shavings
made
with a chisel should always be thin, especially
when making the
finishing cut. Always cut with the grainas much as possible,
for cutting against the grain splits the fibers of
the wood, leaving
it rough. Cutting with the grain leaves the wood fairly smooth.
Make chiseling cuts either horizontally or vertically.
Vertical
chiseling cuts are usually made across the grain.
When using a chisel, hold it at a slight angle to the cut instead
of straight. This produces a clean shearing cut that is smooth
when made with the grain and on end grains (Fig. 38). On cross-
grained wood, work from both directions (Fig. 39
).
To
cut curves on corners or edges, first remove as much
waste
as possible with the saw. To cut a concave curve, hold
the chisel
with the bevel on the work, and make the cut by pushing
down
and then pulling back on the handle For a convex
(Fig. 40).
cut, hold the chisel with the flat side of the tool on the work and
the beveled side up, with the left hand holding the tool and apph'-
ing the necessary pressure, while the right hand guides it and acts
as a brake at the same time. To secure a clean shearing cut,
hold the chisel tangent to the curve and move from side to side.
When paring on corners and
ends, observe the direction of
POSH
DOWN the grain and begin the cut at
AT A
'•*.TILT
SLIGHT the edge of the work {A, Fig.
ANGLE
41). This prevents the work
from splitting. Round corners
are pared in the same manner
(B, Fig. 41). When making a
shearing cut, bring the chisel
from a straight to a slanting
position, sliding it from side to
side as you press it down on the
work, as shown at C and D,
Fig. 41.
'angular SHEARING CUT When paring a shoulder of a
joint or cleaning out a corner,
Fig. 38.
first hold the chisel vertically,
then tipped to get a shearing
cut when you draw it toward
you, as shown at A in Fig. 42.
The position of the chisel for
flat or horizontal paring is
shown at B. When making a

shearing cut in a recess or other
close place, take half the cut, as
in C. When it is necessary to
work across the grain, the posi^
tion of the tool for vertical par-
ing shown at D.
is
Using a gonge. Gouges are

used for cutting hollows and
Fig. 39. Cross-grain paring. grooves, and are handled in the
USING WOODCARVING GOUGE OR
CHISEL 69
same manner as chisels, with the following
exceptions Gouge
cuts are always started at the edge
of a cut and driven toward
the center. When gouging out
a large hollow, cut across grain.
jouges with inside bevels are used in the
same manner as chisels
with the bevel up, those with
outside bevels as chisels with the
bevel down.
Using a wood-carving gouge
or chisel. Wood-carving chisels
and gouges are used in carving
designs in low relief. Sketch or
trace an outline of the required
design on the wood (A, Fig.
43). Use a small-sized gouge,
or what is known as a pattern
tool, to go over the entire out-
line of the design, cutting on
the background side of the out-
line (B, Fig. 43). When doing
this,be careful to note the di-
rection of the grain in the raised
part of the design. Observe the
curves of the design and cut
out the outline with the proper
curved chisel or gouge, tapping
the tool with a mallet (C, Fig.
43). Use a gouge to cut out
the background. The final step
in carving is to model the face Fig. 40. Cutting concave and con-
of the design by putting in the vex curves.
details with the veiners. Then
clean out the edges and background of
the work and even it off
(D, Fig. 43). To have a really effective
piece of wood carving, be
careful to avoid cutting under the outline
of the design, making
the edges too sharp, or even giving
too smooth a finish to the
carved-out background.
Manybeautiful designs can be executed by merely
outlining
with one of the small gouges or veiners.
Work can be improved
further by cutting or stamping down
the background and by
slightly modeling the raised part of the design. The skew chisel
is used for chip carving, which is very simple and, when not over-
done, very effective (Fig. 44). Trace or draw the design on the
work. Make the necessary vertical first cuts with the carving
tool to the required depth {A, Fig. 44). Then make the second
or tapering cut toward the bottom of the first cut. If properly
SHEARING CUTS
Fig. 41. Paring comers and end Fig. 42. Cleaning corners and par-
sections. ing shoulders of joints.
SHARPENING A CHISEL OR GOUGE 71
cut, the portion to be removed

will come out one chip (B,
in
Fig. 44) Another method used
.
for chip carving is shown at C,

Fig. 44.
Sharpening a chisel or
gouge. When the cutting edge
of a chisel or gouge becomes
dull, whetting will restore its
keenness. While the procedure
for whetting and grinding a
chisel is the same as for a plane
iron, the following must be con-
sidered. The large bevel of 25°
to 30° must be whetted on the
coarse side of the oilstone and
the small bevel on the fine side.
Remove the burr or wire edge
on the fine side of the stone.
When the cutting edge has be-
come badly nicked or when the
tool has lost its original bevel,
grinding is necessary. To
sharpen a chisel by either whet-
ting or grinding, see the direc-
tions for Sharpening a Plane
Iron, just a few paragraphs
back (Fig. 45).
Whetting and grinding a
gouge. Directions for sharp-
ening a gouge are to a large ex-
tent the same as for a plane
jron or a chisel, with the excep-
tion that a gouge is curved and
Fig. 43. Wood-carving procedures.
must be sharpened by being
turned from side to side as it is
pushed forward on the oilstone (D, Fig. 46). A slipstone
must be
used for removing the burr wire edge of a gouge with an
outside
bevel and for whetting a gouge with an inside
bevel (A, B, and C,
Fig. 44. Chip carving procedures and suggested border designs.
ADJUSTABLE
ANGLE AND
CHISEL HOLDER
APPLY
FORWARD
AND
DOWNWARD^
PRESSURES
AT ABOUT 25’
Fig. 45. Sharpening a chisel.

BRACES AND BITS 73
Fig. 46. Whetting and sharpening a gouge.
Fig. 46). When holding the slipstone in the hand, be careful

to
keep the cutting edge of the gouge true.
The wire edge of the
gouge with an inside bevel is removed by holding
the unbeveled
side flat to the stone (Fig. 46).
BRACES AND BITS

The three types of braces are the plain,
the ratchet, and the
corner brace (Fig. 47). The brace and bit
are used for boring
holes in wood. The bit bores the holes, while the brace holds
the bit in the chuck and turns it. The
chuck is adjustable and
can hold any type or size of auger bit. A
brace can also be
utilized as a screwdriver by inserting
a screwdriver bit in the
chuck.
The most practical type of brace for general use is
the one
with the ratchet control. This has a
ball-bearing handle which
Fig. 47.
makes it easy to turn, and the ratchet can be locked or made to

operate in either direction. This brace can be used in places
where it is impossible to make a full turn of 360°. In corners or
other inaccessible places, the corner brace is used.
Types and sizes of auger bits. Auger bits are available in
sizes from to 1" in diameter, graduated by
For boringVie".
holes smaller than in diameter, drills, gimlet bits, and even
awls are used. For boring holes larger than 1", expansive or
Forstner bits are used. Sizes of auger bits are indicated by a
number stamped on the shank of the bit which gives the diameter
Fig. 48. Parts of the auger bit.

TYPES AND SIZES OF AUGER BITS 75
of the hole it will bore, in sixteenths of an inch. A No. 8 auger

bit bores a hole 1/ " in diameter and a
2 s/ig" auger is marked No. 5 ’
and so on.
An auger bit is essentially a cutting tool.
The working parts
of the bit are the screw, the spurs or
nibs, and the lips (Fig. 48)
The spurs or nibs score the circumference of the
hole, the lips cut
the shavings, and the twist or thread of the
bit pulls the shavings
out of the hole. The three types of auger bits
are the single-twist,
double-twist, and straight-core or solid-center.
The smgle-twist and the straight-core types are more generally
used in woodworking. These are fast borers,
and they clear
themselves of chips more readily and quickly
than the double-
twist type. They are generally used for
hard and gummy woods.
While the double-twist type works slower than
the single-twist.
It makes a more accurate and
smoother hole. It is generally used
for working with softwoods.
Dowel bits. The dowel bit is a shorter
bit, averaging about
one half the length of the auger bit. As the name
indicates, it is
used principally for drilling holes for the
insertion of dowels
(Fig. 49).
Gimlet bits. Considerably longer than any of the other bits,
gimlet bits are from 18" to 24" in length (Fig.
49). They are
used to bore holes through very thick timbers
and planks in
Fig. 49. Types of bits.

heavy construction work. Some gimlet bits have neither screw
nor spur.
Forstner bits. The Forstner bit has neither screw, spurs, nor
twist (Fig. 49). The lack of a guiding screw makes this bit more
difficult to center than the conventional type. accom-
Cutting is
plished by the two lips and a circular steel rim, with the rim
centering the bit and scoring the circumference of the hole. These
are very accurate bits and are made in sizes up to 2" in diameter,
with the size indicated in sixteenths of an inch on the tang of the
tool.
Centering a Forstner bit is a little can be simpli-
tricky, but it
fied by drawing a circle on the work equal in diameter to the

size of the hole that is to be bored. Then start the bit so that
the rim cuts into the circumference of the circle. Although more
difficult to use than the ordinary type, the Forstner bit has certain
advantages. It is used in end wood, where an auger bit does not

bore so well, and to bore holes near an end in very thin wood,
where the screw on an auger bit would split the stock. A Forstner
bit is used to bore holes straight through cross-grained and knotty
wood, and to bore a larger hole where a smaller hole has previ-
ously been bored. The latter cannot be done with an ordinary
auger bit without plugging up the smaller hole.
Using a brace and bit. Insert the bit in the chuck and
tighten the brace (Fig. 47). Secure the work in a vise, locate
the center of the hole to be bored, and mark it with either a nail
or a brad awl. Place the lead screw of the bit on the mark and
start boring. To bore a straight hole, check the perpendicular or
horizontal position of the bit by sighting the auger or drill from
two points 90° apart. Make one of these sights when the boring
is begun, and two more after the hole is fairly well started.
Another method of testing the perpendicular or horizontal posi-

tion of the auger bit is with a small try square. Continue boring,
rotating the handle in a clockwise direction, at the same time
exerting pressure on the head of the brace with the other hand.
The harder the wood, the more pressure has to be applied. Avoid
splintering the wood by stopping when the bottom of the lead
screw appears on the underside of the work. Remove the work
from the vise, reverse it, replace it in the vise, and complete the
boring from the reverse side (Fig. 50).
DEPTH GAUGE 77
50. Correct method of boring.
Boring a hole at an angle is just as simple as boring

a perpen-
dicular hole. The only difference is in the sighting.
A simple
method to lay out the required angle on a piece of
is
cardboard
or thin wood and use this angle in sighting the
direction of the
auger bit. If the bit is kept parallel to this template, it will
bore the hole at the desired angle.
Depth Gauge. A depth gauge used to bore a hole to a
is
desired depth (Fig. 51). While ready-made gauges
are available,
a wooden gauge can be made from a small block of
wood. Bore
a hole in a block, slightly larger in diameter than the
bit. The
height of the block will vary inversely according
to the depth of
the hole that is to be bored. The depth gauge is
slipped over the
bit prior to boring.
Fif. 51, Using depth gauges.

Twist Twist drills from 1/10 " to %" in diameter are avail-
drills.
able with tapered shanks to fit in a ratchet brace. Morse twist
drills (Fig. 62) are made with a straight shank to fit in the chuck
of either a hand, automatic push, electric, or breast drill (Fig. 53).

The three-jaw chuck in a hand or electric drill will take drills up
to 1/4" in diameter. For a larger size, use a breast drill. The
chuck on a breast drill takes drills up to I/2 " in diameter. Twist
drills are available in over fifty sizes.
Using a twist drill. A twist drill must be held steady and be

driven at moderate speed in a
straight direction. The shank
of a twist drill is made of soft
steel and will bend if too much
pressure is exerted on it. The
body of the drill is of tempered
steel and if strained or twisted
it will snap off. When driven
at excessive speed, a twist drill
bites rapidly into the wood and
the chips do not clear out of the
flutes of the drill. The drill
then becomes hot, at times hot

enough to char the wood and
spoil the temper of the drill,
ruining its keen cutting edge.
When the flutes of a twist drill
become jammed with chips, the drill squeaks as it revolves. To
clear the chips from the flutes, the drill should be withdrawn
several times from the hole during the drilling.
Expansion or extension bits. Expansion or extension bits are

used to bore holes larger than 1" in diameter (Fig. 49). These
bits fit into the chuck of a brace. Two sizes are available: one
for boring holes from to l^/^" in diameter, the other for bor-
ing holes from to 3" in diameter. They have adjustable cut-
ting blades which can be set to bore holes of any diameter within
their range. Loosening the screw that fastens the spur and the
cutting lip to the shank makes it possible to move the spur and
adjust the bit to the required diameter. Before using, tighten
HAND DRILLS 79
BREAST
SUPPORT handle with
CAP removable
ON SOME TYPES
FOR HOLDING
TWIST DRILLS
OR DRILL POINTS
CRANK DUAL
HANDLE SPEED REMOVABLE
CEARS HANDLE ON
SIDE
SPEED GEAR
DRIVER
SPEED
CHANGE
SHIFT
PIN
DUAL
PINIONS
DRIVEN
PINION
CHUCK — TYPICAL
MAX,
1/2'' CHUCK 1/4" MAX.
drill DRILL SIZE
CAPACITY CAPACITY
TWIST DRILL
BREAST DRILL
HAND DRILL
CHUCK SIZE FOR HANDLE. PUSHING ACTION

DRILL POINTS rotates drill also
l/ie- TO 11/64-
CONTAINS SPACE FOR EIGHT
DRILLS
AUTOMATIC PUSH DRILL
Fig. 53. Types of hand drills.
this screw so that the spur will not slip. The accuracy
of the
adjustment that has been made should be tested by boring
a
sample hole through a piece of waste wood. Expansion
bits are
secured in the chuck of the brace and used in the
same manner
as other types of bits.
Countersink bits.
Countersink bits are available in two
types, one with a tapered shank fitting into the chuck
of a brace,
the other with a straight round shank fitting into
the chuck of a
drill. Countersinks are used to shape the upper portion of a hole
so that the head of a flathead
SCREW screw can be driven flush with
or slightly below the surface of
SPUR
the work.
AUGER Sharpening an auger bit.
BIT FILE
An auger-bit file and a slip-
stone are used to sharpen an
FILE SPURS ON INSIDES auger bit. The specially de-
on\_y, avoids reduction
OF BIT DIAMETER. signed file is small, double-
TOWARD SHANK
FILE LIP ON SIDE
ended, and tapered so that the
TO RETAIN BOTTOM narrow portion can be used on
CLEARANCE.'
small-diameter bits and the
wider portion on larger bits
(Fig. 54). One end is made
with the sides “safe” or uncut,
LIP
while the end has cut
other
Fig. 54. Sharpening an auger bit. edges. In sharpening an auger
bit, file both the lips and the
nibs of the spurs. The safe section of an auger-bit file makes it

easy to file either the lips or the nibs without damaging any of the
adjacent surfaces. To keep the original diameter of the bit, file
the nibs only on the inside. To maintain the proper clearance,
file the lips of the bit only on the top surface of the cutting edge.
Hold the bit in a vise and maintain its original bevel. After
filing, use a slipstone.
SCRAPERS
The two types of scrapers used in woodworking are the cabinet
scraper (Fig. 55) and the hand scraper. The three styles of
)
hand scrapers generally used are shown in Fig. 56. All are avail-
able with either bevel or straight edges.
Cabinet scraper. The cabinet scraper is used as a finishing
tool. than a plane and is used only on flat
It takes a finer cut
surfaces to remove marks left by a plane or to prepare the sur-
face for painting or finishing. It produces a smooth cut on cross-
grained wood. The beveled blade, which is set in a two-handled
metal frame (Fig. 55), can be removed by loosening the adjust-
ing screw and the clamp thumbscrew. Insert the new blade with
the beveled side toward the thumbscrew.
SCRAPERS 81
Using a cabinet scraper. Before using a cabinet
scraper,
place it on a flat wooden surface and adjust
the blade so that it
is even with the bottom of the
scraper by pressing it down lightly
against the wood. Tighten both the clamp screw and the adjust-
ing screw and make a test cut on some
waste wood. Continue
to tighten the adjusting screw between
test cuts until the blade
projects far enough to produce a thin shaving.
The work should be secured in a vise. Hold the tool in both
hands and either push or pull it over the surface
of the work.
As a rule, it is pushed rather than pulled (Fig.
55).
Hand scrapers. The two types ofone-hand scrapers generally
used are the hand scraper, which is rectangular, and the molding
scraper, which iscurved (Fig. 56). They are made of

high-
tempered steel in various sizes and can be used
on both flat and
curved surfaces. They
are available with both square and
bev-
eled edges. The square-edge type
produces a smoother and flat-
^r surface, but is not so fast as the bevel-edge
type, and becomes
dull sooner. Square-edge scrapers
are used for furniture, mold-
ings, and cabinetwork. Bevel-edge scrapers are
used for scraping
floors and other large areas.
Using a hand scraper. A hand scraper
produces finer shav-
ings than a cabinet scraper. While
it may be either pushed or
pulled, better work results when it
is pulled. Hold the blade
with the thumb and fingers of both
hands; it cuts best when
PUSHING OR
PULLING-
ACTION
OVER
WORK
SURTACES
AT 75*
MOLDING
SCRAPERS
'"'Kvx. Vvx \\x\x\
/V\
Fig. 56. Hand scrapers.
slightly curved. When

pushed or pulled, a hand scraper
either
must be held at an angle of 75° to the work {A and B, Fig. 56).
Sharpening a scraper blade. Directions for sharpening a
scraper blade are similar to those for a plane iron, with a few
exceptions. The cutting edge can be dressed several times before
it requires grinding and whetting (Fig. 57). To sharpen a bevel-
edge scraper, place the blade, cutting edge up, in a vise. With
a smooth mill file held against the side, not the edge of the blade,
remove the old burr. The worn-down bevel is restored by filing
BURNISHER
HOOK EDGE
FORMED
/'A
Fig. 57. Sharpening bevel-edge hand scraper and drawing edge.

MEASURING AND LAYING OUT TOOLS 83
or grinding the blade to a 45° angle.
Maintaining this angle,
whet the bevel on the smooth side of an oilstone.
To remove
the wire edge, whet the blade face-down on
the stone. Lay the
blade, bevel side down, on the work, with
the edge projecting
slightly over the edge of the bench. With the burnisher held
perfectly flat against the flat side of the blade, a few firm strokes
will be sufficient to draw the edge to the required 50°.
Proceed
to form the hook edge as shown at C, D
and E, Fig. 57.
The procedure for sharpening a square-edge scraper is
as fol-
lows. Hold file at 90° angle and file edge square
{A, Fig. 57).
Whet edge on and turn blade on side to remove wire
oilstone
edges. Draw edge with burnisher as shown at B;
then proceed
with steps C, D and E, Fig. 58.
MEASURING AND LAYING-OUT TOOLS

Prior to cutting lumber to any required size or shape,
guiding
lines must be accurately measured and laid
out. The measuring
and laying-out tools are rules, straightedges, squares, and gauges.
Rules. Rules are used for measuring material to exact dimen-
sions. Those most generally used in woodworking are made of
wood and are called zigzag and boxwood. Both the zigzag and
Fig. 58. Methods of sharpening square-edge hand scraper.

boxwood types fold into 6" lengths. Boxwood is the smaller of
the two, can be opened to either 2' or 3', and is marked in inches
and graduations to The zigzag rule opens to a length of 6'
and is marked in inches and graduations to (Fig. 59).
Steel tape rules are used to measure the diameter of dowels and
drills, the thickness of boards and for inside direct measurements.
Fig. 59. Zigzag rule.
They are more accurate than other rules for these specific purposes
(Fig. 60). They are available in several sizes, ranging from 2' to
8' in length, and are graduated in feet, inches, and fractions of
inches on both sides.
Where absolute accuracy to is necessary, the caliper rule
shown in Fig. 61 is used for both inside and outside measurements.

The boxwood caliper rule is used to measure outside diameters or
thicknesses (Fig. 62).
Steel straightedges. Steel straightedges are strips of hardened
tempered steel thathave been accurately ground. They are avail-
able in lengths ranging from 1' to 6'. Unlike rules, they are not
-e—WORK FACE
, t
_
1 l|H . f 1. i l.t,
,
i
Lrf
INSIDE DIRECT READING
•
MEASUREMENT
Fig. 60. Steel tape rule.
SQUARES 85
HEAD GRADUATED SLIDE
OUT IN
FOR INSIDE AND

OUTSIDE CALIPERING
Fig. 61. Inside and outside caliper rule.
graduatBcl in inches or fractions of an inch. They are used as

guides for scribing working lines with a knife or pencil when ex-
treme accuracy is required. Straightedges are also used for testing
flatness of surfaces.
Squares. The
several types of squares used in woodworking
are the carpenter’s or framing square, the try square with fixed
blade, and the adjustable miter and try square with sliding blade
and spirit level.
Carpenter’s or framing squares. The carpenter’s or framing
square is made of flat steel.
It is available in two standard
sizes, 24" by 16" and 24" by
18". The 24" side is called the
body, and the shorter dimen-
sion at right angles is called
the tongue. Both are marked
not only in inches and frac-
tions of an inch, but with sev-
eral essential tables and scales.
They can be used both as rules
and as straightedges (Fig. 63).
Try squares. Try squares
are constantly used in wood-
working for testing the true-
ness of edges and ends with
adjoining edges and with the Fig. 62. Boxwood caliper rule.
face of the work after the work has been cut or planed. The
common or fixed type is constructed of two parts, a thick wood
or iron stock, and a thin steel blade, fixed at 90° to each other;
the blade is graduated in inches and fractions of an inch. The

vaiy from 2" to 12" (Fig. 64).
sizes of the blades
The adjustable miter and try square is similar in every respect
Fig. 64. Try and miter squares with fixed

blade.
to the fixed-blade type with the exception that it can be used for
both 45° and 90° work (Fig. 65). Its blade can be locked at any
point along its length. The stock is fitted with a spirit level.
USING A SQUARE 87
Using a square. In using a square, a guideline
must always
be marked across the surface of the work.
When it is necessary
to cut, plane, or chisel a board square, either a try square or a
carpenter’s square is used to lay out the work or to mark the nec-
essary guideline. A pencil is quite satisfactory for marking guide-
SLIDING BLADE
LOCK N MITER
STEEL PIRIT
SCRIBER LEVELS
Fig, 65. Adjustable try and miter square.
lines forroughing out woodwork, but where accuracy is necessary,

guidelines should preferably be laid out with the
blade of a pocket-
knife or a bench knife. The tip of the blade
should be used to
get a clean, accurate line. A guideline must
be exactly located
and must always be square with the edges of the work. If
a board
is wide, that is, if it averages wider
than the blade of a try square,
a carpenter square must be used. To square a line with a try
s
square, press the stock of the try square firmly against

the edge
of the board, and mark the guideline along the blade with the
point of the pencil or the knife blade {A, Fig.
66).
In squaring a line across a board, one edge and
one face of the
board should be marked with X*s so that they can
be distin-
guished as the working edge and face. Then square
a line from
the working edge across the working face {B, Fig.
66). Be certain
that the working edge is perfectly flat so that the square does not
rock. Always square from the working face across both
lines
edges. Then, holding the stock of the square up against the
working edge, square a line across the face on the side of the
board opposite the working edge.
Testing for squareness. To test a board for squareness, place
the inside edge of the stock of the square in contact with one sur-
face. Face the light so that it on the work. Slide the
will shine
square downward and observe where the blade first comes in con-
tact with the surface of the work. If the angle is square and the
surface of the work is true, no light will be visible. If the angle
does not happen to be square, or if the surface of the work is not
GAUGES 89
absolutely true, light will shine through
between the blade and the
work (C and D, Fig. 66).
Gauges. Two
types of gauges are used by the
woodworker-
the marktnff gauge and the mortise
gauge. The marking gauge is
the one more commonly used when
absolute accuracy is required
Constructed of either wood or metal, the
marking gauge consists
of an 8 bar on which the head of the
gauge slides. The head can
be secured at any desired point on the
bar by means of a thumb-
screw (Fig. 67). A sharpened pin or
spur affixed near the end of
STO^ LOCKING SHOE

SCREW THUMB SCREW
i.1iIAiD.iJi,i.i.Ij:i. I.L^
MARKING GAUGE
BAR SPUR OR PIN POINT
PROJECT ABOUT 1/|«*
HEADS FACE PLATES
SLIDING SPUR
BAR SLOT\
MORTISE GAUGE
TWO OR THREE BAR OR BEAM
SPURS, VARIES WITH TYPE
SPUR ADJUSTING SCREW
Fig. 67. Two types of woodworking gauges.
the bar scores the gauged line on the

work. The bar of the mark-
ing gauge is graduated in inches
and fractions of an inch.
The mortise gauge is a marking gauge with
two spurs instead
of one and is used for laying out
mortises and tenons. The two
spurs, one of which can be set
independently, are used to score
parallel lines.
Using marking gauges. Set the head of the gauge the required
distance from the spur or pin, and secure
it in place with the lock-
ing screw. Grasp the gauge with the
palm and the fingers of the
right hand. Press the head firmly
against the edge of the work
to be marked, and with a motion of
the wrist, tip the head forward
slightly until the point of the spur just
touches thewood. Score
the line by pushing the gauge away from
you, keeping the head
firmly against the edge of the work (Fig.
68) Note that the point .
of the spur must always be filed sharp

and project approximately
Vie •
The mortise gauge is used in approximately the same manner
as the marking gauge, the only difference being that the two spurs
are set the required distance
apart by securing the movable
one with the thumbscrew in
MARKING
GAUGE the end of the beam, before the
head is adjusted (Fig. 68).
LEVELS
A level is a simple tool that

indicates true vertical and
true level positions. It may
have either an aluminum or a
wooden frame in which two or
four glass liquid-and-bubble
tubes are mounted. Levels
made ofaluminum are light
in weight and do not warp or
rust. When there are four
tubes, they are mounted in
sets of two, each set at right
angles to the other.
Using a level. The use of
a level on either a flat or a
MORTISE GAUGE vertical surface is shown in
Fig. 69. In either position,
SLIDE SPUR POINT when the bubble in one of the
SETTING SCREW
tubes is absolutely in the cen-
Fig. 68. Marking gauges. ter —that is, between indicated
lines on the tube —the work is
level or plumb. When the bubble is off center, the work is not
level.
CLAMPS
Clamps used woodworking are the bar clamp, C clamp, hand
in
screws, cabinetmaker’s clamp, and cramping clamp. All are used
to hold work together under pressure until glue has set firmly.
These clamps and their use are shown in Chaps. 3 and 5
TOOL STORAGE AND RUST PREVENTION
9J
GLASS CUTTER
The procedures for the use of all types and sizes of glass cut-
ters are identical. When
cutting glass with this simple tool
a
steel ruler or straight edge must
be used to guide the tool. Set
rule where cut is desired. Exert an
even pressure of the wheel of
the tool on both the glass and the
edge of the ruler or straight
edge to score a line at required place
on glass. After line has
been scored, grip the waste part of the
glass in the groove of the
cutter and snap gently to break the
glass along the scored line
Fig, 69, Vertical plumb test with wood-

type level.
TOOL STORAGE AND RUST PREVENTION

Every tool in the workshop should have its proper place. Tools
that are most often in use should be kept
at hand on a tool rack
specially designed for that purpose. Plans
and directions for build-
ing a tool rack are given in Chap. 18 .
Tools that are not used frequently should be

stored in a tool
chest or in the individual boxes in
which they were originally
packed. During the damp spring and summer months, each tool
should be coated with a film of oil or grease to prevent rust. When
tools are to be stored for any length of time, it is good practice,
in addition to coating, to wrap them in paper for protection from
moisture and dust.
The cutting edges of tools must be protected at all times. In
addition to the tool rack, a well-designed tool chest or a sturdy
workbench in which each tool has its own place is desirable. Plans
and directions for building a workbench are given in Chap. 18.
Removing rust from tools. When hammers,
rust forms on
chisels, saws, and screwdrivers, it can be easily removed. While
there are several rust-removing solutions that work fairly well, the
most satisfactory method of removing rust from these tools is with
No. 240 emery paper or emery cloth. To remove a heavy coating
of rust from surfaces that must be kept true, like the bottom of a
plane, or a surface on which graduations and scales are marked,
place this fine emery cloth on a flat surface and rub the tool on it.
This method of removing rust serves a double purpose, for it
helps to retain the true surface of the tool and also removes any
high or low spots that have been caused by the formation of rust.
After the rust has been removed, rub the tool clean with a dry
cloth and coat it with a film of oil or grease.
CHAPTER 3
Working with Wood

— •
In selecting wood for a given purpose,

the ease with which it
may be worked is sometimes a factor, especially when hand tools
are to be used. {See Table
showing classification of certain
1
hardwood and softwood species according to ease
of working with
hand tools.)
Woodworking nowadays is largely done with portable
power
tools or machines rather than with
hand tools. Different woods
vary in their machining properties just as
they do in other prop-
erties.In addition, several machining operations
are involved, all
of which must be considered in
appraising the machinability of
any given wood.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WOODS

The choice of one
wood species in preference to another for any
of the principal home or farm uses should seldom be based on a
single vital property. Usually a favorable combination of two or
more basic qualities or characteristics should
determine the selec-
tion. Distinguishing characteristics, qualities, or marks
common
to a species or group are usually
classified as physical, mechan-
ical, or chemical properties.
Today it is more important than ever to select the

most appro-
priate wood product for each use in
the home. Wood products
are now being made in more forms
and from a greater variety
of species than ever before. What was most suitable for a par-
ticular use a few years ago may not be so today.
Standard sizes for boards and dimension are larger for lumber
93
94 WORKING WITH WOOD
surfaced green than lumber surfaced dry. When lumber surfaced
green dries to the standard dry moisture content, it will shrink
to approximately the standard dry surfaced size.
Most hardwoods differ substantially from softwoods in their

properties (basic characteristics) and in their uses. As a class,
hardwoods are heavier, harder, shrink more, and are tougher.
Hardwoods and softwoods are similar in stiffness, so on a weight
basis the softwoods are actually much stiffer. In strength as a
post and in bending strength the two groups are more directly
comparable than they are in weight, toughness, and hardness.
Nevertheless, more commercial hardwoods than softwoods can be
rated high in bending strength.
The softwoods are used principally in construction wmrk,
whereas hardwoods furnish most of the wood for interior finish
and flooring as well as for furniture, implements, and other in-
dustrial uses. In addition to normal construction uses, 2" and
thicker lumber is also sold stress-graded for more carefully engi-
neered components such as trusses.
Hardness
Hardness is the property that makes a surface difficult to dent,

scratch, or cut. Generally, the harder the wood, the better it
resists wear, the less it crushes or mashes under loads, and the
better it can be polished. On the other hand, the harder wood
is more difficult to cut with tools, harder to nail, and more likely
to split in nailing.
Hardness is of particular concern in flooring, furniture, and
tool handles. Hardness is also important in selecting interior trim
such as door casings, base, and base shoe, as well as door jambs,
sills, and thresholds. These portions usually receive the hardest
wear in a house.
There is a decided difference in hardness between the spring-
wood and the summerwood of woods such as southern yellow
pine and Douglas fir. In these woods the summerwood is the
denser, darker colored portion of the annual growth ring. Dif-
ferences in surface hardness thus occur at close intervals on a
piece of such wood depending on whether springwood or summer-
wood is encountered. In woods like maple, which do not have
pronounced springwood and summerwood, the hardness of the
surface is quite uniform.
WEIGHT 95
The classification of a species as a
hardwood or softwood is
not based on actual hardness of
wood. Technically, softwoods
are those cut from coniferous or
evergreen trees, whereas hard-
vvoods are those cut from
broad-leaved and deciduous trees.
Actually, some of the softwoods are
harder than some of the
hardwoods.
As a group, the hardwoods can be divided
into (a) dense and
(b) less dense. The softwoods
can be divided into (a) medium
density and (b) low density.
A number woods are strong favorites for building
of
purposes
argely because of their softness and
uniformity rather than their
hardness. Northern white pine (eastern) and Idaho
white pine
(western), poplar, white fir, and
basswood are traditional exam-
ples. Others are ponderosa pine,
sugar pine, and cedar. The ease
wuth which these woods can be cut,
sawed, and nailed has put
them in a high position for general
use.This is less important
in present-day construction because
portable power tools make
It easier to handle
such dense species as Douglas fir and
southern
ye ow pine. In fact, the use of these
denser species allows greater
spans for joists and rafters than
can be used for equal-sized
members of the softer woods.
Differences in hardness are great enough
to affect the choice of
woods for such uses as flooring and
furniture on one hand, and
lor siding, millwork, and cabinets on the other.
Weigrht
Weight, in
addition to being important in
itself, is generallv a
re lable index of strength
A heavy piece of wood is generally
s ronger than a lighter
piece of the same moisture
content and
size, whether it is of the
same or of a different species.
Wood weights, as commonly expressed, are
either in the green
or mthe air-dry condition. Green
weight of wood is the weight
lefore any drying takes place.
Air-dry weight of wood refers to
the weight after drying by
exposure to atmospheric conditions for
a time, either outdoors or in
unheated sheds.
Shrinkapê or Swelling of Wood

Most materials change in dimension with changes in tempera-
ture or moisture. Wood, like many other fibrous materials,
shrinks as it and sivells as it absorbs moisture. As a rule,
dries
much shrinking and swelling of wood in houses can be avoided
by using wood that has been dried to a suitable moisture content.
For most species, the shrinkage or swelling in width of a flat-
grained or plain-sawed board is often approximately twice that
of an edge-grained or quarter-sawed board of the same width
(Fig. 1). Lumber that is cut tangent (roughly parallel) to the
annual growth rings of the tree produces plain-sawed boards in
hardwoods and flat-grained or slash-grained boards in softwoods.
Lumber that is cut at right angles to the annual rings, or parallel
to the radius of the log, produces quarter-sawed boards in hard-
woods and edge-grained or vertical-grained boards in softwoods.
Edge-grained boards or other items cut from a species with high
shrinkage characteristics will, therefore, prove as satisfactory as
flat-grained boards or items cut from species with lower shrink-
age characteristics. The normal wood of all species shrinks or
swells very slightly along the grain (lengthwise).
Fig. 1. Quarter-sawed and plain-sawed boards cut from log.

W\4RFI1\G 97
Shrinkage of wood begins when moisture in the wood is re-
moved by drying below the fiber saturation point (approximately
30 per cent moisture content). When wood reaches a moisture
content of 15 per cent, about one-half of the total shrinkage
has
occurred. The moisture content of wood in service
constantly
changes since it adjusts to corresponding changes in surrounding
atmospheric conditions.
The moisture content of woodwork installed within heated
buildings reaches a low point during the heating
season and a
high point during the summer. The moisture
content at the time
of installation should be near the midpoint
of this range. If this
rule is followed, slight shrinkage will
occur during some seasons
and a slight swelling during others.
Plywood is relatively free from shrinkage and swelling as com-
pared to solid wood because its construction generally
consists
of alternate laminations of veneers laid
with grain at 90° to
each other. From soaked to ovendry condition,
the shrinkage of
plywood in length and width is generally quite uniform
and
ranges from only about 0.2 to about 1.2 per cent.
After manu-
facture, plywood has a low moisture content and normally does
not require drying out before use.
Warping
The warping of wood is closely allied with shrinkage. Lumber
that is cross-grained, or
from near the pith (core) of the tree,
is
tends to warp when it shrinks. Warping can be

reduced to a
minimum by the use of edge-grained dry material.
Preventing dejects due to shrinkage. Although wood will
shrink
under certain conditions, it will give satisfactory service
when
the shrinkage factor recognized and properly controlled. Prob-
is
lems due to shrinkage can be greatly reduced by:

(1) using sea-
soned woods as rec}uired by conditions of usej
(2) protecting by
})aint, wâter repellents, or other protective
coatings all exposed
surfaces of dry wmod in place so that rapid moisture
changes will
not occui (3) selecting woods with low inherent shrinkage; or
,
(4) using edge-grained material in preference to

flat grain for
critical uses.
Following the first twm rules will insure w'ood that meets
the
oidinaiy re(|uiiements of construction. More exacting
require-
merits, such as those of doors, window sash, and frames, require in
addition either the selection of woods from the low- or moderate-
shrinkage groups or the use of edge-grained material. Special
conditions often prevent the application of all four rules. One
or more of the rules can always be applied in order to enable
wood to meet the requirements satisfactorily in most cases.
Ease of Working with Wood

Wood is generally easy to cut, shape, and fasten with ordinary
tools directly on homesite. For some purposes the
{See Table 1.)
difference between woods in ease of working is negligible, but for

others it may decidedly affect the quality and cost of the finished
job. In general, ease of working is of first importance to the
worker and/or indirectly to the one who pays the bill. Fabrica-
tion and assembly at the factory of cabinets, windows, frames,
doors, and other units have greatly reduced the time required for
the worker at the house.
Table 1
Classification of certain hardwood and softwood species according to ease of

working with hand tools
HARDWOODS
Group 1— Easy Group 2— Relatively Group 3— Least easy
to work easy to work to work
Alder, red Birch, paper Ash, commercial white

Basswood Cottonwood Beech
Butternut Magnolia Birch
Chestnut Sweetgum Cherry
Yellow-poplar Sycamore Elm
Tupelo: Hackberry
Black Hickory, true and pecan
Water Honeylocust
Walnut, black Locust, black
Maple
Oak:
Commercial red
Commercial white
SOFTWOODS
Cedar: Baldcypress Douglas-fir

Atlantic white- Fir: Larch, western
Incense- Balsam Pine, southern yellow
Northern white- White
Port-Orford- Hemlock:
Western redcedar Eastern
PAim HOLDING 99
Pine: Western
Eastern white Pine, lodgepole
Ponderosa Redcedar, eastern
Sugar Redwood
W estern white Spruce:
Eastern
Sitka
Harder and denser woods with high load carrying capacity

and wear resistance should not be passed over just because
softer
woods are easier to work. A reasonable balance must be
drawn
in selecting wood for a specific use.
A worker working with lumber that is well seasoned
skilled
and manufactured can get good results from even the
more diffi-
cult to work woods. An unskilled worker
is more likely to get
good results only from the softer woods. However, with
portable
power tools, jigs for installation of hinges and door locks,
and
other modern labor-saving methods, skill is no
longer the major
factor it was when hand tools were the only
means of cutting
and fitting on the job.
The classification of the more common woods according to
their working qualities is based on a combination of
the hard-
ness, texture, and character of the surfaces
obtainable.
Paint Holding
Good paint performance or ability of a wood surface
to hold
paint depends on three factors:
(1) the kind of paint, (2) sur-
face conditions and application factors, and
(3) the kind of wood.
Different woods vary considerably in painting
characteristics,
particularly for outdoor exposure. The best
species for exterior
painting are such common woods as the cedars,
redwood, ponde-
rosa pine, or white pine.
Paint is more durable on edge-grained surfaces than on flat-
grained surfaces.
Knots, especially resinous ones,' do not hold
paint well and
contribute to abnormally early paint failure.
High content of
pitch IS set adequately by proper
high-temperature seasoning of
the wood.
Class B and class C woods and plywood are best finished with
pigmented stains that penetrate the wood surface and do not
form a continuous film on the surface. Such stain finishes do
not fail by cracking and peeling from the wood
of the coating
as does paint. The stains are also recommended for use on shingle
and shake sidewalls and rough-sawn lumber and siding.
Nail Holding
As a rule, fastenings are the weakest link in all forms of con-

struction and in all materials. Therefore, the resistance offered
by the wood to the withdrawal of nails is important. Usually the
denser and harder the wood, the greater is the inherent nail-
holding ability, assuming the wood does not split.
The size, type, and number of nails have a marked effect on
the strength of a joint. Figure 2 illustrates good nailing practice
at the foundation wall. Correct placement of the nails is as
important as the size and number.
The resistance of nails to withdrawal increases almost directly
with their diameter. If the diameter of the nail is doubled, the
,WELL NAILED SHEATHING

PLYWOOD AND SUBFLOORi
OR
DIAGONAL
SHEATHING
PROVIDE
RACKING
RESISTANCE GOOD NAILING OF
JOISTS AND STUDS
SPECIAL
ANCHOR FOR
AREAS OF
HIGH WINDS
SILL ANCHORED
TO FOUNDATION
GROUND
COVER
SCREENED VENT-
GOOD CLEARANCE
ABOVE GRADE
Fig. 2. Nailing at foundation wall.

NAIL HOLDING 101
holding strength is doubled, providing the nail does not split the
wood when it is driven. The lateral resistance of nails increases
as the power of the diameter.
11/2
The nail most generally used in wood frame construction is

the common nail. However, galvanized and
aluminum nails are
used extensively in applying siding and exterior trim
because these
nails resist rusting. The galvanized nail
is slightly better than
the common bright nail in retaining
withdrawal resistance.
its
Superior withdrawal resistance has been shown
by the de-
formed shank nail, which is produced in two general
forms, the
annular groove and the spiral groove shanks. The
annular groove
nail is outstanding in its resistance to static withdrawal loads but
not as good as the spiral groove nail when subjected to racking
loads. The spiral groove nail is superior to the plain shank nail
in its resistance to withdrawal loads.
Interior carpentry uses the small-headed
finish nail, which can
be set and puttied over.
The moisture content of the wood
at the time of nailing is
extremely important for good nail holding. If plain
shank nails
are driven into wet wood, they will lose
about three-fourths of
their full holding ability when the wood becomes dry. This loss
of holding power is so great that siding,
barn boards, or fence
pickets are likely to become loose when plain
shank nails are
driven into green wood that subsequently dries.
Thus the most
important rule in obtaining good joints and high
nail-holding
ability is to use well-seasoned wood.
Prevention of splitting. The splitting of woods by
nails greatly
reduces their holding ability. Even if the
wood is split only
slightly around the nail,
considerable holding strength is lost.
Because of hardness and texture characteristics some
woods split
more in nailing than do others. The heavy, dense
woods, such
as maple, oak, and hickory, split more
in nailing than do the
lightweight woods such as basswood, spruce,
and balsam and
white fir.
Predrilling is good practice in dense woods, especially when

large-diameter nails are used. The drilled hole should be about
75 per cent of the nail diameter.
Woods without a uniform texture, like southern yellow pine
and Douglas fir, split more than do such uniform textured woods
pine, sugar pine, or ponderosa pine.
as northern and Idaho white
common means taken to
In addition to predriiling, the most
reduce splitting is the use of
small-diameter nails. The number
maintain the same gross hold-
of small nails must be increased to
nai s
ing strength as with larger nails. Slightly blunt-pointed
sharp-pointed nails.
have tendency to split wood than do
less
of holding abi i y.
Too much blunting, however, results in a loss
Decay Resistance
under
Every material has its distinctive way of
deteriorating
decay. Wood will never
adverse conditions. With wood it is
under water.
decay kept continuously dry or continuously
if
is in dry situations
Fortunately, most wood in ordinary houses
It is only in certain parts
and, therefore, not in danger of decay.
is important, such as
areas
of the house that decay resistance
or is embedded
where wood may become damp or where it touches
in the ground. ,
things which can

To protect wood from decay, there are three
be done, either singly or in combination: (1)
make sure it is dry
heartwood
when and kept dry in service; (2) use the
installed
of a decay-resistant species where occasional wetting and drying
use wood that has been given a
good
can be expected; or (3)
preservative treatment for places where
moisture is certain to
get in, as from contact with the soil or

because of poor drainage
or ventilation.
Heartwood Content
When selecting untreated wood for use where the decay hazard
only
is must consider the heartwood content, because
high, one
the sapwood of the
the heartwood is decay resistant. When
of tree is normally narrow, as it is in
the woods rated as
species
class A, the heartwood content even without
lumber runs high in
special selection. When the sapwood is

normally wide, as m
commercial run
woods rated as class C and even in class B, the
of lumber contains considerable sapwood.
classed
To obtain decay-resistant lumber, even in the species
as A in decay resistance,necessary to eliminate the sap-
it is
wood by special selection. Specially selected lumber,

sold all m
western red
heart grades, is procurable in cypress, redwood,
FIGURE 103
cedar, and Douglas However, all-heart grades in southern
fir.
yellow pine are special and are not easily

obtainable.
Figure
Figure due to various causes in different woods. In
is
woods
like southern yellow pine and Douglas
fir, it results from the
contrast between springwood and summerwood
in growth rings;
in oak, beech, or sycamore, from the flakes or rays in
it results
addition to the growth rings; in maple,
walnut, and birch it
results from wavy or curly grain; and
in gum it results from
infiltrated coloring matter.
Except where the figure in wood results from
flakes or rays, it
is more pronounced in
flat-grained lumber than in edge-grained.
Figure resulting from wavy or curly grain
or from infiltrated
color does not occur in all lumber
of a given species, but only
m lumber from occasional legs. To be certain of getting figured
lumber in maple, walnut, or gum, special
selection is necessary.
Woods with outstanding knots, such as pine and
cedar, or with
other characteristics such as those of
pecky cypress, or white
speck Douglas fir, are often selected
because of their novel pat-
terns. The finish selected for these
types of wood tends to ac-
centuate rather than obscure the knots
or other features. The
advantage of figure or color may appear in the interior trim, in
the floor, or in a wood-paneled wall.
The color of the wood has a decided influence
on the figure.
However, stains are so commonly and easily
applied to most
woods that natural color is usually not the first consideration,
except where a very light color is decided. Woods classed as A
are highly figured, and an ordinary commercial run will have a
pronounced figure. Class B woods have more modulated figures
and sometimes require special selection
to obtain the desired
figure. Class C woods are seldom
satisfactory where figure is
desired.
Odor and Taste of Wood when Dry

None of the common woodshas sufficient odor to prevent satis-
factory use m building construction. It
is only when the wood
is used for food containers
that odor and taste are critical. When
green, all woods have some odor and will impart a woody taste
to very susceptible foods. After the woods are dried, many have
practically no odor or taste. The principal objection to
odor and
touch, espe-
taste in wood is that they contaminate the food they
butter and cheese. On the desirable side, the
aromatic
cially
odor of the cedars prized for such uses as clothes closets and
is
chests. The woods in class A are suitable for use in

contact with
foods that absorb odors. The woods in class C have

a strong
con-
resinous or aromatic odor and are unsuited for use in direct
tact with foods that absorb odors. Woods in class
B cannot be
they
used in contact with very susceptible foods, like butter, but
and
do not have the strong odor and taste of the aromatic
resinous woods.
Bending Strength
Bending strength measure of the load-carrying capacity

is a
of members that are ordinarily used in a horizontal
or moderate
slope position and rest on two or more supports.

Examples of
members in which bending strength is important are rafters,
ceiling and floor joists, beams or girders, purlins, bridge stringers,
and scaffold platforms.

Even though a species is low in bending strength, it may still
be selected for uses where this property is essential.

However,
larger sizes are then recjuired to obtain the same
load-carrying
capacity.
small increase in the de})th of a beam produces a much
A
greater percentage increase in bending strength than it does
in
volume. An increase of 1" in the depth of a 10 beam (from

10" to 11") will increase its volume 10 per cent, whereas the
bending strength of the beam is increased 21 per cent. An inciease
in the width of a beam, increases the bending strength
by the
same percentage as the volume. An increase of 1" in a beam
10" deep will increase both bending strength and volume by 10
])er cent.
Nosimple rule can be given to determine the size of girder,
joist, or ]dank required to carry a given load. Tables
of safe
load for given spans, sizes, species, and spacings may be obtained
from various lumber associations.
The softwoods in class A, such as Douglas fir, southern yellow
field. They are
l)ine, and western larch, dominate the structural
used both for heavy construction (barns and bridges) and light
STIFFNESS 105
construction (dwellings and small farm structures). In heavy
construction, softwoods in class B are used only occasionally.
In light construction, softwoods in class
B, such as white fir,
hemlock, and Idaho white pine, are used
extensively. Their light
weight and ease of working enable them
to compete with the
stronger woods.
The hai dwoods in classes A and B have largely dropped out
of the construction field, not because they are unsuited to the
use, but because of their value for
uses with more exact require-
ments for furniture, flooring, and veneers in
plywood.
Stiffness
Stiffness is a measure of the resistance to bending or deflection

under a load. In the floor and ceiling joists of a house,
stiffness
moie important than actual breaking strength
is
because it is
deflection or sag that must be reduced
to a minimum to avoid
plaster cracks in ceilings and vibration
in floors. {Breaking
strength refers to the load required to
break a material; stiffness
lefers to its ability to sustain loads
with a minimum of deflection
or sag.) Stiffness is important also
in shelving, ladder rails,
beams, and long slender columns.
Ahereas stiffness
of great importance in floor joists,
is
the
advantages of using a relatively stiff species will
be lost if the
members are not fully dry at time of installation,
so the fasten-
ings and bracing hold well. Straight,
well-seasoned joists of a
species that is relatively low in stiffness
may give better results
than an inherently stiff wood that
green or carelessly installed.
is
If the wood IS sufficiently dry and the installation is good,
how-
ever, species differences with respect
to stiffness are important.
Differences in stiffness between species may
be compensated
for by changing the size of members. Depth and
length of mem-
bers have a greater effect on their stiffness
than on other strength
properties. For exaniple, a change of in the thickness of a
^)oard produces a change of 12 jier cent in the stiffness
of
the board laid flat in a floor. A 10" joist has about one-fourth
more wood m it than an 8" joist, but set on edge in a building
it IS inore than twice' as stiff. Softwoods in class A
and class B
dominate the uses where stiffness is the most important require-
ment. Woods in class C are relatively unimportant, since they
in
are seldom used in heavy construction and only occasionally
-
When woods in class C are used where sti
light construction.
it is because other
desired, properties are more important.
ness is
A
have the highest stiffness, but they are
The woods in class
liBavier and harder than those in class B.

Light weight is quite commonly desired
combination wi m
this requirement much better
than
stiffness. The softwoods meet
in class B are often chosen
in
the hardwoods, and softwoods
of the latter
preference to those in class A since the weight
excludes them.
Posts
square or circular
Posts or compression members are generally
in cross section, usually upright, and
support loads that act in
the direction of the length. Strength in

compression is an essen-
requirement for posts supporting beams in a basement
or
tial
storage bins, and
crawl space, for supports of root cellars, for
less
for posts in similar heavy construction where the length is
important m
than eleven times the smallest dimension. It is not
fence posts, which carry no loads.
with the small-
In small houses the size requirements of posts,
est dimensions than one-eleventh of the length, are deter-
less
than by
mined by bearing area, stiffness, and stability, rather
necessary to use
actual compressive strength. Therefore, it is
enough to carry much greater compressive loads than
posts large
are ever placed upon them. No great consideration need, there-
in selecting wood
fore, be given to compressive strength endwise
for small houses.
supports
Whereexceptionally heavy loads are involved, as in
for underground cellars, consideration
should be given to the
compressive
compressive strength of different woods. Even where
in any class may
strength is an important requirement, the woods
of class B and C
be safely used, provided the lower strength
compensated for by using timber of larger cross-sectional
woods is
area.
the length of the post or column greater than eleven
When is
important fac-
times the smallest dimension, stiffness becomes an
tor in determining the load-carrying ability.
Unbraced supports,
such as squared posts in machine sheds or
barns and poles in
pole-type structures, are generally so slender that

they should be
TOUGHNESS 10
judged by their stiffness rather than their compressive strength.
Toughness
Toughness is a measure of the capacity to withstand suddenly
applied loads. Therefore, woods high in shock resistance
are
adapted to withstand repeated shocks, jars,
jolts, and blows, such
as are given ax handles and
other tool handles. The heavier
hardwoods— hickory, birch, oak, maple,
and ash— are much higher
in shock resistance than the
toughest of the softwoods. These
hardwoods are used almost exclusively where
an exceptionally
tough wood IS required. The woods in
class A completely dom-
inate the uses where toughness is
the outstanding requirement,
and hickory dominates class A.
Toughness is a desirable property in uses
other than those in
which it IS required. Tough woods give
more warning of failure
than do brash woods. It is, therefore, a factor in beams and
girderswhere heavy loads are applied. The selection
of class C
woods should normally be avoided for these
two uses.
SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON GRADES

OF LUMBER
Lumber purchased by home owners because of its
is
appear-
ance as well as its working
characteristics and strength proper-
ties. The appearance is dependent largely on
the and
grade,
there is some degree of uniformity in the appearance of the same
grade in different woods. Different woods are more uniform in
appearance m
the select grades than in common
or dimension
grades because most knots, pitch
pockets, and the like are elim-
inated from the select grades.
In the common grades, where
knots and similar surface fea-
tures are allowable, there are
differences in the same grade of
c 1 erent woods. These differences
affect the appearance of the
wood and at times its suitability for a
use. For example, the
number of knots
and like features in a board averages, in
differ-
ent species, from about 5 to
20 per 8 board feet regardless of
grade. Second- and third-grade
common boards are selected for
greatest utility. Fourth and lower
grades permit moderate util-
ity. (Grades for the various species for
board and dimension
lumber are described in a following
section.)
Distinctive and Principal Uses
and which a wood is put are

'principal uses to
The distinctive
indicative of its properties. Distinctive
and principal uses are
fitted. The fact that a
those to which a wood is most generally
for woodenware, or for
wood’s distinctive use is for ax handles,
fence posts tells one familiar with these uses much more
who is
description or a table of
about the wood than does a verbal
to combine and evaluate
properties, unless he has been trained
requirements for ax handles
the properties. A knowledge of the
obtained from actual experience gives a
good idea of the com-
stiffness, and texture to
bination of toughness, breaking strength,
purpose.
be found in a wood used for that
LUMBER GRADES
Ordinary building lumber is graded by lumber manufacturers,

by associations, or by official grading and inspection bureaus.
Softwood Lumber
grades of lumber gen-
Finish or select grades. Finish or select
erally are named by the letters A, B,
C, and D. The A and B
grades are nearly always combined as B

and Better, so that only
three grades are in practical use.
finishing or other
Therefore, in lumber for interior and exterior
grade), C (second grade),
similar uses, only B and Better (first
considered. How-
and D(third grade) in softwoods need to be
ever, considerable knotty pine
and cedar m
third grade are
selected for use as paneling.

not
Common boards. Grade names for common boards are
in redwood boards
uniform for all softwood species. For example,
the second grade. Mer-
Select is the first grade. Construction
fourth grade. With
chantable the third grade, and Economy the
hemlock, Sitka spruce, and
such woods as Douglas fir, west coast
Select, Merchant-
western red cedar, the grade designations are
able, Construction, Standard, Utility,
and Economy. A different
set of board grades described by
the Western Wood Products
Association bears the names 1 Common, 2

Common, 3 Common,
set of grade names and
4 Common, and 5 Common. The same
states for species
descriptions is used in the northeast and lake
HARDWOOD LUMBER 109
such as eastern spruce, balsam fir, red and jack pine,
eastern
hemlock, and northern white cedar. For the southern pines,
the
board designations are No. 1, No. 2, No.
3, and No. 4.
Dhnension lumber. Light framing (2" to 4" thick, 2" to 4"
wide), and joists and planks ^(2" to 4" thick, 6"
and wider) are
graded for strength to a common set of grade names and
descrip-
tions under all six softwood grading rules
published in the United
States and under the National Lumber Grades Authority in
Canada. The light framing grades are Construction, Standard,
and Utility, and the joist and plank grades are Select
Structural,
No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3. There is also a Structural Light
Fram-
ing category for roof truss and similar
applications that has the
same grade names as for joists and planks. Load-carrying
de-
sign values vary by species and use category.
Therefore, it is
important to note that common grade names do not imply
equal
strength or stiffness.
Trade ^practices. has been the practice for the lumber
It
retailer to quote prices and make deliveries
on the basis of local
grade classification or on his own judgment of
what the user
needs or will accept. However, there is a growing
practice to
put indelible marks on allbuilding lumber at the sawmill, stating
the grade, species, size, degree of seasoning, and identity of the
supplier. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and most
code authorities require that framing lumber
used in the con-
struction of FHA-insured units be so
grade-marked.
The softwoods are graded to meet fairly definite building
re-
quirements. Select grades of softwoods are based
on suitability
for natural and paint finishes: A Select
and B Select or B and
Better are primarily for natural finishes, and
C Select and D
Select are for paint finishes. The Utility Board and Dimension
grades are based primarily on their suitability
for general con-
struction and general utility purposes as
influenced by the size,
tightness, and soundness of knots.
Hardwood Lumber
The wood of the hardwood trees is graded on the basis of
factory grades more than for building
requirements. Factory
grades take into account the yield and size of cuttings
with one
clear face that can be sawed from the lumber.
The two highest
factory grades are known as Firsts and Seconds and are usually
sold combined.
Hardwoods for construction are grouped into three general
classes: Finish, Construction and Utility Boards, and Dimension.
Finish has one face practically clear,
while B Finish allows
A
other minor variations.
small surface checks, mineral streaks, and
Construction Boards and Utility Boards have
No. 1, No. 2,
of wane, checks,
and No. 3 grades and are based on the amount
board.
knots, and other defects present in each
and No. 2
Dimension grades (2" thick) are classed as No. 1
depending on the number of defects.
Strength Factor
of building or so-called yard lumber are

The ordinary grades
based on the size, number, and location of the knots, slope of
grain, and the like more than on the strength of the clear wood.
Cominon softwood boards used in conventionally constructed
not related directly
houses and other light-frame structures are
to the strength of the unit itself.
Rather, sheathing, subflooring,
and may also
and roof boards supplement the framing system
add to the rigidity of the structure.
of a
The main purpose of boards used in the construction
nailing
building as a covering material. They also facilitate
is
for siding, flooring, and rooflng materials.

For these purposes
moderate
they must have some nail-holding properties as well as
strength in bending to carry loads between the
frame members.
Ordinarily, third- and fourth-grade boards are
adequate for this
purpose. .
selected for their

Finish and Select grade softwood boards are
for trim
appearance rather than strength. They are used mainly
purposes, and, consequently, the grade is chosen
based
and finish
—
on the type of finish used natural, stained, or
painted.
strength
Softwood Dimension lumber is selected because of its
and its stiffness. Therefore, the size, number, and
location of
intended use.
knots are important and related directly to the
construction is
For example, in house floors and walls, where
as possible,
designed to minimize vibration and deflection so far
stiffness rather than breaking strength is
most important. Gen-
FINISHING AND APPEARANCE FACTOR 11]
erally, grade affects strength more than stiffness— the lower
the
grade, the lower the strength.
Finishing and Appearance Factor
The and appearance of wood is normally associated

finishing
with the various Board grades rather than
Dimension grades.
With varnish and natural finishes, A and B Select in
softwoods
(commonly sold as B and Better) and A
Finish in hardwoods
assure the best appearance. Some pieces in the
B and Better
grade are piactically clear, although the average
board contains
one or two small surface features that preclude
calling it Clear.
Where the very smoothest appearance is not required, second
Finish giade in softwoods and hardwoods
gives good satisfac-
tion. The number of knots, pitch
pockets, and other nonclear
features per board in C Select averages about
twice that of B
and Better. The proportion of these features that are
small knots
is greater in C Select than in B
and Better. Because of its dec-
orative effects, knotty lumber selected from the
first and second
Common board grades is frequently in demand for paneling.
For painting where wood is not exposed to the weather,
the
surface features permitted in the second Finish
grade are such
that they can be well covered by paint if the
priming is properly
done. The third Finish grade, with some cutting
out of defects,
gives almost as good quality as the second
grade, but the num-
ber and size of the knots are considerably
greater, and often the
back of the pieces is of lower quality. Where smoothest appear-
ance at close inspection is required under exposure to the
weather, Finish grade gives the best results.
first
For painted surfaces that do not receive close inspection

(sum-
mer cottages, barns, and the like) and where protection
against
the weather is as important as appearance,
the first and second
Board grades are satisfactory. The larger knots
and pitch
pockets in the second-grade Common
softwood boards do not
give as smooth and lasting a painted
surface as do the smaller
ones in the first grade, but the gene*ral utility
is good.
Tij2:htnes.s Factor
First-giade Common
softwood and Utility hardwood boards
are suitable for protection against rain
or other free water beat-
ing or seeping through walls or similar construction.
These and
the Finish grades are usually kept drier at the lumber
yards than
are the lower grades and will, therefore, shrink and

open less at
the joints if used without further drying. Where only
tightness
grain
against leakage of small grain is required in a granary or
bin, second-grade boards may be used with a
small amount of
cutting to eliminate knotholes. used as sheathing with

When
good building paper, second-grade boards are satisfactory even
though knotholes and other similar openings do occur.
Wear-Resistance Factor
Edge-grained material wears better than flat grain, narrow-

ringed wears better than wide-ringed, and clear wood wears
more
evenly than wmod containing knots. The first Finish grades
in
softwoods and hardwoods ordinarily contain very few defects

and withstand wear excellently. The second grade in softwoods
and in hardwmods sufficiently limits knots and surface character-
istics to assure good wearing qualities. Third-Finish grade and
and character of knots, although
first-grade boards limit the size
not the number, and are satisfactory where maximum uniformity
of wear is not required.
Decay-Resistance Factor
natural resistance to decay that a wood may have is in

Any
af-
the heartwood. The decay resistance of the species so far as
fected by grade therefore depends upon the proportion of heart-
wood in the grade. While this is true of all species, it is of
practical importance only in wmods with medium or highly
decay-resistant heartwmod.
The lower grades usually contain more heartwmod than do the
Select grades. decay resistance is really needed for the pur-
If
pose at hand, the first and second board grades are more decay
resistant than are the Finish grades, except in the case of the
special Finish grades known as All Heart.
The decay resistance of grades below the second grade is
full
reduced by the presence of decay that may have existed in the

tree or log before it was sawn into lumber. Under conditions
conducive to decay, such original decay may spread, although
some types of decay, notably peck in cypress, red heart in pine,
PRICE FACTOR U
and white pocket Douglas fir, are definitely known
in to cease
functioning once the lumber is properly seasoned.
Price Factor
The spread between Select Finish and Utility Board

in price
grades varies considerably from time to time, depending
upon
supply and demand. The cost of the lower Select
grades is sub-
stantially greater than the upper Board grades of softwoods.
With such a difference in price it is obviously important
not to
buy a better grade than needed. Any tendency
is tobuy the
best the market offers for all uses is wasteful of both lumber and
money, for in uses such as sheathing, the lower and
cheaper
grades will render as long and satisfactory service as the higher-
priced grades.
The price spread
between the combined grade of first- and
Second-Finish grades and the Common grades of
hardwoods is
also large. This is of minor importance to
builders because most
of the hardwood purchased by them has
already been manufac-
tured into some form of finished product,
such as flooring or
interior trim.
Roughly, the combined grade of first and second
Finish may
have a market value from 50 to 100 per cent greater
than that of
the highest Common grade and contain from
25 to 50 per cent
greater than that of the best Common grade,
and contain from
25 to 50 per cent more clear face cuttings of
the sizes specified
m the grading rules. If large clear face pieces are required, they
can best and possibly only be obtained from the
first and second
grades. But if only medium-sized or small
clear face pieces are
required, they can be obtained from the
Common grades.
STANDARD LUMBER ITEMS AND WOOD-BASED
PRODUCTS
SOLD IN RETAIL LUMBERYARDS
Lumber is sold as a number
of standard general-purpose items
anrl also as certain special-purpose items.
Retail lumberyards
carry the general-purpose items and the
all
more important of
the special-purpose items. A
brief description of framing and
r imension,
boards and sheathing, flooring and siding,
and other
umber and related items commonly carried
by most retail lum-
beryards is given in this section.
Manylumberyards carry stock items in wood species besides
those common to the United States. Larger lumber companies
may also have their own sash and door plants and will make to
order any wood unit listed in the plans or specifications of frame
buildings. The popularity of the wood truss has also brought
about the fabrications of these items at many lumberyards.
Dressed Thicknesses and Widths of Lumber

Lumber as ordinarily stocked in retail yards is surfaced
(dressed) on two sides and two edges. This is to make the lum-
ber ready to use and uniform in size without further reworking
and also to avoid paying transportation costs on material that
would have to be cut off on the job. The amount that is reason-
able and desirable to dress off has varied considerably in the past
and has been the subject some controversy and misunder-
of
standing among producing and consuming groups. American
lumber standards have been set up by the lumber trade with
the assistance of government agencies in such a way as to largely
take care of the situation.

American lumber standards and common now
trade practices
provide dressed sizes. Table 2 shows nominal- and minimum-
dressed sizes of boards, dimension, and timbers. (The thick-
nesses apply to all widths and all widths to all thicknesses.)
Table 3 shows nominal- and minimum-dressed dry sizes of fin-

ish, flooring, ceiling, partition, and stepping at 19 per cent maxi-
mum moisture content. (The thicknesses apply to all widths and

to all thicknesses except as modified.) The column designated
nominal size shows the dimensions according to which lumber is
usually described. The last column shows the actual dimensions
of lumber when it is sold surfaced.
When the dimensions of dressed lumber are less than those
shown in the table for the actual sizes enumerated, the lumber
is known as substandard.Items of some woods are commonly
sold in substandard sizes. It is well to check the dimensions be-
fore selecting a wood so that allowance can be made in both
price and utility for substandard sizes or proper credit given for
oversizes.
DRESSED THICKNESSES AND WIDTHS OF LUMBER 115
C 4)
•o
4) o rH01C0Û5?0t>0005o^C0^
;|J
iHMco'S'iot-oji-Heous »HOieOTi<ui|>os»-HCOkO
o
03
CQ 0 ^ tH rH ^ rH rH ^ rH tH rH
£
P
OT §
g
timbers
s
Eh d
Q
HH
•)
thicknesses) > ,CJ

;??
o »-HWeoHj<io«Dt-ooo50rHeoio »HOleOHi'k/it-airHeo»fl i-tcaeo-TfUSt-osi-H
^^ tH rH rH rH rH
and
U
<
all
dimension,
to
s
Ne0Tj»0«Dt-000SOrH0lTl<«D MeO'^lOtDOOOOlTl'tD oJeoTj<»ocOooooiHi<«o
widths 3
tH tH tH rH tH rH rH rH rH rH rH ^ rH
c5
;z:
boards,
all
of and
« a to <C fO <o to to !tl
£j
O
sizes
widths
•D Green Inches
^ 5 S rH W CO CO
£
Q
all g
r/1
3
H g
to w C
e»
minimum-dressed
§ X!
apply
Q
t;
rH rH t-H W N CO CO ^
p
sd
h
and thicknesses
u
< Qi
z ^ CJ
S tH ^ w c<i CO CO T}<
cj Eh
Nominal- 2
(The
c c
O o
m QQ c
C c
s 0) i
H cd > g 6 E
OQ Q Q H
Table 3
partition,
Nominal- and minimum-dressed dry sizes of finish, flooring, ceiling,
and stepping at 19 per cent maximum moisture content
(The thicknesses apply to all widths and all widths
to all thicknesses except as modified)
THICKNESSES FACE WIDTHS

ITEM NOMINAL Minimum NOMINAL Minimum ,
Dressed
Dressed
Inches Inches
i
% %6 2 1%
2%
!
% %6 3
% %6 4 3%
% % 5 4%
1 % 6 5yj
1V4 1 7 6%
Finish 1% iy4 8 IVi
1% 1% 9 SVa
2 10 9 Vi
2% 2 11 IOVa
3 2% 12 nVi
3% 3 14 13 y4
4 3% 16 i6y4
% 5/46 2 lys
Vi T46 3 2y8
Flooring' % %6 4 3%
1 % 5 4y8
1V4 1 6 sys
1% iy4
% 3 2%
Ceiling- Vi "546 4 3H
% %6 5 4H
% 6 5%
3 2%
Partition 1 ^2 4 3H
5 4y8
6 5%
Stepping
1
iy4 1
% 8
10
m
9V4
iy4 12 IIVa
2 1%
Framing and Dimension
Dimension is primarily framing lumber, such as joists, rafters,

and wall studs. It also comprises the planking used for heavy
barn floors. Strength, stiffness, and uniformity of size are es-
sential requirements. Framing or dimension lumber is stocked
BOARDS OR SHEATHING 117
in all lumberyards but often in only one or two of the general-
purpose construction woods such as Douglas fir, southern
yellow
pine, white fir, hemlock, or spruce. It is
usually a nominal 2 "
thick, dressed one or two sides to 11 " dry.
/2 {See Table 2.) It
is nominally 4", 6", 8", 10", or 12"
in width, and 8' to 20' long
in multiples of 2'. Dimension thicker than 2" (up to 5") and
longer than 20' is manufactured only in comparatively small
quantities.
Perhaps the one most suitable grade for permanent
construc-
tion wall framing, based on economy and
performance, is the
third grade in the various species. The
grade most generally
suitable foi joists and rafters for permanent and first-class con-
struction the second grade of the various species. Satisfactory
is
construction is possible with lower grades, but

pieces must be
selected and there is considerably more cutting
loss. Many spe-
cies have structural grade classifications
that may be used for
trusses and other structural components.
These structural grades
allow greater loads than do equal spans of the
lower grades.
Boards or Sheathing
Boards are general-purpose items used most often to
cover
framing members as flooring, roofing, and wall sheathing.
They
are available at all lumberyards in one or
more kinds of wood
most frequently used in building construction. Boards
are usu-
ally of nominal 1" thickness, dressed on two sides to %" dry
thickness, and are usually manufactured in all
grades from first
to (See Table 3.) However, as sheathing material,
fifth.
the
third and fourth grades are most often used.
Boards or sheathing are manufactured in a number
of pat-
terns. They may be square-edged (surfaced on four sides), gen-
erally supplied in nominal 4", 6", and 8"
widths. They are also
available in dressed and matched pattern
(tongued-and-grooved)
and in shiplap (Fig. 2a).
Dressed and matched material is most
commonly sold in 6" widths; shiplap, in 8", 10", and 12" widths.
In addition to sheathing and subflooring, boards
are used for
rough siding, barn boards, and concrete forms. The
advent of
the pole-type construction has developed the need for
center
matched sheathing in 2" by 6" nominal size. Many
lumber
companies stock this item preservative-treated.
Siding
name implies, is made and generally used for

Siding, as the
exterior coverage. It produced in several general patterns,
is
paneling (Fig.
bevel siding, drop siding, and V-edge siding or
2a). Bevel siding is ordinarily stocked in Clear,
A grades and B
FLOORING (STFND/)RD MATCH)
CEILING (edge beading)
DROP SIDING (sHIPLAPPED)
BEVEL SIDING
DRESSED AND MATCHED (CENTER MATCHED)
SHIPLAP
Fig. 2a. Six typical patterns of lumber.
SIDING 119
grades of redwood, western red cedar, hemlock, white and pon-
derosa pine, and spruce. Drop siding is stocked in C and Better
and No. 2 Common grades, and V-edge siding are Douglas fir and
southern pine.
Other exterior lumber coverings include boards and battens
and other combinations for vertical application. These are com-
monly rough-sawn boards in Finish grades that are given a
stain finish.
Bevel siding (Fig. 2a) is commonly supplied in I/
and
2 ",
thicknesses in nominal 6", 8", and 10" widths. Special pat-
terns are available in 12" widths. Drop siding is normally %"
in thickness and 5^" in face width. {Face width is the coverage
width when material is in place.) V-edge siding is %" thick and

6 8", and 10" nominal width (Fig. 2a). Bevel siding ordinarily
,
is not used for garages, barns, and similar

buildings because of
cost. Also it is normally laid horizontally over lumber^ plywood,
or other wood-base sheathing. Some of the thicker grades are
occasionally used without sheathing on small garages when the
studs are spaced no more than 16" on center. Bevel siding is
lapped from 1" to D/2 " depending on spacing required between
window heights.
Drop siding (Fig. 2a), because of its uniform thickness, is
most often used without sheathing and is applied horizontally.
Drop siding has a %" to %" lap. Matched pattern drop siding
is also available. V-edge dressed and matched siding may be
applied horizontally or vertically. When it is applied vertically,
blocking is required between the studs or vertical members to
provide for nailing, if sheathing is not of plywood or lumber.
Board and batten combinations require the same type of backing.
The lap of the bevel siding, combined with the actual width,
makes it necessary to use from 120 to 150 surface feet for every
100 sf]uare feet of surface to be covered. Drop siding requires
somewhat than 115 board feet of 1" by 6" drop siding to
less
cover 100 square feet of surface, discounting cutting loss.
Other siding materials that are available in many lumber-
yards include paper-overlaid plywood siding and medium- and
high-density hardboard. These materials can usually be ob-
tained in 4-foot-wide sheets or prepackaged in narrow sections
ready for installation. Medium- or high-density overlaid ply-
wood sheets in and greater thicknesses can be applied ver-
tically directed on framing members with proper
spacing, serv-
buildings.
ing both as sheathing and siding, for barns and other
Batten strips are normally used over the vertical joints.
Flooring
Flooring (Fig. 2a) is made chiefly of hardwood such as maple,

such
oak, birch, and beech, and of the harder softwood species
as Douglas fir and southern pine. At least one of the
softwoods
and two of the hardwoods are stocked in most lumberyards.

4" sizes.
Flooring is usually of nominal 1" by 3" and 1" by
Dressed thickness is and face widths are 2^/4" and SVY'.
Thicker flooring, in Douglas fir and southern pine, is available
and is used for porch flooring without need for a subfloor. Edge
grain proves the most satisfactory. Thinner hardwood flooring,
usually square-edged, is another form sometimes used as a fin-
ish floor.
Block or parquet flooring is 3- or 5-ply plywood or laminated
form is available in Yz" and thicknesses and is also made
in particle board form. Block flooring is usually installed
with
a mastic adhesive. When placed on concrete floors, a sealer is
used under the block floor and a vapor barrier under the con-
crete slab to prevent moisture problems.
Edge-grained flooidng shrinks less in width than flat-grained
flooring. It is more uniform in texture, wears more uniformly,
and joints do not open up as much. Flat-grained flooring costs
less and is commonly used where appearance is not important.
Both edge- and flat-grained flooring are carried in stock by many

dealers.
Most softwood flooring is either southern yellow pine or Doug-
las fir. The higher grades are commonly finished with varnish
or sealer. The lower grades are perhaps most suited for dark
Southern pine has five grades: A, B,
stained or painted finishes.
C, D, and No. 2 flooring. A and B grades are often combined
and are classed as B and Better. Douglas fir has edge- and flat-
grained classifications— edge grain in B and Better, C, and D
grades, and flat grain in C and Better, D, and E grades.
Hardwood unfimshed flooring has many
grade classifications
depending on the species. Oak flooring has edge-grained grades
EXTERIOR MOLDING AND FINISH 121
classed as Clear and Select. Flat-grained oak flooring can be
obtained in grades of Clear, Select, No. 1 Common, and No. 2
Common. Maple, birch, and other species have classifications of
First, Second, and Third grades.
Exterior Molding: and Finish
Ejxterior moldings and finish are used on cornices, at gable

ends, and other finish areas of buildings. Houses may ordinarily
be designed with a closed cornice for a desired architectural ap-
pearance, but sheds, barns, and other buildings are usually con-
structed with an open cornice or rafter overhang. Exterior
moldings are usually furnished in clear ])onderosa pine, southern
yellow pine, and Douglas fir. Many
types and sizes are avail-
able including crown molding, brick molding, and bed molding
as well as moldings used for door and window trim.
Exterior finish material is furnished in the Select grades in
nominal from 1" by 2" to 1" by 12" and also in li/4" by
sizes
6" and li/4" by 8", all surfaced
four sides (S4S). The nomi-
nal 1" finish is used for cornice construction and the D/4"
at
gable ends or other areas where siding terminates. Woods
used
include ponderosa pine, western red cedar, redwood,
and west
coast hemlock.
Shing:les
JMost wood shingles available in retail lumberyards are of

V estern red cedar, although redwood, white cedar, and
cypress
are also sometimes stocked. Three grades of shingles
are classed
under Red Cedar Shingle Bureau rules in three lengths:
No. Blue Label shingles are all clear, all heart, and all edge
1
grain, and are used for the best work since they are
less likely
to war]). No. 2 Bed Label shingles have clear
butts about two-
thiids to three-cjuarters of their length and may
contain some
flat grain and a little sapwood. 'This
grade is often used for
roofs of secondary buildings or to cover sidewalls. No.
3 Black
Label shingles have knots and other defects that are undesirable
for surface exi)osure but have a 6" to 10" clear
butt depending
on their length. This grade is sometimes used as the under-
course in double-course application of sidewalls. An undercours-
ing shingle is produced expressly for use on double-course side-
walls.
Shingles are produced in three lengths — 16",and 24".
18",
The 16" shingle, the one most likely to be stocked by retail
lumberyards, has a standard thickness designated as 5/2-16 (five
shingles measure 2" thick at the butt when green). The 16"
shingles are based on a 5" exposure when used on roofs, and four
bundles will cover 100 square feet (one square). When used in
single-course sidewall application, three bundles of
16" shingles
will cover 100 square feet laid with a 7" exposure. Bundled
shingles come in random widths of 3" and up. Five 18" shingles
2" at
measure 2^/4" at the butt, and four 24" shingles measure
the butt when green.
Door and Window Frames

Wood door and window frames, sash, and other similar mill-
work items are sometimes available in retail lumberyards in
standard sizes. Sash and door manufacturers produce ready-
hung window and the frame, weather-stripped sash, and
units,
trim are prefitted, assembled, and ready to be placed in the

rough wall opening. However, in smaller retail yards it is usu-
ally necessary to order before actual use because many window
and door sizes and styles are not stock items.
Ponderosa pine is a species used by most manufacturers for
frames and window sash, but southern pine and Douglas fir are
sometimes used for frame parts. Frames for outside doors are
usually provided with oak sills to increase their resistance to
wear. However, some sills of the softer woods are supplied with
metal edgings located at the wearing surfaces.
Most present-day millwork such as door and window frames,
sash, and exterior doors are treated at the factory with a water-
repellent preservative. This treatment not only aids in resisting
moisture but also in minimizing decay hazards.
Plywood
Plywood a term generally used to designate glued wood

is
panels that are made up of layers, or plies, with the grain of

one or more layers at an angle, usually 90°, with the grain of
the others. The outside plies are called faces or face and back,
PLYWOOD 123
the center ply or plies are called the core, and the plies imme-
diately below the face and back, laid at right angles to them,
are called the crossbands. {See Chap. 1, Fig. 1.)
Because plywood is widely available, relatively low in cost,
and easy to apply, it can be used to advantage in the construc-
tion of homes and farm buildings. It is principally used as a
covering material such as subfloor, wall sheathing, and roof
sheathing. It is often used for walls and roofs without addi-
tional covering for secondaryfarm buildings. Plywood may also
be used for cabinetwork and as an interior-finish wall-panel ma-
terial fabricated in many forms from a variety of species.
The two common types of plywood are interior and exterior.
The names designate their recommended uses. Sheathing grades
are also available. One form of plywood has a resin-impregnated
paper overlay on two sides; in this form it is sometimes used as
an exterior siding or finish without the benefit of sheathing. This
type of plywood is made with waterproof glue and consequently
is suitable for exterior use.
Both exterior and interior types are available with a variety
of sizes and grades of face veneers, ranging from A-A and paper-
overlaid faces to C-D
sheathing grade. The following are general
thicknesses and grades commonly used in frame construction:
Plywood in the Standard interior grade commonly used for
wall sheathing should be %" or thick if a siding is applied
over the plywood. Rough- textured or patterned exterior plywood
(stained finish) used as exterior finish without sheathing is usu-
V2 more thick depending on the spacing of the studs
or
and the species of plywood. Plywood roof sheathing (Standard
interior, C-D) should be at least %" thick if Douglas
fir or
southern pine plywood is used and rafters are spaced 16" on
center. When rafters are spaced 24" on center, plywood sheath-
ing should be at least thick if Douglas fir or southern pine
is used and %" thick
other western softwoods are used.
if
Douglas fir or southern pine' plywood used as sub flooring

should be at least %" thick and other softwood plywood %"
thick when strip flooring is employed. When wood-block
finish
floor is plywood should be %" thick. For a
specified for houses,
resilient finish floor, the plywood should be %" thick. Side-
and
end-matched Douglas fir plywood in 1%" thickness is available
124 WORKING W ITH WOOD
for use when supports are spaced as much as 48" on center. Ply-
wood used for subfloor and for wall and roof sheathing may be
interior or exterior. For exterior use, plywood should always be
exterior type.
Hardwood plywood is available in anumber of species, and
its main use is as a finish covering. The three types available
are: Type 1, waterproof bond; type 2, water-resistant
fully
bond; and type 3, moisture-resistant bond. Grades consist
of
Premium; Good, suitable for natural finish; Sound, suitable for

or similar
a smooth painted surface; Utility, used as sheathing
coverages; and Backing. Knots, splits, and other defects are
allowed in the Utility and Backing grades.
Much hardwood plywood is used as veneers for flush-solid
and hollow-core doors. Because of its variety of uses, standard
hardwood plywood is available in widths of 24" to 48 and
lengths from 48" to 96".
Other Sheet Materials
types of sheet materials in addition to plywood are

Many
being used for sheathing walls because they are easily applied
and resist racking.
StrucUiral Insulating Board
Structural insulating board sheathing in

I/
2
" and ^% 2 " thick-
nesses is available inand 4' by 8' sheets. The 2' by 8

2' by 8'
sheets are applied horizontally and usually have shallow V

or
tongued-and-grooved edges. The 4' by 8' sheets are square-

edged and applied vertically with perimeter nailing. These build-
ing boards are made water resistant by means of an asphalt
coating or by impregnation.
When insulating board sheathing is applied with the 2' by 8
sheets horizontally, the construction normally is not rigid enough.
Auxiliary bracing, such as 1" by 4" let in bracing, is necessary.
wall with enough rigidity to withstand wind forces can be
A
built with 4' by 8' panels of three types: regular-density sheath-
ing ^% 2 " thick, intermediate-density material thick, or nail-
base grades. Panels must be installed vertically and properly

nailed. Each manufacturer of insulating board has recommended
nailing schedules to satisfy this requirement.
MEDIUM HARDBOARD 125
Interior structural insulating board 1
/2 " thick and laminated
paperboard and %" thickness may be obtained in 4' by
in I/
2
"
8 sheets painted on one side, or in paneled

form for use as an
interior covering material. These materials
are also produced
m a tongued-and-grooved ceiling tile in sizes from 12" by 12" to
16" by 32"; thicknesses vary
between 1/2 " and 1". They may be
designed to serve as a prefinished decorative insulating
tile or to
provide acoustical qualities. The present
practice of manu-
facturers is to furnish interior board either plain or acoustical
with a flamespread-retardant paint finish.
Medium Hardboard
Medium hardboards are generally available in nominal %g''
and 1/2 " thicknesses in 4' wide sheets or in the
form of siding.
This material provides good service when
used as exterior cover-
age in sheet form or as lap siding. The 4'
by 8' sheets are ap-
plied vertically, with batten strips
placed over the joints and
between for decorative effect.
High-Density Hardboard
High-density hardboard in standard or tempered
form is com-
monly supplied in and thick sheets of 4' by 8' size. It
may be used for both interior and exterior
covering material.
As with plywood or medium hardboard, the
high-density hard-
board in the thicker types can be applied
vertically with batten
strips or horizontally as a lap siding.
In perforated form, both types of hardboard
are used as soffit
material under cornice overhangs to ventilate
attic spaces. In
untreated form, high-density hardboard of
special grade is also
used as an underlayment for resilient flooring
materials. Hard-
boards can be obtained with decorative
laminated surfaces that
provide a pleasing appearance as interior
paneling.
Particle, Board
Particle board, a sheet material made up of resin-bonded
wood particles, is most often used as an underlayment for re-
silient flooring. It also
adaptable as covering material for
is
interior walls or other uses where
they are not exposed to mois-
ture. Particle board is usually
supplied in 4' by 8' sheets and in
%" thickness for paneling, in %"
thickness for underlayment,
cabinet and
and in block form for flooring. It is also used for
furniture.
closetdoors and as core stock for table tops and other
Interior Finish and Millwork
and millwork include doorjambs and doors,

Interior finish
casing, base, base shoe, stool, apron, and
other trim and mold-
fireplace mantels, and
ings; stair parts; and various cabinets,
as casing and
other manufactured units. Such interior trim
several patterns
base is stocked in most retail lumberyards in
and at least one species of wood.
are the
Ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, and southern yellow pine
most
softwoods usually available. Oak and birch are hardwoods
in
likely be stocked by lumberyards. Species not carried
to
special order. In-
stock may be obtained and manufactured on
finish are ordinarily
terior trim, moldings, and other interior
furnished in a clear grade.Paneling in pine, cedar, and similar
woods usually contains knots and other grain variations for a
decorative effect.
Inside doorjambs are %"
thick and vary in width from 41/2"
to 5 %", depending on the type of interior wall finish dry wall —
or plaster. Base may vary by 21/4" to % 6 " by
in size from %6"
31^" and wider. The modern trend is toward a narrow base,
except in strictly traditional interiors. Base shoe is
by
in size, although quarterround, %" by is sometimes used as
a molding between the base and the finish floor.

Casing and other trim around door and window frames may
be obtained in several patterns and sizes. Two common patterns
are the Colonial type with a molded face and the Ranch or
Bevel
trim with a simple beveled face and rounded corners. These
types of casing are usually %" or %" thick and 2
^" to 2 %
wide.
Cabinets, fireplace mantels, and stair parts are usually special-
order items that the lumber dealer must order from the manu-
facturer. Interior doors in flush or panel type are often stocked
standard sizes by many of the larger retail yards. Interior
in
doors are normally 1 %^^ thick and vary in width from 2 for
small closets, to 2 6 " '
and wider for other doors. Standard height
is 6 '
8 " for doors used on the first floor and 6 6 "
'
for doors used
PREPARING PIECES FOR USE 127
on the second floor. There is a trend in some interior designs of
houses to use full wall-height doors. This eliminates the need
for headers, head casing and trim, and other construction de-
tails associated with lower doors.
Standard exterior doors are thick and 6' 8" high. Panel
doors with solid wood rail and stiles and solid-core flush doors
are the types most often stocked in retail lumberyards for ex-
terior use.
PREPARING PIECES FOR USE

Cutting lumber out in rough. All lumber must be squared,
to find any deviation from a right angle, straight line, or plane
surface, and trued to the required size before proceeding with the
actual work. The tools required for squaring, truing, and pre-
liminary cutting are: a jack or smoothing plane, block plane,
straightedge, rule, marking gauge, saw, knife, and pencil.
Cut the lumber out in rough, and wherever possible discard the
parts that have large knots, knotholes, bad rips, or similar im-
perfections. Make to %" in width
an additional allowance of
"
and /2 to 1" in length for material to be removed during the
1
squaring and the truing-up operations. This allowance from

time to time will vary slightly from the given amount.
Preparing a working face. The first step in preparing a
working face on rough lumber is to test for straightness. When
two diagonally opposite corners of a board are higher than the
other two corners, a board is said to be “in wind.” It is then
necessary to plane with the jack or smoothing plane across the
high corners until the board is straight. To find out whether a
board is in wind, place a straightedge on each end of the surface
across the grain {A, Fig. 3). Sight under the straightedges in the
direction of the grain of the wood. If the straightedges are par-
allel, the surface of the stock is not in wind. If they are not
parallel, then the pieces in wind must be trued up.
To test for general straightness lengthwise, sight or use a
straightedge along the grain of the board.
To test for straightness across the grain, place the blade of
an
inverted try square on the surface of the stock, hold the board
Fig. 3 . Testing with straightedge for flatness of lumber.
Preparing a working edge. When the trueness of the face

of the lumber has been checked by making the three tests just
specified, mark the tested working face with a cross to show that
it has been squared and trued {A, Fig. 4). This marked face
is now the side from which all other tests for squareness and true-
ness should be made {A, Fig. 4).

To prepare a working edge, use either a jack or smoothing
plane. Secure the work, which we will now term the stock, in a
vise and take several light, even shavings on the edge of the
stock {B, Fig. 4). Between each of the shavings, test the edge
by pressing the handle of the try square against the marked
working face and the blade on the edge of the stock. Slide the
at eye level, and sight toward the light {B, Fig. 3). If there is
light between the blade and the stock, the surface is not level.
The next step is planing for smoothness. Use either the smooth-
ing or the jack plane, pressing down firmly on the top of the
plane at the beginning of the stroke, and gradually releasing the
tension at the end of the stroke. If a board is slightly warped,
the working face can be trued up easily by planing across the
grain until full-length shavings are obtained,
blade along the edge of the stock. When no light can be seen
between the blade and the edge of the stock, the working edge is
square and true. Mark the edge with a cross to show that it is
the working edge.
Preparing a working end. To prepare a working end, mark
the required width on the working face of the stock with the
PREPARING PIECES FOR USE 129
Fig. 4, Preparing, squaring, and testing working surfaces.
marking gauge. This is a guideline to show how much

of the
corner can be cut off by the saw prior to planing the ends.
Cut
off the corner outside the gauged line with the saw
at about a
45° angle to prevent the stock from chipping
or splitting while
planing against the grain to that corner (C, Fig. 4).
Now square a line around the entire piece, holding the handle
of the try square first against the working edge and then against
the working face (D, Fig. 4). Plane to the marked line with the
block plane, and test for squareness with both the face and work-
ing edge, and mark with a cross to denote the working end (B
and
D, Fig. 4).
Squaring to required length. To square the stock to the re-
quired length, measure from the working end and mark off the
lao WORKING WITH WOOD
required length of the board. mark, proceed as directed
From this
for preparing a working end (B, C, and D, Fig. 4).

Squaring to required thickness. Set the marking gauge to
the required thickness and mark a line around the edges
and the
against
ends of the stock, with the head of the gauge held tight
plane, and
the working face. Using either a jack or smoothing
taking thin, even shavings, plane the stock down to the marked
frequently for squareness and trueness.
line, testing
Removing surface defects. Lumber often has surface defects
caused by the mill planers or shapers or by the tools used
in
truing and squaring the lumber. These usually can be

removed
with a cabinet scraper and sandpaper. The use of a cabinet
scraper is shown in Chap. 2.
the grain of the wood has been torn slightly, plane

Where
lightly with a smoothing plane and scrape the surface smooth
with a cabinet scraper.
When the grain has been torn badly, use either a commercial
wood filler, or a sawdust-and-glue filler, described later
in this
chapter.
First remove all loose splinters from the torn section with the
point of a brad awl or knife. With the knife blade, fill the tom
section with the fillerabove the surface of the board.
slightly
Allow approximately 24 hours for it to set and harden and then
sand it down to the surface of the board.
Solid or firm knots can be smoothed down to the surface of the
lumber with a scraper and sandpaper, but loose knots must be
removed and the hole filled.
Lumber that has been handled roughly may have a number of
dents, which often can be eliminated by dropping a few drops of

water on the dented surface and by picking at the spot with the
point of a knife or brad awl. This causes the fibers of the
wood
to swell and thus fill After the moisture has dried out,
the dent.
sand down the spot even with the surface of the board.
Small splits sometimes can be removed by the use of a
filler.
A bad split in the end of a board can be repaired by cutting out

occurs, and
a wedge-shaped section of the board where the split
by gluing in a piece cut exactly to fit the opening.
IS AILS, SCREWS, OTHER FASTENERS, AND HARDWARE 131
NAILS, SCREWS, OTHER FASTENERS, AND HARDWARE

Commoii and finishing nails. Although there are many varie-
ties of nails, the two kinds most generally
used are common and
finishing nails. Common nails are used for the
framework of
buildings, and for subfloors and general rough woodworking.
They have flat heads and pyramid-shaped points and are avail-
able in various sizes and gauges (Fig. 5).
Finishing nails are used to secure trim and all finishing wood-
work into place. They have pyramidal points and small heads,
called brad-heads. Finishing nails are usually countersunk
(Fig. 5).
Sizes of both common and finishing nails are designated by the
old English penny system. When and how this system origi-
Table 4
Common and finishing nails
COMMON NAILS*
Size Length Diameter Diameter Approximate

in in Gauge of Head Number
Penny Inches Number in Inches to a Pound
2 d 1 15 830
3 14 528
4 123^ 316
5 m
2
12^
11^
H 271
168
6
150
7 2H li'A
8 2H lO'A % 106
lOH 96
9 2H
10 3 9 69
63
12 3 M 9
49
16 3M 8
4 6 31
20
24
30 4 M 5 Ke
40 5 4 18
14
50 5^ 3 y2
6 2 134 11
60
FINISHING NAILS*
Size Length Diameter Diameter Approximate

in in Gauge Head
of Number
Penny Inches Number Gauge Number to a Pound
2 d 1 16H 133^ 1351
3 IH 1514 124^ 807

4 iy2 15 12 584
5 m
2
15
13
12
10
500
309
6
8 2^ 123^ 93^ 189
10 3 113^ sy2 121
16 33^ 11 8 90
20 4 10 7 62
* The above tables are reprinted from the Catalog oj American

Nails by courtesy of the American Steel and Wire Company.
rÂlLS, SCREW^S, OTHER FASTENERS, AND HARDWARE 133
8d- BOAT NAIL lOd CLINCH NAIL

f5>- 1 fn... -
2 " HINGE NAIL ‘='234" DUPLEX HEAD FOR

tttimH
2^/4" FETTER RING NAIL 6 d- BARBED BOX
PLlWJUJJ'J.
Sd-FLOORING BRAD 8 d* HARDWOOD FLOORING BRAD
Fig. 6. Special-application nails (% actual size).
nated rather vague, but it is still in use. The standard ab-

is
breviation for the English penny is d, and this abbreviation is

used in specifying common or finishing nails.
Special-purpose nails. Special-purpose nails are nails
that
have been modified to meet special requirements. There are
over
a hundred varieties of such nails in use today.
They are made
for plasterboard, concrete forms, shingles,
crates, boats, flooring,
and many other specific jturposes (Fig. 6). Some special-purpose
nails are graded in sizes according to their length
in inches, others
are designated and graded by the penny system.
Brads and wire nails. Brads are pyramid-pointed brad-
headed nails of small diameter. The heads are
considerably
smaller than the heads of finishing nails. Brads are used in
cabinetwork and other types of fine work where it is necessary
to countersink nailheads.
Wire nails are and pyramid-pointed, and are
flat-headed
smaller in diameter than common nails. Wire nails are
used in
working with light, thin wood which a common nail invariably
would split.
Brads and wire nails are available in sizes
from to 3" in
length. Their diameter is measured by the American
Steel and
ire Gauge Standards and ranges from No. 24
to No. 10 gauge.
Wood screws. The two most commonly used wood screws are
the flat-head and round-head. Two variations of the round-head
screw are the oval-head and fillister-head types (Fig. 7).
Wood screws are sized according to their diameter and length.
Diameters range from No. 0, which is .060", to No. 24, .372".
The length of a flat-head screw is the over-all length; the lengths
and round-head screws are taken from the point
of both fillister-
to the underside of the head of the screw; while that of the
oval-
head type is computed from the point to the head (Fig. 7).
Corrugated screws. Corrugated fasteners are sometimes
called wiggle nails. are available in various sizes, with
They
either a plain edge or a saw edge, and are used for fastening the
miter joints in window screens and frames and in screen doors,
and also for tightening loose joints in furniture and woodwork.
FLAT- ROUND
HEAD HEAD
OVAL- FILLISTER
HEAD HEAD
,1
'1 .
Fig. 7. Wood screws and types of heads.

NAILS, SCREWS, OTHER FASTENERS, AND HARDWARE 135
The one with a saw edge
is used for softwoods, the
plain edge
type for hardwoods. When fastening
work with a wiggle nail it
IS necessary to rest the
work on a solid surface. Drive in the
fastener with a medium-weight hammer,
using evenly distributed
light blows.
Dowels. Dowels are round wooden sticks ranging in size
from
Vs" to 11/2 " in diameter and
to 3' in length. They are used for
strengthening edge-to-edge joints, for
plugging screw holes, and
for many other special purposes
in woodworking.
Screw fasteners. Screw fasteners are made from either plain
or galvanized steel, and are available
in various sizes and forms.
They are easily installed wherever required and
are widely used
as hooks (Fig. 8).
Hooks and Hooks and eyes are available in many
eyes.
shapes and sizes, and are made either of brass
or of plain or gal-
vanized steel. They are used as fasteners
on screen and cellar
doors, on storm windows, and for many
other purposes (Fig. 9).
Bolts and nuts. Various types and sizes of
bolts and nuts are
used on the standard equipment found in modern
houses. The
carriage bolt and the machine bolt are the two
types in general
use.
Fig. 8. Typical screw fasteners. Fig. 9. Hook-and-eye fastener.

The carriage bolt has an oval head and is square for a short
distance below the head. This square portion of the shank
keeps
the bolt from turning whenscrewed into place. The machine

it is
bolt has no square section on its shank, but it has a square

head
which is held with a wrench or pliers while the nut is tightened.
Other types are wing bolts, wing nuts, cap screws, cap nuts,
and lock nuts. Wing nuts and bolts are useful as fasteners when
a nut has to be taken off at frequent intervals.
Washers. Washers are disks of steel, cast iron, or brass with
a hole in the center. They are available in various
sizes. A
washer is inserted over the end of a bolt before the nut is screwed
on to prevent the nut from digging into the wood. Washers
give
added strength to assembled parts and separate moving parts

that are held together by a bolt.
Hinges. The types of hinges most often used are the butt,
strap, tee, spring, and rule- joint.
The butt hinge has a removable pin, making it possible to re-
move a door from its frame without removing the hinges (Figs.
10 and 12). Butt joints are available in iron, brass, bronze, and
other ornamental metals, in various sizes and in a wide
lange of
prices.
The strap hingeused primarily on gates and on cellar and
is
storm doors (Figs. 10 and 13). It has two long triangular-shaped

leaves, each tapering from the pin to the end. One of
the leaves
is screwed to the surface of the door, and the othei to the

flat
surface of the frame, instead of to the edges of both

door and
frame.
leaf similar to an
The T-hinge has one rectangular-shaped
to
ordinary hinge, and the other leaf is triangular-shaped, similar
a strap hinge (Figs. 10 and 13). The T-hinge is used when
hinge.
there is not enough room on the doorframe for a strap
2" to 8".
This type is available in sizes ranging from
The spring hinge is a special type fitted with an inner spring.
in sizes from
It is used only on screen doors and is available
11/2 " to3" (Fig. 11).
The rule- joint hinge is designed for use on table leaves. It is
similar to the conventional type of hinge, with the
exception that
of the other.
one of the leaves is approximately twice the length
It is available in sizes ranging from
%" to 2".
BUTT HINGE
STRAP HINGE
Fig. 10. Hinges.
Locks. There are hundreds of varieties of locks

available for
use on house doors and on furniture drawers, but
there are only
two classifications of locks: the mortise and the rim lock. The
mortise lock installed in a slot or 'mortise in the door or drawer,
is
while the rim lock is secured to the inside surface.

Mortise locks
are used extensively in better modern construction; rim locks in
older housesand those of cheap construction.
Both the mortise and the rim lock may be either a cylinder or
tumbler type of lock, and there are a great many styles and
Fig. 11. Fast pin spring hinge Fig. 12. Butt hinge with loose
used on screen doors. pin.
varieties of each type (Fig. 14).

The cylinder lock is opened
with a small, flat, grooved key,
notched along one edge. Doors
equipped with cylinder locks
can be double-locked, and this
type is used extensively on out-
side doors. The tumbler lock
is opened and closed with a
large key that has a notched

blade at the end. Tumbler
locks are found in older types
of houses, and in modern con- Fig. 13. A, strap hinge; B,
struction are used on bedroom, T-hinge.
bathroom, and other inner doors.

Latches.Latches are used if closet and cupboard doors are
to be kept shut but not locked (A, Fig. 15).
They consist of a
beveled bolt that fits into a slot and is held in place by a
spring.
To open the latch, the bolt is withdrawn by turning a handle

to the right.
Another type of latch generally used on screen doors is shown
at B, Fig. 15.
Hasps. Hasps are generally used on cellar doors, barns, out-
houses, and places where other fixtures to prevent entrance are
not required. They are available in a variety of sijjes, and are
usually of galvanized steel (C,
Fig. 15).
CYLINDER
LOCK Mending plates. Mending
plates are used to strengthen
^MORTISE weak joints, to reinforce cor-
ners, to mend splits, and for
general reinforcement purposes.
CYLINDER
LOCK
Flat key.
Fig. 14. Mortise and rim locks

with pin tumbler cylinders.
CUPBOARO SPRING"
CATCH LATCH
m
HASP
Fi«.
Fig. 16. Types of mending plates
15.
and how they are used.
WORKING WITH WOOD
140
They are made of flat steel in
a variety of shapes and

sizes,
with countersunk holes drilled

used
for the flat-head screws
to secure them (Fig. 16).
Storm window and screen
hangers. Storm window and
in-
screen hangers are fixtures
of
stalled on the top edges
storm windows and screens to
enable them to swing outward
(Fig. 17). They are usually
made of galvanized steel and
sizes.
are available in several
These hangers are demount-
able, that is, they are designed
so that the windows or screens
can be lifted off the hangers

when swung to a horizontal
position. Together with these
hangers it is advisable to use
to
a type of hook or bracket
jTig, 17, Types of window and hold storm windows in any de-
screen hangers and where
they are
^ position (Fig. 17).
used.
JOINTS
HOW TO MAKE WOODWORKING
nails, scr
utmost importance. Although
,
structed joints is of
bolts, and other types of

struction and maintenance
fasteners are used
of a house, the home
craftsman also ^
should be familiar with the
common joints used in
proper methods of making them before he attempts
and with the
repair furniture or cabinets.
to construct, alter, or
joints in woodworking
are the ap, , >
The common
dov,k.ll, ..ito, ..d
ioints All of the joints used are

shown mFigs. 18 to Zl.
joints are the half lap,
ha ve
The types of lap
Lap joints.
Th., .r. p««I
.nd eoJr l.p, .nd middl. h.ll-l.p.
COMMON JOINTS 141
Fig. 18. Common joints.

in the construction of book on chairs, easels,

shelves, stretchers
kitchen cabinets, and in similar projects (Figs. 22, 23,

and 24).
The middle half-lap joint is the most commonly used. This joint
is laid out by superimposing one piece of the wood upon the other
to markaccurately the width of each cut {A, Fig. 25). Then

clamp the two pieces together in a vise, and with the try square
draw the lines for the width of this cut accurately square across
COMMON JOINTS 143
both work edges. Remove the work from the
vise, and again
using the try square, square the shoulder
lines of both the face
and the edge of the work (B, Fig. 25). Gauge and
mark the depth
of the required notches with the marking
gauge (C, Fig. 25).
Again secure the work in the vise, and saw" dowm to
the required
depth with the hacksaw. Be sure to make the
saw cuts on the
waste part of the stock {D, Fig. 25) If the
notches are more than
.
*/4 in width, make several cuts to facilitate

the removal of the
waste material. Chisel down to the gauge line
on each side of
the notch. To prevent breaking the grain of
the wood and to pro-
duce a clean, smooth cut, the chisel should be slanted
outward very
slightly (E, Fig. 25). The final step in the making of the middle
lap joint is to finish the cut to a uniform depth {F, Fig. 25).
The end half-lap joint is made in the same manner as the middle
Fig, 20. Common joints.

is to be cut
lap joint, with the exception that only one shoulder
end
and the line of the bottom of the joint is gauged across the
of the stock. As the bottom of
this joint is accessible from the
end of the stock, it can be sawed
out and trimmed to the line with
the chisel.
The other types of lap joints
are merely variations of the two
just described, and directions for
making them are similar.
Butt joints. The butt joint is
the simplest joint and is the only

one inwhich nails or screws
must be used. It is used only for
rough construction (F, Fig. 18).
Though it is extremely simple to
make, be joined
test the edges to
for absolute squareness with the
try square before the pieces are
fitted together.
HALF CORNER LAP

WITH RABBET JOINT
Common joints. Fig. 22.

Fig. 21.
RABBET JOINTS 145
Rabbet joints. Rabbet joints are formed by recesses, or rabbets,

cut out on the edges of the work so that they
may be fitted into
each other or secured further with a spline fitting
into them. Rab-
bet joints are used in the construction of
cabinets, table-tops, and
similar projects. The rabbet joints commonly used
are the rabbet
on end and the rabbet on edge (A and B, Fig.
26) The shiplap
.
(C, Fig. 26) and the rabbet and fillet (D, Fig.
26) are two vari-
ations of the lap joint.
To make a rabbet on end, lay out the joint by squaring
a line
for the side or shoulder of the joint across
the face of the board
and down the edges. This line should be as far from
the end of
the board as the thickness of the joining piece
{A and Fig. 26).
Then gauge the required depth of the rabbet, and mark
the lines
on the two edges and on the end with the marking
gauge (F, Fig.
26). Cut out the material to be rempved with a
hacksaw (G and
//, Fig. 26).
A handy tool for cutting rabbets is the rabbet plane
(Chap. 2).
The depth gauge and fence on the rabbet plane regulate the
width
and depth of the recess to be cut.
The rabbet on edge is cut in the same manner as the rabbet
on
end, except that the recess is cut on the edge instead of on the end
of the board.
Dado joints are grooves cut across the gram of
Dado joints.
the board, into which a second piece of
wood is fitted accurately.
cabinets, book-
They are used in the construction of end tables,
A housed dado joint is one in which
cases, and similar projects.
Fig. 25. Making middle half-lap joints.

RABBET JOINTS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM 14 '
the entire end of the second piece fits into the dado, or groove
((?,
Fig. 28). In a stopped or gained dado joint, the dado
does not
extend entirely across the face of the work {E, Fig. 27). Other
types are the dovetail and shoulder-housed dado (I Fig
28) (F
Fig. 27).
Fic. 26 . Rabbet joints and how to make them.

Fig. 27. Dado joints.
lay out a plain dado, set the board to be housed on end on

To
the face of the board in which the dado is to be cut, and mark the
width of the dado accurately on the face of the board (^4, Fig.
27). Square lines with a try square across the face of the board
through the marks and down both edges {B, Fig. 27). Then mark
DADO JOINTS 149
Fig. 28. Dado joints and stopped dado.

the required depth with a gauge, connecting
the two marked lines
Fig. 27). Lsing a hacksaw, make
the necessary cuts; remove
the waste wood with
a chisel (D, Fig. 27) as previously described
in the paragraphs on Lap Joints.
A stopped dado is laid out in the same manner as a plain dado,

with the exception that it does not extend across the full width of
the board {E, Fig. 27). The depth is marked on the work edge
only. To the housed piece into a stopped dado, lay out
fit
the
shoulder of the housed piece, mark, and cut in one
corner to a
length equal to the depth of the dado. AVhen
making a stopped
dado, cut a small section of the inner end of the dado
with a chisel
to regulate the depthand to assist' in sawing the sides. Cut the
sides with a hacksaw, and remove the bottom
of the cut with a
chisel. Sawing and chiseling should be done alternately, a little
at a time, to avoid cutting the inner part
of the joint too deep.
The dovetail (F, Fig. 27), housed (G, Fig.
28), and grooved
types (H, Fig. 28) are three other variations of the
dado joint.
A combined dado-and-rabbet joint is laid out and made in the
as a plain dado, except that a rabbet, or a recess,
is
same manner
cut on the end of the housed piece (/, Fig. 28).
Mortise-and-tenon joints. The mortise-and-tenon joint is used
extensively by skilled woodworkers. When properly laid out and
assure maximum
accurately made, it is strong and dependable. To
accurately. Mortise-
strength and rigidity, it must be fitted very
and-tenon joints are used in the construction of desks, tables,
chairs, and cabinet furniture that be subject to hard usage.

will
directions given
While there are several kinds of these joints, the
mortise-and-tenon joint.
here are for the type known as the blind
The description and drawings of the procedure in making
this
the woodworker to lay out and make any of

the
joint will help
other types (Figs. 19 and 20).
The tenon section should be made Cut and square both
first.
pieces of the work to the desired dimension and plainly mark both
faces of each piece for easy identification.
From the end of the
piece in which the tenon is to be cut,
measure back a distance
the shoulder line and
equal to the length of the tenon, then square
mark it around this piece {A, Fig. 29).
For general purposes, the tenon type of joint should be

in this
board. To lay out
one-quarter to one-half as thick as the entire
the tenon correctly, locate the exact center of
one
the thickness of
one-half the thickness of the
edge, accurately measure with a rule
these places with the
tenon each way from the center, and mark
Fig. 29). Set a marking
point of a knifeblade or a brad awl (B,
the end and
gauge to these points, and mark both lines across
marked around
down both edges to the shoulder line previously
the board. All gauging must be done
from the face side of the
wmrk (C, Fig. 29). r n j
must be laid out very carefully ana
The width of the tenon also ,
across the end and down

the lines gauged through these points
both sides to the shoulder line (D, Fig. 29).
With the try square
sharp knife, score the shoulder
as a guide and using the point of a
depth of about (F, Fig. 29).
line repeatedly, to a
a very sharp
Fasten the work securely in the vise, and using
chisel, cut a narrow triangular
groove along the outside of the
29). Fasten the work ^
scored line on the waste material (F, Fig.
MORTISE-AND-TENON joints
151
29. Making mortise-and-tenon joints.

at an angle in the vise, and with a hacksaw
proceed to cut the
cheeks of the tenon to the shoulder line {G, Fig. 29).
Change the position of the piece in the vise so the next cut will
be square with the face of the work. Now proceed to cut
made
the shoulder of the tenon to the required dimension
with the hack-
saw {H, Fig. 29).

of the tenon.
The length of the mortise must equal the width
To determine the position of the mortise, square lines with the try
Locate the
square across the work at points shown at I, Fig. 30.
Fig. 30. Making mortise-and-tenon joints.

DOVETAIL JOINTS 153
exact center of the piece, and measure each way
from the center
exactly one-half the thickness of the tenon to
lay out the correct
width of the mortise on the other board. Mark
these points (7,
Fig. 30). Now, carefully check the width of the mortise to
make
sure that it is equal to the thickness of the tenon. Gauging
from
the working face, mark through these points, stopping at the end
of the mortise. A center line should also be gauged lengthwise
of
the mortise, as shown at K, Fig. 30.
Secure the work firmly in a vise. Select an auger
bit smaller
than the width of the mortise, and adjust the bit
gauge to bore
holes Vs" deeper than the length of the tenon.
Place the spur of
the bit on the center line, keeping the bit exactly
perpendicular to
the face of the work. Begin boring a series of overlapping holes,
with the first hole just touching the end of the
mortise and the last
hole touching the opposite end (L, Fig.
30).
With the work held securely in the vise, as shown at M, Fig. 30,
and using a small, sharp chisel, clean
out the waste material by
cutting out both sides of the mortise as the depth
increases. Pare
the walls of the mortise to the gauge line, keeping
them perpen-
dicular to the face of the work {N, Fig. 30). The
final step is to
square the ends and remove waste material from the
bottom by
using a chisel a little narrower than the width of the
mortise.
Dovetail joints. Dovetail joints are used by skilled woodwork-
ers in the construction of fine furniture, drawers
for tables or desks,
and projects where good appearance and strength are desired.
A
dovetail joint has considerable strength, due to the
flare of the
projections, called pins, on the ends of the boards, which
fit ex-
actly into similarly shaped dovetails. The spaces between
the pins
and between the dovetails are called sockets, or mortises. The
pins are visible on the ends of the work, and the dovetails
are
visible on the face of the work.
The angle of the dovetail must not be made too acute; this
would defeat the purpose of additional strength because an acute
angle is weakened by the short grain at the corners of the
angle.
The step in determining the angle of the dovetail is to
first
square a line from the edge of the board, measuring 5", 6^^, 7^^,
8", or 9" along the board from the edge.
Measure 1" from the
line along the edge, and connect the points with a line (Fig.
31).
To mark the other angles make a template, that is, a pattern of
and use it
cardboard or thin wood, of the angle selected (Fig. 32) ,
as a guide.
pins and the
While the strongest joints are those in which the
dovetails are the same size, for the sake of
appearance the dove-
pins, though not more than
tails are usually made larger than the
MAKE PINS ABOUT i

THICK ON BACK OR^
SMALL END.
TAKE ANGLE OFF

WITH ’T* BEVEL TO
LAYOUT DOVETAIL.
TEMPLATES OR FORMS
ARE USED TO LAYOUT
DOVETAIL ANGLES.
/'A
Fig. 31. Using templates. Fig. 32. Using bevel for laying out
dovetails.
four times the width of the pins. The thickness of the pin and the
width of the dovetails will vary in a great many instances, but it

is considered good practice to make the
pin or its corresponding
socket about on the narrow side.

DOVETAIL JOINTS I55
The three most widely used types of dovetail joints are the half-
lap dovetail, the single dove-
tail, and the multiple dove-
tail. Dovetail joints are not
easy to make, and the begin-
ner is strongly advised to
practice on waste material be-
fore attempting an actual
project.
The single dovetail joint
shown in A, Fig. 33, is the
most commonly used.
To make it with two half
tongues and a whole dovetail
(Fig. 33), first locate the
shoulder lines of the joint by
measuring the thickness of
each piece of wood. Mark
the position of the shoulder
line and square this line. On
one piece, lay out the tongue
with a template and cut to
required size {A, Fig. 33).
Saw the sides of this piece
with the hacksaw {B, Fig. 33)
and then remove the waste
material to the shoulder line
with a chisel {C, Fig. 33).
Hold on the other
this piece
board to mark the shape of
the dovetail {D, Fig. 33).
Cut out with saw and chisel
{E and F, Fig. 34).
To make the joint with a
Whole pin fitting into a socket
between two half dovetails,
square these marks across the
33. Making a single dovetail
end and reproduce the angle
with two half-pins. on the other side, reversing
the procedure outlined for the first type.
That is, the sockets
marked, and
between the two half dovetails are first laid out,
cut; then the pin is laid out from the
sockets and cut to fit.
series of single
A through multiple dovetail joint is merely a
the end of the board
dovetails extending along the entire length of
(Fig. 34) . The first step is to mark and square a shoulder line
{A, Fig. 34). Divide and mark this width into as many divisions
Fig. 34. Making multiple dovetail joints.

MITER JOINTS 157
as required for dovetails, and measure half
the thickness of the
pins from each edge and from each side of
the divisions (B, Fig.
34). Square the divisions to the end, and using a
template or
bevel, mark the slant on the other side
(C, Fig. 34). Saw the sides
of the pins with the hacksaw (D, Fig.
34). Finish by chiseling
the bottoms of the sockets and cleaning them
out with a smaller
chisel {E, Fig. 34). Now mark the
dovetails from the pins with
either the point of a knife or a brad awl,
and cut out the pins in
the manner described for the sockets (F, Fig.
34).
Miter joints. Miter joints are used almost exclusively
in making
picture frames and screens. They are merely
butt joints with the
angle at the corner halved between the two
pieces that are to be
joined (Fig. 35). Miter joints are usually cut at an angle of 45°.
Fig. 35. Miter joints.

miter
While a simple matter to mark out an angle of 45°,
it is
joints are usually sawed in a miter box (Chap. 2).

A miter box is an accurate tool for reproducing an angle of cut,
from 30° to 90°, in pieces that are to be fitted together.
The ma-
is cut with
terial isset in the miter box at the required angle and
the hacksaw. When a large number of miter joints are to be nailed
vise used
or glued together, a special clamp or picture-frame
is
(Figs. 36 and 37).

Dowels, tongues, or sometimes used instead of
slip feathers are
nails to strengthen the joint further. When

tongued miter joints
made, each of the pieces is grooved, and a wooden tongue
of
are
required size glued into the groove. This strengthens the miter
is
joints, and also prevents the pieces joined in this

way from warping.
miter gluing frame with wedges
ADJUSTABLE
MITER CLAMPS MITER CLAMP ON STAND /V
Fi«. 36. Various methods of clamping glued miters.

TONGUE- AND-GROOVE JOINTS 159
In making a slip-feather miter joint, a groove is cut only
part
way through with a hacksaw. A thin piece or sliver of wood is
glued into the groove, and

the protruding excess wood is
trimmed flush with the work
with a chisel (Fig. 35).
When dowels are used to re-
inforce a miter joint, the holes
for them are drilled at an angle
to a depth of from 1" to 2".
Use a drill slightly larger than
the diameter of the dowels.
Before insertion of the dowels,
file or sand off the square
corners. Insert some glue in
the holes and coat the dowel
with the glue. Fit together and
clamp (Fig. 35).
Other methods used for rein-
forcing miters are shown in
Fig. 35.
Tongue-and-groove joints.
It is impractical to make
tongue-and-groove joints in the
home workshop, as finished
tongued-and-grooved lumber,
when specified, is supplied by
the dealer. This type of joint
is made by cutting a groove
longitudinally with the grain of
the wood on one side of a board
Fig. 37.
and a tongue on the other side
Nailing and clamping
miters. to fit the groove of an adjoin-
ing piece. The tongue-and-
groove joint is used principally in flooring.
CHAPTER 4
Working with Plywood
LAYING OUT PLYWOOD FOR CUTTING

The large size panels in which plywood is manufactured simpli-
fiesevery step of construction. With panels at hand, the only step
that has to precede actual construction is laying out the work for
cutting. It is worth while to do this with care and to avoid waste
and simplify your work. When many pieces are to be cut from
one panel, you will find it easiest to sketch the arrangement on a
piece of paper before marking the plywood for cutting. Be sure
to allow for a saw kerf between adjacent pieces.
Try to work it out so that your first cuts reduce the panel to
pieces small enough for easy handling.
One of the most important points to watch in planning your
sequence of operations is to cut all mating or matching parts with
the same saw setting. AVatch the direction of the face grain
when cutting. Except where indicated otherwise in the plan,
you will usually want this to run the long way of the piece. Mark
on the better face of the plywood unless you are going to cut it
with a portable power saw; in that case, mark it on the back.
Hand-sawing. When hand-sawing, place plywood with good
face up (Fig. 1). Use a saw having 10 to 15 points to the inch.
Support the panel firmly so it will not sag. You can reduce split-
ting out of the underside by putting a piece of scrap lumber under
it and sawing it along with the plywood. It also helps to hold
the saw at a low angle as shown in illustration. Be sure to use
a sharp saw.
Power sawing. Power sawing on a radial or table saw should
be done with good face of plywood up. Use a sharp combination ^
160
LAYING OUT PLYWOOD FOR CUTTING JOINTS
161
1- Fig. 2.
blade or a fine-tooth one without

much set. Let the blade pro-
trude above the plywood just the
height of the teeth (Fig. 2).
You will find
handling large panels an easier one-man
job if you
build an extension support with
a roller. It can have a base of its
own or may be clamped to a saw horse.
Portable power saw. A portable power
saw should be used
with the good face of the plywood
down, as shown in Fig. 3.
Tack a strip of scrap lumber to the top of
each saw horse and
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
162 WORKING WITH PLYWOOD
you can saw right through it without damaging the horse. Be
sure to keep your saw blade sharp.
Planing plywood edges. Planing plywood edges with a plane
or jointer will not be necessary if you make your cuts with a
sharp saw blade. If you do any planing, work from both ends
of the edge toward the center to avoid tearing out plies at the
end of the cut (Fig. 4). Use a plane with a sharp blade and
take very shallow cuts.
Sanding. Sanding before sealer or prime coat is applied
should be confined to edges (Fig. 5). Fir plywood is sanded

—
smooth in manufacture one of the big timesavers in its use
-
and further sanding of the surfaces will merely remove soft

grain. After sealing, sand in direction of grain only.
PLYWOOD CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
Butt joints. Butt joints, like those shown in Fig. 6, are

simplest to make, suitable for %" plywood. For thinner
panels,
use a reinforcing block or nailing strip to make a stronger

joint
joint many
as shown in Fig. 6. In both cases, glue will make the
alone.
times stronger than if it were made with nails or screws
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
PLYWOOD CONSTRUCTION JOINTS 163
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Frame consiruction. Frame

construction shown in Fig. 7
makes it possible to reduce weight by using
thinner plywood,
since it has amazing strength. Glue as
recommended in Chapter
Dado joints. Dado joints (Fig. 8) quickly made with a

power saw, produce neat shelves. Use a dado blade (shimmed
out) to produce these grooves in
a single cut.
Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

Rabbet Rabbet joints like this one shown in Fig. 9
joints.
are neat and strong, and easy to make with
power tools. You
an ideal joint for drawers, buffets, chests, or cup-
will find this
boards.
PLYWOOD FASTENERS
Nails. Nail size determined primarily by the thickness of

is
nails will produce
the plywood you are using. Used with glue, all
strong joints. For %" plywood, 6d casing nails or fid
finish nails.
For fid or 8d finish nails. For /2 ", 4d

1 or fid. For %", 3d or
4d. For 1/4", use %" or 1" brads, 3d finish nails, or (for backs
to heads showing) 1 blue lath nails.
where there is no objection
Substitute casing for finish nails wherever you
want a heavier
nail (Fig. 10).
Pre-drilling is occasionally called for in careful work where
nails must be very an edge. As shown in Fig. 11, diill bit
close to
to be used.
should be slightly smaller diameter than the nail
12). Closer
Space the nails about fi" apart for most work (Fig.
spacing is necessary only with thin plywood
where there may be
glue work together to
slight buckling between nails. Nail and
produce a strong, durable joint.
Fig. ll* Fig. 12.

PLYWOOD FASTENERS 165
Flat-head wood screws. Flat-head wood screws are

useful
where nails will not provide adequate holding power.
Glue should
also be used if possible. Sizes shown here
are minimumsj use
longer screws when work permits. Thisplywood thick-
list gives
ness, diameter and length of smallest screws recommended,
and
size of hole to drill: plywood. No. 8, 11/2", %2" hole; %"
plywood. No. 8, 11/4", hole; 1/2" plywood. No. 6, 11/4",
hole; %" plywood, No. 6, 1", hole; plywood. No. 4,
%4" hole (Fig. 13).
Fig. 15. Fig. 16.

Screws and nails should be countersunk and the holes filled
with wood dough or surfacing putty as shown in Fig. 14. Apply
filler so it is slightly higher than the plywood, then
sanded level
when dry. Lubricate screws with soap if hard to drive. Avoid
damage to plywood surface by using Phillips head screws.
Corrugated fasteners. Corrugated fasteners can reinforce miter
joints in plywood and hold joints together while glue sets as
shown in Fig. 15. For some kinds of plywood jobs, sheet-metal
screws are valuable. These screws have more holding power
than
wood screws, but come only in short lengths and do not have
fiat heads. Bolts and washers are good for
fastening sectional
units together and for installing legs, hinges or other

hardware
when great strength is required.
DRAWER CONSTRUCTION
Drawers made with hand tools. This drawer, shown upside

down in Fig. 16, is easily made with saw and hammer. Butt "
joints are glued and nailed. The bottom should be %" or V2
fir plywood for rigidity. The drawer front

extends down to cover
the front edge of the bottom.
Additional strip of wood, glued and nailed to front panel, as
shown in Fig. 17, reinforces the bottom of this second type of
drawer made with hand tools. Reinforcing permits use of eco-

nomical 1/4" fir plywood for drawer bottoms.
Drawers made with power tools. Power tools make sturdy
drawers easy to build. Figure 18 shows one side (dadoed on
outer face for drawer guide) being put into place.
Rabbet
drawer front (at right) to take sides dado sides to fit draver
j
bottom.
back. All four parts are grooved to take 1/4" plywood
Two types of guides, both calling for the use of power tools,
areshown in Figs. 19 and 20. The drawer side has been plowed
before assembly to over a strip glued to the side of the cabinet
fit
Fig. 20. Here
(Fig. 19). Procedure is reversed for the version in
the cabinet side has been dadoed before assembly. A
matching
stripis glued to the side of the drawer. Even
heavy drawers slide
easily on guides like these if waxed or lubricated with paraffin
after finishing.
DRAWER CONSTRUCTION 167
Fig. 17. Fig. 18.
Drawer bottom forms guide. Hand tools only are required

to make the drawer shown in Fig. 21. The secret is
its bottom,
made of %" or plywood. This bottom extends %" beyond
the sides of the drawer to form a lip.Ease edges and apply
paraffin for easy operation. Power tools will permit
making a
stronger and lighter version of the same drawer. Bottom
is i/4"
plywood cut % wider than the drawer on each side. See details
of construction shown in Fig. 22.
Fig. 19. Fig. 20.

Extended bottom of drawer described and shown in Fig. 23
fits into slots formed by gluing pieces of %" plywood
to the
inner surface of each side of the cabinet. Gap just wide enough
to take the lip is left between the pieces. The drawer shown in
Fig. 24 slides in slots dadoed into the %" plywood sides of the
cabinet. When power tools are used, this is one of the simplest of
all methods of drawer-and-guide construction.
Fig. 23. Fig. 24.

WORKING WITH PLYWOOD 169
For removable doors, plow bottom
grooves deep top
grooves deep (Fig. 27). After finishing, (see
previous para-
graph) insert door by pushing up into
excess space in top groove,
then dropping into bottom. Plowing
can be simplified by the use
of a fiber track made for sliding doors of this type.
Only hand tools are required when this version of the sliding-
door IS Front and back strips are stock i/4"
used.
quarter-round
molding. The strip between is )4"
square, as shown in Fig. 28.
Use glue and brads or finish nails to fasten
strips securely.
Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.
CABINET BACKS
Standard method of applying backs to

cabinets and other
storage units calls for rabbeting sides.
Cabinet at left in Fig. 29
has rabbet just deep enough to take
plywood back. For large
units that mustagainst walls that may not be perfectly smooth
fit
or plumb, the version at right in this

illustration is better. This
rabbet is made i/o" or even The lip that remains after
deep.
back has been inserted may be easily trimmed
wherever necessary
to get a good fit between plywood unit
and house wall.
When hand tools are used, attach strips of
quarter-round
molding for the back to rest against (Fig. 30). Glue and nail
back to molding.
1
deep, top
For removable doors, plow bottom grooves *%6
(see previous para-
grooves %" deep (Fig. 27). After finishing,
space m top groove,
graph) insert door by pushing up into excess
simplified by the use
then dropping into bottom. Plowing can be
of a fiber track made for sliding doors of this type.
of the sliding-
Only hand tools are required when this version
and back strips are stock /4 " quarter-round
1
door is used. Front
molding. The strip between is square, as shown m Fig. 28.
strips securely.
Use glue and brads or finish nails to fasten
CABINET BACKS
and other
Standard method of applying backs to cabinets
storage units calls for rabbeting sides.
Cabinet at left in Fig. 29
has rabbet just deep enough to take

plywood back. For large
not be perfectly smooth
units that must fit against walls that may
illustration is better. This
or plumb, the version at right in this
rabbet is made V>" or even deep. The lip that remains after
wherever necessary
back has been inserted may be easily trimmed
to get a good fit between plywood
unit and house wall.
quarter-round
When hand tools are used, attach strips of ^4"
30). Glue and nail
molding for the back to rest against (Fig.
back to molding. ^
APPLYING CABINET BACKS 171
Fig. 29.
Fig. 30.
Fig. 31.
Fig. 32.
cabinet backs without rabbets
S
with outsir f
outside edge. Second by
setting the back 1/2" to
or
the back flush
Vr" awav
•ZsUhe ..T '"“"'P”™" "'»« »!.!»« i.
Bevel cabinet backs that must be applied

without a rabbet to
make them less conspicuous are made as shown
in Fig. 32 In- .
stall %" plywood backflush with the edges of the cabinet

then
bevel with light strokes of a block plane.
driving nails at a slight
Nail the cabinet back into rabbet by
1" brads or 4d finish nails. Where
angle as shown in Fig. 33. Use
1" blue lath nails shown in illustration
back will not be seen, the
may be used. . , . , i i
cabinet bac s g.
Two-hand staplers are excellent for nailing
staples, setting them below
the surface i
34) They drive long
the work. They are sometimes
desired, and greatly speed up
available on loan or rental.
Fig. 34.
Fig. 33.
Fig. 36.
Fig. 35.
EDGE TREATMENT 173
EDGE TREATMENT
igures 35, 36, and 37 show
three ways to finish plywood
edges. You can achieve handsome,
solid results by cutting a
groove and inserting a matching
V
wood strip, but this method
IS comparatively difficult.
Thin strips of real wood edge-banding (Fig. 36) now are
available in rolls ranging in various
widths. They are coated with
Fig. 39.
Fig. 40.
peel off backing paper and
pressure sensitive adhesive. Simply
the manufacturer s recom-
apply to plywood edges according to
covered with strip
mendations. Figure 37 shows one edge already
of Douglas fir to match plywood.
be applied to edges
Laminated plastic surfacing materials may
of tables with same contact
cement used in applying to tab e
counter
tops. As shown apply to edges first, then to
in Fig. 37,
massive effect can be secured y
or table top. A thicker, more
underneath edge.
nailing a 1" or 1%/' strip all around
that are to be pain e
To fill end grain on plywood edges
,
are available; either powdered,

to
several varieties of wood putty
mixed with water, or prepared, ready for use. Plaster spa^ck ing
be
well. Sand smooth when
thoroughly dry and then
also works
finish the job.
PULLS, HANDLES, AND CATCHES

and door
Drawer and door handles. Drawer pulls
pulls
38 are widely available. Use
handles of the types shown in Fig.
job. They come in a vane y
them in metal or wood to style your
ranch styles as well as in many
modern designs.
of traditional and
most easily equipped with finger
Sliding and rolling doors are
force into round holes For large doors
cups that you simply
fastened
the rectangular cups or large round ones that are
use
are suitable where cleaiance
is
with screws. Round pulls at top
you can make simple rectangular grips from wood
adequate, or
a notch cut into the top

is
The simplest drawer pull of all
rectangular, V shaped, or half-

of the drawer front. It may be
from every other drawer, opemng
round You can omit the notch
shown in Fig^
it by means of the
notch in the drawer below, as
sloping drawer fronts, the
drawer may be pulled out by
40. By
edge.
grasping the projecting bottom
fric-
Catches come in many varieties besides the conventional
shown in Fig. 41. The touch type

shown in illustration
tion type
permits the door to open at a touch.
Magne ic
and being installed,
break. Roller catches and the new
catch has no moving parts to
smoother and more durable than
ones made of polyethelyne are
the plain steel friction catches.
DOOR HARDWARE 175
Fig. 43. Fig. 44.
DOOR HARDWARE
Surface hinges. Surface hinges are quickly mounted. They
require no mortising, add an ornamental touch, and are avail-
able in many styles. A pair of H or H-L hinges will do for most
doors; for larger doors or to add rigidity to smaller ones, use a
pair of H-L plus one H (Fig. 42) ,
or use three of the H type. Tee
or strap hinges help prevent sag in large doors. On
tall doors, one
or two added hinges between those at top and bottom

help to
minimize warping.
Overlapping (lipped) doors are neatly hung with semi-con-
cealed hinges (Fig. 43). They are excellent for plywood since
screws go into flat grain. These have 1/2 " inset, are made for
doors of plywood rabbeted to leave lip* Such hinges

are made in many styles and finishes, semi-concealed or full-
surface.
Fig. 45. Fig- 46.
Concealed pin hinges. Concealed pin hinges give a neat

modern a])pearance to flush doors (Fig. 44) They mount directly
.
onto the cabinet side. Construction is simplified, because no face

frame is necessary. Only the pivot is visible from the front when
the door is Use a pair of these hinges for small doors,
closed.
three (called a pair and one-half) for larger doors.
Semi-conccaled loose-pin hinges. Semi-concealed loose-pin
hinges like these offer the same appearance when door is
closed
as ordinary butt hinges, since only the barrel

shows (Fig. 45).
They are much better, though, for flush plywood doors because
screws go into flat plywood grain. A variation called a chest
hinge may be used in the same way.

ROLLERS 177
T guides. Door bottom kept in line by a simple T guide
is
for each door as shown in Fig. 46. Two strips of 1 " quarter-
/4
round molding, with i/4 " space between, will
form slot if power
tools are not available for making
the slot.
Metal brackets. Two
metal brackets should be fastened to the
top of each door with a pair of screws.
Nylon wheels with ball
bearings roll in a double-lipped track that
is fastened to the door
frame with screws (Fig. 47). (Single-lipped
track is also made
for single doors.) Installation is very simple, with no mortising
Fig. 47.
Fig. 48.
required.
Rollers. Rolling doors for closets and
large storage units may
have rollers mounted at either top or
bottom (Fig. 48). Top-
mount hardware shown in Figs. 46, 47 and 48, usually is
m
,
smoother operation, particularly when the door is tall and

narrow.
Glues and Gluing Methods
done extensively in woodworking, and in the produc-

Gluing is
tion of various types of wood products. Modern glues, processes,
and techniques vary as widely as the products made, and

develop-
ments have been many in recent years. In general, however,

it
remains true that the quality of a glued joint depends

upon the
kind of wood and its preparation for use, the kind and
quality of
the glue and preparation for use, the details of the gluing
its
of the joints.
process, the types of joints, and the conditioning
the
Depending on the glue used, service conditions also affect
performance of the joint to a greater or lesser extent.
GLUING PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT WOODS

used
Table 5 gives the gluing properties of the woods widely
for glued products. The classifications are
based on the average
average
quality of side-grain joints of wood that is approximately
when glued with animal, casein, starch,
in density for the species,
urea resin, and resorcinol resin glues. A species is
considered to
is approxi-
be glued satisfactorily when the strength of the joint
mately equal to the strength of the wood.
Whether it will be easy or difficult to obtain a satisfactory
joint depends upon the density of the wood,
the structure of the
in the
wood, the presence of extractives or infiltrated materials
wood’, and the kind of glue. In general, heavy
woods are more
difficult to glue than lightweight woods,
hardwoods are more
difficult to glue than softwoods, and
heartwood is more difficult
in their gluing
than sapwood. Several species vary considerably
characteristics with different glues (Table 5).
178
GLUING PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS WOODS 179
Table 5
Classification of various hardwood and softwood species according to

gluing properties
HARDWOODS
Group 1 Group 2
(Glue very easily with (Glue well with differ-

different glues under ent glues under a mod-
wide range of gluing erately wide range of
conditions) gluing conditions)
Aspen. Alder, red.

Chestnut, American. Basswood.
Cottonwood. Butternut.
Willow, black. Elm:
Yellow-poplar. American.
Rock.
Hackberry.
Magnolia.
Mahogany.
Sweetgum.
Group 3 Group 4
(Require very close con-

(Glue satisfactorily un- trol of gluing condi-
der well-controlled tions, or special treat-
gluing conditions) ment to obtain best
results)
Ash, white. Beech, American.

Cherry, black. Birch, sweet and yellow.
Dogwood. Hickory.
Maple, soft. Maple, hard.
Oak: Osage-orange.
Red. Persimmon.
White
Pecan.
Sycamore.
Tupelo:
Black.
Water.
Walnut, black.
SOFTWOODS
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Baldcypress. Cedar, eastern red-. Cedar, Alaska-.

Cedar, western red- Douglas-fir.
Fir, white. Hemlock, western.
Larch, western. Pine:
Redwood. Eastern white.
Spruce, Sitka. Southern yellow.
Ponderosa.
180 GLUES AND GLUING METHODS
GLUES USED FOR VARIOUS JOBS
glues have long been used extensively in

woodworking;
Animal
for veneering, early
starch glues came into general use, especially
protein glues, of which
in this century; casein glue and vegetable
importance
soybean is the most important, gained commercial
I for gluing lumber
during and immediately following World War
water resistance.
and veneer into products that required moderate
recently but now
Synthetic resin glues were developed more
surpass many of the older glues in
importance as woodworking
glues. Phenol resin glues are widely
used to produce plywood
resin glues are used exten-
for severe service conditions. Urea
furniture and interior paneling.
sively in producing plywood for
are useful for gluing
Resorcinol and phenol-resorcinol resin glues
exposure to the weather.
lumber into products that will withstand
in assembly joints o
Polyvinyl resin emulsion glues are used
furniture. .
Broadly, synthetic resin glues are of two types— thermosetting

once cured, are not
and thermoplastic. Thermosetting resins,
will soften when reheated.
softened by heat. Thermoplastic resins
or vegetab e
Many of glues made from fish, animal,
brands
for application. Their
derivatives are sold in liquid form, ready
principal use in woodworking is for
small jobs and repair wor .
water resistance and

They are variable in quality and low in
better brands are mod-
durability under damp conditions. The
quickly. They are applied
erate in dry strength and set fairly
pressed cold. They stain wood
cold, usually by brush, and are
only slightly, if at all.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT TYPE OF GLUE
ideal for every project. Choose the best type of

No one glue is
glue suitable for the job at hand

from the following descriptions.
has several advantages.
Liquid hide glue. Liquid hide glue
is raw-hide-tough and
does not be-
It is very strong because it
in color, resists heat ^
come brittle. This glue is easy to use, light
filling qualities and gives
strength even in
and mold. It has good
GLUES USED FOR VARIOUS JOBS 181
poorly fitted joints Liquid hide glue is excellent
for furniture
work, and wherever a tough, lasting
wood-to-wood bond is
needed. It is a favorite glue for cabinetwork
and general wood
gluing. Because it is not waterproof, do not use it for outdoor
furniture or for boat building.
Liquid resin glue. Non-staining, clean and white liquid
resin
glue can be used at any temperature, and is
recommended for
quick-settingwork where good clamping is not possible. It is a
fine all-around household glue for mending
and furniture making
and repair, and is excellent for model work, paper,
leather, and
small assemblies. Liquid resin glue is not sufficiently moisture-
resistant for anything to be exposed to weather,
and is not so
strong and lasting, as liquid hide glue for fine
furniture work.
Resorcinol. Resorcinol is a very strong and waterproof
glue.
It works better with poor joints thanmany other glues do. This
type of glue should be used for work that may be exposed to soak-
ing: outdoor furniture, boats, and wooden
sinks. Do not use it for
work that must be done at temperatures below 70°. Because
of
its dark color and mixing, it should not
be used unless waterproof
quality is needed.
Powdered resin.
This light-colored almost waterproof pow-
dered resm is very strong, but brittle if the
point fits poorly. It
should be used for woodworking and general
gluing whenever
considerable moisture resistance is needed.
Do not use powdered
resin with oily woods or with joints
that are not closely fitted and
tightly clamped. When using this resin,
be sure to mix it for each
use.
Powdered casein.
Powdered casein is strong, fairly water-
resistant, works in cool locations, and
fills poor joints well. It
can be used for most woodworking jobs and is
especially desirable
with oily woods, such as teak, lemon, and yew.
Powdered casein
will stain acid woods such as redwood,
and is not moisture re-
sistant enough for outdoor furniture. It
must be mixed for each
use.
Flake animal. Flake animal glue has the same advantages
as
liquid hide glue, but it must be mixed, heated,
kept hot, and used
at high temperatures. It is good for quantity woodworking
projects that justify the time and trouble of mixing and heating
the glue. This glue not waterproof, and is too

is
much trouble
to use for small jobs or most home shop

work.
GLUING METHODS
Successful wood means a joint that lasts

gluing ordinarily
Liquid hide
almost forever and is stronger than the wood itself.
glue is ideal for furniture building and repair. It
has the rawhide
choice foi
toughness that has made hide glue the craftsman’s
liquid form,
generations. It can be purchased in ready-to-use
for speed
that eliminates tedious preparation and the necessity
and critical temperature control.
Select a fine glue and then follow the six simple steps shown
in Figs. I to 6.
Scrape or sandpaper the old wood until it is bare and clean,
Most
making sure that all the old glue is removed (Fig. 1).
glues work by penetrating the porous wood grain.

glue (Fig. 2).
Test the fit of the joint before applying the
sure to
With the poor fit often unavoidable in repair work, be
use a glue with good gap-filling qualities.
A brush is the best applicator, particularly if your glue comes
glue
in a wide-mouthcan as shown in Fig. 3. Be sure to apply
to both of the surfaces to be jointed.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
GLUING METHODS 183
You will get a strong joint more quickly you

if let the glue
become tacky (Fig. 4) before joining the parts.
The joint should be pulled tightly together
and held in that
position (Fig. 5). (See section on clamps in
this chapter.)
Most glues set better and faster in a dry, warm (not
hot)
room. It ISsafest not to disturb the joint until the
glue is set,
follo^îng the time given in Table B.
An ordinary heat lamp
(Fig. 6) will speed up the drying of the
joint.
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
Table 6
ROOM HOW TO 70° Clomp ing Time

GLUE
TEMPERATURE PREPARE Hardwood Softwood
TYPE
Sets best above

Liquid 70°. Can be used Ready to use. 2 hours 3 hours
Hide in colder room if
glue is warmer.
White Any temperature

Ready to use. hour P/z hours
Liquid above 60°. But the 1
Resin warmer the better.
Must be 70° or Mix 3 parts pow-

der to 4 parts liq- 16 hours 16 hours
Resor- warmer. Will set
cinol faster at 90°. uid catalyst. k
Must be 70° or Mix 2 parts pow-

Powdered der with V7 fo 16 hours 16 hours
warmer. Will set 1
Resin faster at 90°. part water.
Stirtogether equal
Any temperature parts by volume
Powdered above freezing. But glue and water. 2 hours 3 hours
Casein the warmer the Wait 10 minutes
better. and stir again.
For each ounce

Flake or Must be 70° or glue add 1 ’/z
hours
ounces water (soft- hour I'/z
Powdered warmer. Keep work 1
Animal warm. wood) or 2 ounces

water (hardwood).
HINTS ON APPLYING GLUE
Work at proper temperature. Temperature is important, and
3^)0 will get better resultsthe work, the glue, and the room are
if
all 70° or warmer. Flake animal glue should

be used hot. Liquid
hide glue must be warm to spread it properly (Fig. 7)
Resorcmal .
and powdered-resin glues will not set properly at less than 70 .
If you must work at a lower temperature,

liquid resin glue, which
used.
can be used at any temperature above 60°, should be
end grain. The end grain of any wood is highly absorbent,

Size
and if it is permitted to soak up the moisture of the glue a
weak
joint may result. This can be avoided by giving
the end grain a
(Fig. 8), apply-
thin preliminary coat of the glue you are using
ing it a few minutes ahead of time. When you
spread the glue
grain a second
over the rest of the joint, be sure to give the end
coat of the glue.
HINTS ON APPLYING GLUE 185
Fig. 9. Fig. 10.
Use suitable applicator. Old saw blades with fine teeth, such
as hacksaw or utility saw blades, make good spreaders for
cov-
ering a large area. Figure 9 shows a plywood cupboard door
panel being prepared for covering with burlap. Discarded wind-
shield wipers are good spreaders too.
Oil can. Chair rungs anfl similar joints can be reglued even
when not feasible to pull them apart. Drill a small hole into
it is
the joint and inject the glue with an oil can (Fig. 10).
Glue tube. Glue tube is a handy applicator for gluing small
objects (Fig. 11). It is useful too for running a line of glue

around the edge of an article, or for applying glue to a long strip
of molding.
Cover all surfaces evenly. type sold in camera
A roller of the
shops permits putting a thin, uniform coat of glue on a big sur-

face. Large 'paint brushes can also be used. The small
brush
shown whisk broom cut off short for stiffness. With
in Fig. 12 is a
this type of brush you can get a thinner coat than with an
ordinary soft brush.
Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
CLAMPING
Common gluing clamps. Good woodworking depends on good

gluing. Good gluing depends on adequate clamping. Therefore,
building a clamp collection is an important step toward better
work. A good place to begin is with an assortment of C-clamps.
They are the least expensive and most versatile of clamps. Next,
you will want long clamps up stock and large frames
for gluing
two or preferably three of them. Wooden-jaw hand screws do |

so many jobs that they are like a third hand. As need for
them
arises you will want to add many special clamps such as
press
screws, edge-clamp fixtures, miter clamps, spring clamps, surface

clamps, and a band clamp.
I
CLAMPING 187
Hand screw.The hand screw is the woodworker’s favorite,
because its jaws are wood and it may often be applied
directly
to the work without danger of marring it. The
adjustable type
hand screw works on odd shapes like the ironing board shown in
Fig. 13.
The right and wrong use of the hand screw are shown in Fig.
The clamp at the left is properly adjusted so that its jaws
are parallel. The clamp at the right is not properly
adjusted.
These clamps can be quickly adjusted by gripping both handles
and twisting them at the same time.
Fig. 13. Fig. 14.
Fig. 15 Fig. 16
Surface clamp. The surface clamp or the bench clamp can
be fastened to any table or bench top. Its special bolt drops
below the surface when the clamp is slipped off, leaving the top
clear for other work. This kind of clamp is very handy when
gluing small objects since it requires only one hand (Fig. 15),
leaving the other free to hold the work.
Spring clamps. Many delicate jobs can be done with spring

clamps like the one shown in Fig. 16 that no other kind of clamp
will do as well. These overgrown clothespins come in assorted
sizes, and are handy for light assemblies. Some of these clamps
have rubber-covered jaws to protect the work.
Fig. 19. Fig. 20.

CLAMPS 189
C-Clamps. C-clamps do a wide assortment of jobs and
will
substitute reasonably well for many other types of clamps. Pro-
tect the work by inserting small blocks of wood under the jaws
of theclamps (Fig. 17).
Deep-throat C-cIamps. As shown in Fig. 18, deep-throat C-
clamps can do many jobs that ordinary clamps cannot. They can
reach to the center of small work and put on the pressure where
it is needed most. As with other C-clamps their
metal jaws call
wood to avoid marring the work.
for scraps of
Quick clamp. The quick clamp does the work of a heavy C-
clamp. In construction actually a short bar clamp. Its spe-
it is
cial virtue is that it can be adjusted in an instant by sliding the

head along the bar (Fig. 19). The screw is needed only for
putting on pressure
Edge-clamp fixture. This fixture works with a quick clamp
to solve a common and difficult gluing problem. It is used
most
often to glue strips to the edges of boards, or as shown in Fig. 20
to join work in. the shape of a T. The quick clamp grasps the
work and the edge clamp puts on the pressure.
Pipe type or long clamps. These clamps can be purchased
complete as shown in Fig. 21, or you can buy just the fixtures and
put them on ordinary water pipe. With these fittings you can
make your own long clamps at a small cost, and have any length
you want.
Fi«. 21. Yig. 22.

Band clamp. The band clamp wraps around curved or

itself
irregular shapes and squeezes from all directions. The bands are
either made of steel or heavy canvas. Steel is best for round
objects, and canvas for odd shapes. For general home-shop use
with varying shapes, it is best to use canvas (Fig. 22).
Miter clamp. This clamp a clever extra pair of hands. You

is
can put it on a miter joint or something like the joint in the back
of a chair, open the joint by twisting the handles, apply glue, then
close the joint tightly (Fig. 23).
TYPES OF GLUED JOINTS
Side-grain surfaces. With most species of wood, straight,

plain joints between side-grain surface (Fig. 24, A) can be made
substantially as strong as the wood itself in shear parallel to the
grain, tension across the grain, and cleavage. The tongued-and-
grooved joint (Fig. 24, B) and other shaped joints have the theo-
joints,
retical advantage of larger gluing surfaces than the straight
but in practice they do not give higher strength with most woods.
Furthermore, the theoretical advantage is often lost, wholly or
partly, because the shaped joints are more difficult to machine
than straight, plain joints so as to obtain a perfect fit of the
parts. Because of poor contact, the effective holding area
and
strength may actually be less on a shaped joint than on a flat
surface. The principal advantage of the tongued-and-grooved and
TYPES OF GLUED JOINTS 191
Side-to-side-grain joints: A, Plain; B, tongued-and-grooved.
Fig. 24.
other shaped joints is that the can be more quickly

parts
aligned in the clamps or press. A shallow tongue-and-groove
is
usually as useful in this respect as a deeper cut and is less waste-
ful of wood.
End-grain surfaces. It is practically impossible to make end-

butt joints (Fig. 25, A) sufficiently strong or permanent to meet
the requirements of ordinary service. With the most careful gluing
possible, not more than about 25 percent of the tensile strength
of the wood parallel with the grain can be obtained in butt joints.
In order to approximate the tensile strength of various species, a
scarf, serrated, or other form of joint that approaches a side-grain
surface must be used (Fig. 25). The plain scarf is perhaps the
easiest to glue and entails fewer machining difficulties than the
many-angle forms.
End-to-end-grain joints: A, End butt; B, plain scarf:

scarf; D, finger; E, Onsrud; F, hooked scarf:
C, serrated
G, double-slope scarf.
Fig. 25.
CONDITIONING GLUED JOINTS 193
End-to-side-grain surfaces. End-to-side-grain

joints (Fig.
26) are also difficult to glue properly and, further, are
subjected
in service to unusually seA'ere stresses as
a result of unequal
dimensional changes in the two members of the joint as their
moistuie content changes. It is therefore necessary to use irregu-
lar shapes of joints, dowels, tenons, or other
devices to reinforce
such a joint in order to bring side grain into contact with side
grain or to secure larger gluing surfaces (Fig. 26). All end-to-
side-grain joints should be carefully protected from changes in
moisture content.
Conditioning glued joints. AVhen boards are glued edge to
edge, the wood at the joint absorbs water from the glue and
swells. If the glued assembly is surfaced before this excess mois-
ture is dried out or distributed,
more wood is removed along the
swollen joints than elsewhere. Later, when the joints dry and
shrink, permanent depressions are formed that may be very con-
spicuous in a finished panel.
A hen pieces of lumber are glued edge to edge or face to face,
the glue moisture need not be dried out but simply allowed
to distribute itself uniformly throughout the wood. Approxi-
mately uniform distribution of glue moisture can usually be
obtained by conditioning the stock after gluing for 24 hours at
160° F., 4 days at 120° F., or at least 7 days at room temperature
with the relative humidity, in each case, adjusted to prevent
significant drying.
In plywood, veneered panels, and other constructions made by
gluing together thin layers of wood, it is advisable to condition
the panels to average service moisture content. In cold-gluing
operations, it is frequently necessary to dry out at least a part
of the moisture added in gluing. The drying is most advan-
tageously done under controlled conditions and time schedules.
Drying such glued products to excessively low moisture content
materially increases warping, opening of joints, and checking.
Following hot-press operations, the panels will often be very dry,
and it may
be desirable to recondition them under circumstances
that will cause them to regain moisture.
End-to-side-grain joints: A, Plain; B, ndter; C, dowel; D, mortise

and tenon; E, dado tongue and rabbet; F, slip or lock corner;
G, dovetail; H, blocked; /, tongued-and-grooved.
Fig. 26.
CHAPTER 6
Hand Power Tools

•
PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAWS
Portable electric saws are available in various sizes, ranging

from 6 V2 for the amateur builder, up to 9 ^'' for the more ad-
vanced or professional worker.
Motor. These saws are equipped with a “Universal” type
motor and will operate either on D.C. or A.C. current at 25, 40,
50, or 60 cycles, of the specified voltage. Standard voltages are
115 or 220, with 125 or 240 volts available.
Inspect carbon brushes in the motor at regular intervals, and
if worn away replace immediately to prevent
damage to the
motor armature. The manufacturer’s service department will
be glad to instruct you in brush inspection and furnish the cor-
rect brushes.
Current. Be sure to specify the voltage when purchasing a
portable electric saw. Always check the voltage specifications on
the nameplate of your equipment with the voltage of your supply
line.
Cable. Three-conductor cable is used on all saws. The third

wire is for “grounding.” Do not permit the cable to lie in grease
or oil which ruins the iTibber. Wipe it off occasionally and avoid
rough handling. When not in use coil it loosely without sharp
bends or kinks and keep it off the floor. Extension cables are
described in this chapter.
Grounding. Every should be grounded while in

electric tool
use to protect the operator against shock. Proper
grounding is a
good habit to develop under all circumstances, but is especially
important where dampness is present. The unit is equipped with
195
196 HAND POWER TOOLS
approved 3-conductor cord and 3-blade grounding type attach-
ment plug cap to be used with the proper grounding type recep-
tacle, in accordance with the National Electrical Code. The
green
colored conductor in the cord is the grounding wire which is con-

nected to the metal frame of the unit inside the housing and to the
longest blade of the attachment plug cap. Never connect the
green wire to a “live” terminal.
If your unit has a plug that looks one shown in Fig.
like the
1, A, it will fit directly into

the latest type of 3-wire grounding
receptacles. The unit is then grounded automatically each time
it is plugged in. A special grounding adaptor
(Fig. 1, B) is sup-
plied to permit using 2-wire receptacles until the correct recep-

tacle is properly installed. The green grounding wire extending
from the side of the adaptor must be connected to a permanent
ground, such as a properly grounded outlet box, conduit or water
pipe before plugging in the tool.
If the unit has a plug like the one shown in Fig. 1, C, no
adaptor
is furnished and it should be used in the

proper standard matching
3-wire grounding receptacle. The unit is then grounded auto-
matically each time it is plugged in.
PORTABLE ELECTRIC SAWS 197
OPERATION
Connect the grounding-wire first, as described

previously in
this chapter, and then plug into
power supply. Before pressing
trigger switch to start motor, rest front
of saw “shoe or base on
the work and line up blade with cutting line. Be sure that blade
teeth are not yet in contact with work and that lower blade
guard IS free. Pull trigger and guide saw through its
cut with
firm pressure, but without forcing. Undue force actually
slows
down the cutting and produces a rougher cut.
Keep blades sharp. Dull or incorrectly set teeth
may cause
the saw to swerve or stall under pressure.
If the saw stalls do not
release trigger switch, but back the saw
until the blade momen-
tum is regained. Then either shut off motor or start to cut again.
This procedure will greatly increase the life
of your saw switch.
To make a pocket cut, first set the saw shoe at the
desired
cutting depth. Then rest the toe or heel of shoe against the
work
(heel, when using fii/s" saw)
Carefully draw back the lower
.
blade guard by lifting the provided lever

before starting the
motor. Next, lower the saw until the blade
teeth lightly contact
the cutting line. This will allow you
to release the lower blade
guard as contact with the work will keep it in
position to open
freely as the cut is started. N
ow, start the motor and gradually
lower the saw until its shoe rests flat on the
work. Advance along
the cutting line as in normal sawing. For
starting each new cut,
proceed as above for your own protection. Do not
tie back the
lower blade guard.
Caution! To
insure against accidents always disconnect the
cable plug before making adjustments or
inspection. Always
disconnect the saw cable when not in active use.
ADJUSTMENTS
Cutting depth adjustments. In cutting any

material with
steel blades the most efficient depth
adjustment is one that per-
mits the tooth depth only of the blade to
project below the
material (except when using carbide tipped blades, when just 1/2
of the tooth tip should project below the material). This keeps
blade friction at a minimum, removes sawdust from the cut and
results in cooler, faster sawing (Fig. 2)
For 6I4", 714", 8" saws. Correct cutting depth is obtained
by adjusting the quick clamping lever on the side at the rear of
the saw. Adjustment of the clamping lever on the 61/2", and
8^^ saws is made by loosening the set screw, removing and in-
dexing the lever to its proper clamping location, replacing it
and tightening the set screw.
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
ACCESSORIES 199
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
For Sli'\ 914" saws. Correct cutting depth for these saws
is
obtained by adjusting either or both of the built-in
front and
rear cutting depth adjustments. By
using both adjustments, the
handle remains in the most comfortable cutting position.
Always
be sure to retighten wing nuts securely after making
adjustments.
Bevel Angle Adjustments. The 61/2", 714", 8 ", 8 " and i/
4
saws have an adjustable shoe which permits bevel
cutting at
any angle between 45° and 90°. The quadrant on the front
of
these saws calibrated for accurate adjustment. Loosen the
is
wing nut and tilt the shoe to angle desired. Retighten wing
nut
securely. See Figs. 3 and 4.
ACCESSORIES
Protractor. This is a surprisingly simple

and practical device
that is calibrated in degrees and can be set to cut any
angle by
moving the holding arm to correct degree. Use the bevel adjust-
ment on the saw in conjunction with the protractor for compound
mitres. To operate, thesaw shoe (either side) is lined up with the
protractor s straightedge and is advanced along this edge (Fig.
5).
A protractor is also useful for laying out any carpentry work
involving angles.
Rip fence. The rip fence saves time in rij) sawing (Fig. 6),
eliminating the need to scribe guide lines. It greatly improves
ripping accuracy. calibrated to Vs of an inch. It may
Fence is
be used on either right or left hand side of the saw. To attach,

slide fence through proper openings provided in the shoe as shown
in Fig. 7. Clamp firmly at desired position with quick acting
lever.
BLADES
Changing blades. To change a saw blade, first disconnect the

cable plug to prevent injury or damage resulting from accidental
pressure on the trigger switch. Then insert nail through hole in
blade so that it rests against bottom of saw shoe and prevents
blade from turning. With a wrench, turn holding screw counter-
clockwise to loosen and remove screw and washer. Retract lower
guard and lift off blade. Remove inner clamp washer and clean
both faces of each clamp washer, blade, and blade screw threads
— this prevents uneven seating of the blade. Replace inner clamp
washer, new blade —trade-mark side out (with teeth pointing to-
ward front of saw), outer clamp washer, and blade holding screw
and tighten holding screw clockwise with wrench until secure.
Combination blacles. This is the latest type, precision en-
gineered, fast-cutting blade for general service ripping and cross-
cutting (Fig. 8, A). Each blade carries the correct number of
teeth to cut chips rather than scrape sawdust. Blade teeth re-
ceive less wear and stay sharp longer, and give definitely smoother
cuts. Cutting efficiency has been increased by using redesigned
sturdier teeth, reduces any tendency of the blade to “flutter” or
vibrate.
Extensive tests have shown that a greater number of teeth
reduces cutting efficiency, because of an increased scraping action.
On the other hand, a lesser number increases the toothload to a
point where the cutting edges rapidly become dull and burnt.
Crosscut blades. Crosscut blades were designed specifically

for fast, smooth crosscutting (Fig. 8, B). They make a smoother
cut than the combination blades.
Planer blades. This blade makes very smooth cuts, both rip
and crosscut (Fig. 8, C). It is ideal for interior wood working,
and is hollow-ground to produce the finest possible saw-cut finish.
BLADES 201
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
Carbide-tipped blades. The carbide-tipped blade is the keen-

est and most durable blade yet developed for cutting
building
materials (Fig. 8, D). This blade stays sharp thirty times longer
than normal steel blade when cutting lumber. The carbide tips are
brazed into a special alloy steel blade. It has been established
that the diamond-like hardness of these tips will retain their
edges up to 50 times longer than steel.
Flooring blades. Flooring blades should be used on jobs where
occasional nails may
be encountered (Fig. 9, A). They are espe-
cially useful in cutting through flooring, sawing reclaimed
lumber
and in opening boxes and crates.
Abrasive discs. These blades are all of the top-(]uality resinoid-
bonded, abi'asive cut-off type (Fig. 9, B). They are used for
cutting and slotting in ceramics, slate, marble, tile, transite, etc.
Also for cutting thin gauge, non-ferrous metals.
Non-ferrous metal-culting blades. These blades have teeth
shaped and set for cutting soft, non-ferrous metals, including
lead (Fig. 9, C).
Friction blades. Friction blades are ideal for cutting cor-
rugated galvanized sheets. They cut faster, with less dirt, than
abrasive discs. Blade is taper-ground for clearance (Fig. 9, D).
COMBINATION ELECTRIC SCREW-DRILL
A completely new combination tool, the electric screw-drill, is
an efficient tool for craftsmen, builders, and hobbyists. It is
equi])])ed with a positive-clutch electric screw-driving mechanism.

The screw-drill has a locking collar that permits operator to
quickly convert to direct drive for general-purpose drilling. The
unit amply powered by a “Universal” motor for 115 volts, A.C.
is
or D.C., and includes a 3-jaw geared chuck and key, and screw-
driving bit and finder assembly.
Fig. 10. Fig. 11.
Used as a drill, the unit is capable of drilling holes up to %"

diameter in steel. It can also be used to drive hole saws, masonry
bits and wood augers (Fig. 10).
In its screw-driving position, the screw-drill drives wood screws
uj) to #10 X size, or self-tapjîng metal screws up to size #12
(Fig. 11).
OPERATION
Chuck. When operating, always bottom the bit in the

first,
chuck. This permits the chuck jaws to grip the shank fully and
COMBINATION ELECTRIC SCREW DRILL 203
prevents cocking tlie jaws. Second, use all three holes in the
chuck body to tighten as much as possit)le. Only one hole is
needed to release the bit. Third, use onh/ a chuck key to tighten or
loosen the chuck jaws. If you lose the chuck key, obtain a new
one at once.
To obtain maximum from the jaw assembly, lock your chuck
life
firmly with the key to prevent drill slippage, and when the chuck
is not in use, leave it with the jaws open.
Removing the chuck. To remove the chuck, place the chuck

key in the chuck and strike key a sharp blow using a hammer or
other object in the same direction that tool normally runs. This
will loosen the chuck so that it can be easily unscrewed by hand.
Disconnect tool before making any changes or adjustments.
Switch. Grasp the tool firmly before pressing trigger switch
“ON”. The tool will remain “ON” as long as pressure is main-
tained on the trigger. Releasing trigger automatically turns the
motor “OFF”.
To lock the switch “ON” pull trigger and hold it “ON”; press
in locking button and hold it in; then release trigger. Motor will
now stay “ON” until trigger is again squeezed and released
the trigger will snap out and the motor will turn “OFF”. Practice
this a few times.
Drilling. To adjust the unit for drilling, viewing the unit from
the chuck end, rotate the adjustment collar counterclockwise
until the word “drill” is at the top of the unit. If the collar stops
before reaching this point, turn the chuck slightly; the adjustment
collar can then be rotatcfl to the proper position (Fig. 12).
For screw-driving rotate the adjustment collar in a clockwise
direction until the word “screw” is at the top of the unit. This
will disengage the clutch teeth which will automatically be en-
gaged when pressure is applied in driving screws.
The two Allen set screws located in the front part of the gear
case are properly adjusted by the factory and should not be
readjusted unless the adjusting cdllar is loose.
Mark exact center of hole with a center ))unch or nail to guide
the drill bit. Clamp or anchor the work securely to insure ac-
curacy and prevent damage or injury. Thin metal should be
backed up with a wooden block to prevent bending or distortion
ec
<
O
O
z
UJ
2
»/)
3
“>
O
<
Fig. 12. Fig. 13.
of the work. sharp and use a lubricant when drilling

Keep bits
ferrous metals other than cast iron. Relieve pressure on the tool
when bit is about to break through to avoid “stalling” the motor.
Be sure that the chuck jaws are tightened securely and do not
constantly overload the tool. In general, high speed and light feed
are recommended.
When wood, particularly deep holes, partially remove
drilling
the bit from the hole several times while in motion. This will
clear the chips, speed up drilling and prevent overheating (Fig.
13).
In drilling brick, cement, cinder block or similar materials, use
carbide tipped masonry drill bits. Ordinary steel bits would be
dulled rapidly in this type of work.
Driving screws. Adjust the collar to the screw driving posi-
tion, then insert the correct screw driving bit into the
chuck.
(See Fig. 11). sure that the chuck jaw rests squarely on
Make
there
the “flats” of the bit. Tighten chuck jaws securely so that
is no chance of slippage. Turn on the unit
and the chuck and
engaged in the screw head and pres-
bit will idle until the bit is
sure is applied. The unit should be grasped firmly with
both
—
hands and a steady forward pressure applied the screw will be
driven down tight. At this point the clutch comes into operation
^
and will ratchet or slip until the unit is removed from the screw.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 205
It issuggested that you practice by driving a few
screws into a
scrap piece of lumber until you get the “feel”
of this procedure
(Fig. 11).
MAINTENANCE
Brushes. Inspect carbon brushes frequently and replace

them
when badly worn. Cartridge-type brush holders are used
to make
this operation
easy for you. Merely remove the end cover on the
switch handle by taking out screws which hold cover
in place.
Then remove brush caps with a screwdriver and take out
the
brush and spring assemblies. Springs should have enough
tension
to hold the brush firmly against the commutator. Be sure to
replace badly worn brush assemblies.
Always keep brushes clean and sliding freely in their guides.
After several brush replacements, the
commutator should be in-
spected for excess wear. If a groove
has been cut by the brushes,
the tool should be sent to the
manufacturer for repair.
Cable. The cable is the “life line” of
your tool, therefore keep
It clean by wiping it off occasionally.
Be sure to keep it out of
oilsand greases which ruin the rubber. Coil
it neatly when not in
use and avoid dragging it across
sharp surfaces or using it as a
handle to lift the tool.
When using the tool at a considerable
distance from power
source, an extension cable of adequate
size must be used to pre-
vent loss of power. Use the table below
for 115 volt current.
Extension Cable Length in Feet

Gauge of Cable Wire Required
25 50 75 100 200
, , , , 18 ,
18 ,
18 18 , 16
,
Lubrication. The gears should be re-lubricated regularly in

from sixty days to six months, depending on use. Remove
gear
housing, flush out all old grease with kerosene and,
with gears in
place, refill the housing only half full. The commutator
and arma-
ture bearing may be lubricated by one or two drops
of oil on the
armature shaft through the hole provided in the handle cover.
ELECTRIC HAND FINISHING SANDER
This new dustless finishing sander for use in the home and
shop has been designed for simple, quick attachment to any
vacuum cleaner, and the unit gives the cleanest sanding jobs
possible. Dust is instantly removed from the work surface to
provide more healthful working conditions and keeps the abrasive
paper sharp for more efficient sanding.
It operates on an orbital-action principle, powered by a
special
sander motor to deliver 4300 orbits per minute, producing a satin-

smooth finish upon any surface. Speed and power of the unit
permit sanding with, against, or across the grain of wood surfaces
without danger of swirl marks or scratches. Light, compact, and
easy to handle, this sander permits even a novice to get profes-
sional results effortlessly, on all sanding or refinishing jobs
(Fig.
14).
Fig. 14.
Abrasive Paper. “Electro coated,” aluminum oxide abrasive

paper is the best to use with your finishing sander; 150 or 4/0
finish and
fine grit, open grain paper will give you the smoothest ;
60 or 1/2/0 coarse grit, open grain will give you the greatest
ma-
terial removal consistent with the proper wood finishing practice.
Do not use ordinary sand paper as its coating qualities are in-
ferior. However, in certain metal sanding
applications, emory
cloth of various grits will prove to be more durable.

ELECTRIC HAND FINISHING SANDER 207
Attaching abrasive paper. The dustless finishing sander is
supplied with a dust collecting skirt, snap-in hose connector, hose
and coupling. To attach the abrasive paper to this unit the dust
collecting skirt should be removed. Two studs on either side of
the skirt clamp around the bottom of the sander housing. With
thumb pressure on both sides of skirt and two index fingers on
inner edge of skirt, pull out and up. This will release studs and
allow skirt to be removed (Fig. 15, A) The sandpaper tightening
.
sprockets are now completely exposed.

After selecting the correct grade of grit apply the abrasive
paper between the sprocket and the platen and tighten the
sprocket by using the T-shaped key provided, or a screwdriver.
(Key may be attached to cable, using the slot provided in the
key.) This sprocket should be tightened until the abrasive paper
is about underneath the sprocket (Fig. 15, B).
Fig. 15.
Fasten the other edge of the abrasive paper inThe same manner.
You will find this new type clamping mechanism holds the
abrasive paper taut. If it should become loose during operation,
tighten the sprockets immediately. This will preserve the life of
your abrasive paper.
ASSEMBLY
The finishing sander, after the abrasive paper has been mounted
in place, can be converted to a dustless unit by assembling the
dustless equipment as follows:
Remove round plug (Fig 16, A) in the rear of the finishing
Sander by prying under the edge with a screwdriver or knife. Snap
on the dust collecting skirts so that the two studs (Fig. 16, I) fit
firmly over the lower edge of the sander housing. Insert the metal
coupling (Fig. 16, B) with the detent pin inserted in the rear end
of the Sander. It may be necessary to manually depress the detent
pin. Now attach the hose to the coupling using the smaller hose
end (Fig 16, C). To the other end of the hose attach a vacuum
cleaner (any type) In connecting the hose to the vacuum cleaner
.
use either the adapter supplied, or hose end itself (which may be
attached over or into the inlet). See Fig. 16, depending upon the
type of vacuum cleaner connection.
Fig. 16.
OPEITATION
Before using the finishing sander, examine the trigger switch.

Squeezing this trigger turns the tool “ON”; releasing it turns the
tool “OFF”. However, on most sanding applications it is more
convenient to lock the switch “ON”, with the locking pin, which
projects from the side of the switch handle, just above the trigger.
To do this, first squeeze the trigger and hold it “ON”, and press
in the locking pin. Then release the trigger. The switch will
remain “ON”. To turn the motor “OFF”, merely pull the trigger
and release it. The black molded knob may be screwed into any
of three positions to suit the operator. The knob can be threaded
into either side or in front of the motor housing.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 209
After turning on the vacuum cleaner, which
attached to your
is
finishing sander, grasp both control handles of the
sander firmly,
and use the tool freely without forced effort or unnecessary down-
ward pressure.
Excessive pressure will slow cutting action and
reduce abrasive life. The weight of the tool itself, in most
cases,
will prove to be sufficient (Fig. 17).
not necessary to sand only with the grain of the wood.
It is
Move the sander in any direction over the work area to effect
rapid and convenient coverage. Sand only long enough to obtain
a smooth surface, as the cutting action of the tool is rapid and too
mucli material may be removed with prolonged sanding (Fig.
17. Fig. 18.
For best results sand progressively with

coarse jiaper first;
then, medium; then, fine paper. To
obtain what might be called
a “superfinish”, wet the surface with
a sponge or rag and let it
dry. The gram of the wood will rise slightly and the
surface feel
rough. Now, re-sand with 150 or
4/0 grit paper for extra-smootli
results.
»
Of course, the more your vacuum cleaner, the more

effective
dust removal; therefore, the bag of the vacuum
cleaner should
be emptied periodically to assure maximum
suction.
Note: To remove metal coupling (Fig. rotate 16), coupling
so that arrow is on top and then remove.
MAINTENANCE
Motors. This finishing sander is equipped with a “Universal”

motor which can be used, at the voltage specified on the name-
plate, with either alternating current at 25, 40, 50 or 60 cycles, or
with direct current. Voltage should not vary more than 5 per
cent, over or under the voltage shown on the nameplate, or serious
overheating and loss of power can result. All motors are tested
by the manufacturer, and if the tool fails to operate, proceed as
follows: (1)Check supply line for blown fuses; (2) see that plug
and receptacle are making good contact; and (3) inspect carbon
brushes and replace them if they are worn away.
Brushes. Inspect car!)on brushes frequently and replace when
badly worn. Cartridge- type brush holders are used to make this
operation easy. After disconnecting tool, merely remove both
brush caps with a screwdriver and take out the brush and spring
assemblies. Si)rings should have enough tension to hold the brush
firmly against the commutator. Be sure to replace badly worn
brush assemblies.
Be sure to keep brushes clean and sliding freely in their guides.
After several brush replacements, the commutator should be in-
spected for excess wear. If a groove has been cut by the brushes,
the tool should be sent to the manufacturer for repair.
Cable. Be sure to keep the cable clean by wiping it off occa-
sionally as it is the “life line” of your tool. Keep it out of oils
and greases which ruin the rubber. Coil it neatly when not in use
and avoid dragging it across sharp surfaces or using it as a handle
to lift the tool.
Whenusing the tool at a considerable distance from power
source, an extension cable of adequate size must be used to pre-
vent loss of power. Use the table below for 115 volt current.
E’xlcnaion Cable Length in Feet Gauge of Cable Wire Requued

25 50 75 100 200 18 ,
18 ,
17 ,
14 ,
12
, , , ,
Lubrication. The gears should be re-lubricated regulaily fiom

sixty days to six months, depending on use. Remove gear housing,
flush out all old grease with kerosene and, with gears in
place.
ELECTRIC HAND POWER PLANE 211
refill the housing only half full. The commutator and armature
bearing may
be lubricated by one or two drops of oil on the
armature shaft through the hole provided in the top of the tool.
ELECTRIC HAND POWER PLANE
This hand power plane is designed for a comfortable operating

balance. Handles and thumb-rest are so placed as to provide an
accurate planing ^Teel” and afford the correct “inward and
downward” pressure for each planing operation.
Motors. The power plane shown in Fig. 19 is equipped with a
“Universal” motor which can be used, at the voltage specified on
the nameplate, with either alternating current at 25, 40, 50 or
60 cycles, or with direct current. Voltage should not vary more
than 10 per cent, over or under, the voltage shown on the
nameplate or serious overheating and loss of power can result.
All motors are tested by the manufacturer, and if the tool fails
to operate take the following action: (1) Check your supply
line for blown fuses; (2) see that the plug and receptacle are
making good contact; and (3) inspect carbon brushes and replace
them if they are worn away.
Fig. 19.
Brushes. Inspect carbon brushes frequently and replace

them
when badly worn. Cartridge-type brush holders are used
to
make this operation easy for you. Merely remove both brush
ca])s with a sciewdriver and take out the
brush and spring as-
semblies. Spi ings should have enough tension to hold
the brush
firmly against the commutator. Be sure to replace badly worn
brush assemblies.
Keep brushes clean and sliding freely in their guides. After
several brush replacements, the commutator should be inspected
for excess wear. If a groove has been cut by the brushes, the
tool should be sent to the manufacturer for repair.
Cable. When using a power plane at a considerable distance
from power source, an extension cable of adequate size must be
used to prevent loss of power. Use the table below for 115 volt
current.
Extension Cable Length in Feet Gauge of Cable Wire Required

25 ,
50 ,
75 ,
100 ,
200 18 ,
16 ,
16 12 10
, ,
Grounding. As previously described.

Adjustments. Place a straightedge or scale along the rear
shoe of the plane and with a screwdriver, turn adjusting screw
(Fig. 20), until the highest cutting edge of the cutter touches
the scale of straightedge. This adjustment must be accurate, or
poor results would be obtained and, when once adjusted properly,
the adjustment should not be changed unless the cutter is replaced
or resharpened.
To adjust the depth of cut, place a straightedge or a piece of
wood along the rear shoe of the plane and turn the knurled knob
(Fig. 21) for the depth of cut desired. This is determined by the
space between the front shoe and the straightedge or piece of
wood (Fig. 21). The depth of cut is adjustable from zero to
^ depth of cut of y-y/' is recommended.
The adjustments referred to above are necessary each time a
cutter is replaced or sharpened.
To adjust the vertical guide at right angles to the shoe of the
plane, slightly loosen wing nuts (Fig. 22, A) and using a square,
move the vertical guide so that it is at 90° to the shoe.
The vertical guide is adjustable outward to a 120° obtuse angle
and inward to a 45° angle for bevel planing. To adjust the vertical
guide for bevel planing, loosen wing nuts (Fig. 22, A) and adjust
it to the degree of bevel required. The quadrants at the wing nuts
are graduated, however, for very accurate work, a protractor or

similar device should be used when adjusting the vertical guide.
ADJUSTMENTS 213
Fig. 22.
afterwhich wing nuts (Fig. 22, A) should be tightened securely.

Lock screws (big. 22, B) are used to apply tension on both
the
fiont and lear shoes of the plane. These screws are properly ten-
sioned at the factory, but after a long period of
use it may be
necessary to slightly tighten them with a screwdriver.
OPERATION
When using the power plane, grasp both handles firmly and
place the thumb of the left hand on the recess of the top of the
shoe (Fig. 19). Place the plane on the board using downward
pressure with the left hand until the cutter engages, after which
downward pressure is applied by both hands, and the vertical
guide should be engaged against the side of the board using side
pressure. At the completion of the cut, pressure is relieved from
the left hand and exerted to the right hand at the rear of the tool,
and the forward feed should be reduced so as to minimize chip-
ping at the end of the cut.
The forward movement of the plane in operation depends upon
the type of wood being planed. Softwood such as pine planes
very ra}')idlv5 however, when planing hardwood and particularly
plywood, the forward feed of the plane should be slowed down
so that the cutter will cut freely.
If the plane is too slowly the cutter will have a
moved forward
tendency to burn certain kinds of lumber, and if moved too fast,
the speed of the motor would be reduced, causing it to be over-
loaded and result in premature wear on the cutter. The fact
that wood has different densities and occasional knots will be
encountered, impossible to predetermine the forward move-
it is
ment of the plane. The user will soon learn by the sound of the
motor when the forward movement of the plane is correct.
lumber be used to familiar-
It is suggested that a piece of scrap
ize the user with the tool. There are instances where the wood
being planed would have high spots, and these spots should
be removed before making a complete cut the length of the
board. This is best done by drawing an accurate line on the side
of the board, so that the high spots can be easily located.
To get the most out of your plane keep it clean, blow dust and
chips from it when necessary, and always keep both the vertical
guide and shoes free of resin or any other foreign matter so that
smooth surfaces will always be applied to the board being planed.
For the best results keep the cutter sharp at all times. When not
ELECTRIC HEAVY DUTY ROUTER 215
in use, store the plane in a dry place. A thin coat of oil or paste
wax will retard rust.
Safety procedures. Always disconnect the plane from the
power supply when making any adjustments. Be sure to dis-
connect the plane from the power supply when not in use. Handle
sharj:) cutters carefully to avoid injury.
Lubrication. The power plane is completely lubricated at the
factory. All ball bearings are of the closed-type and lubricant
lasts the life of the bearings.
ELECTRIC HEAVY DUTY HAND ROUTER
The hand operated routershown in Fig. 23 is the latest de-

velopment in electric woodworking tools. It is efficiently de-
signed for speed and accuracy in performing the finest joinery,
and most beautiful cabinet work such as beading, grooving,
routing, fluting, cove-cutting, dovetailing, dadoing, rabbeting,
making joints, and similar operations. Its use enables the home
woodworker to rapidly accomplish inlay work, decorative edges,
and many types of bas-relief carving and wood-finishing. (See
Parts shown in Fig. 23)
This router is powered by a special router motor, and operates
on a direct-drive principle, no gears are necessary, and the motor
speeds up to 21,000 r.p.m. Feeding properly into the work it
leaves an extremely smooth finish that requires little or no sand-
ing.
GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES
The router consists of two major parts —the motor and the
base (Fig. 24). The motor housing is designed in such a way
that it forms a firm support for the router
an inverted position.
in
This extra convenience feature leaves both of the operator’s hands
free to insert or remove bits and cutters. The base is equipped
with a smooth surface sub-base, held in place by three counter-
sunk screws. This sub-base protects the working surface from
mars or scratches while doing fine cabinet work. It may be
216
HAND POWER TOOLS
End-Cap Stand.
Intake Air Slots.
Cartridge-type
Brush Holder
"Constant-Position"
Toggle Switch
Molded Rack
Cord Protector MOTOR
Collar
Lock Nut
Chuck ^ Collet
Assembly
Collet Nut
Depth-Lock Depth-Adjustment
Wing Nut
Depth Dial
Molded Side Handles
.v>
Fig. 23
MAINTENANCE AND CARE 217
easily removed to facilitate use of large bits and cutters, or to
add depth-of-cut when a longer bit or arbor is not available.
ASSEMBLY
Figure 25 shows the assembled motor and base. To assemble,

loosen the wing nut (A) on the base, and insert the motor into
the base until the rack and pinion (B) which regulates the depth-
of-cut, engages. Tighten wing nut and set router up in inverted
position. The unit is now ready for inserting a bit or an arbor to
hold cutters.
Fig. 24. Fig. 25.
MAINTENANCE AND CARE
Motor and current. The routerpowered by a “Universal”

is
router motor. It operates at nameplate voltage on alternating
current (25 to 60 cycles), or on direct current. Voltage variation
of more than ten per cent will cause loss of power and over-
heating. Be sure to check the voltage specifications on the name-
plate of your equi])ment with the voltage of your supplj^ line.
Inspect the carbon brushes in the motor at regular intervals, and
if worn away replace them immediately to prevent damage to
the motor armature as instructed by the manufacturer.
Cable. Every router is equipped with a three-conductor cable.
The third wire is for “grounding.” (See Grounding in section on
Portable Electric Saws, Chap. 6.) Do not permit cable to lie in
grease or which ruins the rubber.
oil ipe it off occasionally and
avoid rough handling. A\ hen not in use coil the cable loosely
without sharp bends or kinks, and keep it off the floor.
If an extension cable isnecessary to reach a power outlet, be

sure that the cable is made of a wire size large enough to carry
current to the router without too great a drop in voltage. A
long
extension cable of inadequate size will cause a voltage drop,

loss
of power and damage to the motor through overheating. A\hen

using an extension make sure that it is a 3-conductor cable.
Connect the third wire of the cable on the tool to the third wire of
with
the extension. Then ground the other end of the extension
the third wire, as described under Grounding. If more
than one
extension cable is used, connect the various third wires,
ground-
ing the one nearest the electrical receptacle.
Use the following table for 115 volt current.
Extension Cable Length In Feet Gauge of Cable Wire Required

50 75 100 200 18 16 14 12 10
25 , , , ,
, , , ,
OPERATION SAFETY
Make properly grounded before operating.

sure that the tool is
To operate, grasp the tool firmly, not gingerly in your hand. Do

not turn the power “ON” you are in working position. Then
until
place the tool in working position and press the toggle switch.
Always pull the plug before you change bits or cutters.
Every tool is thoroughly tested before leaving the factory and
should be in perfect operating condition when it reaches the user.
If, at any time, your unit fails to operate, it will save you time
and expense to check the following possible causes of failure:
1. your supply line dead? Check for blown fuses.

Is
2. Are the receptacle and plug making good contact? Check
for bent prongs and loose wires.

3. Are both brushes touching commutator? Check for good
ATTACHING BITS AND CUTTERS 219
brush contact. Carbon brushes should be inspected at regular
intervals and if worn away should be replaced immediately to
avoid motor damage.
4. Check voltage specifications on the nameplate with the
voltage of your supply line. See Motor and Current previously
described in this chapter.
Lubrication. All routers are completely lubricated at the fac-
tory and are ready for use. All ball bearings are of the closed
type and are grease sealed with sufficient lubricant packed in
them to last the life of the bearing.
ATTACHING BITS AND CUTTERS
Figure 26 illustrates how a straight bit is inserted into the

collet-type chuck. The shank of the bit or cutter arbor should
be inserted to a depth of at least Make sure electric current
is disconnected when performing this operation.
26. Fig. 27.
After the bit is two open-end wrenches are em-

inserted, the
ployed to tighten the chuck, as shown in Fig. 27. One of the two
wrenches is fitted to the upper, or collet nut, and the other is
attached to the collar at the bottom. Hold the lower wrench
stationary and turn the upper wrench from right to left to tighten
bit or arbor in chuck securely. Reverse the procedure to loosen
and to remove the bit when necessary.
Located between the collet nut and the collar is a lock nut,
which neither wrench will fit, and which is tightened before the
unit leaves the factory. This lock nut needs no further attention
from the operator.
REGULATING CUTTING DEPTH
Place the router on flat surface, on its base, loosen wing nut
(A), and turn knurled knob (C) until the bit very lightly touches
the surface on which it is resting (Fig. 28). Tighten the wing
nut and set router up on end.
With router inverted, micrometer-type depth
the built-in
adjustment (D) is set on the zero calibration. Each graduation
on the depth dial represents %
of an inch. To set bit to desired
cutting depth, loosen wing nut, turn outer knob (C), reading
depth on dial (D) then tighten the wing nut. The graduated
scale provides direct depth-reading in 64ths of an inch, without
measuring, up to 1 inch.
OPERATING THE ROUTER
There are a number of fixtures and attachments used to control

—
and guide the router the straight and circular guide, slot and
circle cutting attachment, template guides, dovetail joint fixture,
and the hinge mortising template. These, as well as other fixtures
such as a home-made T-square are illustrated and described in
this chapter.
In using the router, the base should be held firmly and flat on
the surface, and the tool should be moved from left to right in
straight cutting at a rate sufficient to maintain a high motor

speed. In irregular or circular cutting move the router counter-
clockwise. Feeding the router too slowly may cause the bit or
cutter to burn the wood, whereas excessive speed in feeding will
cause undue wear on the bits and cutters and at the same time
result in an inferior cut.
OPERATING THE ROUTER 221
Various wood densities make it impossible to set

just down
how fast this feeding should be done. After short practice in using
the router, you will soon acquire the feel of the tool for the
correct feeding speed.
In some instances, such as extremely hard wood, it is necessary
to make several passes at varying depths until the desired
depth-
of-cut is obtained.
Bits and cutters should be kept sharp at all times.
Fig. 28
Free-hand routing. Although the router is more widely used

with some form of guiding device for greater cutting accuracy,
there are many applications to which it is put free-hand, that is,
routing that is guided only by the operator’s skill. Raised letter
work. A A'ariation of this is routing the letters themselves
out of a flat surface. Surface stock removal may be accom-
plished free-hand, carefully following a pencilled layout. Skilled
wood carvers often use a router to gouge out background and
in‘e])arc work for final carving. The and beauty of work
results
that can be done in this fashion are limited only by the artistic
ability and skill of the operator.
T-square guide. A simple device for guiding the router when

making straight cuts on flat surfaces is the home-made T-square
(Fig. 29). This T-S(|uai'e can be easily made out of scrap lumber,
but make sure its edges are perfectly smooth and straight. It is
Fig. 29. Fig. 30.
placed on the surface being routed and held in position by means

of a clamp, as shown in Fig. 30. The base of the router is guided
firmly along the edge of the T-square to make a straight cut.
Measurements shown in the illustration are ideal for most appli-
cations with the router. They may, however, be altered to suit
your specific needs. Other home-made guiding devices are dis-
cussed later in this chapter.
STRAIGHT AND CIRCULAR GUIDE
The straight and circular guide (Fig. 31) is the most popular
device used with the router. It enables the operator to make
straight, curved, or angular cuts with ease and accuracy.
Attaching and adjusting. Figure 32 shows how the straight
and circular guide is attached with four screws through the metal
brackets, and firmly tightened to the router base. The two wing
nuts (A) are loosened and the guide is adjusted along the length
of the round metal rods and positioned in relation to the bit or
cutter where the cut is to be made, after which wing nuts (A)
are tightened.
The guide has a built-in vernier- type adjustment device that
is used to adjust the guide accurately. In making fine adjust-
ments, tighten the wing nut (B), loosen two wing nuts (A), and
SLOT AND CIRCLE CUTTING ATTACHMENT 223
turn the knurled knob (C) to either right

or left until the guide
is accurately positioned,
then tighten wing nuts (A) securely.
Figure 33 shows ()i)erating position.
Theie are times when the length of the guide
is insufficient to
give the router ample support. When
such is the case, a piece
of V ood may be attached to the front
end of the guide using
two wood screws and a piece of smooth lumber
about 8" or 10"
long and 2 to 3" wide (Fig. 34). Two
holes arc i)rovidcd in the
straight edge for this pur})()sc.
Fig. 33. Fig. 34.

Straight cuts. When routing along the edge of straight pieces,
the straight edge (Fig. 31) is attached to the guide and lield
against the straight edge of the work as the router is fed along
shown in Fig. 33.

cutting line as
Curved and angular cuts. Routing is accurately accomplished
along curved or angular edges by removing the straight edge,
(AA) from the straight and circular guide. This leaves two
points of contact to guide the router along irregularly
shaped
edges. Figure 35 illustrates this operating position,
using the
router to put a decorative edge around circular table top.
Fig. 35. Fig. 36.
Fig. 38.
STRAIGHT AND CIRCULAR GUIDE 225
Inside cuts. When
cutting inside edges such as rabl)cting for
screens, the straight and circular guide is attached in the reverse
position as illustrated in Fig. 36.
Measuring feature. For added accuracy, the straight and

circular guide features a slotted recess along the bottom which
permits the insertion of a rule or scale for use in adjusting the
edge of the guide in relation to the cutting edge of the bit. Figure
37 shows how this measurement is made, assuring precision I’c-
sults on any routing project.
SLOT AND CIRCLE CUTTING ATTACHMENT
The slot and circle cutting

attachment is used with the router
for cutting evenly spaced slots and grooves,
discs, circular holes
and concentric designs. In circle cutting, or slot cutting, the
at-
tachment can be adjusted for diameters or lengths from V' to 22^^
(Fig. 38).
Figure 39 shows the router in operating position when cutting
a medium sized circle. Move the router always in a counter-
clockwise direction, higure 40 illustrates the completed opera-
tion. Note that a ^4" hole was first drilled in
the center of the
circle to hold the attachment guide pin. A straight
bit of suffi-
cient depth to pass through the wood was used —
with a scrap
piece of lumber being placed underneath the work to prevent
cutting into the workbench.
Fig. 39 Fig. 40.

Interesting circular designs can be made using this attachment
such as the one shown in Fig. 41. Note that two different bits
were used to obtain an artistic result. Note how a circular open-
ing can be improved by routing an attractive molding as shown
in Fig. 42.
With the removed and a guide bar assembled
circle cutting pin
in its place, this attachment serves as a guide for cutting slots and
grooves. In the example shown in Fig. 43, the first slot was made
by using the end of the lumber as a guide, and the second slot was
cut in the same manner as illustrated. This operation can be
repeated, or the distance between slots varied by adjusting the
two wing nuts on the attachment.
IT IS EASY TO MAKE CUTS AND JOINTS
MAKING DADO CUTS
Dado frequently used in the construction of shelving,

cuts,
bookcases, furniture, etc., can readily be made with a router and
the correct-size straight bit.
Figure 44 illustrates three types of dado cuts commonly used

— the through dado (A), the half-blind dado (B), and the blind
dado (C)
When making a through dado, it is well to use a piece of scrap
lumber on each edge of the board so as to prevent chipout. A
half-blind dado is accomplished by stopping the machine before
it reaches the entire width of the board. Blind dado
cuts are made
by first positioning the router at a given point, then lowering

it into the lumber slowly and feeding it forward the required
distance.
When making dado cuts, select a bit, if possible, that will be
the diameter of the thickness of the board that is to be used in

the groove. A strip of wood should be clamped to the board re-
ceiving the dado cut to serve as a guide on which the base of
the router is supported.
MAKING DADO CUTS 227
Guiding the router on dado cuts is best accomplished with the
straight and circular guide, as previously discussed. The T-square
may also be used as shown in Fig. 30.
Fig. 41.
Fig. 42.
Fig. 43.
THE DOVETAIL DADO
One of the strongest joints possible in fine cabinet work is the

dovetail dado. It prevents twisting or warping, and is unsurpassed
where tightness of finished joint is an important factor, such as
in making doors and frameworks of various types. The router,
with a dovetail bit is capable of turning out dovetail dadoes

fitted
with speed and accuracy.
Figure 45 illustrates the routing of a dovetail groove. Note
that an improvised fixture is clamped to the work for use in
controlling the movement of the router. The groove shown is
a half-blind groove, since it will not extend completely across
the board.
Fig. 46.
Fig. 45.
After the groove is cut, the used to rout out the

same bit is
male section. Note in Fig. 46 that the piece being routed is held
in a fixture, with the straight and circular guide being used,
first along one edge, and then along the other edge of
the fixture
to control the router. When one side is finished, the router is
reversed and the opposite side is cut.
The width of the dovetail dado need not be confined to the size
of the bit, since several adjacent cuts may be made to provide

any desired width-of-joint. This also applies when cutting the
male section.
MAKING RABBET CUTS
Rabbet cuts are used for making rabbeted drawer fronts,

cabinet doors, and many other types of joints. Figure 47 shows
how this operation is performed, using a rabbeting bit.
MAKING RABBET CUTS 229
In Fig. 48, a straight bit is used, which should be placed in the

chuck and adjusted to the required depth of cut. The router
may be controlled by means of the straight and circular guide,
which is adjusted to the desired width of the rabbet cut. It is best
to select a bit that is larger in diameter than the width of the
finished cut so that a less critical adjustment is necessary in
the guide. A simple home-made fixture (Fig. 49) can be used to
hold small pieces in routing ])osition as shown in Fig. 48.
When making rabbet cuts, it is usually better to make them
across the end grain of the lumber first, and then along the grain.
This procedure tends to eliminate chipping at the edges.
Fig. 47. Fig. 48.
Fig. 49.
TONGUE-AND-GROOVE JOINTS
Tongue-and-groove joints enable two or more boards to be

firmly and uniformly joined together to provide a
large, flat
frequently used
surface, such as a table or dresser top. They are
in fine cabinet work and interior designing. For
maximum ac-
tongue-and-
curacy and strength, boards being joined by the
groove method should first be made smooth and true.
All grooves are cut first.the edge of one board, the location
On
and the width of the groove should be outlined with a sharp pencil
smaller
or knife. The router is fitted with a straight bit, slightly
in diameter than the groove, and adjusted to the zero
depth
setting. The straight and circular guide is attached to the
router
and adjusted, so that one edge of the bit is positioned against one
side of the drawn outline. The built-in vernier adjustment on the
guide provides maximum accuracy in making this adjustment.

The bit is next adjusted to the desired cutting depth and the cut
is made, guiding the router against one side
of the board (Fig.
50) The second cut is made by guiding the router on the oppo-
.
site side of the board.This method assures the groove to be in

the exact center of the board. Without changing any adjustments
to
on the router, proceed to cut all grooves in all boards that are
receive them.
Fig. 50. Fig. 51.

TONGUE AND-GROOVE JOINTS 231
Fig- 52. Fig. 53.
When cutting the tongues, the depth adjustment should be

about "
more shallow than the groove, to allow space for glue.
yQ 4
The straight and circular guide is adjusted and each side of the
board is routed until a tongue of the correct width is made (Fig.
51). ithout changing any adjustments, proceed to cut all pieces
that are to have tongues.
When routing tongue-and-groove joints on short pieces of
lumber, advisable to use a fixture for holding the pieces
it is
while they are being machined (Figs. 52 and 53).
MORTISE -AND-TENON JOINTS
Mortise-and-tenon joints are frequently used in the construc-

tion of furniture, doors, windows, screens, and in many other
projects needing firm, strong joints.
Cutting the mortise. To make a joint of this type, first out-
line on the piece of wood that is to be mortised, the length and
width of the mortise. This can be done with a sharp pencil or a
knife. When the mortise is to be irl the exact center of the board,
best to use a straight bit, smaller in diameter than the width
it is
of the mortise (Fig. 54).

Place the piece to be mortised in a fixture that is suitable to
hold it securely. Place the straight bit in the router chuck to at
"
least a ^2 depth, and adjust the bit to zero setting. Attach
straight and circular guide to the router and adjust it to ride along
the edge of the fixture at a distance to place the edge of the bit
exactly on one side of marked rectangle where the cut is to be
made.
Loosen wing nut and turn knurled knob on the router until
the bit is adjusted to the necessary depth of cut. In hard lumber
it maybe necessary to make several passes with the router to
obtain the necessary depth of mortise.
Fig. 56. Fig. 57.

MORTISE AND-TENON JOINTS 233
Tighten all adjustments securely, start router and lower the
revolving bit slowly into the wood that is to receive the mortise,
until the base of the router rests flat on top of the fixture. The
router is then moved forward to cut the desired length of the
mortise.
After this first cut
completed, the router guide is placed
is
against the opposite side of the fixture and the second cut is
made to provide the correct width of the mortise. It will be in
the exact center of the board. Without disturbing the adjustments
on the router, proceed to cut all pieces that are to be mortised.
Fig. 58 Fig. 59
There are times when a mortise is to be located to one side of

the center of the board, such as in making table legs (Fig. 55).
To do this, select a bit of the proper size, adjust it to the proper
depth and proceed to cut the mortise as described, guiding the
router along only one side of the fixture.
When a large number of mortises are to be made, an improvised
stop can be attached to the fixture so as to limit the movement
of the router in its lengthwise motidn, thereby making all
mor-
tises the same length.
Cutting the tenon. The board to receive the tenon is held in
the fixture (Fig. 56). A straight bit is placed in the router and
the dej)th of cut adjusted about "
y(i 4 less than the depth of the
mortise. This provides space for glue when the object is being
assembled. The straight attached to the
and circular guide is
base of the router and adjusted, so that when it is passed along

both sides of the fixture, a tenon of the proper width is made. The
vernier adjustment on the guide is very helpful in making this
adjustment After the length of the tenon has been cut, it is then
cut to width. This done by guiding the router along the end of
is
the fixture. After one side is cut, the piece is reversed and the
other side is cut. Do not change the router adjustments until all
tenons have been made.
Note that all mortises will have round ends and the tenons will
have square ends as shown in Figs. 57 and 58. The mortise can be
made square with a chisel, or the tenon can be made round to fit
the mortise with a file. In either case, a satisfactory joint will

result.
SPLINE JOINTS
Spline joints are used in joining two or more pieces of lumber

together to build uj) a large surface (Fig. 59). Generally S])eak-
ing, in lumber a spline of thickness and a depth of
to is The
usually sufficient. edges of the boards that are to
be joined together should be made smooth and true.
The edge of the groove to be cut is outlined on the board with
a sharp pencil or knife. A straight bit, smaller in diametei

than
the width of the groove, should be placed in the router, and
then
the
the router should be adjusted to the zero setting. Place
straight and circular guide on the router, and adjust it so
that
one edge of the bit is along one edge of the drawn outline. Use
the vernier adjustment for making these measurements.
The depth of cut is then adjusted, and the cut is made along
one side of the board after which the router is used on the oppo-
site side of the board. The result will be a perfect
groove in the
exact center of the board. hen short pieces of lumbei are to be

joined, it is best to hold the wood in a fixture (Fig. 60). Without
changing any of the router adjustments, proceed to cut all
grooves.
Plywood is frequently used in making the splines. The same
kind of wood being joined can also be used. If it is, the grain in
DOVETAIL JOINTS 235
the spline should run in opposite directions to the boards being
joined together. Blind spline joints are made where the edge
of the glued up pieces isuniform in appearance. This is
to be
done by starting the groove a short distance in from the end of
the board and the cut is stopped a short distance in from the
other end of the board. Figure 61 shows how a blind spline joint
should be made to join together a heavy frame.
Fig. 60. Fig. 61.
DOVETAIL JOINTS
Due and neat appearance, dovetail joints are

to their strength
frequently used in the construction of drawers and boxes. To
make them by hand, using a chisel and mallet, requires consider-
able skill and patience. The dovetail kit shown in Fig. 62 per-
mits this type of joinery to be accomplished with speed and
accuracy.
Two sizes of finger
templates are available for use with the
dovetail fixture (Fig. 63). One is for use with lumber yjp/' to 1"
thick, and the other with lumber from to %" thick. The
edges of the two boards that are to be joined are cut at the same
time, insuring a perfect fit.
Figure 64 illustrates how the lumber is held in the fixture, and

Fig. 65 shows how the cut is made. Figs. 66 and 67 show the
Fig. 62. Fig. 63.
Fig. 64. Fig. 65.
cuts completed, and Fig. 68 illustrates how the drawer pieces

arc grooved to accommodate the drawer bottom.
The router can also be used to enhance the appearance of
drawer fronts as shown in Fig. 69.
TEMPLATES
The bestmethod of duplicating shapes, especially those of

intricate design, is by template routing. This consists of trans-
ferring the desired design to a pattern, or template, and cutting it
TEMPLATES 237
out. This template isclamped to the material being routed and
the router, fitted with a bit and a template guide is directed along
its pattern for perfect duplication. Once the template is cut,
it
may be reused again and again for production-line uniformity.
Figure 70 shows several types of template guides available
for use with the router. These serve to guide and restrict the
movement of the router within the desired area being cut. Figure
71 represents the template guide and bit in cutting position. Note
that the pattern, or template, should be made slightly larger than
the opening wanted, to compensate for the size of the template
guide used.
Fig. 68. Fig. 69.

Fig. 70.
ROUTER
TEMPLATE
BASE
GUIDE
TEMPLATE
WORK SCRAP
Fig. 71.
Fig. 72
TEMPLATE ROUTING 239
Routing the template. The design is usually first drawn on

paper and then transferred to the template material, which may
be hardwood, plywood, or composition board (Fig. 72). This
design may be cut out with a jig or band saw or the router may be
used as follows:
Remove sub-base from the router to provide maximum visi-
bility. Place the drawn template on a piece of smooth scrap
material and clamp both to the workbench. Fit the router with
a straight bit and adjust the cutting depth to about deeper
than the thickness of the template material. The design is then
routed out freehand, with careful guiding, and keeping the bit
slightly away from the drawn line. After all first cuts are made,
go over them again and slowly rout to the drawn line.
After the template is cut, all edges should be made smooth
with a file or sandpaper, for any irregularities in the template will
be automatically transferred to the finished piece.
TEMPLATE ROUTING
The template is used as follows:

Tack the template to the piece that is to be routed using small
brads and locating them in section that will be scrapped. Place
a
piece of scrap lumber under the work to protect the
bench top,
as shown in Fig. 73. A\ ith the sub-base and template guide
at-
tached to the router, a straight bit is placed in the chuck and
adjusted to the desired depth of cut. This depth adju&tment will
depend on the hardness and the thickness of the wood being
routed. Usually several passes of the router at varying depths
are necessary to produce a smoother surface than a single heavy
cut. Turn the current on and lower the revolving
bit into the
wood until the base of the router is flat on the template. With
the template guide in contact with^ the template, the router is
then guided within the design until the area is completely cut
as shown in Fig. 74.
After each section is cut out, turn off the current and allow
the bit to stop revolving before moving to the next opening.
Continue until all openings have been cut.
Should a bas-relief effect be desired instead of a through cut,
the same procedure is followed except that the depth of cut is
adjusted so as not to pass completely through the material being
routed.
Fig. 74. Fig. 75.
INLAY WORK
Because of the accuracy and smooth, high-quality cuts possible
with the router, it is an excellent tool for inserting inlays. Inlay
strips, which greatly enhance the beauty of finished woodwork,
and add to its value, can be conveniently purchased in a wide
variety of shapes and designs.
In applying an inlay strip around a table top proceed as fol-
lows:
1. Draw an outline completely around the entire surface
to indicate the exact position of the finished inlay.

2. Fit router with a straight bit of the exact same width as
that of the inlay and adjust cutting depth to slightly less than
the thickness of the inlay. (The set inlay will protrude slightly
above the surface for sanding to a perfectly smooth, flush finish.)
3. With the straight and circular guide attached to the router
and set at the correct, outlined position of the inlay, the table
top is routed around the entire inlay area, as shown in Fig. 75.
When finished, the corners will be round— cut them square with
INLAY WORK 241
a thin blade chisel or knife.
4. Place inlay in the routed groove, fit correctly, and miter at
each corner.
5. Place glue in the groove, insert fitted inlay, and
clamp,
using a strip of paper and a long board for protection
and uniform
pressure along inlay.
6. After the glue sets, remove clamps and thoroughly and
carefully sand surface.
7. Follow the same procedure for inlaying in each of the
tapered legs. Fit legs and clamp as shown in Fig.
76, while this
work is being done.
8. Locate center design (Fig. 77) in the exact center of the
table top, and outline by tracing around the inlay
piece with a
sharp, thin knife blade. Care must be taken not to
cut any
deeper than the thickness of the inlay, itself.
Fig. 76. Fig. 77.

9. Fit the router with a straight bit and, with the
sub-base
lemoved, adjust depth of cut to slightly less than the thickness
of the inlay.
10. With the correct depth established, rout out center
section free-hand, carefully restricting cut to about " from
2 ^
knife-cut outline. (This " is hand-trimmed with knife
2 ^ blade.)
11. Apply glue to the recess, insert inlay, and clamp
securely.
Most inlays are protected on one side by pressure-sensitive jiaper.
Be sure to insert this type of inlay with the paper side up.
12. When glue has set, remove all clamps and sand entire
surface to a smooth, even finish.
The care and patience required in accomplishing fine inlay
work by hand can only be imagined by one who has not actually
tried it. However, with the electric router this same type of work
becomes only one of many jobs accomplished with the speed and
accuracy of the professional craftsman.
MAKING YOUR OWN MOLDING
Many types of novel and decorative wood molding can be

easily accomplished with the router, using either bits or cutters.
Such molding cuts can be made directly along the edge of the
work, such as table and desk tops, bookcase shelves, etc,, or they
can be made separately and fastened whei'ever desired.
Figure 78 illustrates two types of molding made with the
router, using the pilot part of the bit to guide the tool
along the
a
edge of the work. After the molding is shaped with the routei,
saw is used to cut the molding from the lumber, as illustrated.
Moldings of type are extremely useful in baseboard work,
this
picture-framing, panelling, etc. By using various combinations
of
bits and cutters, the uniiiue designs possible are limitless.

the
Figure 79 shows a molded edge being applied directly to
the tool.
edge of a table top, using a bit with a pilot end to guide
Fig. 78. Fig. 79.

MAKING YOUR OWN MOLDING 243
The and circular guide as shown in Fig. 31 may
straight also
be used when the cut desired must be made with a straight bit.
MAKING TAPERED LEGS
Tapered such as are often used in making tables and

legs,
chairs, can easily be made, using the router and a simple fixture
(Fig. 80). The size of the fixture will depend upon the size and
length of the leg
Tapering fixture. To make this tapering fixture, proceed as
follows:
Secure a board of sufficient size for the base (A) The two up-
.
right pieces, (B) and (C) are made from the same stock and
shaped as shown in the illustration. They should be about 1 "
/2
higher than the thickness of the leg that is to be tapered. Fasten
pieces (B) and (C) to base (A), spaced so that the square leg
can be placed between them (Fig. 81). A tapered wedge (D)
should be made to fit between boards (B) and (C) (Fig. 80).
Tliis is used to elevate one end of the leg being tapered.
Fig. 80. Fig. 81.

Tapered leg. Most tapered legs are made square a certain
distance down from the top in order to accommodate
an apron.
stop.
Therefore, draw a line across the leg where the taper is to
and
Determine the size that the leg should be at the bottom
to do
draw the outline as shown in Fig. 81. It is only necessaiy
this with one leg as, after all adjustments are
made, all legs will
be alike. The fixture should be held in a vise or fastened by
clamps to the work bench.
Fig. 82.
Place the straight leg in the fixture against the stop (E)
and
on
clamp in place. The router, fitted with a straight bit, is rested
toj) of the fixture (Fig. 82) and, using
both the wedge and the
router depth-adjustment, bit is set to cut to the
depth of the
drawn outline on the leg bottom. Be sure that the adjustment
for depth of cut such that the cut will stop where the line has
is
been drawn on the leg to accommodate the apron.

AVhen all
into
adjustments are accurately made, a nail is partially driven
wedge (D) to hold it securely.
The routerguided along the outer edge of the fixture, using
is
using the
the straight and circular guide and the cuts are made,
straight and
tool on each side of the fixture and readjusting the
circular guide until the entire side of the leg is
machined. Taper
all legson one side, then, with the same setting, cut the adjacent
MAKING TAPERED LEGS 245
sides. A small wedge is used at the tapered end to prevent end-
play while leg
being machined (Fig. 83).
is
Without changing the cutting-depth on the router, cut the

remaining two sides of the leg. To set this cutting depth, remove
nail holding wedge (D) and move wedge inward
until bit meets
the drawn outline of the leg bottom. Insert small wedges (Fig.
84)to ])revent end-play while routing. Figure 85 illustrates final
cut being made.
Fig. 84. Fig. 85.
Iêgs for fine fui’niture are often made from hardwo(vl, in which
case it may
be necessary, depending upon the tapei', to make
several passes at different depths of cut until the desired deidh is
obtained. The S])ced with which the routc'i’ operates is such that
the tapered legs will re(|uii‘e only a minimum amount of sanding.
ADDITIONAI. PORTAKLE ELECTRIC POWER TQOI.S

I 01 table j)ower tools ar(' tools that can be moved from place
to [)lace. Some of the most common portable power tools that
you will use in woodworking are electrically powered and in-
clude drills, Sanders, saws, and wrenches.
Drills
shown in Fig. 86 is probably the

The 'portable electric drill
de-
most frequently used power tool. Although it is especially
accessories you can
signed for drilling holes, by adding various
adapt it Sanding, sawing, buffing, polishing,
for different jobs.
screwdriving, wire brushing, and paint mixing are
examples of
drills are classified
possible uses. The sizes of portable electric
drill it will hold. That is,
by the maximum-size straight-shank
1/4" electric drill will hold a straight-shank drill up to and
a
including i/4".
(rpm) and power the drill will

The revolutions per minute
deliver are most important when choosing a drill for a job. You
that the speed of the drill motor decreases with
an
will find
are designed
increase in size, primarily because the larger units
materials, and
to turn larger cutting tools or to drill in heavy
both these factors require slower speed.
in masonry
If you are going to do heavy work, such as drilling
or steel, then you would probably need to use a drill
with a %
or 1 " capacity. If most of your drilling will be
forming holes
/2
i/4" drill will prob-
in wood or small holes in sheet metal, then a
ably be adequate.
The chuck is the clamping device into which the drill is in-
serted. Nearly all electric drills are equipped with
a three-jaw
chuck. Some of the drill motors have a hand-type chuck

that
you tighten or loosen by hand, but most of the drills used have
gear-type, three-jaw chucks which are tightened and loosened
by means chuck key (Fig. 87). Do riot apply further pres-
of a
sure with pliers or wrenches after you hand-tighten the
chuck
with the chuck key.
Always remove the key iumiediately after you use it. Other-
wise the key will fly loose when the drill motor is started and
may cause serious injury to you or others. The chuck key is
generally taped on the cord of the drill but if it is not, be sure
;
you put it in a safe place where it will not get lost.

Most portable electric drills have controls similar to the ones
shown on the drill in Fig. 86. This drill has a momentary
DRILLS 247
Fig. 86. 1/4" portable drill.
Fig. 87. Three-jaw chuck and chuck key.
contact trigger switch located in the handle. The switch is

squeezed to start the electric and released to stop it.
drill
The trigger latch is a button in the bottom of the drill handle.
It is pushed in, while the switch trigger is held down, to lock
the ti'igger switch in the “ON” position. The trigger latch is re-
leased by squeezing and then releasing the switch trigger.
Fig. 88. Portable electric sander.
Sanders
Portable sanders are tools designed to hold and operate abra-

sives for sanding wood, plastics, and metals. The most common
types are the disc, belt, and reciprocating orbital sanders.
Disc Sander
Electric disc sanders (Fig. 88) are especially useful on work

where a large amount of material is to be removed quickly such
as scaling surfaces in preparation for painting. This machine
shoidd not be used where a mirror smooth finish is required.

The disc should be moved smoothly and lightly over the sur-
face. Never allow the disc to stay in one place too long
because
it will cut into the material and leave a large depression.
Belt Sander
The portable belt sander (Fig. 89) is commonly used for sur-
facing lumber used for interior trim, furniture, or cabinets.

Wood
floors are almost always made ready for final finishing by using
a belt sander. Whereas these types of sanding operations were
once laborious and time-consuming, it is now possible to perform
the operations quickly and accurately with less effort.
The belt sanders use endless sanding belts that can be obtained
in many different grades (grits). The belts are usually 2,3,
BELT SANDER 249
Fig. 89. Portable belt sander.
or 4" wideand can he easily clianged when they become worn or

when you want to use a different grade of sanding paper.
When preparing to use the sander, be sure that the object to
})e sanded is firmly secured. Then, after the motor has been
started verify that the belt is tracking on center. Any adjust-
ment to make it track centrally is usually made by aligning
screws. The moving then placed on the surface of the
belt is
object to be sanded with the rear part of the belt touching first.
The machine is then leveled as it is moved forward. When you
use the sander, do not press down or ride it, because the weight
of the machine exerts enough pressure for proper cutting. (Ex-
cessive pressure also causes the abrasive belt to clog and the
motor to overheat.) Adjust the machine over the surface with
overlapping strokes, always in a direction parallel to the grain.
By working over a fairly wide area and avoiding any machine
tilting or pausing in any one spot, an even surface will result.
T'pon completion of the sanding [process, lift the machine off the
work and then stop the motor.
Some types of sanders are provided with a bag that takes up
the dust that is produced. Iê sure to use it if it is available.
Fig. 90. Orbital sander.
Orbital Sander
The orbital sander (Fig. 90) is so named because of the action
of the sanding pad. The pad moves in a tiny orbit, with a motion
that hardly discernible, so that it actually sands in all direc-

is
tions. This motion is so small and so fast that,

with fine paper
mounted on the pad, it is nearly impossible to see any scratches
on the finished surface.
The pad, around which the abrasive sheet is wrapped, usually
extends beyond the frame of the machine so it is possible to work
in tight corners and against vertical surfaces.
Some models of the orbital sanders have a bag attached to
catch all dust that is made from the sanding operation. Orbital
sanders (pad sanders) do not remove as much material as fast
as the belt sander or disc sander but do a better job on smoothing
a surface for finishing. If both a belt or disc sander and an
orbital sander are available, you should use the belt or disc
sander for rough, preliminary work and the orbital sander for
finishing. The sandpaper used on the sander may be cut to size
PORTABLE CIRCULAR SAW 251
from a bulk sheet of paper or may be available in the correct
sander you are using. The paper is wrapped around
size for the
a pad on the sander and is fastened to the pad by means of
levers on the front and rear of the sander. The lever action
fasteners make changing the paper easy and quick.
Portable Circular Saw
The portable circular saw is becoming more and more popular

as a woodworking tool because of the time and labor it saves,
the precision with which it works, and its ease of handling and
maneuverability.
Because of the many changes being made in the design of
these saws, only general information will be given in this section.
Information concerning a particular saw can be found by check-
ing with the manufacturer.
The saws range from one-sixth horse-
sizes of portable electric
j:)Ower with a 4" blade to one-and-one-half horsepower with a
14" blade. They are so constructed that they may be used as a
carpenter’s handsaw, both at the job site or on a bench in the
woodworking shop.
The portable electric saw (Fig. 91) is started by pressing a
trigger inserted in the handle and stopped by releasing it. The
saw will run only when the trigger is held.
Most saws may be adjusted for crosscutting or for ripping.
The ripsaw guide shown in Fig. 91 is adjusted by the two small
knurled nuts at the base of the saw. When the guide is inserted
in the rip guide slot to the desired dimensions, the nuts are then
tightened to hold it firmly in place.

In crosscutting a guideline is generally marked across the
board to be cut. Place the front of the saw base on the work so
that the guide mark on the front plate and the guide line on the
work are aligned. Be sure the blade is clear of the work. Start
the saw and allow the cutting blade to attain full speed. Then
advance the saw, keeping the guide mark and guide line aligned.
If the saw stalls, back the saw out. Do not release the starting
trigger. When the saw resumes cutting speed, start cutting again.
Additional adjustments include a depth knob and a bevel
thumbscrew. The depth of the cut is regulated by adjusting the
depth knob. The bevel-adjusting thumbscrew is used for adjust-
ing the angle of the cut. This permits the base to be tilted in
relation to the saw. The graduated scale marked in degrees on
the quadrant (Fig. 91) enables the operator to measure his ad-
justments and angles of cut.
The bottom plate of the saw is wide enough to provide the
saw with a firm support on the lumber being cut. The blade of
the saw is protected by a spring guard which opens when lumber
is being cut but snaps back into place when the cut is finished.
Many different sawblades may be placed on the machine for

special kinds of sawing. By changing blades, almost any build-
ing material from slate and corrugated metal sheets to fiberglass
can be cut.
To change saw blades, first disconnect the power. Remove the
blade by taking off the saw clamp screw and flange, using the
Fig. 91. Portable electric circular saw.

SABER SAW 253
wrench provided for this purpose. Attach the new saw blade
making certain the teeth are in the proper cutting direction
(pointing upward toward the front of the saw) and tighten the
flange and clamp screw with the wrench.
Caution: Do
not put the saw blade on backwards. Most blades
have instructions stamped on them with the words
this side out.
The poi table electric saw is one of the most dangerous
power
tools m existence whennot properly used. Be sure the board
it is
you are sawing is properly secured so it will not slip

or turn.
After making a cut he sure the saw blade has
come to a stand-
still before laying the saw down.
When using an electric saw remember that all the

blade you
can normally see is covered and that the
portion of the blade
that projects under the board being cut
is not covered. The
exposed teeth under the work are dangerous and
can cause seri-
ous injury if any part of your body should
come into contact
with them.
The blade of a portable circular saw should be kept
sharp at
all times. The saw blade will
function most efficiently when the
rate of feed matches the blade’s capacity
to cut. You will not
have to figure this out: you will be able to feel
With a little
it.
practice you will know when the cut is smooth and you will know
when you are forcing it. Let the blade do its own
cutting. The
tool will last longer and you will
work easier because it is less
fatiguing.
Saber Saw
The saber saw (Fig. 92)
a power-driven jigsaw that will let
is
you cut smooth and decorative curves in wood and
light metal.
Most saber saws are light-duty machines and are not designed
for extremely fast cutting.
There are several different blades designed to
operate in the
saber saw and they are easily interchangeable.
For fast cutting
of wood, a blade with coarse teeth
may be used. A blade with
fine teeth is designed for cutting metal.
The best way to learn how to handle this type of
tool is to use
it. Before trying to do a finished job with the saber
saw, clamp
down a piece of scrap plywood and draw some curved as
well
as straight lines to follow. You will develop
your own way of
Fig. 92. Saber or bayonet saw operations.
somewhat by the par-

gripping the tool, and this will be affected
ticular tool you are using. On some tools, for example, you
will
find guiding easier if you apply some downward pressure on

the
tool as you move it forward. If you are not firm with your
grip,
the tool will tend to vibrate excessively and this will roughen the
cut. Do not force the cutting faster than the design of
the blade
allows or you will break the blade.
Electric Impact Wrench
The impact wrench (Fig. 93) is a portable hand-type

electric
reversible wrench. The one shown has a ^2 so[uare impact-
^^
driving anvil over which square drive sockets can be fitted.

Wrenches also can be obtained that have impact-driving anvils
ranging from to . The driving anvils are not interchange-
able, however, from one wrench to another.
The electric wrench with its accompanying equipment is pri-
marily intended for applying and removing nuts, bolts, and
screws. It may also be used to drill and tap wood, plastics, metal.
ELECTRIC IMPACT WRENCH 255
and other material, and drive and remove socket-head, Phillips-
head, or slotted-head wood, machine, or self-tapping
screws.
Before you use an electric impact wrench depress the
on-and-
off trigger switch and allow the electric
wrench to operate a few
seconds, noting carefully the direction of rotation.
Release the
trigger switch to stop the wrench. Turn the
reversing ring located
at the rear of the tool. The ring should move
easily in one direc-
tion (which determined by the current direction of rotation).
is
Depiess the on-and-off trigger again to start the electric

wrench.
The diiection of rotation should now be reversed. Continue
to
operate for a few seconds in each direction to be sure
that the
wrench and its reversible features are functioning
correctly.
When you are sure the wrench operates properly, place the suit-
able equipment on the impact-driving anvil and
go ahead with
the job at hand.
&»USH HOiO€R COVfE
Fig. 93. Reversible electric impact wiench.

CHAPTER 7
Radial-Arm Machine
The radial-arm machine is a complete workshop. It will saw,

dado, and shape with complete accuracy. With the proper at-
tachments added, the machine will function as a jointer, drill
press, router, lathe, saber saw, sander, grinder, buffer, and
polisher.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The radial-arm type of power tool shown in Fig. 1 is in effect
a mechanical arm that features the easy dexterity of a human

arm. Flexibility with this tool means that the cutting member
can be placed any position throughout all three dimensions
in
(length, width, and depth) This is possible because of the unique

.
Fig. I. Fig. 2.
256
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 257
design allowing full maneuverability through a complete circle

in any of the three directions.
The three-dimension flexibility is possible with the motorized
mechanical arm, shown in Fig. 2. The radial arm {A) rotates
360° for right- or left-miter cuts. Release clamp [B] and lift
latch (C), then easily swing the arm to any angle. The eye-level
calibrated miter scale (D), shows the angle required. The
^Tuilt-in” stops at 0° and 45° automatically locate these common
angles. Never lumber for miters, as the radial-arm ma-
shift the
chine puts the saw at the exact angle, and you pull across for
perfect cuts. An accurate measuring scale, on the right side of
the arm, gives you instant measuring for ripping.
Figure 3 shows the shoulder action of the mechanical arm. As
the arm is raised or lowered, it measures for you. Each full turn
of the elevating handle (A) lifts or lowers the arm {B) One-
half turn gives you Yic/'. This is a precision depth control.
The ell )ow action of the mechanical arm is illustrated in Fig. 4.
The yoke, which holds the motor, is beneath the arm and rides
freely on it. Release the yoke clamp {B) and lift the locating
pin (C), then swing the yoke right or left. It automatically stops
at all four 90° })ositions, giving quick, positive adjustment for
rip and crosscuts. The clamp (D) locks the saw in the desired
rip position.
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
258 RADIAL-ARM MACHINE
Figure 5 shows the wrist movement of the mechanical arm.
Pull out the clamp (/I) and locating pin [B) Tilt the motor
(C) for the angle desired on the bevel scale (D)Then, relock
A. The motor unit automatically locates the popular 0°, 45°,
and 90° bevel positions. Your compound angles and bevel cuts
are measured for you with unequaled accuracy, and there is no
limit to the bevel cuts.
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
The flexible operation of this machine

based on the following
is
three simple radial adjustments; the arm can be swung horizon-

tally through 360° around its column; the yoke can be revolved
horizontally through 360° under its roller carriage; and the
motor can be tilted within the yoke to These
any angle desired.
adjustments enable you to place the cutting tool easily in any
position.
Radial-arm machine sizes. Radial-arm machines are avail-
able in a range of sizes from %
to 10 h.p., the smallest being the
most popular one for home workshop use. This size machine
cuts 2%" deep with a 9" blade, crosscuts 15" wide on 1" stock,
and rips to the center of 48" wide panels.
This machine is equipped with a direct-drive motor. There are
no belts, pulleys, gears, or other devices to maintain. The cutting
tool is mounted motor spindle, an operation done
directly on the
above the worktable so that there are no table inserts to be con-
cerned with. The motor operates at 3,450 r.p.m. and is available
SAFETY FEATURES 259
in either 115-volt single-phase 60-cycle alternating current
or
220-, 440-, or 550-volt three-phase 60-cycle alternating current
models.
The direct-drive motor has grease-sealed-for-life bearings at
each end of the motor shaft so that you never have to oil it.
Motors of this type are protected against overloading by a man-
ual-reset thermostat that kicks out when the motor is overheated
and loaded. To reset the motor, allow a few minutes, then “push
in” the red button on the motor.
Safety features. One of the outstanding virtues of the radial-
aim machine is its safety features. A safety guard, as shown
in Figs. 15 and 16, is used to cover the cutting tool so as to pro-
vide maximum safety to the operator. It is adjustable and is
provided with a kickback device for use in ripping operations, as
well as with an adjustable dust spout that directs the flow of
sawdust wherever desired. This guard is used for sawing, dado-
ing, shaping, and other operations, providing safety factors hither-
to not possible with ordinary table saws.
Another important factor is an ignition-type motor-starting
key (Fig. 6). Only this key will start the motor, and it fits a
tumbler-type mechanism that is recessed in the side of the arm.
This key is especially important in the home where there are
children and, of course, prevents unauthorized use by others.
The fact that the blade is mounted above the worktable, instead
of below it, is possibly the major safety feature of this machine.
Since you can always see what you are doing, you can very
quickly do accurate cutting, because you can easily follow the
layout marks on the top of the material, and the mechanical arm
guarantees a true cut regardless of the angle. For most operations
the hand guides the saw blade through the work; this lessens the
chance of having the blade clip you. It, of course, eliminates over-
cutting and spoiling of the material.
Regardless of the oi)eration, all setups are made above the
worktable to siin})lify all jobs. The calibrated miter, rip, and
bevel scales, as well as all control handles are above the work-
work and easy to reach.
table, clear of the
Floor space required. The radial-arm machine is funda-
mentally a one-wall shop, and the over-all floor space required
260 RADIAL ARM MACHINE
is approximately 3 square feet. It can be set up even in the
smallest basement, utility room, garage, or attic. For example,
in the attic, the radial-arm machine can be placed back under
the eaves, using space that would otherwise be wasted. Unlike
a table saw, the radial arm does not require accessibility from all
sides.
Whenlocating the radial-arm machine, space should be allowed

for handling material of the maximum lengths required.
About
10' either side will allow for most ripping and handling of
on long
boards. Two feet of the operating area is all that is required at

to
the front of the machine. Table extensions are preferable
support long work, and should be solid or made of wood on metal
rollers to help in conveying stock past the blade.
Be sure to
enable
provide an ample light source, natural or artificial, to
easy reading of angle and dimension dials and controls. A
typical
small workshop layout is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7.
The % h.p. machine which takes a 9" saw blade is practically
portable. It may be mounted on saw horses (temporary installa-

tion), steel legs, or on a steel cabinet (Fig. 8), or built into a
workbench (Fig. 1).
Connecting the machine to the power supply. To obtain
the maximum efficiency from your radial-arm motor, the wire
from the source of power to the machine should not be less than
size 14 (B and S gauge). Be sure that the electric line is fused
with a 15-ampere fuse. If an ordinary type of fuse blows during
the initial fraction of a second when the machine is turned on,
do not put in a new one of higher rating. Replace it with a fuse
CONNECTING MACHINE TO POWER SUPPLY 261
of the same
rating, but of the “slow-blow” or delay type. It con-
tains a special fusible link that withstands a momentary over-
load without giving way.
Before plugging the cord into the wall or floor outlet, look at
the name plate on your machine to see if it is marked 120 volts,
because this is the voltage in common use today in homes. If
you purchased a radial-arm machine for use on a 240-volt line,
be sure the name plate is marked 240 volts. In case the motor
runs hot or short of power, call your local power company to
check your voltage.
The radial-arm machine, as any other power tool, should al-
ways be grounded while in use. This precaution will protect the
operator against possible electric shock should a short circuit or
ground develop while the machine is being connected to the power
outlet or during operation. The radial-arm machine offers new
and assured grounding protection foryour safety. In accordance
with a ruling of the National Electric Code, it is equipped with a
three-wire cord, one wire being a ground wire. For your complete
safety while operating this saw, remember that the three-conduc-
tor attachment plug requires a three-prong grounded outlet (5260
series). Just insert the three-prong plug and the machine is
instantly grounded (Fig. 9).
Fi|f. 8. Fig. 9.
262 RADIALÂRM MACHINE
To permit use of this tool with a two-prong receptacle, an
with
adapter is available. Match the wider prong of the adapter
the wider hole of the outlet. If you find that the
adapter will
adapter, the
not fit, file the wider prong to size. When using the
re-
extending green wire should be connected to the outlet-plate
taining screw (Fig- 10) ?
provided that the outlet itself is
grounded, or to any other known permanent ground, such
as a
water or an electric-conduct pipe.

Caution! If an extension cord is used, be sure it is a three-
excessive vol-
wire cord and large enough (12 gauge) to prevent
tage loss.
BASIC OPERATION OF THE SAW
Actually there are only six basic saw cuts in woodworking;

crosscut, bevel crosscut, miter, bevel miter, rip, and bevel rip
(Fig. 11). All other cuts, no matter how intricate, are combina-
tions of these basic cuts.
With a radial-arm saw, the and safe. Be-
basic cuts are easy
cause the blade is above the table top, you always work on the
top side of the material, with your layout marks in clear view.
The saw also adjusts to the lumber for all cuts.
BASIC OPERATION OF THE SAW 263
CONTROLS
The versatility of the radial-arm

saw is due, in part, to its con-
trols. All the controls for depth of cut,
miter angles, beveling,
etc., are within sight and are
easy to reach (Figs. 12, 13 and 14).
Saw-blade kerfs. On the top surface of the table
top (M, Fig.
13), you will find several saw-blade kerfs
i/ie" deep which the
saw blade {H, Fig. 12) will follow or ride in
when making most
popular cuts. They are a straight crosscut,
right 45°, straight
45° bevel, a concave cut in
the center of the table for ripping,
and a quarter-round circle in the front of the
table for the saw
blade to follow when swiveling 90° to the
in-rip position. The
cuts are also made in the guide fence (N,
Fig. 13).
Elevating handle. The elevating handle (D,
Fig. 12) raises or
lowers the arm, motor, and yoke.
Each complete turn of the
0 tSLEmtifis A (RADIAL ARM)
C (Ml TER SCALE)

L (SWIVEL
LATCH
B (MITER SCALE ASSEMBLY)
. POINTER)
H3KlVtli-T
(ARM
CLAMP
HANDLE)
K (ANTI
KICK
MITER'
LATCH)
J (SAFETY
GUARD)
I (WtNS
H (SAW
BLADE)
Fig. 12.
crank handle raises or lowers the machine To raise the ma-

chine, follow the rotation arrow on top of the column.
To lower
the rotation
the machine, turn the elevating handle in reverse of
arrow.
for
Safely guard. The safety guard (J, Fig. 12) is adjustable
cutting any thickness of material up to the capacity of
the blade.
To make the guard adjustments necessary for ripping, loosen

the motor,
the wing nut (P, Fig. 13) which holds the guard to
and rotate the guard down to Vs" above the material that
is
nut. Then on the

to be ripped (Fig. 15). Retighten the wing
opposite side of the guard, release the thumbscrew (7,
Fig. 12)
lower
which holds the anti-kickback fingers (K, Fig. 12), and
them to Vs" below the top of the material being ripped (Fig. 16)
Fig.
Then retighten the thumbscrew. Adjust the dust spout (0,
13) until turned toward the back of the machine so as to
it is
carry the dust away from you.
Fig. 13.
RADIAL ARM MACHINE 265
Fig. 15. Fig. 16.

position, and (3) out-ripping, swivel yoke and
motor right 90°
from the crosscut position. To make these movements,
release the
clamp handle (CC, Fig. 14) by pulling it forward and pulling
up
on the swivel latch (L, Fig. 12). Swivel the yoke to
one of the
above positions. The swivel latch accurately locates the
position.
Then tighten the clamp handle by pushing it back.
Rip-lock clamp. The rip-lock clamp {BB, Fig. 14) locks the
roller carriage to the radial arm for all
operations where the ma-
terial is moved to the cutting tool. When setting the saw for
ripping, move the pointer {AA, Fig. 14) to the desired width of
the by following the ripping scale (Z, Fig. 14). Then turn
rip,
the knurled head of the rip-lock clamp clockwise until

tight on
the radial arm so that the roller carriage cannot move.
The saw
may then be set for either in- or out-ripping. Most rip cuts can
be made fromthe in-rip position, whereas wide panel ripping is
done in the out-rip position.
The motor mounted in the yoke will tilt to any angle or bevel
position desired. To make the bevel adjustment, first elevate the
column about twenty turns of the crank to provide clearance
above the table. Then grip the safety guard {J, Fig. 12) with
the left hand and release the bevel clamp handle (F, Fig.
14) by
pulling itforward. After pulling out the bevel latch {R, Fig. 13),
move the motor to the desired angle by following the calibrated
bevel scale (IF, Fig. 14). Then lock the bevel-clamp handle by
pushing back. For quick positive location at 0°, 45°, and 90°,
it
the bevel latch will drop into these positions automatically.

Fig. 15.
position; and (3)

yoke and motor right 90°
out-ripping, swivel
release the
from the crosscut position. To make these movements,
pulFing up
clamp handle (CC, Fig. 14) by pulling it forward and
to one of the
on the swivel latch (L, Fig. 12). Swivel the yoke
the position.
above positions. The swivel latch accurately locates
Then tighten the clamp handle by pushing it back.
locks the
Rip-lock clamp. The rip-lock clamp {BB, Fig. 14)
roller carriage to the radial arm for all
operations where the ma-
moved to the cutting tool. When setting the saw for
terial is
ripping, move the pointer {AA, Fig. 14) to the desired width of
by following the ripping scale (Z, Fig. 14). Then

turn
the rip,
the knurled head of the rip-lock clamp

clockwise until tight on
move. The saw
the radial arm so that the roller carriage cannot
rip cuts can
may then be set for either in- or out-ripping. Most
ripping is
be made from the in-rip position, whereas wide panel
done in the out-rip position.
or bevel
The motor mounted in the yoke will tilt to any angle
first elevate the
position desired. To make the bevel adjustment,
clearance
column about twenty turns of the crank to provide
Fig. 12) with
above the table. Then grip the safety guard (J,
handle (F, Fig. 14) by
the left hand and release the bevel clamp
Fig. 13),
pulling forward. After pulling out the bevel latch (-R,
it
calibrated
move the motor to the desired angle by following the
bevel-clamp ^handle by
bevel scale (W, Fig. 14). Then lock the
0°, 45°, and 90°,
pushing it back. For quick positive location at
positions automatically.
the bevel latch will drop into these
TYPES OF BLADES 267
TYPES OF BLADES
Combination blade. Power saws usually come equipped

with
a combination blade which will
crosscut, miter, and rip equally
well. This blade is adaptable to
most home workshop needs to
do general-purpose work. The combination
blade is divided into
segments and provides crosscut teeth and one
raker tooth in each
segment, with a deep gullet between. This
arrangement of the
teeth permits the blade to cut freely
and smoothly both with and
across the grain.
In the flat-ground blade (two cutting teeth
and one raker) ,
the
teeth must be set as shown in A, Fig.
17.
Fi«. 17.
Hollow-ground blade. This blade generally has four

cutting
teeth and one raker, and the teeth have
no set [B, Fig. 17). The
blade isbeveled, or hollow-ground, so that it is
several gauges
thinner near the hub than at the rim.
Sometimes called a planer
or miter blade, it is generally used by
cabinetmakers when cut-
ting stock to finish dimensions, as it
cuts very
smoothly both with
and across the grain.
Carbide-lipped blade. The eight-tooth carbide-tipped saw
blade {A, Fig. 18) rips and crosscuts like
a combination blade,
but it remains sharp for long periods of
continued operation and
outlasts ordinary blades many times over.
It is ideal for cutting
hardboard, plywood, asbestos board, and other similar
materials.
a cut in the
Carbide blades do not, however, produce so smooth
softer woods as the combination blade.
Ripping blade. The ripping blade {B, Fig. 18) is designed to
—
do just one job cutting with the grain of the wood. The
blade
will tend to tear the wood on crosscuts, but cuts fast

and clean on
rip cuts. Since ripping usually puts a heavy load on
the motor,
this blade recommended for general ripping jobs.

is
Cutoff wheels and special blades. Cutoff wheels are flexible

abrasive discs which mount on the saw arbor like a blade.
The
aluminum oxide wheel (C, Fig. 18) is used for cutting steel and
similar metals, while the silicon carbide wheel {D, Fig. 18)
works
best for ceramics. })orcelain, glass, plastics, etc. A
special blade
{E, Fig. 18) is available for cutting non-ferrous

metal such as
aluminum, copper, etc. It cuts solid, extruded, or tube with the
is shown
greatest of ease A fine-toothed plywood cutting blade
at F, Fig. 18. This blade does an excellent job on plywood and
gummy, resinous woods.
‘‘Safely” blade. The “safety” blade, shown at G, Fig. 18, has
only eight teeth, but it is a combination blade, crosscutting and

it produces a fairly smooth cut.
It per-
ripping equally well, and
forms with maximum efficiency at minimum power consumption,
and it reduces kickback to a minimum.
Fig. 18.
MOUNTING A SAW BLADE 269
MOUNTING A SAW BLADE
hen mounting a saw blade, remove the arbor nut

and arbor
collars. Elevate the radial arm until the
blade will slide on the
shaft and clear the table top. Then place the
arbor collar on
the arbor so that the recessed side of the collar
will be against the
saw blade. Place the saw blade on the arbor. The teeth
of the
saw blade must point in the direction of rotation when the
saw
blade is in the proper operating position.
(Generally blades are
maiked This side out/’ which means that the side marked should
be on the same side as the arbor nut.) Then place
the i/4" arbor
collai, recessed side against the saw blade, on the arbor. Now
place a wrench on the flat of the arbor shaft
to hold it, and
tighten the arbor nut with the arbor-nut wrench (Fig.
19). The
arbor nut has a left-hand thread, which means that the
nut must
be turned and tightened counterclockwise.
Fig. 19. Fig. 20.

Mount the safety guard over the saw blade and
adjust it, on
the motor stud, to the desired position for the
cuts you are going
to make and tighten the wing nut.
ALIGNING OPERATIONS
k]very radial-arm machine is thoroughly tested,

inspected, and
accurately aligned before leaving the factory of
the manufac-
tuier. Rough handling during transportation
may throw the ma-
chine out of alignment. Eventually adjustment and realignment

accuracy regardless
are necessary in any machine to maintain
is manufactured.
of the care with which the machine
accurate work,
Checking the guide fence for accuracy. For
the guide fence must be straight.
This wood guide strip is in-
the factory before ship-
spected with a master straightedge at
If the machine has
ment and should arrive in perfect condition.
that the wood table-
been exposed to the weather, it is possible
guide fence is no longer
top parts may be warped so that the
straight.
sanding and can be
It can be made straight by planing and
before proceeding with
checked with a straightedge or square
other adjustments. Be sure that the
clamp screws at the rear ot
table board must be flat. It
the table are tightened. The main
warped, it should be planed if
a straiglitedge shows this to be
necessary when you level the worktable
top.
The guide shown in Fig. 20, is located in the most

fence, as
This will take care
frequently used position on the worktable.
want maximum crosscut on
of the normal cutting jobs. If you
the clamp
1" material or wider bevel-meter capacity, loosen
relocate the guide fence
screws at the rear of the table top and
tighten the
the 2" spacer board, location A. Be
sure to
behind
clamp screws after this is done.
For maximum width in ripping, loosen the clamp screws and
by placing it at the rear of the table top
relocate the guide fence
Tighten the clamp
and against the column base, location B.
position.
screws to hold the guide fence rigidly in
If the guide fence should become
cut with many kerfs (and it
replaced with a new one. Use
does over a period of time) it can be
,
softwood the same size as the

a straight piece of pine or similar
present fence. Plane, sand smooth, and
check it with a straight-
putting it in place. For
edge or try square for straightness before
sanding, or jointing, special
several operations, such as shaping,
are very easy to make.
guide fences will be required, but these
Aligning the work top to the arm travel.
The table top must
horizontal (parallel) position.
align with the arm travel in every
cleats with adjust-
The table top is mounted on adjustable steel
Figs. 21 and 22.
able jack nuts. To realign the top, see
.
SQUARING SAW BLADE WITH TABLE TOP 271
/-table top
Z GUIDE STRIP
JACK NUT (C)
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
Insert a steel bar about 1 " x 14 " X 12")
/2 or a wrench between
the saw-arbor collars in place of the saw
blade.
Bring the motor to the forward position on
the arm, swing the
bar, and adjust the table top until the
tip of the bar when oscil-
lated barely scrapes the table top.
Repeat at the back section of
the table board, to the right and left, without
changing the eleva-
tion.
Adjust the table top for the height in various

positions until it
is perfectly level. Loosen the jam nuts (B) under the table
channel frame (toy flange), and then you can raise
or lower the
jack nuts (C) as required. Be sure to retighten
the jam nuts
under the table flange after making the adjustments
to hold the
table board level.
Squaring the saw blade with the table top. The saw blade
can be maintained square with the table top (Fig.
23).
Make sure that the table top is level at all points. Remove
the safety guard.
Place a steel square (C) against the flat of the saw blade.
The
square should be placed in the saw gullets and not against
the saw
teeth. Make sure that the bevel latch is properly
seated and the
bevel clamp handle is locked.
Remove the etched dial plate (A) from the motor yoke by tak-
ing out the Phillip's-head screws. You can now
get at the two
adjusting socket screws (G)
Release the two socket screws (G) approximately two turns
with a socket wrench.
hands and tilt it until the
Firmly grasp the motor with both
parallel to the upright steel
square (Cl. Mter the
saw blade is
to tighten the
saw blade is squared with the table top, be sure
wrench (B). Replace the dial
socket screws (G1 with a socket
plate (A) and safety guard.
plywood or hardboard
Many craftsmen nail a “wear” table of
over the permanent front table,
as shown Fig. 24. This table m
takes the saw cuts, and keeps the permanent table from
top
being cut up.
Fig. 24.
Fig. 23.
A. Nameplate D. Bevel Clamp Handle
B. Allen Setscrew E Bevel Latch Assembly
Wrench G Socket Screws
C. Steel Square H. Dial Plate
Fig. 26.
Fig. 25. D. Miter Lotch Adjusting J. Allen Setscrew
A. Allen Setscrew Screws
G. Base Pinch Bolt
Wrench
Allen Setscrew E. Arm Clomp Handle Column Key Gib
H. Hex Jam Nott
>•
B.
Wrench F. Arm Clamp Handle Stop
I. Setscrew
Miter Latch K. Elevating Action Handle

C
. . .
ADJUSTING THE BASE 273

Squaring the crosscut travel with the guide fence.
Place a
wide board on the table top against the guide fence,
and make a
cut across with the saw. Check the material
for accuracy with a
steel square. If the saw blade does
not cut square, this means
that the arm is out of alignment with the guide
fence. To adjust
this condition see Fig. 25.
Loosen both the arm clamp handle (E) and the
miter latch
(C)
The adjusting screws (D) are locked in position by setscrews
(.A). Loosen the screws {A) with a Allen wrench.
Lay the steel square against the guide fence. Move the
saw forward along the steel square to determine which way
the
arm must be moved.
If the blade moves toward the steel
square as you come for-
ward, loosen the adjusting screw (D) in the rear
(left) with a
screwdriver and tighten the adjusting screw (D)
in the front
(right) to bring the arm parallel to the steel square. The arm
will be parallel when the saw travels evenly with the steel square
for its entire length. If the saw blade moves away from the steel
square as you come forward, make the opposite adjustments.
Loosen the adjusting screw (D) in the front (right) with the
screwdriver and tighten the adjusting screw (D) in the rear (left)
When the saw travel parallel to the square, lock the adjusting
is
screws (D) in the front and rear by tightening both

Allen set-
screws (A) with a setscrew wrench (B) Engage the miter latch
(C) and the arm clamp handle (E).
Adjusting the base; gripping, tension, and alignment. If
at any time there is some motion at the end of
the arm after the
arm clamp handle is tightened, this indicates that there is play
between the column and base or the gib needs tightening.
See
Figs. 25, 26 and 27.
Loosen the base pinch bolt (G), all hex jam nuts (H), and all
setscrews (7).
Rotate the elevating crank handle (K) to raise or lower the
column. Tighten the base pinch bolt (G) so that the column still
raises or lowers freely
and without play.
The adjusting gib (L) must be secured against the column key
(277) to prevent side motion in the arm. Tighten the top set-
screws (7) with a Allen wrench («7) until there is no pla,y
in the column. Then lock all the hex jam nuts

(side motion)
{H) securely with an open-end wrench.
clamp handle
Adjusting the arm clamp handle. The arm
arm in position for straight or miter cuts.
When
rigidly holds the
should be upright as
tightened in position, the arm clamp handle
becomes worn so that
shown in Fig. 28. If the arm clamp handle
goes beyond the vertical position, relocate
it.
it
the miter latch
Remove the clamp-handle stop (A) and lift
(B) upward against the side of the arm.

clockwise (to
Unwind the arm clamp handle (C) by turning it
four complete turns of this
the right). Make about three or
handle. i xu
- j.
arm clamp bolt {D) from its hex socket so that

Push back the
the hex head can be turned.
turn counter-
Turn the hex clamp screw (D) about one-sixth
clockwise to tighten the arm clamp handle.
hex socket, retighten
Put the hex-screw head (D) back in the
upright position, and insert the
the arm clamp handle (C) in the
arm-clamp-handle stop (A).
The
Adjusting the roller head hearing to the arm track.
roller carriage is mounted on four ball bearings,
two of which are
by Allen
on eccentric shafts whose movement is controlled
socket screws. adjust the ball bearings, see Fig. 29.
To
Remove the arm end plate from the arm and bring the saw
rip position to get
carriage forward. Swivel the motor into the
the adjustments.
Loosen the setscrews (A) with a Allen wrench in the front
lock the eccentric
and the rear of the saw carriage since they
shaft (F).
Loosen the hex jam nuts [B) and rear of the saw
in the front
be turned m its
carriage so that the eccentric shaft (F) can
socket.
ADJUSTING CROSSCUT TRAVEL PARALLEL TO ARM 275
Insert a Allen wrench (C) in the eccentric shaft iF) and
turn this shaft until the ball bearing it controls just
touches the
aim tiack. Do not tighten this bearing too much. Repeat on the
ball bearing (D) in the rear of the saw carriage.
The ball bearing
{!)) in the front and the rearsaw carriage should now
of the
roll smoothly inside the arm. Tighten the hex
jam nuts {B) and
lock the setscrews (v4) on both ends of the saw carriage.
Adjusting the crosscut travel parallel to the arm. To make

sure the saw blade is cutting exactly parallel to the arm tracks,
I)lace a board apiiroximately 6" wide on the table against the
guide fence. IMake a cut through the board, and sto]) just as
the board is cut off with the back of the blade still in the board.
If there is a slight ridge on the material where the blade is
sto{)ped, this will indicate the need of adjustment.
Another
method of checking is, when making the crosscut, to watch the
back of the blade where the teeth come up through the board. If
the blade is kicking uf) the wood fibers on the top surface of the
board, this will indicate that the blade is not traveling parallel
with the arm tracks. To adjust the crosscut travel, see Fig. 30.
If the saw blade is “heeling” on the left side of the cut, loosen
the setscrew (C) and tighten the sCrew (A), using a Yu-," Allen
wrench (F).
If saw blade is “heeling” on the right side of the cut, loosen
the
the setscrew {A) and tighten the setscrew (T) with a Yu," Allen
wrench (F).
heeling may
After the above two adjustments are made, the
cutting posi-
reappear when you place the saw blade in the bevel
tion, inwhich case:
turn,
Loosen the setscrews {A and C), each about one-sixth
material on
and tighten the setscrew (B) if the heeling is on the
the bottom side of the saw cut.
tighten the
Loosen the setscrew {B) about one-sixth turn and
setscrews {A and C) evenly if the heeling
appears on the upper
side of the cut.
Fig. 29. Fig. 30. D. Reor Trunnion Stud

A Ailen Setscrew Bushing
A. Allen Setscrew 0. Ball Bearing Rear Trunnion Stud
(saw side) E.
B. Hex Jam Nut (on eccentric shaft) Allen Setscrew
B. Allen Setscrew F.
C. Allen Socket E. Ball Bearing Wrench
(bottom yoke trunnion)
Wrench (on permanent studs) G Saw Arbor Collar
C. Allen Setscrew
F. Eccentric Shaft Saw Arbor Nut
(opposite saw side) H.
G. Wrench
Adjusting the bevel clamp handle. The purpose of the bevel

clamp handle is to hold the motor rigidly in its yoke at any
angle
even though the bevel latch may be disengaged from

the locating
90° crosscut, 45°
holes in the dial plate. The bevel latch locates
bevel crosscut, and 0° vertical positions only.
To adjust the bevel clamp handle, see Fig. 31.
Loosen the bevel clamp handle (A) and the hex jam nut (F)
Turn the cap screw {E) chickwise (to the right) until the
in its yoke.
bevel clamp handle rigidly clamps the motor
Be sure to tighten the hex jam nut (F) after the adjustment
is
made.
. ,
ADJUSTING THE YOKE CLAMP HANDLE

277
Fig. 31.
Adjusting the yoke clamp handle. There should be

no play
between the roller carriage and the motor-yoke assembly.
The
yoke clamp handle in conjunction with the king bolt
securely
clamp the saw carriage to the yoke. To adjust the
yoke clamp
handle, see C Fig. 32.
Fig. 32.
A, Screwdriver C. Yoke Clomp Handle
B. King Bolt D. Dog Point Setscrew
Remove the saw carriage and the motor yoke completely

from the arm.
A dog-point setscrew {D) is located in the milled slot on the
side of the king bolt {B ) Its purpose is to keep the king bolt
.
from
turning when the yoke clamp handle is loosened or tightened.
Remove the setscrew from the slot in the king bolt with a screw-
driver {A)
d urn the king bolt {B) about one-sixth of a turn in a clockwise
direction so that the dog setscrew may be located in the next slot
in the king bolt. Tighten the dog setscrew in position to hold the
king bolt.
This dog setscrew should be drawn up tight and then backed
off slightly so that the king bolt can slide
freely up and down
as the yoke clamp handle is loosened or tightened.

Now that every moving part is in proper alignment, you are
ready to start operating the machine. You should, however,
ob-
serve certain basic rules for maximum safety and efficiency in
operation.
BASIC SAW CUTS
The radial-arm saw a pull-through cutoff type of saw and

is
crosscutting action,
cuts in a straight line or at any angle. In the
(T, Fig. 33)
the saw is moved in the same direction as its rotation
Ripping must never be done in the same direction as the
saw ro-
cutting, a sharp
tation {B, Fig. 33). For accurate and smooth
blade must be used.
Fig. 33. Fig. 34.
CROSSCUTTING
When straight crosscutting, the radial arm must be at right

angles with the guide fence —indicated as 0° on the miter scale.
Locate the miter latch in the column slot at the 0° position, and
then securely lock the arm with the arm clamp handle. Now the
BASIC SAW CUTS 279
saw blade should follow the saw kerf in the table top. Use
the ele-
vating handle to drop the saw blade until the teeth
are approxi-
mately below the top surface of the table in the saw kerf.
This clearance is needed to cut through the board. Then
return the
saw all the way back against the column.
Place the material on the worktable against the guide
fence.
Adjust the guard parallel to the bottom of the motor, adjust
the
kickback fingers down to above the material you will cut off.
Turn on the power and give the motor sufficient time to attain
top speed. Then saw blade from behind the guide fence
pull the
in one steady motion completely through the cut (Fig.
34) Never
.
allow it to “walk” too rapidly through the work. Return the saw
to the rear of the guide fence before removing the material
from
the table. Practice to get the “feel” of the cutting action— let the
—
saw blade cut do not force it.
To cut a board thicker than the capacity of the machine, set
the blade just a little over half the thickness of the material. Pull
the blade through in thesame manner as for straight crosscutting,
and then turn it over and complete the cut on the other side.
Right- or left-hand feed. Your first cut will pose the question
of whether to use right-hand (Fig. 35), or left-hand feed (Fig.
36). You may have a tendency to use left-hand feed because
itputs the holding (right) hand on the side away from the saw.
However, right-hand feed generally is more practical and more
comfortable, and you will quickly adopt this system.
35. Fig. 35.

board wider
Crosscutting wide boards and panels. To cut a
then turn it
than the capacity of the machine, cut to the limit,
over and complete the cut. Large pieces of
plywood can be cut
with ease by using the method shown in Fig. 37.
Fig. 37.
Horizontal crosscutting. This crosscut operation (Fig. 38)

is
used for cutting across the end of any size of stock.

To locate the
saw in the horizontal position, raise the radial
arm by turning
approximately 3"
above
the elevating handle until the blade is
position, pull it to
the table top. With the saw in the crosscut
safety guard in
the front end of the arm. Holding the top of the
hand, release the bevel clamp handle by pulling it
for-
your left
ward and Swing the motor and saw into

pull out the bevel latch.
the 90° horizontal position and lock the bevel
clamp handle by
locks itself in
pushing it back. (The bevel latch automatically
position.) The blade will now be parallel to the table top, and
the motor will be in a vertical position.
Then adjust the dust
the motor and
elbow on the guard, parallel to the table top. Push
saw and guard back to the column.
fence and lower
Place the material to be cut against the guide
to be made. The depth
the saw blade to the point where the cut is
location of the material in
of the cut will be determined by the
respect to the saw blade.
guide fence,
Turn on the motor, and with the saw behind the
pull it through the material in the same
manner as when cross-
cutting. If you wish to form a groove,
push the saw back against
—
BEVEL CROSSCUTTING 281
the column and raise or lower the arm a full turn. Bring the saw
forward again and then return it to the column. Repeat this pro-
cedure until the desired width of the groove is obtained.
BEVEL CROSSCUTTING
Bevel crosscutting, shown in Fig. 39, is similar to straight cross-

cutting, but the saw is tilted to the desired bevel angle. With the
motor and saw back against the column, elevate the machine so
that the blade will clear the table top when swiveling the motor in
the yoke. Pull the motor and saw to the front end of the arm.
To bevel your motor and saw, place your left hand on top of the
safety guard to hold the motor from dropping and release the
bevel clamp lock by pulling it forward. Pull out on the bevel
locating pin and move the motor to the degree desired by follow-
ing the bevel scale and pointer. Then lock the bevel clamp by
pushing it back. Turn the elevating handle down until the saw-
blade teeth touch the bottom of the concave kerf in the center
of the table top. Push the motor and saw back to the column. If
a common 45° bevel is desired, simply let the locating pin fit the
45° slot. Then lock the bevel clamp.
Place the material on the table top against the guide fence.
Adjust the guard and keep back your fingers, the same as in
crosscutting. You can make your bevel cutoff on the left side
Fig. 39. Fig. 40.

282 RADIAL‘ARM MACHINE
hold the material with your left hand and pull the motor and saw
with your right hand by using the grip handle on the yoke. If
cutting on the right side, reverse the hand holds.
MITERING
Mitering is the as crosscutting except that the radial arm

same
is revolved on a horizontal plane to the angle of the miter.
Right-hand miter. Make sure the motor and saw are back of
the guide fence against the column. With your left
hand, release
your right
the arm clamp handle and lift the swivel latch. With
hand on the radial arm, swing it to the right to the angle desired
by following the miter scales. Then lock the arm clamp handle.
The popular 45° miter cut is set quickly with the miter latch
lock the arm
seated in the 45° quickset slot in column. Simply
and
clamp handle. Now place the material flat on the table top
parallel to the
tight against the guide fence. Adjust the guard
bottom of the motor; adjust the kickback fingers down to Vs"
with your
above the material you will cut off. Hold the material
left hand, and pull the saw through the
material with your right
the
hand (Fig. 40). Return the saw to its original position at
rear of the guide fence before removing the
material from the
table top.
Left-hand miter. Move the radial arm to the left to the desired
angle in the manner described for a right-hand miter. To get the
full capacity on a left-hand miter, move the guide fence to the
rear of the table-top spacer boards.
BEVEL MITERING
miter)
bevel miter (sometimes called a compound or double
A
is a combination of a miter and a
bevel (Fig. 41). First set the
scales
motor and saw to the angle desired by following the bevel
and then lock the bevel latch and clamp handle. Then release
the
arm latch and clamp handle and swing the radial arm into the
as for miter
desired miter position, following the same routine
cuts. To make the cut, follow the normal
operating routine de-
scribed under crosscut beveling.

RIPPING 283
RIPPING
Straight ripping. Straight ripping is done

by having the saw
blade parallel with the guide fence and
feeding the material into
the saw blade. You can rip from either
the left or right side of
tne machine. The feeding of the material
to the saw depends on
the rotation of the saw blade. When
ripping from the right side
of the table (in-rip), the motor and
saw must be swiveled to the
left 90° from the crosscut position.
If ripping from the left side
of the machine (out-rip) swivel the motor
, and saw to the right
90° from the crosscut position.
In-ripping. To your saw to the in-rip position, pull the
set
motor and saw to the front end of the radial arm.
Release the
yoke-swivel clamp handle by pulling it forward
and lift up the
location pin. Swivel the yoke clockwise 90°
from the crosscut
position. (The swivel location pin will snap
into position auto-
matically.) Now tighten the swivel clamp handle.
Fig. 41. Fig. 42.
The rip scale or rule on the right side of the arm is set with the
guide fence in its standard position, which is between the station-
ary top and the spacer boards. With the saw blade
against the
guide fence, the pointer on the roller head should read zero
on the
top side of the ruler marked “in-rip’' (Fig. 42). This
rule and
pointer can be off as much as because of difference in the
types of saw blades. Some saw blades have set teeth, while others
be hollow ground with no set in the teeth. To

adjust the rule,
may
adjust the scale to the
release the two Phillip’s-head screws and
desired width of the rip
proper setting. Now set your saw to the
rip-lock clamp
by following the pointer and rule. Then tighten the
screw to hold the saw in position.
must feed the ma-
With the saw set to in-rip position, you
terial into the saw from the right
side of the machine. With your
left hand approximately

6" back of the safety guard, hold the
strip. Now with your
material down and back against the guide
right hand, move the material into
the saw by standing on the
let the material slide through
right front side of the machine and
hand meets your left
your left hand (Fig. 43). When your right
using a pusher board.
hand, continue the balance of the rip by
Fig. 43. Fig, 44.
Fig. 45. Fig. 46

.
HORIZONTAL RIPPING 285

Hold the pusher board back against the guide fence and against
the end of the board you are ripping and continue on
through un-
til the board you are ripping clears the
saw blade on the opposite
side by 2 (Fig. 44). Now pull the pusher board straight
back.
Out-ripping.AVhen ripping wide materials such as panel
boards, you should swivel the saw 90° counterclockwise from
the
crosscut position to out-rip position. With the saw set to out-rip
position, follow the lower edge of the rip rule on the radial
arm.
This rule can be used to a capacity of I 7 '' with the guide fence
V2
in its standard position. If ripping wider material, it is
necessary
to move the guide fence to the rear of the table boards. When
the saw is set for out-ripping, the material must be
fed into the
saw from the left side of the machine (Fig. 45)
Resawing. If extremely thick wood or hardwood is being ripped
into thinner boards, it is often necessary to cut part way through
the board, invert the board, and complete the cut. This operation
is generally called “resawing.’’
When resawing, the saw should be placed in the in-rip position.

The blade should be set just a little over half the width of the
board when the board is less in width than twice the capacity
of the saw. To illustrate this, let us assume that it is necessary
toresaw a board 4" wide by thick into two boards 4 by
Making an allowance of for the kerf or the wastage material
by the blade, and taking into consideration that the capacity of
the particular saw blade is 21/2 ", about 11/2 " is left for the second
cut (Fig. 46) However, when the width
. of the board to be resawed
is greater than twice the capacity of the machine, make the cuts
as deep as possible from each edge. Then finish the ripping by
hand. When resawing 4" stock and larger, use a guide fence ap-
proximately 3%" high.
An
important point to bear in mind always when resawing is
to keep the same surface of the board against the guide fence for
both cuts. Always reverse the board end for end, never side for
side. Be sure to follow all the safety rules for straight ripping
when resawing.
Horizontal ripping. This operation is similar to horizontal
crosscutting except that the cut is made on the side of the stock
rather than on the end. To place the saw blade in the horizontal
rip position, first set the saw in the in-rip location and then turn
it to 90° as indicated on the bevel scale described in horizontal
crosscutting.
fence, either
Place the material to be cut against the guide
locate the
standard or auxiliary depending on the thickness, and
and depth of the cut. The rip clamp is tightened and
the
height
material is pushed past the blade in the same manner as in
straight ripping. If a groove is desired, the arm may be raised or

until
lowered a full turn at a time and the operation repeated
the proper width is obtained.
BEVFX RIPPING
Bevel ripping is simply ripping with the saw motor tilted for
angle cuts (Fig. 47). With the saw swiveled to the rip position
rotating the handle
(either in- or out-rip), elevate the column by
Turn the
and then release the bevel clamp handle and latch.
popular 45°
motor within the yoke to the desired angle. If the
locate it. If any
position is wanted the bevel latch will quickly
the motor in
other angle is desired, set it and securely elamp
guard on the in-
place with the bevel clamp handle. Adjust the
feed end so that within Ys" of the material, but do not ad-
it is
just the anti-kickback device. Use a

pusher board as previously
described to prevent kickback of the material.
Push the material
through as previously described.
Fig. 47. Fig. 48.

SPECIAL CUTTING OPERATIONS OF SAW 287
SPECIAL CUTTING OPERATIONS OF THE SAW

By combining the six basic cuts, previously discussed,
you are
able to perform such special operations
as tapering, chamfering,
kerfing, cove cutting, or
making saw-cut moldings. While this work
may seem more complicated, it is easy and safe
to do on a
radial-arm saw.
KERFING
It is often necessary to bend wood. When the problem of

curved surfaces arises, you have a choice
of three methods; (1)
bending the wood by steaming it (this
calls for special equip-
ment), (2) building the
curve up by sawing thick segments of the
circle on a saber saw (which means
that a great deal of expensive
wood wouM be wasted) or (3) cutting a series
, of saw kerfs to
within i/g" of the outside surface to make the
material more
flexible for bending. The latter is
the most practical method
(Fig. 48).
Thedistance between these saw kerfs determines
the flexibility
of the stock and the radius to which it
can be bent. In order to
form a more rigid curve, the saw kerfs should
be as close together
as possible. To determine
the proper spacing, the first step is to
decide on the radius of the curve or circle
to be formed. After
the radius has been determined, measure
this same distance (the
radius) from thaend of the stock as shown
in Fig. 49, and make
a saw kerf at this point. The kerf can be made in the crosscut
position, with the blade lowered to i/g" of the
bottom of the stock.
Isow clamp the stock to the table top with a C clamp.
Raise
the end of the stock until the saw kerf is closed,
as shown at A.
The distance the stock is raised to close the kerf determines
the
distance between saw kerfs in order to form the curve.
Since most bending operations require
many saw kerfs, mark
this distance with a pencil on
the guide fence. The first kerf is
made in the standard crosscut position, with the
end of the work
butted against the mark. The remaining
cuts are located by
placing each new kerf over the guide-fence
mark and making the
new cut.
When the kerfing is complete, the stock is slowly bent until
itmatches the required curve (Fig. 50). Wetting the wood with
warm water will help the bending process, while a tie strip tacked
in place will hold theshape until the part is attached to the
assembly. Even compound curves may be formed in this manner
by kerfing both sides of the work. When kerfing is exposed,
veneers may
be glued in place to hide the cuts.
When bending wood for exterior work, the kerfs should be
coated with glue before the bend is made. After making the
bend, wood plastic and putty may be used to fill the crevices.
When finished properly, only a close examination will show the

method used to make the bend.
Fig. 49. Fig. 50.
SAWCUT MOLDINGS
Several attractive moldings can be made with cuts similar to

those used for kerfing. The zigzag shape shown in Fig.
51 is
commonly called a dentil molding, although this term has a broad

application and can include many different shapes.
A spacer mark on the guide fence, as for kerf bending, should
the
be used. The distance from the mark of the blade determines
position,
spacing of the saw cuts. The saw is set in the crosscut
and the blade is lowered to the depth desired. Repeat cuts are
made by alternately turning the work face up and face down, as
shown in Fig. 52. The molding is then made by ripping narrow
TAPER RIPPING 289
stripsfrom the work, as shown in Fig. 53. A ripping operation

on work as narrow and delicate as this demands care and ac-
curacy. Use a pusher strip to push the molding past the blade.
Molding should be cut with a hollow-ground or planer blade to
assure clean cutting. After the dentil molding is cut, it can be
used as an overlay, or the molding can be applied to a heavier
backing piece of contrasting color.
TAPER RIPPING
Taper ripping the process of cutting material to a taper or

is
narrower at one end than at the other. First, make a full-sized

drawing or pattern of the taper. Transfer this pattern to a piece
of plywood or waste lumber and cut to make the necessary tem-
plate or jig.
To use the jig, place the flat side against the fence and place
the material to be tapered in the stop at the end of the jig. With
the saw in the rip position, push the jig past the blade as if it were
a normal ripping operation (Fig. 54). Continue the ripping oper-
ation on all four sides in the same manner.
Tapering with a radial-arm machine can be done without
the
use of a specialized jig. This also includes taper
ripping long
stock which cannot be handled in the jig. Simply
by clamping a
piece of narrow stock to the lower edge of
the material to be
ripped, the front edge of the table top becomes a second ‘^guide
fence’’ for this operation. You can taper rip at any predetermined
angle with this method. Just decide the degree of taper desired,
and then clamp on the lower guide board accordingly.
As shown in Fig. 55, the saw is placed in the out-rip position
(that swiveled to the right rather than the left) for this
is,
tapered-rip operation. This allows the blade to be positioned

directly above the front edge of the worktable. Thus, the com-
pleted rip cut corresponds exactly to the angle at which the guide
board is clamped to the stock.
Fig. 54. Fig. 55

CHAMFER CUTTING 291
Regardless of the method used, a planer blade is the saw to use
for taper ripping since it cuts more smoothly.
CHAMFER CUTTING
Chamfer cutting (Fig. 56) is simply making bevel cuts along

the top edges of stock. Set the saw in the rip-bevel position at
an angle of 20° to 45°. Position the blade so that it overhangs
the
stock by the desired width of the cut and lock it in
place with the
rip clamp. Push the stock along the guide fence and through the
mm
Fig. 56.
Fig. 57.
Fig. 58. Fig. 59.

Then reverse the material and cut along the other

blade path.
toi) edge in the same manner.
Cross-chamfer is achieved by placing the
blade m
the crosscu -
angle. Position the blade so that

it
bevel position at the desired
width (as for np-chamfcr).
overhangs the stock by the desired
the prescribed crosscu
Then pull the motor and saw through in
method. u e cu+
for spindle lathe work can
The octagon shape required
in the same manner as described for chamfer cutting.
GROOVING
cuts pre-
Grooving (Fig. 57) the same as the horizontal saw
is
in the crosscut or rip position,
viously described. Place the saw
and turn it to the 90
depending on the type of groove desired,
position of the blade
bevel position. Locate the
the fence and past the blade, or
depth), place the material against
the blade strikes the guide
puU the saw through the material. It
fence the stock should be placed
on an auxiliary table. Then raise
at a time and repeat the
operation
or lower the blade a full turn
until you obtain the proper
groove width.
CONTOUR CUTTING
most novel techniques radial-arm saw operation

in
One of the
coves. On the standard circular
is the contour feed for cutting
difficult task, but on the
radial-arm saw it is
saw this is a fairly
top against the gui e
simple Place the material flat on the table
45° position and swivel the motor
fence. Set the saw at a bevel
the lowest point of t le
45° to the left. Locate the motor so that
material and tighten the rip
blade is on the center line of the
the saw and lower the blade
clamp. Back the material off from
top surface of the stock Turn
on
so that it is i/s" below the
machine and push the material past the saw blade as when
the
the blade
ripping (Fig 58) Continue this procedure, lowering
.
until the desired depth of the

cut is
one full turn (Vs") at a time,
a light one for a smooth finish.
obtained The final cut should be
SAUCER CUTTING 293
The saw cut can be made in different angle positions for dif-
ferent effects. For instance, you may set the bevel at 45°
and
the motor swivel at 30°, or the bevel at 30° and the motor
swivel at 45°. Experiment with scrap wood until you get the
effect you desire.
A half-circle effect, suitable for modern picture frames, is cut
by establishing the depth of cut at the edge of the material and
pushing the material past the blade in the same manner as just
described. (Fig. 59).
Fig. 60.
SAUCER CUTTING
This cut makes intricate decorative patterns

easily. Place the
stock flush with the edge of table front and
clamp it to the table
top. Locate the saw arm so that the
lowest portion of the blade
is on the center line of the
stock, and tighten the rip clamp.
Lower the blade until it touches the material, swing the
motor
to the 90° bevel position, and then lower the
motor by turning the
elevating handle one full turn. With your left hand
on the anti-
kickback rod, pull out the bevel latch tvith your right hand.
Then
swing the motor in an arc past the stock (Fig. 60) . Lower the saw
blade one full turn of the elevating handle and continue
the cut-
ting process until the desired depth is reached.
LAP-JOINT CUTTING
halved joints (Fig. 61).

There are several types of lapped or
vertical position (the
To make the end lap, place the motor in the
horizontal crosscut sawing position)
and install the auxiliary
guide fence. Both pieces of stock
table in place of the standard
cut at once— laid side by side
that are to form the joint can be
first cut with the blade passing
on the auxiliary table. Make the
following the technique described
through the center of the stock,
for horizontal crosscutting.
Then elevate the blade /g ( e
elevating handle one full turii
width of the blade) by turning the
excess stock has been removed
with each successive cut until all
(Fig- 62)- . •
„
The other types of lap joints shown m Fig. 61 are combinations
of end lap joints and dado cuts.
Fig. 61.
LOCK-JOINT
when properly made and reinforced with glue

The lock-joint,
joints available. It is ac-
or dowels, can be one of the strongest
as when making
complished with the machine positioned exactly
the stock, however, each
the lap joint. Instead of removing half
alternate Vs" is left standing (Fig. 63).
Use a standard Vs" thick
blade to make this jointjudge your cuts by remembering that
and
BEVEL SPLllSE JOINT 295
each complete turn of the elevating handle
represents exactly
/8 .The opposite ends are cut opposite so that the two pieces will
mesh together.
TENON AND MORTISE CUTTING
The tenon is made in the same manner as the lap joint except
that the stock left standing is in the
middle rather than on one
side of the material (Fig. 64). The
full tenon, when combined
with a tight-fitting mortise and properly
glued or doweled, gives
a very strong joint which is widely used in
all phases of cabinet-
making and general woodworking.
The mortise is the other half of the joint into which
the tenon
fits. Making the mortise
consists simply of cutting a groove to
the same width as a previously made
tenon (Fig. 65).
Fig. 63.
Fig. 64.
BEVEL-SPLINE JOINT
ThG hevel-svhne joint (Fig. 66) made by

is bevel crosscutting
the ends of the stock with the motor
locked in the 45° bevel posi-
tion. To make the slot for
the spline, reverse the stock on the
table and, with the motor still in the
bevel position (but elevated
to the proper height, approximately
so that the blade will
not completely cut through), pull the
saw across the previously
made bevel crosscut, leaving the shallow slot (Fig. 67). Make
the spline itself from any Vs" rippings you may have. Simply cut
to the size desired to fit the spline joint.
Fig. 65. Fig. 66.
DADO-HEAD OPERATIONS
Dado-heads. The first accessory you most likely will choose

for your radial-arm machine is a dado head. It contains a series
of saw blades (Fig. 68) that can cut grooves, rabbets, mortises,
tenons, dadoes, etc., in thicknesses from Vs" to in a single
pass. In other words, the dado head cuts down the time consumed
in making most wood joints.
There are basically two types of dado heads; the fiat ground
and the hollow ground. While the latter is more expensive, it
produces a much smoother cut and should be used in high-quality
work. Either type consists of two outside saws, each about Vs"
thick, whose teeth are not given any set, and inside saws,
or
“chippers’’ as they are called— one V4", Iwo Vs" (some heads
include two additional Vs^^ chippers instead of the ^
one) and ,
one i/ig" thick (thickness at the hub). The cutting portions of
the inside cutters or chippers are widened to overlap the adjacent

cutter or saw. When assembling a cutter head, arrange the
two
outside cutters so that the larger raker teeth on one are opposite
the small cutting teeth on the other. This produces a smoother
cutting and easier running head. Be sure also that the
swaged
DADO HEAD OPERATIONS 29'
teeth of the inside cutters are placed in the
gullets of the outside
cutters, not against the teeth, so that the
head cuts clean and
chips have clearance to come out. And stagger the
inside cutters
Fig. 68.
SO that their teeth do not come together {A, Fig. 69) . For example,
if three cutters are used, they should be set 120°
apart.
MOUNTING THE DADO HEAD
The dado head is installed on the motor shaft in the same

manner as the regular saw cutting blade. In other words, for
dado cuts up to place the %"
arbor collar on the shaft first,
with its recessed side against the sawj the dado-head assembly
next, then the arbor collar, with its recessed side against the
dado head; and finally tighten the arbor nut with two wrenches
(Fig. 70). For cuts over 1/2 ", omit the 14 " arbor collar.
If using
the full dado head, first put on the i/4" arbor collar, the
dado, and then the arbor nut. Mount the safety guard over the
dado head, adjust for the cut on the motor stud, and tighten the
wing nut.
In a dado head there is quite a mass of metal revolving
at a
fairly high speed in the flywheel manner, and if it
is not running
true it will set up a noticeable vibration. This can be
avoided, of
course, by staggering the teeth properly and tightening the
dado
to the full extent.
Never use the chipper blades without the two outside saws.
For example, to cut a dado wide, use the two outside saws,
each in width, plus a single I/4 " or two chippers. Actually
any width dado head can be used (the size being limited only by
the length of the motor arbor). However, most dado-head sets
have enough blades to make cuts only up to wide.
When the width of the finished cut is to be more than
set up the dado head to a little more than half the required width
of the cut and make two successive cuts. Each cut must overlap
a bit at the center. If the width of the dado is to be more than
Fig. 69. Fig. 70.
twice the capacity of the cutter head, set it for a little over one-
third of the width and make three overlapping cuts. Figure 69 at
C shows how the outside saw and the inside chipper overlap, and
how a paper washer can be used as needed to control the exact
width of the groove. These washers, 3" to 4" in diameter, can be
cut from paper and are placed between blades and chippers. If
you desire to increase the width slightly, cardboard (up to Y-iq"
thick) can be substituted for the paper.
The design of the cutting teeth of the dado head permits cut-
ting with the grain, across the grain, or at an angle.
OPERATING THE DADO HEAD
The dado head is operated in the same manner as the saw.

The settings for the various cuts are the same.
.
OPERATING THE DADO HEAD 299

Plain dado. A plain or cross dado is a groove cut across the
grain. It can be done in the way described for crosscutting.
With
the motor in the crosscut position, elevate or lower the radial arm
until the depth of the groove is obtained. Then pull the motor
past the stock, which has been placed tight against the guide
fence (Fig. 71)
Angle dado. This cut has many uses in cabinetmaking, con-
struction work, and general woodworking. Among other appli-
cations, the angle-dado cut isused to recess treads in stepladders,
in joining the sill to the upright members of a window frame, and
Fig. 71.
72,
to recess the narrow strips in shutters, louvers, etc. This cut is
made in the same manner as the cross dado, except that the radial
arm is moved to the right or left to the desired degree of angle
as indicated on the miter scale.
Parallel dadoes. These are a series of dado cuts exactly paral-
lel to one another. With the radial-arm machine, these cuts are
easy to make because the material remains stationary, the cutting

head doing the moving. As a any two cuts made with the
result,
radial arm in the same position (whether crosscut or any degree
of miter) are always exactly parallel to one another. Mark your
guide fence and make successive cuts the exact distance apart.
Parallel dado cuts at right and left miter can be done as shown
in Fig. 72.
Blind dado. A blind dado is cut only partly across the board.
With the stock against the guide fence, mark off where you wish
the dado to stop. Then place a stop clamp on the machine. With
the dado head in the crosscut position and the arm set at the
proper height, pull the yoke forward until it hits the stop, and
then back off the motor. If a square cut at the blind end of the
dado is desired it can be made with a wood chisel.
Ploughing. The ploughing operation with a dado head cor-
responds to the rip cut with a saw blade and is done in the same
way. Set the radial arm at 0° (crosscut position) swivel the ;
yoke 90° from crosscut position; move the carriage out on the
arm width and lock; raise or lower the column to the
to the desired
desired depth for the groove. (Remember that each turn of the
elevating handle represents exactly Vs^'.) For a groove,
lower the column two turns from a position where the blades
just touch the top surface of the stock. Adjust the safety guard
so that the infeed part clears the stock, lock the wing nut, and
then lower the anti-kickback fingers Vs" below the surface of
the board. Push the material against the guide fence past the
blade from right to left in the same manner as when ripping (Fig.
73).
Fig. 73. Fig. 74.

Rabbeting. Grooving a notch from the side and top of the
lumber is simple and effective with the radial-arm machine. Ele-
vate the arm until you have sufficient space beneath the motor to
allow the cutting member to swing to a vertical setting. Then
release the bevel clamp and the bevel latch to put the dado head
in the vertical position (same as the horizontal sawing position).
GROOVING 301
To width of the rabbet, use the rip scale located on the
set the
radial arm. Then lower the arm to the desired
depth for the
groove and pass the material past the cutters from the
right side
of the table (Fig. 74).
To lay out a rabbet joint, hold one edge of the second
member
over the end or side of the first and mark the width of the
rabbet.
Fig- 75. Fig. 76.
Then draw a line down

the sides or end and measure one-half to
two-thirds the thickness of the first member as the depth of the
rabbet. If the cutter “burns” the stock, it indicates a minor mis-
alignment. Simply release the arm, and swing it approximately
5° to the right-hand interposition. This will relieve the drag
and
will result in a clean cut.
The bevel rabbet is made in a manner similar to the straight
rabbet except that the motor is placed at some angle less than
90° (vertical position), depending upon the degree of the bevel
desired (Fig. 75). This cut is widely used throughout construc-
tion, cabinetmaking, and general-millwork operations.
Grooving. Although the term “groove” is used to denote many
types of dado cuts, it is prope]:ly applied to the dado operation
made on the side as opposed to the top or end surface of stock.
The operation is exactly the same as for rabbeting except that
the arm is lowered so that the cutting head is below the top
surface of the lumber.
Blind mortising or blind grooving is similar to grooving except
that the cut isnot carried completely through the ends of the
stock. In many cases, where the ends of the lumber will be ex-
posed, it is desirable not to show the side groove. In such cases,
the stock is “heeled” or pivoted into the cutting head some inches
back from the end (Fig. 76).
Mortising and tenoning. For both operations, the motor is
placed in the vertical position (as for horizontal crosscutting). A

spacing collar is inserted into the dado head at the proper place
so that the stock forming the tenon is left standing. On the
auxiliary table, place the material against the fence and mark
the stock for the tongue or groove depth desired. The dado head
should be located at the proper height, and the motor can be
brought to the tenon (Fig. 77).
Mortising is actually a reverse cut of the one used for tenons.
Making the mortise consists simply of cutting a groove to the
same width as a previously made single tenon. Be sure the length
of the tenon and mortise is the same.
Fig. 77. Fig. 78.
Cutting lap joints. The lap joint is found in simple furniture

legs, tables, frames, and chairs, as well as in many other pieces.
The basic one is the cross-lap or jniddle- half -lap joint. Adapta-
tions of this are the edge-lap, and half-lap joints. The cross-lap
joint is one in which two pieces cross, with the surfaces flush. They
may cross at 90° or any other necessary angle. On modern furni-
ture legs, for example, they frequently cross at 45°.
The edge-lap joint is identical except that the members cross
.
RADIUS CUTTING 303

on edge. The middle- or tee-lap joint is made with one member
exactly like the cross-lap joint and the second member cut as a
rabbet. The end-lap joint, which is used in frame construction,
is made by laying out and cutting both pieces as rabbets. The
half-lap joint is cut in the same way except that the pieces are
joined end to end.
The end-lap and half -lap joints are actually two tenons with
the stock removed from only one side.
Cross-lap and edge-lap joints are cut similar to a cross dado,
except that the lap joints are usually wider. Make the layout and
cut in the same manner described for cross dadoes (Fig. 78)
In the middle-lap joint, one member is cut like a tenon and the
second like a dado. Follow the instructions for making each of
these two kinds of cuts (Fig. 79).
Radius cutting. This a dado operation used to produce a
is
concave cut along the face of a piece of lumber. It is accom-

plished by elevating the column (the radial arm and yoke remain
Fig. 79. Fig. 80.

in the normal crosscut position) and dropping the motor to the
45° bevel position. The motor is moved in or out on the radial
arm to the correct position in relation to the stock to be cut and
is locked in place. The lumber is then pushed under the cutting
head as when ripping or ploughing (Fig. 80). The first cut should
be about and the dado head should be lowered one full turn
at a time until the desired concave is obtained. This operation is
similar to contour cutting with a saw blade, as previously de-
scribed.
Tongue-and-groove. By cutting a tongue-and-groove, you
can make your own flooring, wood panels, etc. The tongue-and-
groove is really a combination of tenon and grooving, previously
described. With the saw in the horizontal rip position, cut the
tongue by using the dado inserts with collars to the exact dimen-
sion needed (Fig. 81). Push the stock past the blade to complete
the tongue. Cut all the tongues on the panels required first; then
turn the stock over and cut the groove (Fig. 82). The groove
must match the tongue for a good fit.
Tongue-and-groove cuts can also be made with a molding head
on the shaper, as described in the next section of this chapter.
Fig. 83. Fig. 84.

—
SHAPER-JOINTER OPERATION 305
Cutting and dadoing. It is possible, by combining a saw blade
and the dado head, to get both a cutoff and dadoing operation at
the same time. Install the saw blade first on the arbor, followed
by the dado head. Then, with the saw in the crosscut position,
pull the yoke through the material (Fig. 83). Result cut-off —
and dado in the same action. Use a 9" saw blade and an 8'' diam-
eter dado head, as a rule, for deep cuts.
It is also possible to rip and plough at the same time. Mount
the saw blade and dado head on the arbor and put the motor in
the rip position. Lower the column to the desired depth and push
the stock past the blade and dado head (Fig. 84). Result
both cuts in a single operation.
SHAPER.JOINTER OPERATION
The shaper attachments for a radial-arm machine are used

for straight and irregular shaping, matched shaping, tongue-and-
groove, planing, sizing, and jointing, chamfer cutting, and making
drop-hinged leaf joints. It is easy to perform these operations and
to turn out the work quickly and accurately. The tilting-arbor
shaper of the radial-arm machine offers many advantages over
the conventional shaper. For instance, standard makes of
shapers are maneuverable in only two directions the cutting —
head can be raised and lowered, the guide fence can be moved
forward and back. But unlike the radial-arm shaper, there is no
provision for tilting the arbor or cutter head. This flexibility adds
approximately 50 per cent more shapes to each cutter. Also, you
can shape in the center of wide stock, which is impossible with
the limited spindle capacity of the ordinary shapers.
Be sure the table is level. It is a good idea to use a hard-
board top clamped or nailed over the wood table top to minimize
friction and to allow the stock to be cut with ease.
SHAPER ACCESSORIES
Nearly all common moldings can be cut on the radial-arm ma-

chine with a special cutterhead. Molding heads with a %" bore
come two- and three-knife
in styles, either one of which will
produce smooth, clean work.
There are also two types of cutters available for shaper work.
One is the loose type mounted on a safety head (^4, Fig. 85) (two
styles are illustrated), and the other is the solid cutter {B, Fig.
85). The latter is milled from a solid bar of hardened and prop-
erly tempered tool steel, ground to the required shape. The loose-
type knives are held in the head by means of fillister-head socket
screws. Since the spindle moves clockwise and is not reversible,
all cutters must point in the same direction.
There are many cutting-knife shapes available. You can start
your collection of knives with a few basic types, then add new
ones as you need them. There are combination blades that per-
mit different cuts, depending on which part of the contour you
Q.
Fig. 85. Fig. 87.
mECO
41 14T
A
n
ji
HG m
4MM§mm
H I J
f
>K
jL
B.
C.
Fig. 86.
A. Miter Lock Joint
Drop-Leaf Table
Cupboord Door
D. Fluting Cutter
E.
F.
Bead and Cove
O. G. Molding
G. Nosing Cutter
Lip
M. Cove and Bead
N. Nosing Cutter
O. Nosing Cutter
P.
R.
Bead and Cove
Surfacing Knives
Tongue and Groove
S. Straight Jointer
T. Fluting Cutter
H. Quarter Round
M N O P Q R I.
J.
Panel Raising
Glue Joint
U. Quarter Round
V. Nosing Cutter
W. Cone and Bead
K. Cupboard Door Lip X. Cupboard Door
U V W X
L. Quarter Round Lip (7° rake)
SHAPER-JOINTER FENCE 307
use. With these, you can shape table edges, make your own mold-
ings, and do many other decorative jobs.
Standard cutters are each designed to do a specific job and
usually require use of the full contour of the blade.
These can
cut shaped edges for glue joints, door lips, tongue-and-groove
joints, drop-leaf tables, and quarter-round molding. Figure 86
illustrates profiles of some of the common types of cutters or
knives.
The head is mounted on the arbor of the saw in the same way
as a saw blade or dado cutter. To mount the molding head, remove
the safety guard, arbor nut, cutting device, and arbor collars from
the motor shaft. For the type of cutter, replace the
solid
arbor collar (recessed portion on the outside), the cutter, and
the arbor nut. The safety guard is used when the molding head
is in the horizontal and chamfering positions.
To mount the solid-cutter type, place the arbor collars (%"
and thick collars first) ,
the molding head, and the arbor nut.
The safety guard is used with the molding head in the horizontal
and chamfering position. With this type, be sure that the knives
are in place and tighten securely.
Right after use, clean the knives of gum and sawdust and coat
them with oil to prevent rust. Store them so that the cutting edges
will be protected from nicks. The head itself should also be
cleaned, especially the slots in which the knives sit. Never leave
knives locked in the molding head.
Shaper-jointer fence. A shaper- jointer fence is available for
the radial-arm machine and should be used for straight shaping.
This fence replaces the standard guide fence (metal portion on
the right side) and fits directly into the standard guide slot. As
shown in Fig. 87 the infeed side of the fence is adjustable for
any capacity up to a full while the outfeed side remains
in a fixed position. prime importance in the
This, of course, is of
jointing operation when a portion of the surface of the lumber
is being removed. Because the infeed side of the fence can be
recessed by the exact amount of stock being removed by the
jointer, there always full support of
is the lumber both before and
after contact with the cutting knives. The result is a smooth,
clean surface, free from “ripples’’ and “dimples.”
Since the fence is designed for insertion in the guide slot of the
radial-arm machine, either the infeed or outfeed side can be inde-
pendently moved closer to the center of the table or farther out
toward the ends. This flexibility of positioning allows the user
up to within
to place the center ends of the fence right of the
cutting diameter of the shaping or jointing head, no matter what
that diameter may be.
For certain types of straight shaping, a high fence is desirable
because the material being shaped should never be higher than
the fence. Figure 88 shows the construction of an easily made
jig to replace the standard guide fence and rear table boards.
The clamped into place by tightening the thumbscrews at
jig is
the rear of the table in the usual manner. Note that a square
hole has been cut into the horizontal board to allow the motor
shaft and arbor nut to project down through the surface of the
table.
Figure 89 shows the action of the molding head extending

through the high guide fence and completing the decorative shape
on the face of the stock.
Shaper guard. As shown in Fig. 90, the shaper guard totally
encloses the cutting knives and the motor spindle. After the
shaper guard is fitted into the slotted portion of the motor end
SHAPER RING 309
bell (Fig. 91), the hole in the guard flange is placed over the stud
on the motor in exactly the same manner as when installing the
saw guard. To allow the circular wall to be raised to a height
permitting the user to check the precision of the cut, two thumb-
screws, located on either side of the center wing nut, permit the
protecting portion of the guard to be freely raised and lowered on
the small circular columns. When raised on the columns, and
locked in position by retightening the thumbscrews, the guard
permits full access to the cutting knives. Thus you can look and
reach beneath the guard (with the motor “off”) to position the
knives accurately for the desired depth of cut. The easiest way
to do this is lumber against the knives. After all
to place the
adjustments have been made, the guard can be lowered right
down to the top surface of the lumber and the shaping operation
can begin.
Fig. 89. Fig. 90.
Shaper ring. To allow

the shaping head to follow irregular
curves, the standard guide fence must be removed from the
table
top. Then, to maintain the stock in proper relation
to the cutting
knives, a circular guide ring of the same diameter as the cutting
circle of the head must be provided. Although you can buy a
steelshaper ring for this purpose, you may find it more con-
venient and less expensive to make a variety of these rings for
your own use.
Pigure 92 shows the simple construction of the shaping ring.
To determine the diameter, measure the shortest distance between
the cutting surfaces of the opposing shaper knives. This will en-
sure that the stock will enter the knives to an exact and uniform
dimension. The inner circle of wood is removed from the ring to
allow the motor shaft to project below the surface. The shaper
ring is then nailed to a small piece of 1" scrap lumber which re-
places the standard guide when the machine is to be used for this
operation (Fig. 93).
SHAPER OPERATIONS
Shaper operations may be divided into four main classifica-

tions, according to the methods used in holding or guiding the
material against the cutters:
Fig. 91. Fig. 92.
Fig. 93. Fig. 94.

SHAPER OPERATIONS 311
Holding the stock against the guide fences. This method is used
for cutting stock with straight edges or faces.
Holding and guiding stock against the shaper ring. This method
is used principally for cutting stock with curved edges or faces
and irregular shapes.
Cutting stock by following patterns. This method is used in
production work when many pieces of the same shape have to be
made.
Holding stock on special jigs. This method is generally used
for stock that cannot readily be held except on special jigs.
General shaper operations are similar to those described in
Chapter 13.
JOINTING
Edge For edge jointing (or face jointing up to two

jointing.
inches) place the four-wing jointer on the arbor shaft and install
the jointer fence. To install the jointer, remove everything from
the arbor shaft. Then slide on the jointer and tighten the special
adaptor nut which comes with the jointer blade. Use the wrenches
to tighten. Now place the motor in the vertical position and locate
it on the radial arm so that the lead portions of the jointer blades
line up with the rear or outfeed fence. Lower the motor to the
desired cut by means of the elevating handle.
The 2" straightedge jointing or surfacing shaper knives can

also be used in the same way as the four-wing jointer.
The front or infeed fence must be about back of the cutter
head for light cuts and back for rough cuts. Turn the handle
in back of the infeed fence to bring it in or out. Always use the
shaper guard whenever possible.
Place the material on the table and tight against the infeed
flat
fence. Then feed the material past the jointer blade, keeping it
against the infeed fence (Fig. 94). When about one-half to
two-thirds of the board has passed the cutter head, move your
left hand to the board over the outfeed fence. As most of the
board passes over the cutter, move your right hand to the board
over the outfeed fence to finish the cut. Feed the material slowly
past the blade and take two thin cuts rather than one big one.
Face jointing. In face jointing, always use a push stick to
push the board through. Push the material past the cutter in the
same manner as for edge jointing. Always cut with the grain when
jointing.
Sizing and jointing. Sizing and jointing in the same operation
require an easily made jig which has the guide fence
(Fig. 95)
located at the front of the table rather than at the rear. The
exact width of the finished stock is determined by measuring the
distance between the front guide and the cutters. Lock the car-
riage at the desired position on the arm. Feed the stock into the
cutters from the right side of the table (Fig. 96). The result is
perfect width and perfect edge with only one cut. To joint the
flat surfaces, remove the jig and place the stock against the guide
fence. Lower the jointer blade until it hits the top surface and
keep lowering it until it takes off the desired amount. Push it
past the blade in the rip manner and keep passing it over the
surface until the surface is smooth and even.
General jointer operations are similar to those described in
Chapter 13.
Fig. 95. Fig. 96.
Rotary surfacer. This attachment, actually a rotary jointer,

will quickly and efficiently cut warped boards down to uniform
thickness and convert them into usable stock ready for sanding or
finishing.
To install the rotary surfacer, remove all items from the motor
shaft. Then screw on the rotary surfacer directly to the motor
BORING AND DRILLING 313
shaft (Fig. 97) . Drop the motor to the vertical position (the sur-
facer will be in a horizontal position), locate themotor on the
arm where the surfacing is to be done, lock the rip clamp, and
lower the column until the surfacer knives project slightly below
the top surface of the material.
Place the stock on the table against the fence and feed the
flat
work into the rotary planer from right to left, following the grain.
Fig. 97. Fig. 98.
BORING AND DRILLING
The flexibility of theradial-arm machine brings you unlimited

boring capacity. Equipped with the boring bit attachments, it
overcomes certain limitations of the conventional drill press. For
example, you are not restricted in the length or width of material
you can bore because of the size of the throat opening or the
length of the downstroke of the press. The boring action of the
radial-arm machine is horizontal rather than vertical. Thus ma-
terial several feet in lengthcan be end-bored with perfect pre-
cision and accuracy. And the depth of the hole to be bored is
limited only by the length of the bit itself, not by the stroke of
press.
MOUNTING THE BORING BIT
To mount the boring remove the safety guard, the arbor

bit,
nut, the cutting device, and the arbor collars from the motor
shaft. Replace the two arbor collars (the %" thick collar first)
and then screw on and tighten the special motor-shaft adapter
(Fig. 98)
. The desired size of bit can now be placed in the adap-
ter, and the adapter setscrew should be tightened.
W ood-boring bits for the radial-arm machine are available in

the following sizes: i/4, %6, %, 1/2 %, %, %, and 1". Since
,
a left-hand feed and point are required with this machine, conven-
tional bits cannot be used.
WOOD-BORING OPERATIONS
For various boring operations, a simple jig (Fig. 99) is needed

to raise the material above the surface of the table top and to
provide a higher guide fence. Place a wedge between the jig and
column to add support when boring (Fig. 100).
Laying out the work. Accurate layout is a basic requirement

of hole boring. The simplest method of marking the location of
a hole is to draw lines which intersect at the center of the hole.
For such work, a combination square is ideal, since it can be
used to draw lines parallel with the edge of the work and as an
edge-marking gauge. Dividers are handy when it is necessary
to transfer a measurement from one piece to another or to mark
OPERATION OF THE SABER OR BAND SAW 315
off a line in a number of equal spaces. If a pencil is used for

marking, select a hard one (3H or harder) and keep it sharp so
that the lines will be well defined.
General boring and drilling operations are similar to those de-
scribed in Chapter 12.
Fig. 100. Fig. 101.
OPERATION OF THE SABER OR BAND SAW
No tool adds so much to the versatility of the radial-arm ma-

chine as a saber or band saw. It will cut all types of intricate
scrollwork and irregular curves —either square or beveled — in
wood, plastic, or light metal. It can also be used for power filing,
sanding, and similar operations.
The saber saw shown in Fig 101 will cut material up to 2" in
thickness. The table top of the radial-arm machine allows you to
do intricate scrollwork on large panels with full support of the
stock, for there is more than 27" of clearance between the blade
and the column.
The saber-saw unit mounts directly on the radial-arm motor
brackets and takes just about one minute to install (Fig. 102).
The Scotch-yoke mechanism encased in the unit converts the
rotating motion of the shaft into the reciprocating motion neces-
sary to drive the saber saw. Oil-impregnated bearings eliminate
lubrication worries.
Fig. 102. Fig. 104.
MOUNTING PROCEDURES
The installation of the saber saw is a simple operation. Before

you make the setup for the first time, you must bore a small hole
(about in diameter) through the wood table top to allow the
saber-saw blade to project down through the table. This hole can
be placed anywhere on the wood top so long as it does not come
directlyabove any of the channel braces in the steel table frame.
From experience, a location about three inches to the inside of
the second hold-down screw (counting from the rear) is ideal.
This position allows maximum use of the table-top working
surface.
To mount the saber-saw unit, follow these six steps.
Remove the safety guard and the circular-saw blade (or other
cutting tool) from the motor.
Place the pulley, provided with the unit, on the motor shaft
(groove toward the motor), then replace and tighten the arbor
nut. Check to be sure that the belt is on the pulley in the saber-
saw unit. If not, remove the back of the unit by removing the
four Phillip’s-head screws, slide the belt on the pulley, and replace
the back.
Hold the saber saw in your right hand and slightly tilt the
bottom in towârd the motor. Place the belt in the groove on the
motor pulley.
Hook the bottom lip of the saber saw into the groove in the
SABER.SAW BLADES 317
lower front end of the motor bell (Fig. 103). Then slide the top
bracket of the unit into place in the safety-guard stud atop the
motor. Replace and tighten the wing nut on the guard stud.
Align the saber-saw blade with the hole in the wood table top
by swinging the radial arm to the left and swiveling the motor
—
yoke to the right. Then lock all controls arm clamp, yoke clamp,
and rip lock.
Lower the radial arm by means of the elevating handle until
the saber-saw guide barely touches the top surface of the material
to be cut.
When saber sawing, the guide fence, in most operations, should
be removed from its normal position and placed at the extreme
rear of the table.
SABER.SAW BLADES
To operate the saber saw with maximum efficiency, become

familiar with the various blades available. For most uses, four
blades will do the job. The following table lists various materials
and suggests the size of saber-saw blades for cutting them.
Thickness, Blade Size,

Material in Inches Teeth Per Inch
Softwood Up to y2 15 or 20
Softwood Over V2 7 or 10
Hardwood Up to V2 15 or 20
Hardwood Over V2 10 or 15
Nonferrous metal Up to Vs 20
Nonferrous metal Over Vs 15 or 20
Plastic, ivory, bone, etc. 10, 15, or 20
Always use the blade with the coarsest teeth that will cut the
material cleanly, and that will cut the sharpest curve in any
pattern you are working on. As you progress with your saber
sawing, your experience with various materials and blades will
help you in ch(K)sing a blade for the particular operation on
hand.
Mounting the blade. To mount a saber-saw blade, turn the
machine on and off until you stop the chuck at the bottom of its
stroke. Loosen the Allen-head setscrew on the side of the chuck
with a wrench and insert the blade approximately %" into the
chuck against the insert, with the teeth pointing downward (Fig.
104). Then tighten the chuck setscrews and you are ready to
start cutting.
OPERATING THE SABER SAW
Since the prime purpose of the saber saw is to cut curves and
patterns, lay out and plan your work before cutting. Except for
simple designs that can be sketched directly on the material, it
is necessary to make a full-size pattern of work and transfer it
to the stock being cut. Be sure you have a clean outline to

follow.
For average work, always stand directly in front of the blade
with both hands resting comfortably on the table. Guide the
work with both hands, applying forward pressure with the thumbs
(Fig. 105). Make sure the guide finger on the unit always rests
lightly on the work.
Where the work is of such length that it will strike the column
before the cut is completed, cutting from the side or using an ex-
tension table is necessary.
Side cutting requires the motor to be swiveled until the blade
of the saber unit is parallel with the guide fence.
LATHE 319
General saber or band sawing procedures are similar to those
described in Chapter 10.
THE LATHE
The 12" lathe shown in Fig. 106 is designed as a radial-arm-

saw accessory. It is complete and ready to use, taking its driving
power from the saw’s motor. The lathe also can be operated as
a separate unit with any motor h.p. or larger.
LATHE PARTS
H ood lathes are designated according to the maximum diame-

ter of thework that can be swung over the bed. A lathe capable
of swinging a 12" diameter disc of wood is called a 12" lathe.
The lathe shown in Fig. 106 will take work 37" long between
centers.
The principal parts of a lathe are the headstock, tailstock, and
tool rest.
Fig. 105. Fig. 106.
Headstock. The headstock contains the driving mechanism,

the step pulley for changing sp’eeds, and the spindle. The spindle
of the headstock lines up exactly with the tailstock spindle. The
two main attachments are the spur center, which fits the head-
stock spindle and is commonly known as the “live center,” and
the cu}) center^ which fits the tailstock spindle and is known as
the “dead center.” The work is mounted between these two
centers, the spurs of the live center serving as the driving member.
The faceplate is fastened to the headstock spindle in certain
types of turnings in place of the spurs.
Tailstock. The assembly can be clamped to the

tailstock
bed at any position. A hand wheel can be turned to move the
tailstock spindle in or out 3i/4". This spindle is hollow, with a No.
2 Morse taper. The cup center fits into this end.
Tool rest. The tool rest and holder clamp to the bed and can
be adjusted to various diameters of work.
SETTING UP THE LATHE
It is a very simple operation to convert the radial-arm machine

into a wood-turning lathe by proceeding as follows:
Remove the safety guard and the cutting tool from the motor
shaft.
Swivel the motor to the out-rip position and swing the radial
arm to the left 90° and lock securely.
Set the lathe on the table top of the radial-arm machine with
the base of the lathe tight against the fence. The headstock
should be at the left.
Set hold-down clamps with the long part of the L’s beneath
the machine’s table top and the short part resting against the
bottom of the lathe base. Locate the two carriage bolts in the
holes on the base of the lathe, push them through the clamps, and
place the wing nuts on the bolts. Then draw the nuts tight against
the bottom of the clamps.
Place the belt pulley on the motor shaft, hub side out, and
tighten the setscrew in the hub. Place the arbor nut on the shaft
and tighten.
Position the motor directly behind the headstock and align
the headstock pulley with the one on the motor shaft. This may
require raising or lowering the motor by means of the elevating
handle. When aligned, tighten the rip clamp and carriage arm
and attach the drive belt.
General lathe turning operations are similar to those described

in Chapter 9.
— —
DISC, BELT, AND DRUM-SANDER ATTACHMENTS 321
DISC, BELT, AND DRLM-SANDER ATTACHMENTS
With the versatile radial arm, you have a choice of three major
types of power sanders disc, belt, and drum. Each type has its
advantages and uses. But unlike ordinary sanders, the attach-
ments allow you to take full advantage of maneuverability and
radial-arm machine. Attached directly to the
flexibility of the
motor arbor, they can be tilted, swiveled, or elevated, and ab-
solute accuracy is always possible.
ABRASIVES
For power sanding there are four types of abrasive materials

to choose from flint, garnet, aluminum oxide, and silicon
carbide.
Flint. Flint is modern abrasives. It is cheap but
the oldest of
has little efficiency as compared to other abrasives. Flint paper
is good for removing old paint and for other jobs requiring
quantity rather than quality.

Garnet. Garnet, a rubylike gemstone, is the hardest of natural
abrasives. It is used in most home workshops as the basic paper
for finishing wood.
Aluminum oxide. Aluminum oxide is a synthetic abrasive
made from bauxite, coke, and iron filings in an electric furnace.
Aluminum oxide paper is becoming the most widely used
fast
all-around paper. It is gray-brown in color.
Silicon carbide. Silicon carbide is another synthetic abrasive
made of coke and sand, and is the hardest of all abrasives manu-
factured today. But it is very brittle and can be used only for
glass, ceramics, gemstones, and plastics. Silicon carbide i)aper
appears dark gray to black.
Grit size. This is determined by the number of grains which,
end to end, equal 1". To simplify this situation, many manu-
facturers label their papers as fine, medium, coarse, etc.
Backing. Paper-backed abrasives are generally used for hand
sanding. Of the six weights of paper available, the only one
suitable for machine sanding is the heaviest weight. Type E.
This is satisfactory for disc, spindle, or drum sanders.
There are two weights of cloth backings available to the home
craftsman. The heaviest (Type X) is drill or twill, a linen or
cotton fabric with a diagonal weave.
Type of coating. There are two types of coating —closed and
open. Closed-coat papers have tightly packed abrasive grains
that cover the entire surface. The grains on open-coat papers
cover 50 to 70 per cent of the surface, leaving open spaces be-
tween the grains.
Closed-coat papers are durable and fast cutting, but have the
disadvantage of clogging under certain conditions. Open-coated
abrasives are not so durable, but they are useful for finishing
certain surfaces such as soft or gummy woods, paint and other
finishes, and soft metals and plastics wdiere the abrasive dust
tends to clog the disc or belt.
Forms of abrasives. Abrasive-coated materials can be ob-
tained in sheets, rolls, discs, drums, and belts.
MOUNTING THE DISC SANDER
Remove the safety guard, saw blade, arbor nut, and two arbor
collars from the arbor shaft. Replace the two arbor collars (%"
one first and recessed sides together) then place the disc plate on
,
the shaft. Place a wrench on the flat of the arbor shaft to hold it,
and tighten the disc plate by turning it counterclockwise (Fig.
107).
The abrasive must be cemented or glued to the plate. Any
disc
good glue may be used. Spread glue on the metal plate, then set
the abrasive disc against it. When glue is used, a wood disc of
stock the same diameter as the plate will have to be placed
over the abrasive so that clamps may be applied. The clamps
should remain in place until the glue has set.
OPERATING THE DISC SANDER
The abrasive used on the disc sander will depend upon the
work.
OPERATING THE DISC SANDER 323
Sanding. Sanding on the disc sander is usually done free-
hand, the work being held flat on the auxiliary table and pro-
jected into the sanding disc. A smooth, light feed should be
practiced. Avoid heavy pressure. The best results on curved
work can be obtained by going over the work two or three times
with light cuts. Sanding should be done on the “down” side of
the disc (Fig. Although it is permissible to sand small
108).
pieces on the “up” side, and while it is necessary to use both sides
of the disc when sanding end grain on wide work, the surface
produced will not be quite so smooth as that sanded only on the
side of the disc going down. But with the versatile tilting-arbor
disc Sander, it is possible to sand large areas with only the
down-side portion of the disc.
Fig. 107. Fig. 108.
Surface sanding. To position the machine for general-surface

sanding, elevate the radial arm until the motor with disc attached
can be tilted to the vertical position. Then move the motor out
on the arm until the disc is directly above the i)ath the material
will follow along the guide fence, and lock it in position with
the rip clamp. Place the stock to be sanded on the table and
lower the arm until the disc fits snugly against the top surface
of the board. Push the board from right to left along the fence
(Fig. 109).
For extra-fine sanding, raise the motor from the 90° bevel
position 1° or 2° (indicated as 89 or 88 on the bevel scale). In
this position, the sanding will be done on the down>side portion
of the disc.
Straightedge sanding. Swing the radial arm 60° to the left
and place the motor so that the front of the disc sander is parallel
to and along the guide fence (Fig. 110). This is achieved by
adjusting the swivel-clamp handle and the swivel-latch assembly.
Lock the motor in position with the rip clamp. Lower the radial
arm until the disc is within ^he top of the fence.
Butt sanding. Place the motor in the crosscut position and
set the auxiliary-table jig in place of the guide fence. With the
material tight against the fence of the auxiliary table and mak-
ing contact with the disc, pull the motor past the material in the
same manner as when crosscutting.
MOUNTING THE BELT SANDER 325
Bevel sanding. With the arm in the crosscut position, place
the motor at the desired angle of bevel and locate the auxiliary
table in place of the guide fence. Position the stock on
the jig
so that it contacts the sander and pull the disc across the beveled
end of the board (Fig. 111). Swinging the motor 1° to 3° to the
left will produce a finer job.
Miter sanding. With the motor in the crosscut position, locate

the arm at the desired miter angleand replace the guide fence
with the auxiliary table. Position the material on the table so
that it contacts the abrasive and pulls the motor across the miter
end of the board. If finer sanding is required, swivel the motor
1° to 3° to the left.
Rounding corners. Most sanding of corners can be done free-

hand, sweeping the corner of the work across the face of the sand-
ing disc two or three times until the desired round is obtained.
The motor is placed in the crosscut setup and locked into position
by the rip lock.
MOUNTING THE BELT SANDER
Before attaching the belt sander to the radial-arm motor, a

mounting board must be made. This board is made of %" ply-
wood and the lower projection on it fits into the slot normally
occupied by the guide fence. When the spacer-board clamp
screws are brought up tight, your 4" sander will be in place.
Remove the safety guard, arbor nut, saw blade (or other tool),
and arbor collars from the motor shaft. Place the pulley on the
motor shaft (hub toward the motor) and tighten the setscrew.
Replace and tighten the arbor nut.
Now swing the radial arm left until you read approximately
60° on the miter scale. Swivel your motor and extend it out on
the radial arm until it is parallel and in line with the pulley on
the belt sander. Slip the belt on both pulleys and readjust the
motor by extending it farther on the arm or swinging the radial
arm right or left a few degrees' until the belt is tight. Lock the
motor in place by means of the rip clamp. Turn on the macliine
to check the alignment of the pulleys and the tension on the belt.
The belt sander is used mainly for flat work, though with-the-
grain edges can be sanded square, beveled, or chamfered.
BELT-SANDER ADJUSTMENTS
The belt sander provided with two drums over which the
is
abrasive belt travels. The powered drum, the one on which the
power pulley is placed, is covered with a rubber sleeve to give
traction to the belt.The other drum, which is the idler, is pro-
vided with an adjusting device as shown in Fig. 112, which pro-
duces the belt tension and keeps the belt tracking. This device
consists of four knurled nuts, two at each end of the idler drum.
When placing a belt on the sander, loosen the two inside nuts,
releasing all tension, and slip the belt over, the pulleys. (Be sure
the arrow on the inside of the belt points toward the guide fence.)
Tighten both adjustments back to the original position so that
there will be sufficient tension for the belt to move when the power
pulley turned over by hand.
is
Turn the power pulley over several times to determine if the

belt is tracking properly. If the belt shifts to the right when
doing this, slightly loosen the right outside nut and tighten the
right inside nut. This throws the belt to the left. If this does
not solve the problem, slightly loosen the left side inside nut and
tighten the left outside nut. This will help to throw the belt
to the left. Alternate until proper tracking of the belt has been
secured. But remember to loosen lightly as adjustments are sen-
sitive.
Fig. 111. Fig. 113.

MOUNTING THE DRUM SANDER 327
If the belt is tracking to the left, reverse the procedure given

in the previous paragraph. Do not start the machine until you
are certain that the belt is tracking on the center of the pulleys.
When the machine is started, it may
be necessary to adjust the
tension on the belt. To increase the tension, loosen the outside
knurled nuts about a quarter turn and tighten the inside nuts
until the assembly is forced against the outside nuts. Sometimes
it may be necessary to adjust the tension on one side or the other
to prevent the belt from shifting to the right or left.
decrease tension, reverse the instructions given in the pre-

To
ceding paragraph. Too much tension will act as a resistance to
your motor and will shorten the life of the abrasive belt.
Occasionally apply a few drops of oil on each end of the drive
shaft to lubricate the self-lubricating bronze bearings. Every
4 to 6 months, remove the abrasive belt and screw in the center
of the idler pulley. Place a few drops of SAE 30 or 40 oil in the
hole. Replace the screw and belt.
OPERATING THE BELT SANDER
Work on a belt sander is generally done freehand, that is, the

material to be surfaced simply placed on the table. Use a
is
light but firm pressure to keep the piece in the proper position.
Avoid excessive pressure, since it will scratch the surface being
sanded.
MOUNTING THE DRUM SANDER

3"
Small sanding drums come in a range of sizes from 1" to
in diameter. The most popular is the 3" size (Fig. 113).
Both the drums and abrasive sleeves are inexpensive and very
efficient foredge-sanding curved work.
To mount the 2" drum, remove the safety guard, saw blade (or
other cutting tool), arbor nut,. and arbor collars from the arbor
shaft. Replace the two arbor collars (%" one first and recessed
sides together) then place the drum on the shaft. Place a wrench
;
on the flat of the arbor shaft to hold it, and tighten the drum by
hand, turning it counterclockwise. The 3" drum sander may be
used in either the horizontal or vertical position, depending on
the operation.
Directions for replacing sleeves are shown in Fig. 114. Cut a
9" X 11" sheet of garnet sandpaper of the proper grit into three
3" X 11" strips by tearing it against a metal straightedge or hack-
saw blade. (Never cut the sandpaper with scissors or a knife,
as this will damage Bend the ends
the cutting edge of the tool.)
of the sleeves by the use of a board as shown at B, Fig. 114. The
board must be measured accurately and cut square. Then wrap
the sleeve around the drum approximately y^" down on it and
slip the ends in the slot. Now slip the sleeve on down over the
drum. A little talcum powder on the soft-rubber drum will make

the sleeve slip on more easily. Squeeze hard to get the slack out
of the sleeve and push the ends down into the slot. Then insert
the tube that comes with the drum and turn it with a key. The
oval tube should fit snugly. Do not force it. If it is too tight,
put it in a vise and squeeze the edge; if too loose, squeeze the
flat side of the tube.
BENO ENOS OE SLEEVES BY USE OF

BOARD AS SHOWN BOARD MUST BE
CUT SLEEVES FROM 9 " ll" SHEETS MEASURED ACCURATELY AND CUT SQUARE
B
SQUEEZE HARD TO GET SLACK OUT OF

SLEEVE AND ENDS DOWN INTO SLOT
THEN INSERT TUBE AND TURN WITH KEY
WRAP about '/«" OF drum or less
OVAL TUBE SHOULD FIT SNUGLY DO NOT
Then slip on down over drum FORCE IF TOO TIGHT PUT IN VISE AND
use talcum powder if necessary SQUEEZE EDGE IF TOO LOOSE SQUEEZE
TO MAKE SLEEVE SLIP EASILY flat side of tube
c 0
Fig. 114.
VERTICAL OPERATION OF THE DRUM SANDER 329
To mount the 1" drum, remove all items from the arbor shaft
and replace the two arbor collars (%" one first and the recessed
sides together). For this drum operation, use the same adapter
as the one used for boring and place it on the shaft. Place a
wrench on the flat of the arbor shaft to hold it and tighten the
adapter by turning it counterclockwise. The sanding drum is
held in place with an Allen-head setscrew in the arbor. The "
1
drum Sander can be used in a horizontal position only. One-inch
sleeves can be purchased ready made.
VERTICAL OPERATION ON THE DRUM SANDER
When using the 3" drum sander in the vertical position, locate
itover the shaper cutter hole in the table top. The back edge of
the guide fence should be notched out for straightedge sanding
(Fig. 115). The jointer fence can also be used and be positioned
with a 1/54 " offset between the infeed and outfeed edges (Fig.
116).
With the radial arm raised to its fullest extent, place the drum
in the shaper hole and, with the motor in the vertical position,
bring the arbor shaft over the drum shaft. Lift the drum and
mount it as previously described. Tighten the rip clamp on the
arm. With the sander in this position, the lower edge of the
drum will be a little below the surface of the auxiliary table so
that the entire edge of the stock being finished will come in
contact with the abrasive.
When using a drum sander, the material being finished should
be kept constantly in motion to prevent overheating and scorch-
ing the wood. AVire-brushing the sleeve occasionally will pro-
long its useful life. Ordinarily, this is most effective if done
while the machine is running.
Curved sanding. AVhen sanding curved work, move the work
past the drum from right to left.
Straight sanding. Although nearly all drum sanding is done
freehand, straight work usually requires a guide fence or the
use of the jointer fence. With the motor at the rear, bring the
Sander forward into the shaper slot on the table. Locate the
Sander so that its leading edge is in a straight line with the out-
feed side of the fence and tighten the rip clamp on the radial
arm. Place the material against the infeed side of the fence,
start the motor, and push the stock past the drum sander.
In sanding straight work, the work must be kept moving at a
uniform rate i)ast the drum. If the work is stopped at any })oint
while in contact with the rotating drum, it may be scored or
burned. Uneven feed can produce scoring at intervals along the
length of the stock. On long stock it will be necessary to shift the
hands alternately. Here the trick is to maintain uniform pressure
and rate of feed with one hand while the other is being shifted.
In some cases an overhand movement gives satisfactory results.
Fig. 115. Fig. 116.
HORIZONTAL OPERATION OF THE DRUM SANDER
In the horizontal position, the drum sander will do an effective

job of surfacing narrow work when used as shown in Fig. 117.
For this operation, use either the auxiliary or stationary table.
With the motor raised to its full extent, set the motor shaft in a
horizontal position. Place the material tight against the fence,
and lower the radial arm until the abrasive hits the start of the
stock. Withdraw the stock, turn on the motor, and feed the work
against the rotation of the drum. If more smoothness is desired,
keep lowering the arm a quarter turn at a time.
HORIZONTAL OPERATION OF THE DRUM SANDER 331
\V icier boards may
be handled in the same manner except that
several passes will have to be taken with the sander at the same
height. Always remember in any surface sanding operation do
not attempt too deep a bite in one pass; two or more passes will
result in a better job.
Fig. 117.
Sanding rabbets and similar Sanding the inside corners

cuts.
of rabbets and similar cuts can be easily executed with the drum
Sander as follows:
The rabbeted stock is set against the auxiliary-table guide
fence, and the drum is set to fit in the corner. Then feed the
work forward i)ast the drum to make the cut. For operations
like this, the sleeve should be mounted so that it projects about
Vw'z" beyond the bottom of the drum, allowing the inside corner
to be finished cleanly.
CHAPTER 8
Bench or Circular Saws

•
A good bench saw, sometimes called a circular saw because of

the shape of its blade, is an extremely useful and versatile tool.
It can be used for fast and accurate cutting, ripping and resawing
lumber, beveling stock to any desired angle, and making all types
of tapered cuts. Accessories for making dado, rabbet, and tenon
joints and for buffing, polishing, and sanding are available.
Design features. In selecting a bench saw, certain funda-
mental features of design and construction must be taken into
consideration. The essential parts of a medium-priced, well-
designed bench saw' are shown in Fig. 1.
332
DESIGN FEATURES 333
A
bench saw must have a rigid frame mounted on a firm foun-
dation to insure accurate work. It must be equipped with a
well-machined, perfectly flat, cast-iron table reinforced with
strengthening ribs on the underside. The table must be wide
enough to allow the use of the miter gauge from either side of the
saw blade. Where larger working surfaces are required, rigid
grille-type extensions that can be attached to the table are avail-
able (Fig. 2). Avoid the type of bench saw that has large open-
ings in the table around the saw blade, with no provision made
for insertion or removal of inserts. This type is extremely dan-
Fi«. 2. New grilleextensions give laige working surface. Grilles

are designed for maximum rigidity.
gerous to operate, and in addition will always tend to chip off

the bottom of the material being sawed. Be sure that metal
inserts are flush with the table surface and easily removable.
In some bench saws, saw blade and arbor are fixed and the
table can be raised and lowered. Others have fixed tables with
the saw blade and arbor rising and falling. All good bench saws
must have an adjustable table or arbor that regulates the steps
of the cut. All adjustment controls should be readily accessible.
All necessary adjustments must be simple and should be accom-
plished with a minimum of exertion and effort (Figs. 1, 3, 4, 5, and
6). All good bench saws are equipped with gauges that show the
334 BENCH OR CIRCULAR SAWS
extent of movement made possible by any such adjustments.
The better type of bench saw, and this type is especially recom-
mended, in addition to an adjustable table or arbor also has
provisions for tilting either the table or the saw. In machines
of this type, the tilting should be mechanical and preferably
either worm- or screw-controlled (Fig. 3); the latter is positive
and is easy to operate. There should also be a gauge to indicate
the angle to which the table
or the saw is tilted. The in-
dicating scale used in connec-
tion with this gauge should be
adjustable. Be sure that the
manufacturer of the saw has
made provision for the adjust-
ment of the alignment of the
saw itself with the table, as
any unusual strain or acci-
dental bump is apt to put the
saw out of alignment. On a Fig. 3. Wheel at side tilts blade
well-designed bench saw the from 0° to 45°. Angle of tilt is shown
on a scale. Upper lever locks the
arbor should not be threaded tilt mechanism.
for a distance of at least

from the collar, so as to allow the saw to ride on the arbor and
not on the thread.
All bench saws provide for oiling of the bearings,
efficient
whether they be sleeve or ball bearings. Most of the ball-bearing
types are of course dust-sealed, but they will need to be oiled
or greased at some future time, and it is inconvenient to have to
take an entire machine apart in order to do this. If your bench
saw is equipped with oil or grease cups, injection of a little oil
from time to time will do no harm.
A circular saw should be provided with a guard that can be
adjusted to the various thicknesses of stock, remaining in posi-
tion over the saw blade even in the tilted position.
When power-driven equipment, give serious con-
installing
sideration to the type of motor used. The motor for a bench saw
must be of sufficient horsepower to cut wood as thick as the ca-
pacity of the saw permits. The saw blade must be at its greatest
height at all times when sawing completely through any thickness
CHECKING AND ADJUSTING 335
of wood; in this position less power is required than when the

saw is adjusted to just a little higher than the thickness of the
wood. To be on the safe side, never use a motor of less than
Vs h.p. If the saw has a 7" or 8" blade and the material that
will be used is up to 2" in thickness, best all-round results will
be secured with a %-h.p. motor. A line shaft providing power
for several tools is sometimes used in place of individual motors
for each tool. With allowance for power loss in the hanger bear-
ings, plus the number of tools that will be operated at any one
time, considerably more powerful motor will be necessary.
a
However, the ideal home workshop setup has an individual motor
for each tool.
The motor in a well-designed bench saw is usually attached to
a hinged motor base. The switch box should be mounted on the
front of the table for efficiency (Fig. 4).
Checking and adjusting. A standard i/

2 *h.p. motor will pull
at one and one-half times its
rated power, which means
that at capacity load with an
8" saw this motor will be
drawing close to 10 amperes.
If the motor is plugged into a
circuit that is already over-
loaded, the line naturally will
not supply enough current. As
a result the voltage will drop
and the motor will overheat
struggling to carry the load.
Fig. 4. Box-type switch mounted in
Thus perfect motors are fre-
handy position at front of table. quently condemned for not
pulling properly, when the de-
fect really is in the house wiring. It is advisable to have a
separate line, made up of at least 10-gauge wire brought in direct
from the meter, for the home workshop. If there is a loss of
power or motor failure persists,' check the line with a voltmeter,
checking first with no load and then with a load. Without the
load the reading should be approximately that shown on the
motor; with a full load the line voltage should not fall more
than 5 per cent.
Manufacturers of all bench saws provide special instructions
for setting them up. Be careful to read these instructions and
set up your saw accordingly. Most of the well-constructed ma-
chines have been properly aligned before leaving the factory.
However, rough handling and unpreventable shocks are likely
to change the alignment.
Make the following tests. To check the alignment of the blade
with the groove in which the miter gauge is guided, attach a
piece of scrap lumber 1%" by 1%'^ by 10" to the miter gauge.
Set the miter gauge at 90°. Now, raise the saw to its greatest
cutting capacity, using the adjustment control provided for that
purpose (Fig. 5). Start the blade running. Move the miter
gauge away from you toward the saw in the left-hand groove
until the saw cuts halfway
through the under edge of the
piece of scrap lumber. Now,
back the miter gauge away
and lift from the table.
it
Place the miter gauge on the

rear end of the saw table and
move it toward you until the
saw cuts the other end halfway
through the underside of the
wood. Check both cuts; if
they meet exactly the saw is
aligned properly. Repeat this
Fig. 5. Handwheel on front of saw
same test in the right-hand regulates blade height, small knob
groove on the table. If the locks blade when height is set.
two grooves are equidistant
from the saw, then you are ready to proceed to the next checking
operation. If they are not, make the necessary adjustment of
the saw arbor before going ahead with the next test.
Set the miter gauge at exactly 90°. Secure a piece of wood
about 8" wide, hold this tightly against the gauge, and cut one
end off. Check the squareness of this cut with an accurate try
square. If it is not perfect adjust the miter gauge and make
other cuts until the cut is absolutely square. Then file or re-
adjust the indicating point to the correct 90° mark.
Check the alignment of the ripping fence or guide with the
TYPES OF BLADES 337
saw (Figs. 6 and 7). Since the saw is correctly aligned with the
slots in the table, it is necessary to align the ripping guide with
this slot.
If the table is of the tilting type, tilt it to
an angle of 90° with
the saw blade, then at 45°, and adjust the screws provided for
this purpose. The table can then be quickly tilted to either of
Fig. 6. Checking alignment of miter

gauge groove with new blade. The
Fig. 7. Knob permits final ac-
curate adjustment of rip fence.
rip fence must first be accurately
Fence is locked into position with
aligned with the table groove. The
knobbed lever.
fence then makes a convenient sur-
face on which to rest the try square
in checking blade alignment.
these often-used angles, without additional waste of time and

labor.
Before attempting to operate the saw make certain that the
guard mechanism is properly adjusted and that the guard clears
the saw blade. If the saw is equipped with a splitter, check it
to be sure that it is directly in line with the saw blade. After
all of these preliminary tests, alignments, and adjustments the
bench saw is ready for use.
Types of blades. Bench saws are usually equipped with a
combination saw, used for ripping, crosscutting, and mitering
(Fig. 8). Other types are called planer, fast-cut, and grooving
saws.
Planer saws are hollow-ground instead of having the teeth
*^8et.” This type of saw requires more power for operation than
the combination saw, butmakes a smoother cut. However, its
use does not by any means entirely eliminate the necessity of
planing or jointing the board for final finished edges.
Grooving saws form the two outside parts of a groover or dado
Saw blades used on the bench saw ; left to right

ripping blade,
:
crosscut blade, combination blade, dado blades, dado chippers.
head. The inside members of this type of saw, called “chippers,’'

have two tooth types of different thicknesses, which are used in
conjunction with the grooving saws to make different widths of
cuts. They cannot be used by themselves. For all general pur-
poses a good ripsaw, a crosscut saw, and a combination saw,
together with a dado head that can be built up to will be
adequate (Fig. 9).
Mounting the saw. Before mounting or replacing a new blade
on the bench saw clean off any sawdust that may have accumu-
lated on the arbor and the
collar. Remove the retaining
collar nut. Slide the saw on
easily, so as not to damage
any of the threads. The teeth
of the saw nearest to the op-
erator should point down. Re-
place the retaining collar nut
and screw it up tight so that
the saw will not work loose.
Before starting the motor ro-
Fig. 9. Dado head in position be-
tate the blade by hand, to
tween the two grooving saws on the
make sure that the saw clears bench saw.
the groove in the table.
Molding cutters and fences. The molding cutter is a bench-
saw accessory useful for cutting a large variety of forms or
moldings on the edges and ends of boards. It should be perfectly
RIPPING WITH THE BENCH SAW 339
balanced and of solid construction, and the knives should be
accurately machined. The knife-holding device must lock the
knives firmly in place without their having to be specially ad-
justed or set. The type
molding cutter shown in Fig. 10 is
of
designed to hold three knives in an automatic-alignment head
that saves considerable time and trouble. The knives are made
of the best type of high-speed steel, properly hardened and accu-
rately ground to shape. They are avail-
able in a number of shapes (Fig. 11).
A molding-cutter fence or gauge is
necessary to guide the work while it is
being shaped. It is arched in the center
to give proper clearance to the head of
the cutter when the knives project above
the table to the highest point. This type
of fence can be set and locked in any
Fig, 10 . Molding required position. It is particularly suit-
cutter.
able for the production of several com-
bined shapes (Fig. 11). All of the moldings in this illustration
were made with cutters A, B, C, D, E, and F shown in Fig. 11.
Ripping with the bench saw. Ripping wide boards into nar-
rower pieces is one of the simplest of bench-saw operations, and
is one most often used. It relieves the mechanic of one of the
—
most tiresome tasks that of hand-ripping wide boards. To rip
on the bench saw, set the ripping guide by measurement of the
distance from the saw blade to the guide, or by setting the ripping
guide to the graduated bar on the table. Check the graduated
bar frequently, for accuracy in its relation to the saw itself.
The height of the saw above the table is important. To prevent
sawdust jamming up the saw, always set it high enough to have
several full teeth projecting above the material at the point above
the arbor. Unless the teeth project through the wood, the saw-
dust will not be able to get out and will bind and overheat the
saw blade. In ripping without a saw guard on the machine, it
will be noted that the higher the saw is adjusted, the more saw-
dust it will throw up and the more accurately must the ripping
guide be aligned with the saw blade.
After making all adjustments place the edge of the board
against the guide, start the saw, and proceed to rip the stock.
When the distance between the saw blade and the ripping guide
is less than three inches, a pusher stick must always be used. A
pusher stick should be specially made for this purpose, preferably
of a piece of hardwood, and kept in a handy spot near the saw.
Fig. 11, Molding cutter knives.
To push narrow pieces through without a pusher stick may result

in serious injury to the hand.
When ripping warped boards, place the concave side on the
table and the convex side up (Fig. 12).
After ripping examine the surface of the cut on both pieces.
If one of them appears considerably rougher and shows deeper
grooves than the other, it may be because the ripping saw has
RESAWING 341
not been properly aligned or the wood has warped as it passed

the blade. The remedy to the former is obvious—realign the
saw blade—while the remedy to the latter is to install a splitter.
On the better types of bench saws a splitter is incorporated into
the saw guard.
Resawing. Another form of ripping is resawing or cutting
a board into thinner boards. For resawing, the blade should
be set just a little over half the width of the board when the
board is less in width than
twice the capacity of the saw
(Fig. 13). To illustrate this,
let us assume that it is neces-
sary to resaw a board 4" wide
by thick into two boards
by Making an al-
lowance of Ys" for the kerf or
the wastage of material by the
blade, and taking into consid-
eration that the capacity of
the particular saw is 2%", set
the blade to 2%". This leaves
lYs" for the second cut, which
Fig. 12. Ripping a board with blade
tilted. When sawing warped stock be should be sufficient to prevent
sure convex side is up. squeezing and binding of the
rmr n imî
iMWi
Fig. 13. Resawing stock.

blade. However, when the width board to be resawed is
of the
greater than twice the capacity of the machine, make the cuts as
deep as possible from each edge. Then finish the ripping either
by hand or on the band saw. An important point to bear in
mind always when resawing is to keep the same surface of the
board against the guide for both cuts, then reverse the board end
for end, and never side for side. Thus stock twice as wide as the
maximum depth of the cut can be resawed. On saw blades of
larger capacity, stock can be resawed in one operation. When
ripping narrow stock always use a push stick (Fig. 14).
Crosscutting. When crosscutting with a bench saw, particu-
Fig. 14. Always use a push stick when ripping or cutting narrow pieces.
larly where the cut is other than a perfect right angle, accuracy
depends on several factors, not the least of which is the operator
himself. The miter gauge on most bench saws does not exceed 7"
in length. For this reason extreme care must be exercised in order
to hold a board several feet long against such a short length

always at the correct angle. One of the first things to do upon
acquisition of a bench saw is to attach a straight piece of wood
CUTTING MITERS 343
to the miter gauge as a guide for such work. If possible use a
piece of laminated plywood, to prevent any warping. This should
be at least 17" by by
Near the lower edge, to the left and
2".
to the right of the gauge, run a wood screw through to project
about i/je" and then file the end of the screw to a point. The
edge of a board pressed against this point will not slip, and the
small indentations that these points will make on the lumber that
is being crosscut are not objectionable. The miter gauge must
be set and checked to cut a right angle accurately. It will then
automatically cut any other angle to w’hich it may be set. The
indicated point on the gauge should be filed to offset any slight
inaccuracy.
When a board is held against the miter gauge for either cross-
cutting or mitering, pressure of the left hand must be directly
across the board from the pivot of the gauge and not near one
end of the face strip. If the board to be cut off is wider than the
distance from the front of the saw to the front of the table, re-
verse the miter gauge in Never hold a wide board against
its slot.
the gauge and let one edge of it come down on the saw, or a
couple of badly pinched fingers might be the result (Fig. 15).
If the board is too wide to be included in the capacity of the
miter gauge of your saw, use the ripping guide.
Miter gauges are usually furnished with metal rods that regu-
late the length of the pieces that are being cut off (Fig. 16).
When a miter gauge is used in a left-hand table groove no part
of these rods should extend
past the miter gauge from the
right. When the miter gauge
is used in the right-hand table
groove the position must be
reversed.
Cutting miters. Mitering,
or cutting a board across the
grain at an angle to its edge,
is another form of crosscut-
ting, and is performed in ex-
Fig. 15. Crosscutting.

actly the same manner. To
form a four-sided frame, set
miter gauge at 45°, the most generally used angle. For a six-
sided frame the angle is 30°, and for an eight-sided one, 22y2°.
Dadoing and rabbeting. While dadoing and rabbeting can
be done on a bench saw, this tool is never intended to produce
finished dados and rabbets. Therefore only concealed ones should
Fig. 16. Miter gauge, provided with stop rods for

duplicate work, is used in crosscutting. Graduated
60° left and right and indexed every 15°.
be cut on a bench saw; finished dadoing and rabbeting is to be

done on a jointer or shaper. Special accessories for this work are
called dado heads and groovers.
Dado heads generally include two outside saws, each about
thick, whose teeth are not given any set. While they do not
make a finished cut, it is reasonably smooth with very few tool
markings on the sides. The inside chippers in dado heads consist of
one 1/4", two l^", and one (thickness at the hub) The actual
.
cutting portions of these inside cutters or chippers are widened

to overlap the adjacent cutter or saw. When assembling one of
these cutter heads, place the swaged or widened portion of the
inside chipper or cutter so that it fits into the gullet of the adja-
cent cutter or saw. The chipper teeth should be staggered around
the circumference of the outer saws, to distribute the cutting
effort more evenly and produce a smoother cut (Fig. 17).
In setting up a dado head on a bench saw be sure to clean off
all sawdust and dirt that has lodged on the saw arbor. In a
dado head there is quite a mass of metal revolving at a fairly
high speed, and if it is not running true it will set up a terrific
vibration. Put on the outside dado or groove saw first, then as
DADOING AND RABBETING 345
Fig. 17. Cutting a dado. Chippers are used in conjunction with

two
—
groover saw blades never alone.
many chippers as are necessary, then finally the outside

saw to
make the desired width of cut. Never use the chipper blades
without the two outside saws. Dado heads are
generally fur-
nished by the manufacturer to make a cut that is
variable from
to 1^" and then by sixteenths up to its full capacity of
by combinations of the outside saws and the chippers.
For ex-
ample, to cut a dado wide, use the two outside saws, each
Vs in width, plus a single 16" chipper in
order to make the
Vie' cut.
When the total width of the finished cut is over
set up
>
the dado head to a little more than half the

required width of
the cut and make two successive cuts. Each
cut must overlap
at the center to make up the required width. If the
total width
of the dado is more than twice the capacity of
the cutter head,
set it for a little over one-third of the width and
make three over-
lapping cuts. The design
of the cutting teeth of the dado head
permits cutting with the grain, across the grain, or at an
angle
to the grain.
The distance from the dado head to the ripping guide on the
bench saw regulates the location of the dado or groove being cut.
When the miter gauge used for dadoing across the grain of the
is
material, mark the location of the dado on the edge of the piece,
and locate the groove by that marking.
When one or both ends of the dado stop short of the edges of
the material it is called blind-dadoing. This can be done accu-
rately by clamping “stops” to the ripping guide in order to regu-
late the beginning and the end of the cut. The end of the piece
being cut should never come into contact with the ripping guide
itself during the operation. Use the guide merely as a means for
holding the “stops” in place. Where the grooves being cut are
of such a length that the stops are beyond the capacity of the
ripping guide, temporarily attach a longer piece of wood to the
guide,and mount the “stops” on the longer strip.

Rabbeting is merely cutting a groove along the edge of a board.
The procedure is essentially the same as for dadoing and requires
the same setups.
Cutting tenons. To cut tenons with a bench saw, first make
the shoulder cut. Raise the saw blade to project a distance above
the table equal to the depth of the shoulder of the tenon. Tighten
the adjusting screw to hold the saw firmly at the required height.
Then set the miter gauge as for a square cut, and the stop rods
to the required length of the tenons. Cut the shoulders on all
the pieces of work requiring this one depth of cut before chang-
ing the setting for any other pieces.
The cheek cuts of the tenon are made by clamping or screwing
a wide board to the rip fence. Set the rip fence so that the cuts
outside the line indicating the cheek cut are nearest the face side
of the work. This is necessary in order that the faces of the
finished parts will be as flush as possible when they are finally
assembled. Make the first cheek cut with the setup shown in
Fig. 18. After completing all the pieces required, move the rip-
ping fence and set it For this, hold the
for the second cheek cut.
face side of the work against the fence as shown in the same
illustration.
Taper cutting. Taper cutting is the process of cutting mate-
rial to a taper, or narrower at one end than at the other (Fig. 19).
To cut or rip a board to the desired taper on a bench saw, first
CUTTING OFF DUPLICATE WORK 347
Fig. 18. Cutting a tenon on the bandsaw.
make a full-sized drawing or

pattern of the taper. Trans-
fer this pattern to a piece of
plywood or waste lumber, and
cut to make the necessar}^
template or jig. Place the
board to be cut against this
jig, with the straight edge of
the jig against the rip fence of

the saw. Then push both the
jig and board past the saw
blade in the same manner as
for straight ripping or cutting
(Fig. 12). A right- and a left-
hand jig must be made when
material has to be tapered on
four sides.
Fig. 19. Adjustable jig is shown cut- Cutting off duplicate work.
ting a taper on a slender table leg In cutting off duplicate work
Fig. 20. Cutting off duplicate work. Note use of stop block instead of
stop rods.
stop blocks can be used instead of stop rods asshown in Fig. 20.
Sanding and other operations. The bench saw can be used
for cutting composition materials, brake linings, tile, and thin-
gauge metals, and for all types of sanding and buffing. Special
types of abrasive wheels are available for all of these procedures
with center holes the same
diameter as the spindle of the
bench saw (Fig. 21) Cutting
.
and sanding disks come in

various degrees of coarseness,
ranging from coarse, which is
used for fast cutting or sand-
ing, to fine, for finishing cuts
and sanding.
Safety rules. It is impera-
tive to stop the bench saw be-
fore making any necessary
adjustments.
CHAPTER 9
The Wood-Turning Lathe
A wood-turning lathe is a necessary tool for every motorized

home workshop. It is used for making turnings, shaping cylin-
drical parts of woodworking projects, drilling holes, and a great
variety of work of this character. The parts of a standard wood-
turning lathe are shown in Fig. 1.
While there are a great many kinds of lathes available, it is
important that the one purchased be made by a reputable manu-
facturer who will guarantee his product.
The “swing” or size of a lathe is the maximum diameter of
material that can be turned on it. To determine the swing of
any particular lathe, measure the height of the centers over the
lathe bed and multiply the result by two. If the height of the
centers is five inches, then the swing of that particular lathe will
349
350 THE WOOD-TURNING LATHE
be ten inches. For general woodworking purposes secure a lathe
that is at least 36" long between centers, with a swing of 9"
or 10".
The lathe bed should be constructed of heavy steel. Those
constructed of either rods or sections of pipe set up vibrations
which make accurate wood-turning an impossibility.
The headstock is one of the most important parts of the lathe,
as the power for turning the work is applied at this point. A
typical well-designed four-speed lathe headstock is shown in
Fig. 2. This type of headstock has the necessary strength at the
points supporting the spindle. It is solidly cast to eliminate any
danger of its working loose.
The choice of speeds on this
type of lathe makes it an
ideal tool for all general wood-
turning. Slow speeds are for
turning work of large diam-
eter or for roughing-out. The
high speeds are used for fin-
ishing, sanding, polishing,
drilling, routing, or grinding.
The headstock spindle
should be made from a solid
bar of hard steel, accurately
ground and polished, so that
it will have a perfect surface
for the precision ball bearings

on which it spins. It should
be large enough to withstand
strains placed upon it in turn-
Fig. 2. I âthe headstock with belt ing large pieces of work.
guard raised to show spindle bearings
assembly and four-step spindle pulley. Another important point to
consider in the choice of a
lathe is the construction of the headstock bearings and the pro-
visions made for lubricating them.
On four-speed lathes the drive pulleys must be accurately
made and well-balanced. Pulleys for the V-type belt are espe-
cially recommended ;
this type of belt will not slip.
:
DESIGN FEATURES 351

The tailstock is used to support the other end of the work that
is being turned between the centers (Fig. 3). The tailstock, like
the headstock, must be of sturdy construction to prevent
vibra-
tion. It must be accurately machined and fit properly
between
the rails of the lathe bed (Fig. 4), so that, no matter in
what
position the tailstock is secured, perfect alignment between the
lathe centers is kept. One
movement of the lock lever
should release the tailstock
for repositioning or tightening
onto the bed. This eliminates
the use of wrenches.
The dead center which fits
on the end of the tailstock
spindle should be either cone-
or cup-shaped with a replace-
able pin at its center. The
cup-shaped type is preferable
for centering the work and
keeping it true.
The tool rest must be de-
signed and constructed so that
the hand guiding the tool used
Fig. 3. View of tailstock showing
lever-controlled bedlock built into
for turning can be moved some of the newer lathes.
easily along the side of the
tool rest in a parallel line with the
work being turned. The base
that supports the tool rest must be rigid, and long
enough to
give proper clearance for the tool rest when turning
work of
large diameter. To clamp it tightly to the lathe bed the tool
rest should have a strong clamping device (Fig. 5).
To do efficient work, the lathe must have a motor of ample
power. A good, standard motor of at least 1/4 h.p. will furnish
all the power necessary.
All manufacturers furnish detailed instructions

for installing
and setting up their lathes. These instructions should be closelv
followed.
Necessary lathe tools and accessories. The following lathe

tools and accessories are necessary for wood-turning (Fig.
6)
352 THE WOOD-TVRNING LATHE
Gouges, V2 " and %"

''
Spear-point tool, V2
"
Skews, 1" and y2 " Round-nose chisel, V2
Parting tool, Vg"
In addition to the above, the following measuring tools should

be secured:
"
Ordinary rule, 12 Outside caliper, 6"
Inside caliper, 6" Pair of 8" dividers
Fig. 4. L athe bed and tailstock from rear.
All wood-turning tools are divided into three groups: roughing-

off tools, smoothing and cleaning-up tools, and scraping tools.
All of the cutting tools listed above fall into one or more of these
three groups.
Setting up the lathe. Whenever possible the lathe should be
mounted on the left-hand side of the workbench. It should be
placed so that the headstock end extends slightly beyond the end
of the bench. The motor should be mounted below the lathe.
A convenient height to set up the lathe (for a person of average
SETTING UP THE LATHE 353
height) is with the center of the headstock about 42" to 45"
from
the floor.
Adjustment of turning speeds for various operations. The
Fig. 5. Lathe tool rest.
ideal wood-turning lathe has four speeds:

700, 1350, 2200, and
4000 r.p.m. As far as speeds are concerned, considerable latitude
IS permitted in wood-turning. In other words, where a speed of
Fig. 6. Adequate set of wood-turning chisels. Left to right,

3 gouges, 2
skews, one round-nose, one spear-point, and one parting chisel.
1350 is specified, any speed ranging from 1100 to 1600 can be

used with safety.
The turning speed of the lathe is largely governed by the size
of the stock being turned. When turning small diameter stock,

use a faster speed than when turning larger diameters.
As a concrete example of the various speeds that are used, let
us take a piece of stock approximately 3" square. The first opera-
tion will be to rough-off the corners of the stock. For this job
use a speed from 600 to 1200 r.p.m. The lower speed is used for
hardwoods, and the faster speed is usually used for any of the
softer types of wood. After knocking off the corners of the stock
by this preliminary operation, use the second speed of the lathe
(from 1200 to 1800 r.p.m) for roughing the material down to
preliminary size. For the final finishing cuts turn the work at
2000 to 3000 r.p.m. This same speed can be used for sanding a
turning. However, for turning material more than 3" in diameter
an entirely different range of speeds is required. The table of
speeds for stock of varying diameters is as follows:
2.000-
TURNING SPEEDS
1.000-
Roughing Off General Cutting Finishing
3" dia. stock 500-1,200 1,200-1,800 3,000 r.p.m.

4" dia. stock 600-1,000 1,000-1,500 1,800-2,400 r.p.m.
5" dia. stock 600- 800 800-1,000 1,800 r.p.m,
Over 5" stock 200- 500 200- 500 400- 500 r.p.m.
OPERATION OF THE LATHE

Locating center points. Unless the center points on the ends
of the stock that is to be turned are not properly located, a con-
siderable amount of vibration will result, and it will be impos-
sible to make an accurate turning. To locate the exact center
point on the end of square stock, draw diagonal lines across the
end (Fig. 7). On round material determine the center point

quickly by the use of a pair of dividers or calipers. Then make
two diagonal saw cuts across the end that is to be at the head-
stock of the lathe. With a soft-faced mallet drive the spur of
the headstock faceplate into the saw-cut at the center point
OPERATION OF THE LATHE 355
(Fig. 8). Never under any

circumstances drive the piece
of wood against the headstock
of a lathe by hammering on
the far end. This will ruin
the bearings on the lathe, and
in time will knock the head-
stock out of correct align-
ment. To keep the lathe in
good working condition never
do any hammering on the
lathe itself.
Methods used in wood-
turning. Two methods are
used wood-turning the
in —
scraping method and the cut- Fig. 7. Locating center of stock by
ting method. The scraping drawing diagonal lines.
method is slower, but is far
simpler to master without an
and has the added
instructor,
advantage of being more ac-
curate than the cutting
method. Where speed of op-
eration is not important the
scraping method of wood-
turning is recommended, espe-
cially for the beginner. If
you have become skillful in
this phase of craftsmanship
and desire to speed up the
work, then by all means at-
tempt the cutting method. In
the basic operations that are
described in this chapter, the
scraping method will be dis-
cussed first.
Mounting the stock. Re-

place the spur center on the Fig. 8. Driving spur into center with
prongs of spur entering saw cuts.
headstock and tighten the Note plastic hammer.
setscrews. Press the work to be turned against the spurs, so that

they enter the groove in the end of the material.
Movethe tailstock of the lathe so that the point of the dead
center of the tailstock is approximately from the end of the
material. Tighten and secure the tailstock firmly to the lathe
bed. Proceed by turning the handwheel of the tailstock so that
when the head center enters the material it will be set in so
firmly that the work cannot be turned by hand. Turn the hand-
wheel in the opposite direction to loosen it just enough so that
the work can now be turned by hand. Tighten the dead-center
clamp at the top of the tailstock to hold the spindle firmly in
position.
Adjusting the tool rest. The proper adjustment of the tool
rest the last preliminary operation before starting the actual

is
turning. The tool rest must always be adjusted so that its top
is from to i/4" above the centers (Fig. 9). The top of the
tool rest must never be below the centers or below the center
set
of the piece that is being turned. The top edge of the tool rest
must always be parallel to the stock, and about away from
the farthest projecting edge of the stock. Revolve the stock by
hand to ascertain that has the proper amount of clearance. Be
it
sure that all clamps are tight and all necessary adjustments made
before turning on the power. Take a position in front of the
lathe with the left side turned a little nearer to the lathe than
the right. When working on a lathe avoid wearing loose apparel
that maybe caught by the moving parts of the lathe.
Shaping square stock to a cylinder. The first step in the
process of shaping a rectangular piece of material to cylindrical
form on a lathe is This process consists of cut-
called roughing.
ting off the square corners of the material until the piece is ap-
proximately cylindrical.
Use a large gouge for making the roughing cuts. The stock
must be properly centered and mounted, and the tool rest ad-
justed. Assuming that the stock is not over 3" square, the lathe
should be run at a comparatively slow speed and the V-belt
should be placed on the second largest pulley.
Hold the gouge in the left hand with the hand against the tool
rest and the fingers around the tool. Hold the extreme end of the
handle with the right hand and drop the wrist slightly, to permit
ADJUSTING THE TOOL REST 357
the side of the left hand to act as a sliding guide along the tool
rest (Figs. 10 and The
cutting end of the gouge must be
11).
held above the material with the handle held lower (Fig.
12).
To make the necessary shirring cut, roll the gouge just a trifle
toward the right (Fig. 12).
Lift the handle slowly as the
work revolves and force the
cutting edge of the tool into
the wood. For proper disposal
of the flying chips, hold the
tool at an angle to the axis of
the work (Fig. 12). Make the
first cut several inches from
the dead center. Never start
a cut at the end of the stock;
the cutting tool is apt to catch Fig. 9. Proper tool rest adjustment.
and be forcibly thrown from
your hand. When rounding
off the material do not take
long cuts; large chips or sliv-
ers of wood are apt to fly off,
causing injury to you and to

the material. Start the second
cut several inches to the left
of the first and continue in Fig. 10. Correct position to start
the direction of the first cut cut.
until both meet. When com-

bined, these cuts are called
the primary roughing cut.
When making primary
this
roughing cut do not attempt
to shape the material to a per-
fect cylindrical form of the
Fig. 11. Where and how gouge is
required dimension. During
held.
roughing, check dimensions of
the cylinder with the calipers. Continue to move the gouge back
and forth from right to left on the tool rest until the entire piece
of stock is cylindrical in form and approximately i/g" larger
than the largest diameter of the turning. Then stop the lathe.
Fig. 12. Shaping square stock to cylindrical form, using a gouge chisel.
The parting tool is used to make the next series of cuts, called
sizing cuts. Move the belt to the next smaller pulley to obtain
a faster speed.
Readjust the position of the tool rest to from the cylinder,
and tighten in place. For purposes of elementary instruction
let us assume that the material is to be turned to a perfect
cylinder. Set the calipers to a diameter Vie" greater than that

required for the finished work. This allowance has to be made
for the finishing cuts and final sanding.
Hold the calipers in the left hand and the parting tool in the
right (Fig. 13). Using the parting tool,
Start the lathe running.
cut a narrow groove in the work several inches from dead center.
Take light, thin shavings and do not exert too much pressure on
the tool. As the work proceeds check with the calipers the depth
of cuts made. Stop cutting when the leg of the calipers passes
over the cut without any pressure. Repeat the operation at inter-
vals of about one inch for the entire length of the work. These
grooves are called parting or sizing cuts.
SHAPING SQUARE STOCK TO A CYLINDER 359
Fig» 13. Sizing stock with parting tool and calipers set
Yiq" larger than
finished diameter. When proper size is reached, calipers will slip over work.
Cutting and smoothing the cylinder to the required dimension
is the next and final step. This is called the finishing cut. When
making this cut on the lathe by the scraping method, use a square-
nose turning chisel or an ordinary woodworking firmer chisel with
a long blade. A short-bladed chisel cannot be held properly on
the tool rest. Hold the chisel with the beveled side of the blade
down and flat against the top of the tool rest (Fig. 14). Use a
scraping action and run the tool along the entire length of the ma-
terial until the cylinder has been smoothed down to the required
dimension. Test for squareness with a straightedge laid length-
wise against the work. If it is not perfectly straight give the work
another light scraping with the same tool.
A large skew chisel is the took
used for smoothing cylinders by
the more difficult but faster cutting or paring method (Fig. 15).
It must be laid on the tool rest with its cutting edge above the
work and at an angle of approximately 60° to the surface of the
work. Draw the chisel back slowly toward you, and raise it until
it begins to cut at a point approximately above its heel (Fig.
16). Hold it shown in Fig. 17 when cutting toward
in the position
the right end of the material, and change to the position shown in
Fig. 18 when cutting toward the left. Start the cut several inches
from the right end of the work and work toward the right by sliding
the left hand and the tool along the tool rest. Turn the chisel in
the opposite direction and cut the remaining portion to the left
Fig. 14. Finish-turning a cylinder with the chisel used as a scraping tool.
end of the work. The use of the skew chisel in cutting cylinders
smooth is more difficult than the scraping method. A close study
of the illustrations and directions plus continued practice on scrap
material are necessary before
using the cutting or paring
1
method.
"W I
heel Making sizing cuts. When

the material has been turned to
a perfect cylindrical form of
Fig. 15. Parts of a skew chisel.
the required dimension, it is
ready for turning or forming to any desired shape or combination

of shapes that constitute a finished turning.
Make a full-size dimensioned drawing of the projected turning.
Then indicate the points where the sizing cuts are to be made and
MAKING SIZING CUTS 361
Fig^. 16. Finish-turning a cylinder with the skew chisel.
mark them on the drawing (Fig. 19). With a pair of dividers

transfer these points from the drawing and mark them on the
cylin-
der. Mount the
cylinder in the lathe between the two centers. Place
the point of a pencil on each of the marks made by the
dividers
and revolve the cylinder by hand to mark the entire circumfer-
ence. Set a pair of outside calipers for a diameter
Vig" larger than
required, as shown in the full-size drawing or pattern at the point
where the first sizing cut is to be made.
The parting tool is used to make the sizing cuts. Place its narrow
edge on the tool rest with the point above the line of the centers.
Set the point on one of the pencil marks on the turning, start the
lathe, raise the handle of the parting tool,and push the point into
the material. Check the accuracy of the sizing cut by holding the
previously set outside calipers in' the groove that has been cut.
Continue cutting until the calipers slip easily over the work. Set
the calipers for each of the subsequent sizing cuts and proceed in
the same manner. Sectional views of completed sizing cuts are
shown in Fig. 20. Wood
turnings usually consist of several types
of cuts, called taper, concave, convex, and bead cuts.
Making the taper cuts. The round-nose chisel or the gouge is
used to make taper cuts by the scraping method. Always cut from
the larger to the smaller end of the taper. With the chisel, cut
down to within about of the entire depths of the sizing cuts
previously made with the sizing
or parting tool, using the same
procedure as outlined for form-
ing the stock to cylindrical
form. Finish with the square-
nose chisel. As cutting pro-
ceeds, check the work with the
calipers set from the full-size
Fig. 17. Using skew chisel in cut-
ting toward the right.
drawing.
The skew chisel is used to
make taper cuts by the more
difficult cutting method. Place
the chisel on the tool rest at
an angle of about 60 ° to the
surface of the material and
slightly above it. After start-
ing the lathe, draw the chisel
Fig. 18. Position of chisel for left- back just a trifle, until the heel
side cutting.
starts the cut, then draw it a
little farther down and back to
the original position. Repeat

these movements until the ac-
tual cutting is being done by
the heel of the tool. The entire
taper cut can be made with the
heel. Avoid the danger of mak-
ing deeper cuts than required
Fig. 19. Cylinder marked with
dividers. and eventually ruining the
turning. The rule of starting
the cut from the larger and proceeding to the smaller end of the
taper applies also to the cutting method. You should not attempt
the cutting method until you have acquired considerable skill in
the use of the lathe and lathe cutting tools.
Making concave cuts. The round-nose chisel is used to make
concave cuts by the scraping method. After making the parting
or sizing cuts and checking dimensions with the calipers, place the
MAKING CONCAVE CUTS 363
round-nose chisel on the tool rest with the bevel side down.
flat
Hold the tool slightly above the center of the work at right angles
to its axis (Fig. 21). Start the lathe and begin the cutting at the
top. Complete the concave cut by light cuts with the chisel, work-
ing down on each side of the cut previously made by the parting
Fig. 20. How sizing cuts are made in series turning.
chisel, to within of the required depth (Fig. 21). The remain-

ing material can be removed by light smoothing cuts with the
chisel or by sanding.
A gouge used for making concave cuts by the more difficult
is
cutting method. Hold the tool in a horizontal position

with the
hollow part up (Fig. 22 and B, Fig. 23) Start the cut at the
.
top.
Roll and push the tool forward simultaneously to the right
and
down toward the bottom of the cut, as shown at A, Fig. 23, and in
Fig. 24. Note the exact position of the gouge, its necessary roll-
ing motion and the angle of the tool to the work (Figs. 25
and 26).
Always start the cut from the high point in the design and work
to the lowest point. Then
reverse the position of the tool and start
the cut at the top of the other left side. The bottom of each side
must then be cut alternately, and the cutting tool repeatedly
shifted from right to left until the required shape of the concave
cut has been produced.
Bead cutting. The diamond-point or the parting chisel is used
for bead or convex cutting by the scraper method. Mark the cyl-
inder for the beads as for the other cuts previously described. With
either tool make the cut to the desired depth. Hold the diamond-
point chisel at a slight angle to the work to round out the corners
of the bead (Fig. 27). The parting tool can be used instead of
the diamond-point chisel when the beads on the turning are not
close together. Round
out the right-hand corner of each bead first,
then reverse the tool to round out the left corner. Repeat the
operation for each bead.
364 THE WOOD TURNING LATHE
The skew chisel is used for making beads or convex curves by

the cutting or paring method. Mark the cylinder where the cuts
are to be made. Make the cuts to the required depth with the toe
of the skew chisel, as shown at
A, Fig. 28. Then place the
skew chisel flat on the tool rest
and at right angles to the axis
of the turning, as shown at B,
Fig. 28. Start cutting at the top
of the cylinder, with the heel of
the chisel (Fig. 29).Turn the
tool gradually and draw it to-
Fig, 21. Scraping method in mak- ward you simultaneously as the
ing concave cuts.
bottom of the curve is reached,
as shown in C and D, Fig. 28.
Then reverse the chisel to cut
the other side of the bead.
Faceplate turning. When
the work to be turned cannot
be held between the live and
the dead center on the lathe, a
Fig. 22. Cutting method in making faceplate is used. There are
concave cuts.
severalmethods of fastening
the work onto the faceplate.
The choice of the one to be
used is largely dependent upon
the shape and size of the turn-
ing. “Center screw work” is
used for forms that do not re-
quire any deep cutting in the
Fig. 23. Right-hand concave cut-
center, such as knobs or ro-
ting direction.
and for other small orna-
settes,
mental turnings. For center
screw work a hole is usually
provided in the center of the
faceplate through which a
screw is inserted (Fig. 30).
Where work of a larger na-
Fig. 24, Concave cutting position. ture is to be done, or where the

FACEPLATE TURNING 365
turning is to be deep, such as a salad bowl, platter, or other large
and ornamental piece, a large faceplate is used. This has several
holes through which screws are inserted, from the back, into
the material that is to be turned (Figs. 31 and 32).
Fig. 25. Gouge position at start of “rolling” cut when making concave
cuts by the cutting or paring method.
Before attaching it onto either type of faceplate remove all sur-

plus wood from the material by drawing a circle on it a trifle larger
indiameter than desired for the finished work. Cut this circle out
with a scroll or band saw. Center the work accurately when screw-
ing it to the faceplate. If the material beinghardwood, used is
drill small holes in it to start the screws. Use short, heavy flat-
headed screws that will enter the work not more than %" to V2 ^'.
Make certain that the work is securely fastened to the faceplate
and that the ends of the screws will not come in contact with the
cutting tool when the work is being turned (Fig. 31).
When the shape of the finished work is such that contact with
the screws cannot be avoided, the work must be backed up with a
disk of the same size. Bore and countersink the holes for the
Fig. 26. Proper position of gouge at the end of “rolling” cut when making
concave cuts by the cutting or paring method.
screws at points where they will not come in contact with the tool.
Screw this extra disk on work and attach the faceplate to this
extra disk, or backing piece as it is called (Fig. 32).
Place the faceplate on the end of the lathe spindle and tighten
the setscrews.
Fig. 27. Diamond-point tool for Fig. 28. Method of cutting beads
rounding beads. with a skew.
FACEPLATE TURNING 367
Fig. 29. Forming a bead with the skew chisel.
Next place the tool rest so that its top edge is about Vs" above
the center of the revolving turning. Use a large
chisel to turn the
outside of the work roughly to within
Yg" of the required diameter.
The various speeds used for faceplate work are dependent on the
diameter of the stock, and are essentially the same as for cylin-
drical turnings. Consult the table of speeds given
in this chapter.
When the material has been turned to approximately the finished
diameter, readjust the tool rest to a position where its T-section
is
across the face of the turning and at right angles to the
center of
the lathe bed (Fig. 33).
Use the large gouge first in spacing off the turning if the ma-
terial is not smooth. Then true up the surface with the flat-nose
chisel. If the work is of large diameter, use the straight edge of
the chisel on smaller diameters the side of the chisel can be used.
;
When making concave cuts, use either the large or the small
gouge, or the Y4 or YY' round-nose flat chisel. Hold it perfectly
:
flat on the tool post and use a scraping cut. For making rounded-
off or beaded members use either the skew-point, the diamond-
point, or the flat-nose chisel and employ the same type of cuts.
Sandpapering and finishing turnings. To sandpaper turnings
in the lathe, Nos. 0, 000, 0000, and 00000 are usually used. Cut
strips of sandpaper about 1" wide. These must be held in both
hands with the right hand
above, and the left below the
turning. To avoid cutting
grooves keep the sandpaper in
motion while the work is turn-
ing in the lathe. Fold the sand-
paper and use the edge of the
Fig. 30. Use of center-screw face- fold to get into the bottom of a
plate for turning.
V-shaped cut.
After sanding the turning
smooth, finish and polish it in
the lathe. Dilute commercial
shellac with an equal quantity
of wood alcohol. Make a pad
of cheesecloth about 2" square.
Dip this into the diluted shel-
lac and then put several drops
of a good grade of machine oil
on the pad. Hold the pad
lightly on the revolving turn-
ing, keeping it in contact with
all work and in
parts of the
Fig. 31. Faceplate with backing
motion all of the time. The
piece.
heat generated by friction will
harden and glaze the shellac so
that it becomes necessary from
time to time to redip the pad.
Each time the pad is dipped
into the shellac additional oil
must also be dropped on the

pad.
Fig. 32. Faceplate attached to disk
Another method of finishing
for turning.
turnings is with beeswax, car-
nauba, or ordinary paraffin wax. Hold the wax in lump form
against the turning as it revolves. The heat generated by fric-
tion will melt a portion of the wax and deposit a coating on the
SANDPAPERING AND FINISHING TURNINGS 369
turning. After the entire turning has been coated, hold a wad
made of soft tissue paper against the turning to give it a good
polish. If a higher polish is desired, repeat the entire operation.
Maintenance. All manufacturers of lathes issue specific lubri-
Fig. 33. Faceplate turning.
cation directions. To keep the lathe in good working condition

these directions must be followed.
Keep the cutting edges of all lathe tools sharp and free from
nicks. The procedure for sharpening the chisels and gouges used
forwood-turning are the same as those for grinding and whetting
woodworking chisels (Chap. 2). '
CHAPTER 10
The Band Saw
The band saw isgenerally used for cutting outside outlines of

work. Contrary to general belief it is not limited to the cutting
of thin stock. It can cut either a single thick piece or a combina-
tion of pieces, provided the thickness of the stock is less than the
clearance between the top guide and the table. It can always be
used to advantage to cut single- or multiple-curved parts where
cuts are started from the edge of the material. Adistinct advan-
tage favoring the use of the band saw is that the saw blade in its
cutting action carries the sawdust downward, thus leaving
all of
the marked guiding lines on the work visible at all times. The im-
portant parts of a band saw are: the frame, wheels, bearings,
guides, and guards (Fig. 1).
The frame must be sturdy, well-designed, and rigid so as to
furnish the required strength without any danger of springing or
up excessive vibrations.
setting
When choosing a band saw, inspect the rims both saw wheels
of
and make sure they are covered with rubber. This rubber cover-
ing protects the teeth of the blade and furnishes proper adhesion
between the narrow blade, which is rotating at high speed, and the
rim of the wheel. The upper wheel of a well-designed band saw
should be adjustable vertically and tiltable either forward or back-
ward. All good band saws are provided with a blade-tensioning
device. This device should be located in a convenient position
on
the upper wheel.
The wheels revolve at a high speed therefore all of the bearings
;
in the machine must be of excellent quality and made of

bronze.
Bearings of inferior quality will wear out quickly, resulting in ^

wobbly wheels, inaccurate work, and, frequently, broken blades.
370
THE BAND SAW 371
The bearings must be accessible and fitted with

cups that will
oil
piovide sufficient oil to permit running for considerable time with-
out re-oiling.
The drive shaft must be perfectly aligned parallel with the
table, or the saw will not run squarely with the table.
Be sure that the table is made of a solid well-ribbed casting that
has been machined perfectly smooth and true. The table insert
should be made of soft aluminum and must be
removable so that
it can be replaced quickly and
economically whenever necessary.
The table must be adjustable and tiltable. An ideal type of table
is provided with an accurate scale
permitting fast and accurate
372 THE BAND SAW
setting at any desired angle without the use of a protractor. A
convenient lockscrew should be provided to lock the table wherever
it is set (Fig. 2)
Two blade guides above the table and two below should be pro-
Fig, 2. Underside of bandsaw table showing double

truunions, graduated for angle of table tilt. Ribbing
of table casting insures permanent accuracy of table
surface.
vided to steady and support the blade and direct it for accurate
cutting. They should be made of bronze and must be adjustable
(Fig. 3.)
The greatest danger in the operation of a band saw occurs when
the blade is forced off the wheel, or when it snaps or breaks while
the machine is in operation. All well-designed band saws are pro-
vided with proper guards covering the blade at all points except
the cutting point, and with an additional guard to protect the me-
chanic from the moving belt (Fig. 4).
These instructions for installing, adjusting, and
Installation.
operating a band saw will apply to all of the better band saws
available. However, various manufacturers have placed some of
the controls in slightly different positions from those described.
These altered positions may affect to some extent the adjustment
of any particular machine. Before proceeding with any adjust-
ments, be sure to check the manufacturer’s printed instructions.
INSTALLATION 373
Mount saw on a sturdy, level bench that is high enough so

the
that the top of the saw table will be slightly lower than your
el-
bows. Before bolting it to the bench, be sure that the base of the
band saw rests solidly and
squarely on all feet. If a
level shows it to be not per-
fectly square, insert shims,
which can be made of thin
pieces of metal or hardwood,
between the base of the tool
and the benchtop.
The band saw will require
^ Mi or V
2 h.p., 1725 r.p.m.
capacitor or repulsion-induc-
tion motor. A 2i/^" diameter
motor pulley (usual size fur-
nished) will deliver a spindle
speed of 640 r.p.m. and a cut-
ting speed of 2050 f.p.m.,
which is just about correct
for all types of smooth cut-
ting. The motor can be Fig. 3. Two bronze blade guides
mounted either behind or be- above the table and two below, and
a ball-bearing thrust wheel above and
low the saw in whatever posi-
below, support and direct the blade
tion is convenient. for accuracy.
Fig. 4. Safety guard protects operator from

moving belt.
374 THE BAND SAfF
You may sometimes experience a slight electric shock when

touching the saw. It is possible that this is caused by a static
electrical charge set up by the friction of the moving parts and is
not necessarily an indication of faulty motor windings or grounds.

To correct this condition, ground the saw frame to a water or radi-
ator pipe.
Controls. On most band saws knob or wheel on the rear
the
controls the blade tension. The double set of knobs controls the
tilt of the upper wheel. The outside knob tilts the wheel to track
the blade properly and the inside knob locks the tilt setting.
The sliding bar controls the vertical position of the saw guide
bracket. When operating the saw place the guide just above the
work. To adjust this guide, loosen the lock knob, place guide in
proper position, and retighten (Fig. 5).
The table tilt is usually controlled by either a knob or a control
wheel under the table. The
table can be tiltedand locked
securely at any angle between
0° and 45°, with the angle
shown on a graduated scale.
The knobs on the saw guide
brackets, two above the table
and two below, control the
thrust wheel and the blade
guide blocks. Be sure always
to release the setscrews before
making any adjustments to
the thrust wheel or guide
blocks.
Blades used. For all
straight and general circular

Fig. 5. Controls for tension, blade cutting a ys'' blade should be
support, and upper saw wheel tilt are used. This size will cut a cir-
located at rear of saw.
cle 21/2^^ iri diameter. A
blade will cut a 2" circle and a blade will cut a circle.
When selecting a blade for any specific job use the widest blade
with the coarsest teeth that will cut the sharpest contours of the
pattern.
Mounting the blade. To mount a saw blade remove the upper
CONTROLS 375
and lower wheel guards. Turn the wheel tension control or knob
until the tension is released. Remove the setscrew in the table slot.
Pa^s the blade through the table slot, into the left blade guard,
then under the lower wheel between the upper and lower blade
guides, and finally over the top wheel. Turn the wheel tension
control or knob until a slight tension is felt on the blade. Replace
the setscrew in the saw table. The next operation consists in track-
ing. Rotate the upper wheel by hand in a clockwise direction as
viewed from front of saw. If the blade runs off the wheel make
the following adjustments: Move both the upper and lower thrust
wheels and blade guide blocks away from the blade. Turn the
lower wheel by hand and adjust the upper one with the tilt knob
or control until the blade runs or tracks in the center of
both
heels. Tighten the tilt lock knob firmly and securely.
Checking blade tension. Correct blade tension can be acquired

only by experience. Do not put too much tension on the blade.
Wide blades can stand more tension than narrow ones, A good
general rule is to keep the blade at a tension that is just tight
enough to produce a low tone when it is struck (Fig. 6).
Adjusting blade guide blocks and thrust wheels. Two pairs
of guide blocks, one above and one below the saw table, align the
blade and prevent its twisting. To accommodate the different sizes
of blades loosen the setscrews and position the blocks so that they
just clear the sides of the blade. Check clearance with a piece of
paper. To make sure that the blade passes freely between the
blocks rotate the upper wheel by hand. After correct setting is
obtained tighten the setscrews securely. Proceed by loosening the
upper and lower guide-block slide setscrews and position them so
that the front edges of the blocks are even with the bottom of the
blade teeth. Retighten the screws.
To adjust the thrust wheels, loosen the setscrews that lock them.
Set the thrust wheels into position so that they just touch the saw
blade. Retighten the setscrews.*
Operating tbe band saw. Before starting the saw, always
lower the blade guide until it is just above the work. Check the
blade for proper tension. Be sure that it is mounted properly and
the teeth point down on the downward stroke. Examine stock
carefully before sawing to make sure that it is free of nails. Feed
376 THE BAND SAW
the work evenly and slowly to avoid twisting the blade or crowd-
ing it beyond its cutting capacity.
Never force the material with too hard a pressure against the
Fig. 6. C.ônecl tension is inii)ortant in mounting

blade.
teeth of the blatle. A light contact is sufficient. Move the stock

easily and steadily and just fast enough to give.
When the pattern curves, turn the stock so that the blade will
follow the line without any danger of twisting. If the pattern has
a number of sharp curves, make a series of straight saw cuts in the
waste stock opposite each curve before starting. This facilitates

removal of waste material and prevents binding.
When impossible to continue a cut to the end, cut through
it is
the waste stock to the edge of the work and start a new cut at an-
other point. If this is not possible and it is necessary to back out
of a cut,draw the work very slowly away from the saw blade. Be
sure that the blade follows the saw cut that you are backing out
OPERATING THE BAND SAW 377
of. Failure to do this carefully may force the blade off the
wheels.
Straight sawing. To cut a straight line with a band
saw, rest
your left hand on the table and use it as a guide while grasping
the
material and feeding it to the saw with your right hand (Fig.
7).
^^tting curves. In cutting curves either hand can be used as
7. Making a straight cut with the band saw.
a guide. Cutting curves is quite simple once the knack of properly

guiding the saw around them is acquired (Fig. 8). To cut a curve
with a sharp, clean edge, exert just a slight pressure of the stock
against the side of the blade on the inside of the curve. A ragged
instead of a smooth edge will result if you attempt to cut curves
freehand, that allow the blade to cut without guiding the ma-
is,
terial. It is important to use a blade of correct width. When cut-

ting small circles use a blade. For larger circles (over 2" in
diameter) a %" blade must be used. Never attempt to force a
wide blade around small curves or circles, and do not use a nar-
row blade to cut large curves or circles.
378 THE BAND SAW
Cutting circles. A simple method of cutting circles and true
parts of circles is to swing the stock on a pivot (Fig. 9). Cut the
board a little wider than the radius of the circle to be cut and
clamp it to the saw table. Drive a small nail or brad into this
board and file off its head so that it projects about Yg" above the
Fig. 8. Cutting cui'vcs.
board. This projection will act as tlie pivot, and should be located
at a distance from the blade ccpial to the radius of the circle to
be cut, and on a direct line with the cutting edge of the blade (C
and D, Fig. 9). The radius of the required circle is indicated at
R in the same illustration. Take care to locate the pivot properly.
Then place the center of the stock over the pivot, with one edge
against the blade. Be sure that the point of the pivot enters the
stock. then a simple matter to turn the stock against the
It is
blade until a complete circle of the required radius has been cut.
If a bevel edge is desired, tilt the table and make the cut in ex-
actly thesame manner as for a square edge.
Cutting combination curves. Combination curves, which are
cuts combining two or more curves, are cut in series. A typical
CUTTING CIRCLES 379
combination curve shown in is
Fig. 10. The first cut is shown

at B, the second and third cuts
are shown at C, the fourth and
final cut (the fifth cut in this
particular case) is shown at D.
Cutting circular rails. The
method used for making a cir-
cular rail out of a narrow piece
of stock is shown in Fig. 11. It
leaves very little waste and is
used principally when cutting

top rails out of costly wood or
Fig. 9. Jig for bandsawing circles.
veneer. The dotted line at A A, saw table; B, board; C, pivot;
shows where the first cut is D, blade; E, stock; F, clamps.
made. After making the cut,
glue both pieces together as
shown at B (the glue joint is in-
dicated by the solid line). The
dotted lines at B show where
the cuts should be made to
complete the rail (C, Fig. 11).
Multiple cutting. Cutting
several pieces of the same pat-
tern or outline at the same time
not only saves considerable
time but ensures that all of Fig, 10. Steps for cutting combina-
tion curves.
them will be exactly alike. The
number of pieces that can be
cut simultaneously depends on
the thickness of the material
and the capacity of the band
saw. Multiple sawing can be
done very easily if all of the
pieces are securely held to-
'
gether with nails at points that

will be cut away, that is, in the
waste portion of the material,
so that the finished work will Fig. 11. Making a circular rail.
380 THE BAND SAW
not be marked. Mark the outline on the top piece and proceed to
cut the connected pieces as they were one solid piece. Make
if
sure that none of the nails come in contact with the teeth of the
saw (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Multiple cutting. Pieces are nailed together through waste
part of stock.
Maintenance and lubrication. Clean sawdust from table trun-

nions frequently. Make sure that motor and spindle pulleys stay
aligned, and keep setscrews tight to prevent scoring of motor shaft
and spindle. When saw is not in use, release blade tension. To
prevent rust, keep saw table covered with film of oil when not in
use. If machine is used frequently, oil bearings or fill oil cups every
month with SAE 10 machine oil. Oil the following points at regu-
lar intervals of one month (if used infrequently, oil every six
months)
Upper and lower wheel bearings;
Table trunnions;
Upper wheel tilt and tension screws;
Blade guide blocks.
CHAPTER 11
The Jig Saw

—
A jig saw can be utilized for a certain percentage of the work

that can be done on the band saw, but it has the added advantage
of being able to cut inside curves. Jig saws are used for cutting
wood, thin-gauge copper, aluminum, brass, and similar soft metals
and plastics. Where delicate scroll work, fretwork, and similar
types of ornamental cutting are required, the jig saw is an indis-
pensable tool in the home workshop.
The essential parts of a jig saw are shown in Fig. 1.
381
382 THE JIG SAW
Installation of a jig saw. The instructions in this chapter
covering installation, adjustment, and operation are for a stand-
ard type of saw and apply to all of the better makes. Various
jig
manufacturers set some of the controls in slightly different posi-

tions which may affect to some extent the adjustment of any par-
ticular jig saw. Be sure to check these instructions given with
manufacturer’s directions before proceeding.
The jig saw must be mounted on a sturdy, level bench or stand.
The top of the jigsaw table should be slightly lower than the el-
bows. Be sure that the base of the saw is level before bolting it
in place.
With a 1/3 or V2 h.p., 1725 r.p.m. capacitor or repulsion-induction
type motor, the average jig saw has four spindle speeds: 570, 858,
1220, and 1658 r.p.m.
To install the motor, slide the jigsaw pulley onto the motor shaft
so that the small step of the spindle pulley is next to the motor;
tighten the pulley setscrew. Fasten motor to motor base, but do
not tighten bolts securely. Place belt around small step of motor
pulley and large step of spindle pulley. Shift motor until pulleys
are aligned and belt is absolutely straight. Slide the motor base
back until belt is tight, and secure in this position. The motor
must rotate counterclockwise facing the pulley end. The belt
should be just tight enough to prevent slipping and this tension
must be maintained at all times.
Controls on the jig saw. The knob at the rear of the saw table
controls the table-tilt lock. The table can be tilted 15° to the
left, and 45° to the right, with the angle shown on the graduated
scale. The trunnion support bracket swivels in a complete circle
to permit cutting compound angles. In this type of jig saw, a hose
carries air from a pump mounted on the drive shaft to a blower
nozzle above the table. This blower hose keeps layout lines free
of sawdust and visible at all times (Fig. 2).
The work hold-down holds the work against the table, enabling
one to concentrate on following the layout lines (Fig. 3). The
vertical position is controlled by the adjustable sliding bar. To
make any adjustments merely loosen the thumbscrew on the left
side of the saw arm, place the hold-down against the work, and
retighten the screw. The hold-down may be tilted for angular cut-
ting by loosening the machine screw that holds it in place. The
CONTROLS OF THE JIG SAW 383
hold-down guide bar must always be placed on the right side of

the saw arm when the table is swiveled for the full 90° for cutting
long pieces of material.
The lockscrews both the upper and lower chucks lock the
in
blade in the chuck jaws. These lockscrews are usually loosened
and tightened by an Allen wrench (Fig. 4).
The blade guide and the blade-support wheel, located directly
show angle of tilt. Trunnion .support bracket swuvels in complete circle

to
allow cutting of compound angles. Hose carries air from
pump mounted
on drive shaft to blower nozzle above table.
above the work hold-down, support the blade and keep it running
ti ue (Fig. 5). Both can be adjusted vertically and horizontally.
For vertical adjustment, loosen the thumbscrew on the left side of
the saw arm. For horizontal adjustment, loosen the two screws
on top of the guide. To adjust the blade guide to accommodate
any width of blade, turn the machine screw on the side of the
blade guide. Both guide and wheel should be adjusted so that
the
teeth of the saw blade rub against them lightly. Position
the blade
guide so that its front edge is even with the bottom of the blade
teeth.
384 THE JIG SAW
The knob on the right side of saw arm controls the blade-
control
tension housing (Fig. 1) Loosen this control to adjust the housing
.
for various lengths of blades.

Selecting and mounting blades. There are two distinct types
of blades —the regular jig-
saw and the Sabre
blade
blade. Both come in various
sizes. The choice of the type
of blade to use depends on
the material that is being cut
and the circumferences of
the curves. A jigsaw blade
wide with eleven teeth
to the inch is ideal for gen-
eral purposes. In addition
to this, secure several smaller
blades with 12 to 16, and 18
to 20 teeth to the inch. For
fine work secure several
blades with from 20 to 50
teeth per inch.
Fig. 3. View showing upper operat- Always use the largest
ing shaft, blade-support roller and ad-
blade with the coarsest teeth
justable blade-guide bar, work hold-
down, and blower nozzle. that will cut the material
cleanly and is able to cut the
sharpest curve in any pattern that you are working on. Sabre
blades, thicker and wider than ordinary blades, are used for cut-
ting large panels or surfaces. For cutting wood, the thinner and
harder it is and the finer the finish desired, the finer the teeth of
the blades should be.
The abruptness of the contours to be cut governs the thickness
and width of the blade to be used; sharp curves require thin, nar-
row blades.
Thin-gauge metal can be cut on the jig saw with fine-toothed
blades. The width and thickness of metal-cutting blades are gov-
erned by the same rules that apply to the selection of wood-cutting
blades. To cut plastics, a medium-thin blade with medium teeth
is used.
To mount a jigsaw blade insert it approximately %" into the
SELECTING AND MOUNTING BLADES 385
Fig. 4. Inserting blade in jig saw. Blade is first

clamped in the lower
chuck, then secured in the upper.
Fig. 5. Heavy Sabre blade is held in V jaws of chuck, and

guided and braced by a special blade support.
lower chuck with the teeth pointing downward,

and tighten the
lock screw. Turn the spindle pulley by
hand until the blade is at
the top of the stroke, loosen the blade-tension
knob, set the blade
386 THE JIG SAW
about %" into the upperchuck and tighten the lockscrew. Re-
lease the tension-housing lockknob and raise the housing until the
desired blade tension is obtained; tighten the lockknob. Be sure
that the blade is perpendicular to the table and that the teeth are
pointed downward (Fig. 6).
Rotate the spindle pulley by hand. If further blade tension ad-
justment is necessary, loosen
the tension-housing knob,
raise or lower housing, which-
ever is required, and retighten
lockknob.
To mount a Sabre blade, re-
move the table insert plate.
Turn the chuck 90°
lower
clockwise, by removing lock-
screw, which holds it to the
lower shaft. Replace lock-
screw in hole in front of shaft
and lock securely. Place blade
in the V
jaws of the lower
chuck so that it is perpendicu-
lar to the table (Fig. 5).
Tighten the chuck lockscrew.
A Sabre-blade guide attach-
ment should be used with this
type of blade. This attach-
ment, mounted on the table
Fig. 6. Correct tooth direction.
trunnion bracket beneath the
table, is used as an additional support for the blade. Sabre
blades are usually used for cutting large panels with the overarm
of the jig saw removed (Fig. 7).
OPERATING THE JIG SAW

Before attempting to operate the jig saw fill the crankcase with
SAE 30 machine oil. Keep the crankcase filled with this oil at all
times to keep drive mechanism properly lubricated.
Before starting the motor always turn pulley by hand to make
sure proper blade and chuck clearances have been obtained. Apply
OPERATING THE JIG SAW 387
soap and beeswax to the blade when cutting

metal. It assists
blade to cut freely and prevents scoring
of blade.
Correct speeds. No set rule can be given for
speed of opera-
tion; the speed used will depend
upon the material being cut and
the operator’s For cutting wood or plastics either of the two
skill.
medium speeds should be used. For cutting metal the
slower speed
IS employed. Higher speeds result in faster cutting and
require
more skill. The main objective is to use a speed
that will allow
easy manipulation and guidance of the work.
The faster speeds
are usually employed when using Sabre
blades. Remembering that
a jigsaw blade cuts only on the downward
stroke, feed the stock
easily and steadily to the saw. After a little practice one can de-
termine quite easily the correct speeds to use.
Cutting to pattern on a jig saw. The jig saw
is used princi-
pally in the making of small ornamental
cutouts such as lawn
ornaments, door stops, weather vanes, and similar
articles. With
this type of work, cutting on the jig
saw consists mainly of cut-
ting to a pattern or an outline. Draw the
pattern full size on a
piece of paper and either trace or paste the
paper pattern on the
material (Fig. 8). Start the saw at a medium
rate of speed, until
388 THE JIG SAW
you have attained a certain amount of dexterity in handling the

tool and manipulating the material. When cutting to an outline
follow the same procedure as for cutting on the band saw. Never
attempt to follow a line continuously from one end to the other.
Pick out the most prominent parts of the curve or pattern. First
cut these out and then return to the smaller and more intricate
Fig, 8. Cuttint? along paper pattern pasted on stock.
sections. An must be started from a hole that has pre-

inside cut
viously been bored by a bit and brace (Fig. 9). Insert the blade
in this hole, mount it on the saw, and make the inside cut in the
usual manner.
Multiple cutting. Thin material of like size and design can be
cut on the jig saw in multiples by fastening the required number
of pieces together as described in Chap. 6. When cutting patterns
in multiple groups on the jig saw be sure that the saw table is per-
fectly square with the blade. If the table is not absolutely square
the top piece may be perfect, following the outline of the design
in every respect, yet the bottom one will be considerably distorted
(Fig. 10).
MULTIPLE CUTTING 389
Sawing a circular ring Fig. 10. Multiple cutting on the jig

from 2^ stock. Note hole drilled saw.
in stock.
Lubrication and maintenance. Keep saw crankcase filled

with SAE 30 motor oil. Replace oil every month if the saw is used
frequently. If it is used infrequently, put new oil in every six
months. To drain out old oil, remove drain plug on front of saw
base.
The saw table must be covered with a film of oil, when saw is
not in use, to keep it from rusting.
Maintain proper belt tension at all times. Keep belt just tight
enough to prevent slipping.
Oil the guide-wheel shaft and blade guide occasionally.
Lubricate upper shaft bearing by putting a few drops of SAE 20
machine oil in hole and side, and in top of blade-tension housing
at frequent and regular intervals.
CHAPTER 12
The Drill Press
A good drill press can be used for many jobs in the home
workshop. In addition to the primary function for which it was
originally intended—that of drilling holes in wood and other
materials —with inexpensive and efficient accessories now avail-
able, a drill press can be used for such intricate procedures as

shaping, routing, making mortises and tenons, making dovetail
joints, and cutting rabbets and dados. It can also be utilized
for making carvings and moldings, and for sanding. The modern
press can safely be classed with the lathe as being one of the
drill
most versatile of the power tools available.

Two types of modern drill presses are shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
Description. press consists of four basic parts, namely,

A drill
the base, column, table, and head. The head is the term used to
designate the entire working mechanism attached to the upper
end of the column. The central part of the head is the spindle.
The spindle revolves in a vertical position, and is housed in ball
bearings at either end of a movable sleeve which is called the
The quill and the spindle which
quill. it carries, is moved down-
ward by means of a rack-and-pinion gearing, actuated by the
feed lever. When the feed lever is released, the quill and spindle is
returned to natural position by means of a coil spring. Adjust-

its
ments are provided for locking the quill in any desired position
by means of the double-acting depth gauge. The same depth
gauge allows the operator to preset the depth to which he wishes
the quill to travel. (
The 14" drill press is so named, since the diameter of the /

largest circular piece of work which can be drilled through the
390
DESCRIPTION 391
center on the drill press table is 14 inches. In other words, the
distance from the center of the spindle to the front of the drill
press column is 7". Another indication of the size of a drill press
is the distance between the end of the spindle
and the table. As
can be readily seen this distance is much greater on floor models
than on bench model drill presses. In either case, the depth of
the hole that can be drilled with one stroke of the feed lever, is
approximately 4",
mir
&UA!*0 ;t PuLtev
©UfiRO
FEED
MOTOR tevER
double
Vâ^y^HP. ftCTJNe,
KEY depth
CHUCK
HERD
LOCK
SCIS’EW renssoN SiSRsHS NAME
FLHTS
V TABLE
QUILL BEfîNC
ROJUSTMENT
&WiTCH6S iHDEX PfKi
CHUCK
KEY
COLUMN
SOiLT-iN LI&HT
table
CLAMP
LOWEi?
TABLE
BENCH MODEL
DRILL PRESS
Power and speed. The drill press

usually fitted with cone
is
pulleys so that a variety of selective speeds can be obtained.
With
a 1725 r.p.m. motor and four step pulleys the speed will
range
from 710 to 4470 revolutions per minute. Since the shaft stands
vertical, only a motor designed mounting, should be
for vertical
used as a ])ower unit. A one-third horsepower motor is sufficient
for average work since this is approximately the power
required
to drill a one-half inch hole through steel.
Spindles. Interchangeable spindles are supplied for most drill
presses, thus adapting the machine for a wide variety of work.
The standard spindle has a taper which holds a one-half capacity.
392 THE DRILL PRESS
Jacobs key chuck (Fig. 3). Other common types of spindles
are also shown in the illustration.
..ar ^
-iACOBS cone POINT
KUr CHUCK
SCREW
COCK NOT
>,
MOTOR
HIN&E
PLSTE
y"~
ho< t
UNPACKING THE DRILL PRESS
A drill a precision tool which should be handled with

press is
care at all times. It should be carefully unpacked and installed

so that all of the fine accuracy built into it by the manufacturer
will be retained.
The crate is easily removed from the drill press. Pull out all the
nails driven through the sides of the crate into the top and bot-
tom panels. Pull out the nails driven through the side panels into
the cross member near the center of the crate. Unhook the looped
ends of the binding wires, and lift off the top panel. Unwrap the
side panels from the crate. Remove the protective paper, and
the bolts which hold the drill press base to the bottom of the
crate.
Cleaning the drill press. A cloth soaked in kerosene will re-
move the heavy grease used to prevent the drill press from rusting
in transit. After cleaning, all parts should be wiped thoroughly,
and the unpainted surfaces coated with a coat of good machine
oil.
INSTALLING THE DRILL PRESS
Mounting the motor. The motor should be unpacked and

mounted on the motor hinge plate (Fig. 2) with the cap screws
furnished. The hinge plate with motor attached is then mounted
INSTALLING THE DRILL PRESS 393
on the drill press head between the two cone pivot screws. The
screws are then tightened with a screwdriver until play is elim-
inated, but should be loose enough to allow the bracket to swing
freely. The
lock nuts on the pivot screws should then be tightened
(Fig. 4). Avoid excessive pressure when tightening pivot
screws,
or the motor base casting may be damaged.
Mount the motor pulley (packed with motor base) on the

motor shaft with the small step next to the motor (Fig.
4). Align
the motor pulley with the pulley on the drill press
spindle, using
a good straightedge. Then insert the brass plug and
set screw
(packed in an envelope with the motor pulley), and tighten
set
screw to hold the pulley securely.
Next attach the lead wires to the motor. Remove the plate
covering the terminals and attach the wires according to the dia-
gram found on the inside of the terminal cover. Replace the
cover.
Adjusting belt tension. Place the belt on corresponding steps
on both the motor and spindle pulleys. Loosen the belt tightener
dock screw (Fig. 5). With the lever in position as shown in Fig.
5; exert enough backward pressure against the motor base until
the desired belt tension is obtained. Lock in position by tighten-
ing the set screw. The belt should run with a small amount of
slack. Adjusting the belt too tight will cause excessive wear on
the belt, and also on the motor and spindle bearings. The added
394 THE DRILL PRESS
friction will absorb power unnecessarily.
Changing spindle speeds. Four direct drive spindle speeds are
available, 710 to 4470 r.p.m. being obtained with a 1725 r.p.m.
motor. By raising the belt tightener lever (Fig. 5), the motor is
allowed to swing forward, releasing the tension on the belt so

that it may be shifted to any one of the four pulley steps. Low-
ering the lever retightens the belt to exactly the same tension on
any of the four pulley steps.
Lubrication. The ball bearings on both quill and spindle are
of the sealed type, lubricated for life and will require no further
attention. The outer shell of the quill should be lubricated
occasionally when in the fully lowered position. The splined end
of the spindle shaft should also have a few drops of oil at regular
intervals depending on use.
Changing spindles. The first step in removing the drill press
spindle is to take off the nameplate on the front of the head (Fig.
2). Lower the quill until the top is exposed through the open-
ADJUSTING SPINDLE RETURN SPRING 395
ing as shown in Tighten the lock nuts on the depth
Fig. 6.
gauge of either side of the head casting lug to hold the quill in
this position.With the Allen wrench, remove the small set screw
in the spindle lock collar as shown in Fig. 7. Loosen
the depth
gauge lock nuts and return the quill assembly to its normal posi-
tion. Gently tap the splined end of the spindle which projects
through the upper pulley with a wooden mallet to loosen it from
the quill. When the spindle begins to move grasp the lower end
(Fig. 8) pulling downward and twisting back and forth until
the spindle is completely out of the assembly.
Replacing spindle. To replace a spindle the above process
is reversed. Lower and lock the quill in
position with the top of
the quill exposed through the nameplate opening. Slip the
spindle
locking collar over the spindle-lock-collar sleeve. Place
locking
collar and sleeve through the nameplate hole on top
of the quill
assembly in a vertical position. Insert the spindle in the bottom
of the quilland firmly push or lightly tap the spindle in place
with “to and fro” twisting motion to aid passage of the spindle
through the quill assembly, the locking sleeve and collar, and the
splined pulley assembly. With the spindle in place, lower
the
locking device and firmly seat the spindle locked-collar
sleeve
against the inner race of the ball bearing in the top of the quill
assembly. Make sure the set screw in the spindle collar is 180°
from the slot in the spindle lock collar sleeve. With the Allen
wrench tighten the screw (Fig. 7), until firmly seated. Test
set
the spindle with the power “off.” There should be no “vertical
play,” or up and down movement, and
the spindle should rotate
freely. Unlock the depth gauge lock-nuts and return the
spindle
assembly to its normal position. Replace the nameplate.
Adjusting spindle return spring. To adjust the return spring,
first remove the outer or cap nut entirely and then
loosen the
second or retaining nut several turns. Grasp the spring housing
(Fig. 9) and lift away from
the drill press head to disengage
the housing notch from the lug on the head casting. Be sure to
hold the spring housing firmly to prevent it from unwinding when
released from this notch. To
increase the tension, turn the housing
counterclockwise one-half turn at a time, pushing the housing in
at the end of each half turn so that the notch engages the lug. To
396 THE DRILL PRESS
release the tension, turn the housing by half turns in a clockwise
direction, pushing the housing in at the
end of each half turn to
engage the notch. When proper tension has been obtained, re-
tighten the retaining nut and lock with the cap nut which was
removed first.
Adjustments. In average drilling operations, the hole in the
center of the table should be directly under the drill so that the
drill, after going through the work, will enter the hole in the table.
Where it is necessary to drill through the stock on which you are
working, the feed lever should always be pressed without the
work in place to see that the drill enters the table opening. The
drill press table may be tilted and locked at any angle, right
or left (Figs. 10 and Holes are drilled in the swivel head
11).
for the insertion of the knurled index pin when the table is in
the horizontal, vertical, or 45° angle position. When it is neces-
sary to adjust the table to any intermediate angle, the nut on
the swivel screw is tightened to lock the table in the desired
DOUBLE ACTING DEPTH GAUGE 397
position. When average work requires the setting of the table

to a variety of angles, it is advisable to set a scale and adjustable
pointer to the under side of the table to locate these positions.
Mounting chuck. Mount the Jacobs key chuck to the taper
spindle as shown in Fig. 12. Do not strike the chuck jaws. Note
that they have been withdrawn into the body of the chuck before
it is tapped in place with a wooden mallet or rawhide hammer.
Removing chuck. To remove the chuck from the drill press

spindle, insert the slotted steel wedge (Fig. 3), between the
shoulder on the spindle, and the top of the chuck, as shown in
Fig. 13, and strike the wedge a .sharp blow with a hammer. At
the same time, hold the chuck with one hand to prevent its fall-
ing onto the drill press table when driven off.
Double acting depth gauge. By adjusting and locking the
two knurled stop nuts (Fig. 2), depth of the spindle travel can
be accurately controlled. By adjusting the lower knurled stop
nut, the length of return stroke can be controlled. By tightening
398 THE DRILL PRESS
both the bottom and top stop nuts, spindle can be securely an-
chored at any height for routing, shaping, surface grinding or
other similar operations which require the vertical movement of
the quill to be locked.
Chucking Chucking a drill with a key chuck is easily
drills.
accomplished as shown in Fig. 14. The drill is usually held in
the left hand, while the key is inserted and the jaws tightened
with the right. Drills are removed in the same manner, except
that the twist on the key is reversed. On no account should the
drill be loosened from the chuck unless the hand is in position to
prevent it from falling. The insertion of drills and other tools

in a spindle which has a hole in the end to receive the shank
of the drill is quite simple, the drill being pressed into the hole
and the set screws being tightened to hold it. Where taper shank
drills are used, the drill is fitted by pressing it into the tapered
hole at the end of the spindle, engaging the tang of the drill in the
corresponding slot of the spindle. During use the drill becomes
tightly wedged in the tapered hole, and must be driven out by the
means of a drift key (Fig. 3). One edge of the drift key is fiat
and the other round. The round edge fits against the upper round
part of the slot in the spindle while the flat edge fits against the
end of the drill being removed.
OPERATION
The drill and work table can be adjusted to various

press head
positions on the column. Both are clamped securely in place by
double plug binders. The position of the work table, being
readjusted more frequently than the head, is provided with a
quick acting hand lever which will instantly release or tighten
the binder, with a quarter turn of the clamp handle (Fig. 2).
The double plug binder in the head is released or tightened by a
heavy Allen screw wrench. Great care should be used in adjusting
the position of the head on the column. It should be well sup-
ported when the binder is released to prevent it from dropping
and striking the and possibly injuring the chuck, the
table,
spindle, or other parts of the head. A column collar (available
as an accessory as shown in Fig. 15, should be mounted below
)
LAYING OUT THE WORK 399
the casting of the drill press head. With this collar in
place, the
head binder may be released and the drill press head swung
from side to side with safety. By placing the collar a few inches
below the head it will act as a safety stop wdien raising, lowering,
or changing the position of the head.
Laying out the work. Practically every hole that is drilled
requires that first of all, a layout mark be made which will locate
approximate or exact position. Various tools are used in
either its
making the layout ranging from square, hammer, and punch, to
expensive instruments essential for very exacting work. A few of
the layout tools commonly used are shown in Fig. 16. One of
the most useful tools for average work is the combination square.
This can be used for center lining, as shown in Fig.
17, in case
the work is being done on wood. If the layout work was required
Center Punches
400 THE DRILL PRESS
on niotal, a scribor or punch would be substituted for the pencil
shown in the illustration. Various substances and devices are
used to mark on a variety of materials.
After the scriber or pencil has been used to locate the hole posi-
tion, it is further necessary to indent this point. This is done with
a center punch a few of which are shown in Fig. 18. There are
various sizes of center punches, and the size selection will depend
upon the work, and the accuracy which is required. Center
punching should be done carefully so that the punch mark
comes at the exact intersection of the layout lines. Despite the
care of laying out and clamping, it will sometimes be found that
after the drill has cut a few revolutions into the work, the hole is
found to be off center. The drill may be led back to the proper
position by cutting from one to three or more grooves with a
small round nosed chisel, the grooves being on the side toward
which it is desired to draw the hole. When the drill is again
DRILL PRESS VISE
Started, should drift over to the correct position. This
it
m
done before the drill starts to cut its full diameter.
402 THE DRILL PRESS
of the vise to turn freely. When the set screws are tightened,
they securely lock the vise at any desired point in the circle.
Figure 21 shows a round metal rod clamped in the drill press vise
for drilling The long end of the rod is turned over against the
drill press column for added support. In this case it would be un-
necessary to tighten the set screw securely. Figure 22 shows an

angle plate clamped in the drill press vise. A block of hard wood
or metal is placed under the work so that the pressure of the drill
will not loosen or force the work out of line. Figure 23 shows a
hollow pipe clamped in the drill press vise. For such drilling
operations a good center punch mark is essential to keep the drill
point from drifting off of the rounded surface. If the hole in this
case is to go completely through the pipe it is advisable to drill
first through one side, then turn the work over and drill through
the other. This will avoid going through the bottom and drilling
into your vise.
The various equipment shown in Figs. 24, 25, and 26 show
the surface plate, “V’’ blocks, and angle plate being used in con-
junction with surface gauges for layout and checking of final
work.
DRILLING PRACTICE IN WOOD
Speeds. Spur bits in sizes up to approximately %" should be

worked at speedsbetween 1800 and 3000 r.p.m.’s. No exact
speeds may be given, since this depends to a great extent on the
wood, grain, depth of hole, style of bit, etc. Generally speaking.
DRILLING 403
smaller bits can turn faster than larger
ones,more speed can be
used on soft woods, less speed should be
used for deep holes, and
more speed can be used for end drilling. Large bits must always
be run at a low speed. Multi-spur
and expansive bits will burn
if worked at greater than 500 r.p.m.
Drilling. The work
properly laid out and the position of
is
the hole marked. The
bit is mounted in the chuck. The table
should be located so that the bit will pass through the
table open-
ing after the hole has been drilled. The drill
is forced into the
work by pulling on the feed lever. The feed should be slowed
down when the operator judges the drill to be almost through the
work. The feed should be very slow from this point on
to avoid
splintering the work as the drill projects through the
under side.
Most operators prefer to place a scrap block of wood under the
work, so that as the drill passes through it meets a solid founda-
tion,and by thus drilling part way into the scrap stock a clean
neat hole is left on the under side of the work. In many
instances
a larger auxiliary wood mounted on the regular drill
table is
press table to give added support for larger work (Fig.
27).
Drilling to depth. One method of drilling to a specified depth
is shown in Fig. 28. The depth of the
hole to be drilled is marked
on the side of the work. The quill assembly is then lowered with
the drill along side the work until it reaches the proper
depth,
holding it in this position, set the stop nut as shown in the il-
lustration. The quill assembly is then returned to its normal po-
sition, the drill is
centered on the cross lines of your layout marks
and the feed lever is pressed until it is stopped by the lock nuts on
the depth gauge. One other method is to bring the point of the
drilldown against the work and then read the scale on the depth
gauge. Then proceed to feed the drill into the work, adding the
required depth to the first reading.
Drilling deep holes. One method of increasing the depth over
the normal spindle travel is shown in Fig. 29. The first full stroke
is made, sinking the a depth of 4" in the work. The feed
drill to
handle is then released, and the work lifted with the drill inserted
in the hole and a base block is slipped under the work as shown
in the illustration. The feed handle can now be pressed again
and an additional two inches may be drilled with the same quill
404 THE DRILL PRESS
travel. In all deep hole should not continue alter
drilling, cutting
the flutes of the bit have passed below the work surface. After
this point has been reached, the chips cannot get out, and
burning
starts immediately. Where it is necessary to go beyond this
depth
—the bit should be lifted frequently in order to permit clearing
the hole of chips.
Drilling large holes. Holes over diameter can be classi-
fied as large holes. The removal of comparatively large amounts
of wood causes considerable strain on the work and it is therefore
advisable to use clamps. This applies especially to any kind of

of the
bit which has but one cutting edge. Other style cutters
multi-spur or continuous rim pattern can be operated without
clamping. Figure 30 shows a multi-spur bit being used.
Drilling in round work. Various methods are in use for
a round stock, however, one of the most common is
the
drilling
use of the “V” block. Figure 31 shows a round metal bar being
drilled. If the hole is not too large and the feed is relatively slow,
clamps found necessary for a drilling operation of

will not be
this kind. The pressure of the drill securely seats
the bar in the
“W’ block and little pressure will be found necessary to hold it

in position.
Figure 32 shows a circular disc of wood being drilled around its

edge by means of the “V” block method. In this case the table
has been locked in a vertical position and a ‘‘Y” block clamped
to the surface and also resting on the lower surface. The wood
MISCELLANEOUS DRILL PRESS OPERATIONS 40S
disc may
be held against the surface easily with
one hand while
the feed lever is operated with the other.
Another method of drilling round work is shown in Fig. 33. In
this case, the table is tilted to 45° and a block of wood is clamped
to the table as shown in the illustration. The work is laid in the
‘‘V’’formed by the table surface and the block. The table may
be pivoted back and forth in order to
center the drill on the
surface of the round work.
Pivot points. Where the holes are

to be drilled around the
edge of a circular piece of work as
shown in Fig. 34, the work is
pivoted on a wood or metal pin which may extend completely
through or merely part way from the
under side. The use of a
pivot pm locates the holes accurately
in relation to the center,
but does not space them equally
around the circle. A jig with a
locating pm or indexing head will
regulate this part of the work.
MISCELLANEOUS DRILL PRESS OPERATIONS
Grinding. Light surface grinding can be

done perfectly on the
drill press, using a cup wheel
which is mounted on a special
spindle. The grit and bond of the
wheel should be selected to
406 THE DRILL PRESS
suit the work, as with any other type of grinding. The speed of
the drill press should be about 5000 r.p.m. The work is projected
along the drill press table and under the cup wheel, which has
been set to take a suitable bite and the quill locked in position.
Heavy cuts should be avoided. Good use can be made of a column
collar under the drill press head. The work isclamped in place
in the vise (Fig. 35), and the drill press head is swung back and
forth across the work.
Countersinking. The various types of wood and machine
screws are set so that their heads come either flush or below the
surface of the work. To make holes for these heads, an ordinary
drill of suitable size can be used for average work. For
more
accurate work, however, regular countersink drills should be used
as shown in Fig. 36.
Sanding. Another useful drill press operation is sanding.

Sanding drums of various shapes and sizes are available at most
machine tool dealers, which will take much of the time consuming
work out of hand sanding many of the curved surfaces of your
shop projects. A 3" sanding drum should run at from 1200 to
1500 r.p.m. ’s. Smaller sizes should run faster. Drums are used
mostly for edge operations, and good use can be made of fences,
pivot pins, and other simple jigs to guide the work. Irregular
curves are simply fed free hand with a uniform feed and pres-
sure to obtain good work and prevent burning. Figure 37 shows
a typical example of free hand edge sanding. The work is sup-
SANDING 407
ported on the base block in order to center the edge of the
sanding drum on the edge of the work.
The main difficulty with free hand edge sanding is that the
work must be kept moving at an even pressure against the drum,
otherwise a deep cut is made into the work at any place where
the operator pauses too long. One way to avoid this fault is
to sand with a pattern or against a wood disc exactly the same
diameter as the sanding drum, set below the drum and fastened
to the table. The pattern is then fastened to the under side of
the work and while the pattern rides against the wood disc the
work rides against the sanding drum. The same pattern may thus
be used to duplicate the first piece as many times as necessary.
CHAPTER 13
Jointers and Shapers

• I
JOINTERS
A jointer, sometimes called a jointer planer, is essentially a
motorized plane. Its principal function is planing the surface of

material as it is passed over a revolving cutting head. This power
tool is used mostly for surfacing and planing narrow widths and
edges of stock prior to the making of glued joints, and for plan-
ing and surfacing the faces of lumber. A jointer can also be
utilized for rabbeting, chamfering, and similar operations.
The parts of a well-designed jointer are shown in Fig. 1.
408
INSTALLATION OF THE JOINTERS 409
To do accurate work the base supporting the tables
efficient,
of the jointer must be sturdy or the cutter
heads that rotate at
a high speed will not produce an even, smooth
surface. The base
must be constructed of one piece so that parts cannot work
loose
or get out of alignment.
A jointer
equipped with two tables: the front or infeed
is
table, and the rear or outfeed table. A

control must be provided
to raise or lower these tables as required.
The tables are accu-
rately machined and are mounted on inclines, so when either
raised or lowered they remain level. They should be made of
cast iron and preferably ribbed on the underside
for additional
strength and rigidity. The cutter head of a
good jointer is ma-
chined out of a solid piece of steel and is the round cutter-head
I'ypSj sometimes called the safety cutter head.
On a round cutter
head, the cutting blades or knives project only
a slight distance,
thus lessening any possibility of injury. These
knives should be
made of thin, hardened, high-speed steel rather than carbon
steel,
as the former keep their edges sharp five
or six times longer.
The guide or fence should be wide and long, and machined
smooth and perfectly straight on the face side. It
should be
easily adjustable back and forth at any point across the table,
and provided with a tilting arrangement combined
with a locking
device for holding it securely in any desired
position.
The jointer shown in Fig. 1 is a standard type
and requires a
% h.p., 1725 r.p.m. repulsion-induction or capacitor motor with
^ 311/ 6"-diameter pulley.
1
The jointer is usually operated at speeds ranging from 5000

to 8000 r.p.m.
Installation of the jointer. To assemble a new
jointer fasten
the fence bracket to the right side of the
front table with the
cap screws provided by the manufacturer. Put
the fence on the
fence bracket and tighten the lock. To mount the guard in
position put the fiber washer on the guard
stud. Fasten the
guard spring to the cotter pin in the table of the
jointer. Push
the stud into the hole in the top of the table.
Before mounting
the jointer cut a hole in the top of the
workbench to facilitate
chip removal. Mount the jointer on a level bench or table, but
check to make sure that the base rests squarely and solidly on
410 JOINTERS AND SHAPERS
all feet before bolting it down. Uneven mounting will eventually

throw the tables out of alignment.
Controls and adjustments. The ball crank handle, beneath
the front table of the jointer, controls the depth-of-cut adjust-
ment.
The front table lock control on the right side of the jointer
locks the front table in position. Before the table can be ad-
justed, this lock must be released. The knob beneath the rear
table controls rear table elevation. Before adjusting the rear
table, loosen the hex capscrew found on right side of jointer
frame.
The adjusting knob on the fence slide bracket releases and
locks fence, when making necessary adjustments for width of cut.
The fence tilt lever locks fence in any required position (Fig. 2).
The top of the rear table must be exactly level with the cutting
Fig. 2. Jointer fence adjustments.
arc of the knives. To align the rear table, loosen the table lock
screw on right side of jointer and raise or lower the rear table,
until it is level with the cutting edge of any one blade at the
highest point in its cutting arc. Check accuracy of alignment by
placing a straightedge on the rear table with one end projecting
over one of the cutter blades. The blade of the cutter should
just touch the straightedge.
Each blade head must be the same height and
in the cutter
parallel with the rear table. To check and make the necessary
adjustment proceed as follows: Remove fence and guard. Place
a straightedge on the center of the rear table with one end
OPERATING THE JOINTERS 411
projecting over the cutter blades. Revolve the cutter head by
hand. Adjust blades to touch the straightedge. To adjust the
blades, loosen the setscrews which hold them in
place in the
cutter head. If blade is too high, tap it very lightly with a piece
of hardwood. If the blade is low, raise it by inserting a small
punch under bottom edge of blade. Repeat these operations,
placing straightedge along each side of table, and
adjusting the
blades if necessary. After all of the blades have been checked
and adjusted, place paper or metal shims beneath them so
they
seat firmly. Tighten the blades securely with the
setscrews.
To
adjust the table depth gauge, proceed as follows: Place
a
sti aightedge on the front table so that
one end projects over the
cutter blades. Adjust table until blades just touch
the straight-
edge. When table is in this position the depth-gauge pointer
should be at the zero reading. If not, loosen setscrew
that holds
pointer and adjust to zero.
To adjust the fence proceed as follows: Loosen the fence
tilt
lever (Fig. 2). Using a try square, set the fence
perpendicular
to the table. Tilt gauge pointer, which should now be at
the zero
reading. If not, loosen setscrew and adjust pointer to
zero.
OPERATING THE JOINTER

In jointing or planing boards, the rear table must always
be
level with the knives at their highest point. This setting must
never be changed except, of course, when operations other
than
planing are performed. To test the accuracy of the alignment
of
the rear table with the cutting knives, start the machine
and run
a test piece of material over the knives for several inches. If
the
tables are correctly aligned, there will be no space showing
be-
tween the table and the board as the newly planed surface passes
over the rear table. If the rear table is too high there will be a
slight raising of the board and the cutters will cut more off the
first end of the board than off the' rear end. If the rear table
has
been set too low, light will be visible between the board and the
rear table (Fig. 3). When the stock is pushed forward, the front
end of the board will eventually drop until it rests on the rear
table, causing the blades to cut a notch in the material.
Planing. Wood up to 4%" wide may be planed or surfaced
on the jointer without removing the guard or fence (Fig. 4). For
wider boards it is necessary to remove both the guard and the
fence. Boards exceeding 4%" in width can readily be surfaced
by moving the guard and the fence, and taking several thin cuts
of approximately the same width on the inside and outside.
When jointing or planing a board on a jointer, always cut with
Fig. 3. Top, table set too high; bottom, table set too
low.
the grain. If the direction of the grain changes and the jointing
isdone across or against the grain, feed the stock slowly. Always
be sure to examine the material carefully beforehand to make
sure that it is free of nails and other obstructions.
Use a wood pusher block when planing boards or strips less
than 1/^" thick, not only as a safety measure, but to assure accu-
racy (Fig. 5). It is impossible to hold down thin strips of mate-
rial with the hand alone and
secure a smooth even surface.

Material thicker than can
be held down and fed with the
hands only. Do not hold the
sides or edges of the wood
with fingers while the mate-
rial is passing over the knives.
When it is desired to have
the edges square with the sur-
face, setthe fence of the
Fig. 4. Planing boards up to 4V^"
jointer to a 90° angle and lay wide.
MAKING MOLDINGS 413
the board on its edge. In feeding the board across the knives,
be sure that you hold entire surface against the fence, exert-
its
ing as much pressure sideways as down.
Cutting chamfers or bevels. For bevel jointing the same
procedure followed as for
is
planing square edges, except

that the fence is adjusted to
the correct angle to produce
the desired bevel or chamfer.
Secure the fence in this posi-
tion before proceeding to cut
the material. Take cuts of
medium thickness until the
bevel nearly planed to full
is
Fig. 5. Always use a pusher when shape, then finish with light
planing thin stock. cuts. Be sure to hold the side
of the board in contact with
the fence. At the same time
hold the board down against
the table as you feed it
through the machine (Fig. 6).
Rabbeting. The rabbeting
ledge incorporated in the front
table of the jointer is merely
an extension of the table that
helps support the board being
Fig. 6. Angular planing with rabbeted. To cut a rabbet,
jointer,
remove the guard and slide
the fence toward the left side of
the table until it is the same
distance from the left end of cutter
blades as the desired width
of the rabbet. Lower the front table to the required depth of
rabbet. If the full depth of the
rabbet is within the capacity
of the machine, make the rabbet
in one cut. If the cut is wider
or deeper than the capacity of the
machine, make it in several
cuts, feeding the work slowly (Fig.
7).
Making moldings. A jointer can make only moldings that
have a combination of either flat or beveled
surfaces. These
various cuts and surfaces can be made
at different depths and at
varying angles. Attractive moldings
can be made by combining
these cuts. Procedure is exactly the same as for conventional
cuts (Fig. 8).
Lubrication. If the used frequently it must be
machine is
oiled every month. Use SAE 20 machine oil throughout. To oil

bearings remove pulley and collar next to bearings. If used
Fig. 7. Cutting a rabbet. Note clearance provided by rabbeting ledge.
infrequently oil every six months. Oil table, frame ways, and
all adjusting screws at regular intervals.
Sharpening cutler blades. When the surface of the planed
wood begins to have a fuzzy look, or when the stock being jointed
begins to chatter, it is necessary to sharpen the cutter blades.
As a general rule, honing the blades with a flat oilstone or
medium-grade slipstone is all that is necessary. Before honing,
check alignment of blades per directions given in this chapter.
Then proceed as follows: Adjust and lock front table %" below
cutting edge of blades. Partly cover sharpening stone with paper
to avoid scratching the surface of the table and lay it on the front
table. Turn the cutter head so that the stone is resting flat on
the bevel of a blade. Hold the cutter head in this position. Rub
SHAPERS 415
Fig. 8. Making moldings. All cuts and surfaces are flat, being made
at different depths and angles.
the stone with an even pressure along the

length of the blade
until the blade is sharp. Treat each blade similarly
with exactly
the same number of strokes. Readjust the rear
table if necessary.
SHAPERS
A shaper is used for straight and irregular shaping,
matched
shaping, tonguing and grooving, planing, making
drop-hinged leaf
joints, flutingand reeding, and sanding. It is simple to operate
and turns out superior work quickly and accurately. The
essen-
tial parts of a standard vertical-spindle
shaper are shown in
Fig. 9. In selecting a shaper be sure that it is sturdy and well
constructed. The base should be made of a single casting. All
of the controls must be readily accessible. The spindle should
preferably be of the stationary type, to insure absolute
rigidity
at its operating speed of over 10,000 r.p.m. The
spindle should
be constructed in one piece, of tempered alloy tool steel,
and be
equipped with a keyed washer and shaft to prevent the cutters
from coming loose.
The table must be equipped with a bevel-gear-and-screw

mechanism so that it can be moved up and down rapidly. The
positioning of the table should be controlled by an easily acces-
sible ball crank and a positive locking device that will clamp the
table securely in any desired position (Fig. 10). The bearing
HOLO-OOWn »OST CLAMf
Fig. 9. Parts of a spindle shaper.
ways of the table should be cast integrally with the base for
extreme rigidity. The table top should be accurately ground and
well finished to facilitate the sliding of the work. Both the table
and the base should be made of heavy iron castings, properly
braced to minimize vibration and provide the essential rugged
support to accomplish smooth finished work.
A well-designed spindle shaper is equipped with an adjustable
fence and hold-downs made of adjustable spring-steel clips.
These clips are used to maintain a constant even pressure on the
work, holding it securely and firmly against the table and the
fence during the entire length of the cut. (Fig. 10).
ASSEMBLING 417
To hold it in the necessary rigid
alignment the shaper should
e equipped with two large
precision ball bearings. These
bear-
ings should be permanently
sealed against dust and grit
and
have an additional cover plate for
added protection
Fig. 10. Spindle shaper, showing motor

mounting base and table raising
column.
The shaper should be powered with

capacitor or repulsion-induction type
a %
h.p., 3450 r.p.m.
motor and a 3iyi6"-diame-
ter motor pulley to obtain
a spindle speed of 10,000 r.p.m.
This
high speed is necessary for the
majority of shaper operations.
assemble the shaper remove the fence
*k * u!”****"®' from
the table. Use a cloth soaked with
kerosene to remove the usual
rust-preventive coating from the surface
of the table. Replace
the fence and lock in position with
the setscrews and washers.
Mount the spring hold-down clips. One of these
clips is mounted
to the fence
and the other to the table (Fig. 10). Fasten
the two
mounting-bracket pins to the motor mounting
bracket with the
washers and nuts furnished by the manufacturer. Mount the

bracket and the belt guard on the rear of the shaper.
Installing. Bolt the shaper to a sturdy level bench that is high
enough so that the top of the shaper table is slightly lower than
your elbows. the shaper near the rear of the workbench
Mount
so the adjustable motor mounting bracket extends below
the
bench top.
The shaper, if up in a central location
possible, should be set
in the workshop, as the length of the work that it can
handle is
limited by the distance from the spindle to the walls of the work-
shop, or to other machines or workbenches.
To install the motor, mount the pulley on the motor shaft and
set the motor on the motor mounting bracket. Place the
belt over
the pulleys, and shift motor until pulleys are aligned and belt is
straight. Pull motor back until belt is just tight enough to pre-
vent slipping. Lock motor mounting bracket securely with the
two thumbscrews.
Controls and adjustments. The crank handle or wheel on
the front of the shaper used to adjust the table height. The
is
handle or control directly beneath the table locks it securely in

the desired position. Before changing the height of the table
always release this lock.
Two capscrews are used to lock the fence to the table. To
position or set the entire fence for any required depth of cut,
loosen these screws, slide the fence the desired distance from the
cutting circle, and retighten these two screws.
The knobbed handle of the fence casting controls the position-
ing of the right fence for depth-of-cut adjustments on operations
where the entire edge of the work is to be removed. Always
release table fence lockscrew before positioning the right fence.
On a well-designed shaper a machine bolt is used to lock each
facing to the fence. To adjust the opening between the faces,
loosen the bolts, push the facings to the required position, and
retighten. When making these adjustments be sure that the open-
ing never larger than will just clear the cut.
is
The only spindle adjustment ever necessary is one to eliminate

end play. To make this adjustment loosen the spindle-pulley
setscrew. Press spindle downward and push the pulley tightly
against the spacer. Lock pulley in this position.
OPERATING THE SPINDLE SHAPER 419
OPERATING THE SPINDLE SHAPER

Types of cutters used. Two types of cutters are available
for shaper work. One is the loose type mounted
on a safety head,
and the other is the solid cutter. The latter is milled from
a solid
bar of hardened and properly tempered tool steel,
and ground to
the required shape. It is the safest type of cutter
to use and is
recommended for the home workshop.
To do work on the spindle shaper, it is not necessary
creditable
to have many cutters of different shapes and contours.
Many
different types of moldings can be made with comparatively few
cutters (Fig. 11).
Straight shaping. Straight shaping is the process of cutting
Fig. 11, Molding cutters.
a profile or contour on the straight edges of

tabletops and bench-
tops, and cutting moldings on straight lumber.
Select the cutter to be used. Hold spindle firmly with wrench
on flat part of the spindle beneath the table. Place
the cutter
on the spindle and lock it securely in place with the
keyed washer
and hex nut. At this point check to make sure that
the cutter
rotates toward the work to be cut. To
cut in the desired position
on the work, adjust the table to the correct height.
Position
fence for depth of cut desired and move wood
facings of fence
just farenough apart to clear the cut. The two fence facings
must be aligned for most straight shaping or molding operations.
To align the fence facings, place a straightedge
against the left
one and move the right one up to the straightedge.
Adjust the spring hold-down clips before starting the machine.
These clips are used to hold the work firmly against the fence and
the table. Do not set clips too tightly against the
work ^just —
enough to hold the work down and at the same time permit it to
pass the revolving cutters smoothly and evenly. The correct
speed to use for straight shaping is about 8000 r.p.m.
Start the machine. Make several trial cuts on pieces of scrap
wood to check depth and position of cut before proceeding with
the actual work.
Irregular shaping. Irregular shaping is the process of shaping
the irregular edges of oval shaped tables, curved legs, chair and
table stretchers, and decorative moldings on all types of curved
irregular edges (Fig. 12).
For irregular shaping remove the fence and spring hold-down
clips and replace with the proper depth collar for the depth of
Fig. 12, Irregular shaping on edge of shelf

bracket, using shaping depth collar.
the cut to be made. Depth collars are set above or below the
cutter or between two cutters, to prevent cutting beyond a cer-
tain depth. When the material is cut until its edge strikes the
depth collar, the collar naturally prevents the cut from going any
farther. The difference in diameter between the cutter and the
collar regulates the width of the cut. Lock the collar and cutter
on the spindle.
The two methods used for irregular shaping are called irregular
shaping to a finished edge and irregular shaping with a template
or pattern.
IRREGULAR SHAPING 421
For irregular shaping to a iinished edge, finish the edge of
the
work to the desired shape and sand smooth. Set the cutter on
the spindle with the depth collar above it, and adjust
it for the
required width.
Use the guide pin furnished with the shaper as a fulcrum to
support the work until it has been fed into the collar. Place
this
guide pin in either of the two holes next to the table
opening,
the right hole if the cutter rotation is clockwise, the left
hole if
counterclockwise (Fig. 13). The correct speed to use for irregular
shaping is 8000 r.p.m. or unnecessary to reverse the
faster. It is
direction of cut for irregular shaping. Clean cutting can be
accomplished both against and with the grain when the cutters
are sharp. When cutting against the grain use a slower speed.
Make the cut on the bottom, with the work face down and resting
on the surface of the shaper table. Make several trial cuts on
Fig. 13. Irregular shaping. Note use of guide pin and shaping depth
collar on spindle below cutter.
pieces of scrap wood to check depth and position of cut before

proceeding with the actual work.
The template method is usually employed in doing duplicate
and matched irregular shaping. The template should be made
of plywood, birch, or similar hardwood. Cut it to conform to
outline of the work, sand all edges perfectly smooth, and rub a
little paraffin wax into them. Place the work face down on the
shaper table. Place the template on the work and drive several
small wire nails or brads through it, about Yiq" into the work to
prevent the template from slipping. Adjust the depth collar and
cutter for the desired depth of cut. The shaper collar rests
against the finished edge of the template and the cutter can cut
into the work only as far as the template will permit. Move the
template around the entire circumference of the work, keeping

its edge in contact with the collar at all times.
Matched shaping, tonguing, and grooving. Matched shap-

ing, sometimes called coped jointing, is used in the construction
of cabinets, interior trim, and similar work. A pair of matched
cutters used: one to cut the female portion of the molding
is
forming the joint, and the other to cut the male portion. Matched
shaping or coped joints, and tongue-and-groove joints are similar.
The procedure for shaping either is exactly the same.
Select a pair of matched cutters of the required size. The
female portion of the joint is cut with a single cutter, from Vg"
to %" or 1/^" in width, depending on the thickness of the mate-
rial. The two methods of making the male portion of this joint
are standard procedures. One method is to use a cutter in which
a square recess has been ground that will cut a tongue that is a
fairly close fit in the female portion of the joint. The other
method is to use two cutters of the same outside diameter, with
at least a face on each, with a collar or a spacer washer in-
serted between them. This separates the cutters so that they
will cut a tongue to make a close fit for the female portion of the
joint. The latter method is preferable, since the fit of the tongue
into the groove can be controlled by varying the thickness of the
collar or the spacer washer used.

In making joints of this type the shaper fence is used to guide
the work (Fig. 14). Speed and procedure is the same as for
straight shaping.
MAKING DADO CUTS 423
cuts. Dado cuts arc made on a shaper with a
male cutter of the required size from a tongue-and-groove cutter
set. The procedure is the same as for straight shaping (Fig. 15 ).
Fig. 14. Matched shaping with the spindle

shaper. Cutting tongue for tongue-and-groove
joint.
Reeding and fluting. To reed or flute straight or curved

irregular work on the shaper, special cutters are required. They
are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. The cutting edge
Fig. 15. Cutting a dado with the spindle

shaper.
of a reeding cutter consists of two coves coming

together in the
center of the cutting face, A fluting cutter is the
exact opposite
and IS rounded
on the cutting edge. To save time and to
off
turn out more uniform work when reeding or fluting
flat faces,
use more than a single cutter. The shaper fence and the hold-
down clips are Procedure is exactly the

used to guide the work.
same as for any other type of straight shaper work.
For curved or irregular work, remove the fence and the spring
hold-down clips and replace them with depth collars or a template
to gauge the Proceed in the same manner as for irregular
cut.
shaping. Make a simple jig or template of a piece of wood with
a block fastened on each end of the turning. Drive a nail through
each of the blocks to act as a center on which to revolve the
turning.
Two procedures can be used for gauging the depth of the cut
and for guiding the turning against the cutter: one requires the
use of depth collars, the other the use of a template. The base
board of the jig can be utilized as a template. Where the turning
is tapered or curved, it is necessary to taper or curve the edge of
the base board to conform.

When the depth collar method is used to determine the depth
of the cut, be sure that the collars are of the proper diameter and
projectbeyond the cutter to get a bearing on the turning.
With the template method the cuts may be more accurately
gauged and better work accomplished. Cutting is similar to
irregular shaping.
Planing. Select a cutter wider than the thickness of the stock.
Slide the entire fence to the circumference of the cutting arc.
Move the right fence facing back from the left one a distance
equal to the depth of cut desired. The left facing acts as a sup-
port for the work after it passes the cutter. Move it in and out
for planing operations (Fig. 16).
Use the miter gauge attachment to support the work when
planing end miter joints.
Drum sanding. Sanding spindles or drums are available for
use on the spindle shaper in various types of surfaces graded
from rough to fine. With them, irregular shaped pieces of wood
are sanded easily and speedily.
To install the sanding drum remove the fence and spring hold-
down clips. Set the table slightly above the bottom of the sander,
so that all of the wood to be sanded contacts the drum. Install
the sanding drum on the spindle (Fig. 17).
For sanding, the spindle speed must be reduced to 1750 r.p.m.
A higher speed will burn the wood and glaze the sandpaper.
DRVM SANDING 425
Fig, 16. Left section of spindle shaper fence moves in and out for
planin
fcfc
operations. Graduated scale shows depth of cut. Note large opening a

fence casting for chip removal.
Fig. 17. Using a sanding drum on the vertical shaper.

Lubrication. Keep shaper clean and free from dust at all
times. Use SAE 20 machine oil and lubricate regularly at all

points shown in Fig. 18. The shaper table should be covered
with a film of oil when not in use. If the machine is used fre-
quently, lubricate all points shown at weekly intervals otherwise ;
inspect and lubricate monthly.

Sharpening cutters. Shaper cutters must be kept as sharp
Fig. 18. Lubrication points.
as possible, with special sharpening stones. A flat Arkansas oil-
stone about 2" by 6", and a slipstone made of the same material
about 4" long and tapering from to %" in thickness, with
rounded edges, is required. Also, one about 4" long and 1/4"
square and another 4" long, 2" wide, and V2 " thick. An addi-
tional oilstone convenient to have on hand is triangular in sec-
tion with each face 14 e" wide and 3" long. With these oilstones
it is possible to sharpen almost any cutter used on the shaper.
The action of the cutter when shaping wears the cutting edge.
To renew this cutting edge, no great amount of metal need ever
be removed at any one time. The cutting angle of the edge must
be changed as little as possible.
Select the oilstone that fits the shape or curve of the cutter.
Rub the stone lightly, holding it almost flat against the back of
the cutting edge. To remove the wire edge that will result from
sharpening, lay the cutter flat on the flat oilstone and rub it with
a back-and-forth motion.
CHAPTER 14
Sanders
Powered sanders are available both disc and belt types.

in
Portable belt sanders are used for sanding and finishing work
that cannot be done in the home workshop. They come with
sanding belts ranging from 11/2 " to 3" or 4" in width. Their
utility is limited to sanding flat surfaces, so they are not espe-
cially recommended for use in the home workshop where various-
shaped parts have to be done.
A more practical and versatile combination disc-and-belt
Sander now available is designed to do all types of sanding and
finishing (Fig. 1).
Fi*. 1. Disc-and-belt sander for all types of sanding and finishing. Miter
gauge on tilted table is used here to finish compound angle with disc sander.
427
428 SANDERS
The base and frame of a powered belt-and-disc sander should

be constructed of heavy well-braced castings, with the sanding-
disc table supported by double trunnions at one end and a single
trunnion at the other. To do fine finishing work the belt table
must be rigidly braced.

To assure long life and trouble-free performance, both the disc
spindle and the belt drums should run on deep-grooved sealed
precision ball bearings.
Asanding belt fence should be provided, as it is an essential
accessory for all accurate edging operations. The fence should be
tiltable 45° both ways from the vertical position with the angle
of tilt shown on a graduated scale. To permit duplication of-
work without necessity of readjustment, a suitable device should

be provided to lock the fence in any desired position (Fig. 2).
The disc table should be tiltable 45° up or down, and be pro-
Fig. 2. A
sanding belt fence is essen-
tial for accurate edging operations. It
tilts 45° both ways from vertical.
Angle of tilt is shown on graduated
segment.
vided with a lock for securing at any desired angle, with the angle
shown on a graduated scale. The table unit should be usable in
both belt and disc sanding.
i/4- or %-h.p., 1725-r.p.m.
The sander shown in Fig. 1 requires a
OPERATION 429
Fig. 3. Using belt Sander for finishing the surface of

a wide board.
repulsion-induction capacitor motor. This gives it a spindle speed

of 1360 r.p.m. and a belt
speed of 1150 f.p.m. It is
equipped to use a 10" sand-
ing disc and a sanding belt
X 4" wide. Abra-

sive discs and belts are
available in grit sizes rang-
ing from fine to very coarse.
Operation. The belt sec-
tion of the Sander is for
sanding wide boards. The
disc and guards are easily
removable and the belt sec-
tion of the Sander is used as
shown in Fig. 3.
To sand concave surfaces
'
remove belt guards and use
upper portion of belt (Fig. 4).
To finish a chamfer on the
Fig. 4. Curved pieces may be fin-
sanding disc, simply tilt table
ished on belt drums when belt guards to the required angle and
are removed. lock in position (Fig. 5).
430 SANDERS
To surface narrow stock, place the belt in a horizontal position

(Fig. 6).
To finish the ends of any work to any required angle on the
sanding disc, tilt the table up or down (Fig. 7).
Fig. 5. Finishing a chamfer on the

sanding disc.
Fig. 6. Surfacing stock on the sanding

belt.
To sand the surfaces of small work the belt section is usually
used (Fig. 8). Note use of stop fences.

To sand and finish edges of work to any desired angle up to
45° adjust the sanding belt fence to the desired angle and lock
it (Fig. 2). Note angle of tilt as shown on graduated segment.
Maintenance* To keep sander in good working condition all
MAINTENANCE 431
parts of the tool must be kept free from all dirt
and accumulated
sawdust. All moving parts must be lubricated
as per lubrication
chart furnished with each tool by the manufacturer.
Fig. Finishing the end of a

7.
piece of work on the sanding disc.
Fig. 8. A stop fence is necessary in Sanding small work on the belt.

CHAPTER 15
and Care of Painting Tools

Selection
and Equipment
Next most important tools

to the actual paints, brushes are the
used for painting and decorating. Good cheap brushes are non-
existent. Cheap brushes will ruin the best painting job. Good-
quality brushes, properly taken care of, will ordinarily outlast a
half dozen cheap brushes, and in the long run give a great deal
more satisfaction and produce cleaner and better work. The cost
of the better grade of brushes over a period of time will be con-

siderably less. With few exceptions, good brushes are made
all
of hog bristles, the best of which are imported from China and
Russia. The cheaper, inferior brushes are made of synthetic ma-
terials combined with a poor grade of bristle, adulterated with
horsehair.
The only type good brushes made with materials other than
of
bristle are those that are to be used in painting structural iron or
steel. Brushes for this purpose can contain a small percentage
of horsehair. The paint does not have to be worked into iron or
steel surfaces. Horsehair resists abrasion better than hog bristle
and a small amount of horsehair will increase the life of a brush
used for this purpose. Inferior brushes are cleverly camouflaged
and difficult to detect; therefore do not make the mistake of
selecting brushes just by appearance. When purchasing brushes
select thetype best suited for the job. Go to a reliable paint
dealer and buy the best brush that he recommends.

All new brushes, no matter how good they are, will probably /
shed a few bristles. Before putting a brush into paint or varnish
432
TYPES OF BRUSHES 433
rub your hand back and forth across the bristles to work out
loose ones.
Even good brushes sometimes develop defects. All reputa-
will
ble manufacturers guarantee their brushes and will replace
any
defective brushes returned to them.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT BRUSH FOR THE JOB

Always choose the right type of brush for all
painting and
decorating work. While there are many
types of brushes, you
need only purchase from time to time such
brushes as are needed.
Descriptions of brushes generally used are as
follows:
Flat wall brush. (See Fig. 1.). Flat wall brushes are used for
spieading paint on walls and must not be used
for applying var-
nish. They are made of Chinese bristle, vulcanized in rubber,
bound in metal, and available in half-inch sizes
ranging from 3''
to 5". A good all-purpose size is one
3 V2 " or 4" in width.
Flat woodwork or varnish brush. (See Fig. 2.) Flat wood-
work brushes can be used for both paint and varnish.
They are
Fig. 1. Flat wall brush. »Fig. 2. Flat woodwork or varnish

bnish.
made of Chinese or Russian hog bristles and are usually metal-

bound and vulcanized in rubber. They come
"
in sizes ranging
from 1" to 3 in width. For working around
glass panes in win-
dows and doors, the smaller sizes are preferable.
For painting
434 PAINTING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
and varnishing trim and other parts of the house the larger sizes
are generally used.

Flat sash brush. (See Fig. 3.) The flat sash brush is similar
to the flat varnish brush, but slightly thinner, and is sometimes

called a trimming brush. Good-quality sash brushes are vul-
canized in rubber and can be used for both paint and varnish.
Available in 1", 11/2 ", and 2" widths.
Oval varnish brush. (See Fig. 4.) The oval varnish brush is
an excellent brush made of Chinese bristles. It is oval in shape
Fig. 4. Oval varnish brush.
with an open center. It is used only for varnishing and is pre-

ferred over the modern flat varnish brush by many painters. It
is available in many which are designated as 1/0 to 10/0.
sizes,
The circumferences of these brushes vary with each manufac-

turer. The 6/0, a popular size made by a well-known manu-
facturer, is an oval slightly under 2" in its greatest width.
Oval sash brush. (See Fig. 5.) The oval sash or trimming
brush is made of Chinese bristles and can be used for both paint
and varnish. They are available vulcanized in rubber in num-

bered sizes from 1 to 10. The No. 6 brush of a leading manufac-
turer is a popular with a solid oval lYs" in width.
size,
Flat calcimine brush. (See Fig. 6.) Good calcimine brushes

should be made of stiff Russian hard bristle. The Russian va-
riety of bristle is heavier in texture than the Chinese and is
TYPES OF BRUSHES 435
preferable for this particular purpose. They are used principally

for painting smooth plastered walls with calcimine
and should
not be used for any other purpose. Flat calcimine brushes,
made
of either gray or yellow bristle, are available in 6",
7", and 8"
widths. The 7" is the popular all-around size, with bristles
in length.
Dutch calcimine brush. (See Fig. 7.) Calcimine brushes of
theDutch type are used for calcimining rough plaster or stucco.

They are made of gray Russian bristle, with the bristles set in
knots and vulcanized in a solid rubber block, so that
they will
not pull out. A good general size is 6" in width with
the length
of the bristle not exceeding 5".
Whitewash brush. (See Fig. 8.) Whitewash brushes are
usually made of gray and yellow Russian bristles set in
cement
and leather-bound. They are available in various sizes. The 9^^
width is the size generally used. They are used for applying
whitewash and exterior cold-water paints.
Duster brush. (See Fig. 9.) The flat type of duster brush is
the one most generally used for the removal of dust before
paint-
The use of a dust brush is essential to clean spots and cor-
ners where a cloth will not do an efficient job. There are
many
tj^pes of duster brushes, but the flat variety is more
practical.
They are made of various kinds of bristles and horsehair and the
436 PAINT ING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
better types are vulcanized in rubber. It is an inexpensive brush

and should be used for dusting only. It is available in one size,
4 I/2 " wide.
Radiator brush. (See Fig. 10.) Radiator brushes are made
with long handles and a flat, thin structure for painting between
Fig. 7. Dutch calcimine brush. Fig. 8 . Whitewash brush.
radiator coils and unreachable places. They are made of black

Chinese bristle from 1" to 21/2 " in width.
Flat artist’s brush. (See Fig. 11.) The flat artist's brush is
made of black or white Chinese bristle, cement-set and metal-
Fig. 9. Duster brush. Fig. 10. Radiator brush,

TYPES OF BRUSHES
437
bound. It is designed for painting fine
lines and for decorating.
Available in widths ranging from to 2".
Roof.painling brush. (See Fig. 12.) The
roof-painting brush
shown at A is made of gray Russian bristle,
double-nailed and
leather-bound and is used for painting shingles.
The brush shown
Fig. 12. Roof-painting brushes.
at C attached to a long handle and is used in the

is
same manner
as a broom, for painting large roof surfaces.
The roof-painting
brush shown at B is made of poorer-quality
Russian bristle mixed
with a percentage of horsehair. It is less expensive than the
type previously described but is adequate for
painting smaller
metal roofs and for applying tar. It is available in
two-, three-,
and four-knot sizes with bristles about 31 " in length.
/2
Stippling brush. (See Fig. 13.) Stippling brushes are used
to pound or stipple paint that has previously
been applied to a
smooth plaster wall, so as to give it a stipple effect.
Stippling
brushes are usually made of stiff gray Russian bristle.
Flat color brush. (See Fig. 14.) Flat color brushes are made
of pure squirrel hair, usually called camel’s
hair, cement-set and
bound in brass. They are usually used for the application
of
438 PAINTIISG TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Japan colors. Available in half-inch sizes ranging from 1 to 3
in width.
Flowing brush. Flowing brushes are usually
(See Fig. 15.)
made of a mixture of badger hair and French bristle with an
outer layer of pure badger hair, although various other mixtures
of hair and bristle are sometimes used. The type shown in
Fig.
Fig, 13, Stippling brushes. Fig. 14. Flat color brush.
15 is the one most generally used in applying color varnish and

finishing coats on automobiles and boats.
Stencil brush. (See Fig. 16.) A stencil brush is a stiff, stubby
brush used for stenciling. It is made of tampico or fiber and set
in vulcanized rubber.
Waxing brush. (See Fig. 17.)Waxing brushes are used for
finishing after wax has been applied to floors. They are equipped
with felt protectors, to prevent scarring or marring baseboards.
They are made of tampico and fiber, stapled into a solid block
71/4 " X 91/4". Available in 15- and 25-pound sizes.
CARE OF BRUSHES
To remove short or loose bristles before using, twirl the brush
by rolling the handle between the palms and against the extended
fingers of the hand (Fig. 18).
Before using varnish brushes, rinse them in thinner to remove
dust. To keep brushes in good condition never suspend or soak
CARE OF HRUSHES 439
them in water. In addition to making the bristles
soft and flabby
water will swell the divider or handle
of the brush and will cause
the brush to spread out, like
a mop, and will sometimes break
one lerrule.
Never let a brush rest for any length of time on
the ends of the
Fig. 15. Flowing brush. Fig. 16. Stencil brush.
bristles. It will
put a kink in them and will ruin the brush.
To keep brushes in good condition when in use,
suspend them
m the proper thinner with the bristle a short distance from the
bottom of the can or paint pot. To suspend
a brush properly,
Fig. 17. Waxing brush. Fig. 18. Twirling brush to re-

move loose bristles.
440 rAIIMIISG TOOLS AND EQVIPMENT
drill a Vs'' hole through handle at the proper point so that a
its
stiff wire passing through it and resting upon the upper edge of
the can or paint pot will suspend it at the desired height. Sev-
eral brushes can be hung on the same wire (Fig. 19).
To keep brushes overnight or for several days proceed as fol-
lows:
Work out all excess material in the brush on either a board
or a newspaper.
If brushes have been used in interior or exterior oil paints they
should be suspended in a mixture of two parts of raw linseed oil

to one part of a good-quality thinner. While plain turpentine
or thinner is often used, it is better to use the thinner specified by
the manufacturer of the paint. Before re-using the brush, rinse
it in clean thinner.
Brushes that have been used in varnish or enamel should be
suspended in a mixture containing equal parts of varnish and
turpentine. If pure turpentine is used the brushes may get full
of specks. If brushes have been used in synthetic varnishes they
must be washed out thoroughly immediately after use, with either
the specified thinner or pure turpentine. Synthetic varnishes are

labeled as such by all reputable manufacturers.
After using brushes in rubber-base paints, wash them out either
in the special thinner recommended for the paint or in lacquer
thinner.
Use denatured alcohol wash out brushes that have been used
to
in shellac. If a shellac brush becomes slightly stiff it will soften
when dipped into fresh shellac. Brushes used in water paint must
be washed out in warm water and hung up to dry.
Storing brushes. Brushes used in oil paint, varnish, or enamel
should be thoroughly washed out in thinner. Use plenty of thin-
ner and then pour the used thinner into a bottle. The color will
settle to the bottom and the clear thinner can again be used for
cleaning brushes or thinning paint. Follow this cleaning by
washing the bristles with hand soap and warm water.Get the
suds well into the base of the brush, and rinse. Repeat until no
color comes out. Comb bristles straight, shake out all excess
water, and lay brush flat. When it is thoroughly dry, wrap it in
paper to keep the bristles clean and in shape (Fig. 20).

LADDERS AND TOOLS 441
Other brushes should be treated in the same manner,

using for
the first cleaning the proper thinner as
recommended above.
Do not attempt to clean old brushes with strong soap powders,
lye or other detergents, or strong cleaners.
Never leave a brush in benzine or benzine substitutes. The
Fig. 20. Wrap brushes separately

in oiled paper.
brush will become full of hardened specks of

paint or varnish
wliich can never be removed.
Never put a brush on a hot radiator to dry. It will
take the
life out of the bristles and ruin the brush.
OTHER TOOLS
Several ladders, extension brush holders, a putty knife,
a scrap-
ing knife, and a paint spray gun are additional
tools that may be
required for painting and decorating work in and
around the
home.
Stepladders. For interior painting one or two stepladders are
necessary. These should be of good, sturdy construction (Fig. 21).
If a scaffold
needed, two sturdy stepladders and a plank
is
approximately 10 wide, 2 thick, and as long as required

are
usually used (Fig. 21).
Long ladders. Long ladders are used for exterior painting.
They are available in lengths of 8', 10', 12', 14', 16', 18', and 20'.
The longer lengths are usually adequate for two-story houses.
Where areas that are to be painted cannot be reached by the
longest of these ladders, an extension ladder is required (Fig. 22).
Extension ladders. For some exterior jobs extension ladders
are necessary. Of the several types, one generally used is shown
Fig. 21. Two stepladders and a plank used as a scnffold.
Fig. 24. (circle) Wide scraping knife.
in Fig. 22. Extension ladders consist of several long ladder units

plus mechanical devices used to raise, lower, and fasten them.
40' and
Two-section extension ladders will extend from 20' to
each additional section extends the ladder 10' to 20 The lim- .
ited use that most people have for extension ladders does
not
warrant purchasing this equipment. In most localities they can

be rented for any length of time for a nominal sum. Directions
for raising and lowering extension ladders vary with the
type
and are furnished with the equipment.

SPRAY GUNS AJSD COMPRESSORS
443
Roof ladder hooks. Roof

ladder hooks are safety devices
that fasten onto the rungs of
the ladder and hook over the
ridge of a roof to give a firmer
support (Fig. 23).
Steel ladder shoes. These
simple little devices should be
screwed onto the bottoms of
all long ladders to give them
a firmer footing.
Putty knife. A putty knife,
for applying putty to window
sashes, is also a general-utility
tool for cleaning and scraping
off old paint and dirt prior to
painting.
Scraping knife. Scraping
knives are available in widths
ranging from 2 y2 " to 4". They
are used for scraping cracked,
scaled, or blistered paint from
surfaces before painting (Fig.
24).
Extension brush holders.
For painting places that are
difficult to reacli even with a
ladder, an extension brush
holder is used. A variety of
sizes and lengt,hs can be had
(Fig. 25).
SPRAY GUNS AND COMPRESSORS

Extensive exterior painting jobs can be accomplished
economi-
cally and well with spraying equipment in
a fraction of the time
required by the use of brushes. Contrary to
general belief, even
beginners with just a little practice can do a
creditable job by
this automatic method of paint application.
Complete spray-gun
be rented by
equipment, including the necessary compressor, can
the hour or day for a nominal fee.
guns,
Spray guns. There are many types and sizes of spray
each designed for a specific purpose. A typical general-utility
spray gun and its parts is shown in Fig. 26. A

paint spray gun
is a mechanical means of
bringing air and paint together, atomiz-
required size, and ejecting
ing the paint stream into a spray of the
Fig. 23. Roof ladder hook Fig. 25. Extension brush holder.
itby compressed air for the purpose of coating a surface. Each

manufacturer furnishes specific directions for the care and the
maintenance of his product. W hile the disassembly, reassembly,
and general maintenance directions for each individual type may
vary to some extent, the same general technique can be applied
to practically all types of spray guns.
The type gun shown in Fig. 26 has as one of its main fea-
of
tures a removable spray head. The advantages of this
type of
head are: ease of cleaning, and inexpensive replacement in case

of damage. If required, extra spray heads can be
bought. The
method of removing the spray head is shown in Fig. 27.

The principal parts of the spray head are the air cap, fluid tip,
fluid needle, baffle, and spray-head barrel (Fig. 28).
The air cap is the part at the front of the gun that directs the
compressed air into the paint stream to atomize it and form it
into a suitable spray pattern [A, Fig. 28).

The fluid tip is another part at the front end of the gun, which
It provides a
meters and directs the material into the air stream.
SPRAY GUN 445
Fig. 26. Parts and features of a well-designed, efficient spraj' gun.
1. Removable spray head. Sa\ es time in changing materials and cleaning.

2. Ball-and-cone principle of nozzle pai'ts assembly. Air-tight seating be-
tween air cap and fluid tip assures continuance of correct spray per-
formance.
3. Graduated spray-width adjustment. Easy and instantaneous selection
of desired spray width and i)attern.
4. Cartridge-type fluid needle adjustment assembly. May be quickly re-
moved and replaced as a unit.
5. Fluid adjustment. Convenient!)’’ located for quick, accurate, and
easy
control of fluid flow.
6. Unbreakable gun body.
7. Large air passage. Affords better atomization at lower air pressure.
8. Cartridge-type air valve. Assures perfect assembly of all parts and
economical replacement.
9. Scientifically designed trigger. Gun
can be held in all practical spraying
positions without fatigue.
10. Stainless-steel fluid needle. Heavy, with large diameter, ground to seat
perfectly, and will not rust.
11. Air and fluid connections. A choice of interchangeable thread sizes is
available.
self-aligning, concentric seat for the air cap and equalizes the air
leaving the center hole of the cap {B, Fig. 28) . The opening in the
fluid tip is called the nozzle. The comparative sizes of fluid tips and
standard nozzles are shown in Fig. 29. Standard nozzle sizes are
specified as follows: A, C, D, E, FF, FX, F, G. They are, as a
rule, stamped on the collar of the needle and on the outer edge
of the fluid tip.
The FF, FX, and F.
sizes in general use are E,
Air compressors. An air compressor is a mechanism designed
to supply compressed air continuously at a predetermined maxi-
mum pressure and the required minimum volume in cubic feet
per minute. There are two general types of air compressors:
single-stage and two-stage.
For all general house-painting
HORN HOLE where a maximum pressure
not exceeding 100 pounds is
NOZZLE SIZE required, the single-stage type
CENTER
ORIFICE should be used; this amount
of pressure more than ade-
is
NOZZLE SIZE fluid NEEDLE quate. Two-stage compressor

outfits are used principally fOr
various industrial purposes.
B
PAFFLE, SPRAY
These two main types of air
HEAD BARREL compressing outfits are fur-
Fig. 28. Parts of spray head.

ther divided into many sub-
types. Of these, the two gen-
erally used are those powered by either an motor or a gas
electric
engine. Single-stage compressors with suitable power equipment
PROCEDURE EOR USII\G SPRAY GUIS 447
are available in a self-contained, compact,
portable outfit that is
equipped with a handle and mounted on wheels so
that the com-
pressor can be easily moved to any required
spot (Fig. 30). Op-
eration and control of various air
compressors differ in detail.
Fig. 29. Standard comparative nozzle sizes and fluid

tips.
Follow all the directions for operation of any

particular type.
Preparing paint for spraying. Thoroughly
mix and stir the
paint. If the paint contains any
lumps or skins or any foreign
matter whatsoever, it must be strained
througii a fine screen
(Fig. 31). Paint that is to be used in a spray
gun must be
thinned to the consistency specified
by the respective manu-
facturers.
Correct procedure for using spray
gun. A spray gun must
at all times be held perpendicular
to the surface that is being
painted; never hold the gun in any
other position (Fig. 32).
"
Hold the gun from 6 to 8" from the
surface to obtain an even
spray. A simple method of
determining the proper distance is
shown m Fig. 32.
Make the strokes with a free arm motion,
keeping the gun the
same distance from the surface at all
points of the stroke (Fig.
33). The ends of all strokes are
feathered out by “triggering”
the gun, that is, by beginning the
stroke before pulling the trigger
and releasing the trigger just before ending
the stroke. Arcing
the gun will result in uneven
application and excessive over-spray
at the ends of each stroke.
At corners, spray within one or two
inches of the end of each
side (Fig. 34). Then, holding the gun sideways, do both un-
sprayed sides of the corner with one stroke.
Attempting to spray
corners by any other method will not
only waste material, but
will cause an overspray on the
adjacent side (Fig. 35).
448 FAINTING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
TYPE locally.
GUN
rented
SPRAY
PRODUCTION
be
MBC
can
that
^
equipment
COMPBESSOR
additional
\ and
QUALITY
compressor
Portable
30
Fig.
COMPRESSOR 449
Figr. 32 . Using gun, and nieasuring

distance.
\ I /
ARCING CAUSES
\ 1
/UNEVEN APPLICATION
VI7
DO NOT ARC
\ MOVE CUN IN
J STRAIGHT LINE
V--
BECIN STROKE RELEASE
THEN PULL TRIGGER BEFORE
TRIGGER COMPLETING
STROKE.
Fig. 33. Correct spray-gun strokes.
Fig. 34. Comer spraying.
Fig. 35. (left) Incorrect corner

spraying causes overspray on ad-
joining side.
Cleaning and lubricating the gun. A spray gun is a pre-

cision instrument and should never be put away, even for a short
time, without cleaning. The general procedure is as follows: Re-
move cup from gun. Hold a cloth over openings in air cap and
pull trigger (Fig. 36). Air diverted into fluid passageways forces
paint back into container. Empty the container of paint and re-
place with a small quantity of the type of solvent specified by
the manufacturer (Fig. 37). Spray solvent through gun in the
Fig. 36. Cleaning air cap and

diverting fluid into container.
usual manner. This will clean out passageways. Then remove

the air cap and wash off the fluid tip with solvent. Clean air cap
by immersing it in solvent, and replace on gun. If small holes in
air cap become clogged, soak the air cap in the solvent. If ream-
ing of the holes is still necessary after this procedure, use a
matchstick, broom straw, or any other soft, thin implement. Do
not dig out holes with wires or nails as cap may be permanently
damaged by this practice. Note: It is a common practice among
some mechanics to clean spray guns by placing the entire gun in
solvent. This should never be done, as solvents remove lubri-
cants and eventually dry out packings.
CHAPTER 16
Paints, Painting, and

Finishing Procedures
•
Wood and wood products in a variety of species, grain pat-

terns, texture, and colors are available for
use as exterior and
interior These wood surfaces can be finished quite
surfaces.
effectively by several different methods. Painting,
which totally
obscures the wood grain,used to achieve a particular color
is
decor. Penetrating-type preservatives and pigmented stains per-
mit some or all of the wood grain and texture
to show and
provide a special color effect as well as a natural
or rustic
appearance. The type of finish, painted or natural, often
depends
on the wood to be finished.
EFFECT OF WOOD PROPERTIES

Wood surfacesthat shrink and swell the least are best for
painting. For this reason, vertical- or edge-grained
surfaces are
far better than flat-grained surfaces of any
species. Also, because
the swelling of wood is directly proportional
to density, low-
density species are preferred over high-density
and dense wood
sui faces with flat grain have been stabilized
with a resin-treated
paper overlay, such as overlaid exterior plywood and
lumber, to
make them excellent for painting.
Medium-density fiberboard products fabricated with a uni-
form, low-density surface for exterior use are
often painted, but
little is known of their long-time
performance. The most widely
used sj)ecies for exterior siding to be painted are
vertical-grained
western red cedar and redwood. These species are
classified in
451
452 PAINTS, PAINTING, AND FINISHING PROCEDURES
Group I, those woods easiest to keep painted. [See Table 7.)
Other species in Group I are excellent for painting but are not
generally available in all parts of the country.
Species that are not normally cut as vertical-grained lumber,
are high in density (swelling), or have defects such as knots or
pitch, are classified in Groups II through V, depending upon their
general paint-holding characteristics. Many species in Groups II
through IV are commonly painted, particularly the pines, Doug-
las and spruce. These species generally require more care and
fir,
attention than the species in Group I. Resinous species should

be thoroughly kiln-dried at temperatures that will effectively set
the pitch.
The properties of wood that detract from its paintability do
not necessarily affect the finishing of such boards naturally with
penetrating preservatives and stains. These finishes penetrate
into wood without forming a continuous film on the surface.
Therefore, they will not blister, crack, or peel even if excessive
moisture penetrates into wood. One way to further improve the
performance of penetrating finishes is to leave the wood surface
rough-sawn. Allowing the high-density, flat-grained wood sur-
faces of lumber and plywood to weather several months also
roughens the surface and improves it for staining. Rough-textured
surfaces absorb more of the preservative and stain, insuring a
more durable finish.
NATURAL FINISHES FOR EXTERIOR WOOD

The simplest of natural finishes for wood is natural weather-
ing. Without paint or treatment of any kind, wood surfaces
change in color and texture in a few months or years, and then
may stay almost unaltered for a long time if the wood does not
decay. Generally, the dark-colored woods become lighter and the
light-colored woods become darker. As weathering continues, all
woods become gray, accompanied by degradation of the wood
cells at the surface. Unfinished wood will wear away at the rate
of about in one hundred years.
Weathered Wood
The appearance of weathered wood is affected by dark-colored
W ATER-REPELLEIST PRESERVATIVES 45[
spores and mycelia of fungi or mildew on the
surface, which give
the wood a dark gray blotchy and unsightly
appearance. Highly
colored wood extractives in such species as western red cedar
and redwood also influence the color of weathered
wood. The
dark brown color may persist for a long time in areas not ex-
posed to the sun and where the extractives are
not removed
by rain.
With naturally weathered wood, important to avoid the
it is
unsightly effect of rusting nails. Iron nails rust
rapidly and pro-
duce a severe brown or black discoloration.
Because of these
nails rusting, only aluminum or stainless steel nails should be
used for natural finishes.
Water-Repellent Preservatives
The natural weathering of wood may be modified by treatment
with water-repellent finishes that contain a preservative (usually
pentachlorophenol) a small amount of resin, and a very small
,
amount water repellent which frequently is wax or waxlike

of a
in nature. The treatment, which jienetrates
the wood surface,
retards the growth of mildew, prevents water staining
of the
ends of the boards, reduces warping, and protects species that
ha\ low natural resistance to decay. A clear, golden tan color
e a
can be achieved on such popular sidings as smooth or rough-
sawn western red cedar and redwood.
The preservative
solution can be easily applied by dipping,
brushing, or spraying. All lap and butt joints, edges, and ends of
boards should be liberally treated. Rough surfaces will absorb
more solution than smoothly planed surfaces and be more durable.
The initial application to smooth surfaces is usually short-
li\ed. When the surfaces start to show a blotchy discoloration
due to extractives or mildew, clean them with a detergent solu-
tion ami re-treat following thorougji drying. During
the first two
or three years, the finish may have to be a])plied ev('ry
year or
so. After weathering to uniform color, the treatments are more
dm able and need refinishing only when the surface
becomes
unevenly colored.
/ igynented colors can also be added to tlu' water-r('j)ellent pre-
servative solutions to provide special color effects. Two or six
o
HO
CS
CO
CO
C
CJ
!-
O
e
w
« CO
<3
H o <i:>
o
c
. • <s>
'
CO
SO
.CO
?:
^ <3
C3
• <>>
O 2
•
o
^
CO
•2
O
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD 455
fluid ounces of colors in oil or tinting colors can be added to

each gallon of treating solution. Light brown colors which match
the natural color of the wood and extractives are preferred. The
addition of pigment to the finish helps to stabilize the color and
increases the durability of the finish. In applying pigmented
systems, a complete course of siding should be finished at one
time to prevent lapping.
Pigmented Penetrating Stains
The pigmented penetrating stains are semitransparent, permit-

ting much of the grain pattern to show through, and penetrate
into the wood without forming a continuous film on the surface.
They will not blister, crack, or peel even if excessive moisture
enters the wood.
Penetrating stains are suitable for both smooth and rough-
textured surfaces. However, their performance is markedly im-
proved if applied to rough-sawn^ weathered, or rough-textured
wood. They are especially effective on lumber and plywood that
does not hold paint well, such as flat-grained surfaces of dense
species. One coat of penetrating stain applied to smooth surfaces
may last only two to four years, but the second application, after
the surface has roughened by weathering, will last eight to ten
years. A finish life of close to ten years can be achieved initially
by applying two coats rough-sawn surfaces. Two-coat

of stain to
staining is usually best for the highly adsorptive rough-sawn or
weathered surfaces to reduce lapping or uneven stain application.
The second coat should always be applied the same day as the
first coat and before the first coat dries.
An effective stain of this type is the Forest Products Labora-

tory natural finish. This finish has a linseed oil vehicle; a fungi-
cide, pentachlorophenol, that protects the from mildew; and
oil
a water-repellent, paraffin wax, that protects the wood from

excessive penetration of water. Durable red and brown iron
oxide pigments simulate the natural colors of redwood and cedar.
A variety of colors can be achieved with this finish, but the more
durable ones are considered to be the red and brown iron oxide
stains.
PAINTS FOR EXTERIOR WOOD 457
PAINTS FOR EXTERIOR WOOD
Of the finishes, paints provide the most protection
all
for wood
against weathering and offer the wfidest
selection of colors. A
nonporous paint film retards penetration of moisture
and reduces
discoloration by wood extractives, paint peeling, and checking
and wârpmg of the wood. Paint is 7wt a
preservative, and it
will not prevent decay if conditions
are favorable for fungal
growth. Original and maintenance costs are
usually higher for
a paint finish than for a wâter-rejiellent
preservative or penetrat-
ing stain finish. The
durability of paint coatings on exterior wood
is affected both by variables in the w’ood
surface and type of
paint.
Application of Paint
Exterior wood
surfaces can be very effectively painted by fol-
lowing a simple three-step procedure:
Step Water-repellent preservative treatment. Be sure
1.
that
wood siding and trim have been treated with water-repellent
pre-
servative to protect them against the entrance
of rain and heavy
dew at joints. If treated exterior woodwork was not installed,
treat by brushing or spraying in
it
place. Be sure to brush well
into the lap and butt joints, especially
re-treating cut ends.
Allow two warm, sunny days for adequate drying
of the treat-
ment before painting.
Step 2. Primer. New wood should be given three coats of
jiaint. The first or prime coat is the most important and
should
be applied soon after the woodwork
is erected; and topcoats
should be aiiplied within two days to two
weeks. Use a non-
porous linseed primer free of zinc pigments (Federal Speci-
oil
fication TT-P-25). Apply enough primer to obscure

the wood
grain. Many
painters tend to s})read primer too thinly. For best
results, be sure to follow the spreading rates
recommended by
the manufacturer, or approximately 400 to 450
square feet per
gallon for a jiaint that is about 85 per cent solids by weight.
A
properly applied coat of a nonporous house paint ]')rimer will
greatly reduce moisture blistering, peeling, and staining of
paint
by w’ood extractives.
The wood primer is not suitable for galvanized iron. Allow
such surfaces to weather for several months and then prime with
an appropriate primer, such as linseed oil or resin vehicle pig-
mented with metallic zinc dust (about 80 per cent) and zinc oxide
(about 20 per cent).
Step 3. Finish Coats. When applying topcoats over the primer
on new wood proceed as follows:
(1) Use two coats of a wood-quality latex, alkyd, or oil-base
house paint over the nonporous primer. This is particularly im-

portant for areas that are fully exposed to the weather, such as
the south side of a house.
(2) To avoid future separation between coats of paint, or
intercoat peeling, apply the first topcoat within two weeks after
the primer and the second within two weeks of the first.
(3) To avoid temperature do not apply oil-base

blistering,
paints on a cool surface that will be heated by the sun within

a few hours. Follow the sun around the house. Temperature
blistering is most common with thickly applied paints of dark
colors. The blisters usually show up in the last coat of paint
and occur within a few hours to one or two days after painting.
They do not contain water.
(4) To avoid the wrinkling, fading, or loss of gloss of oil-base
paint, and streaking of latex paints, do not paint in the eve-
nings of cool spring and fall days when heavy dews are frequent
before the surface of the paint has dried.
Repainting
(1) Repaint only when the old paint has worn thin and no
longer protects the wood. Faded or dirty paint can often be
freshened by washing. Where wood surfaces are exposed, spot
prime with a zinc-free linseed oil primer before applying the
finish coat. Repainting too frequently produces an excessively
thick film that is more sensitive to the weather and also likely
to crack abnormally across the grain of the paint. The grain of
the paint is in the direction of the last brush strokes. Complete
paint removal is the only cure for cross-grain cracking.
(2) Use the same brand and type of paint originally applied
for the topcoat. A change is advisable only if a paint has given
trouble. When repainting with latex paint, apply a nonporous,
oil-base primer overall before applying the latex paint.
BLISTERING AND PEELING 459
(3) To avoid
intercoat peeling, which indicates a weak bond
between coats of paint, clean the old painted surface well
and
allow no more than two weeks between coats in
two-coat repaint-
ing. Do not repaint sheltered areas,
such as eaves and porch
ceilings, every time the weathered body
of the house is painted.
In repainting sheltered areas, wash the old paint
surface with
trisodium phosphate or with a detergent solution to
remove sur-
face contaminants that will interfere with
adhesion of the new
coat of paint. Following washing, rinse sheltered
areas with large
amounts of water and let areas dry thoroughly before repainting.
When intercoat peeling does occur, complete paint removal is the
only satisfactory procedure.
Blistering and Peeling

When too much water gets into paint or wood, the paint may
blister and peel. The moisture blisters normally appear first and
the peeling follows. But sometimes the paint peels without blis-
tering.At other times the blisters go unnoticed. Moisture blisters
usually contain water when they form, or soon
afterward, and
eventually dry out. Small blisters may disappear completely on
drying. However, fairly large blisters may leave a rough spot
on the surface. If the blistering is severe, the paint may peel.
New, thin coatings are
more likely to blister because of too
much moisture under them than old, thick coatings. The older
and thicker coatings are too rigid to stretch, as they
must do to
blister, and so are more prone to cracking
and peeling.
House construction features that will minimize water damage
of outside paint are: (a) wide roof overhang,
wide flashing
(b)
under shingles at roof edges, (c) effective vapor barriers,
(d)
adequate eave troughs and properly hung downspouts, and
(e)
adequate ventilation of the house. If these features are
lacking
in a new house, persistent blistering and peeling may occur.
Discoloration by Extractives
Water-soluble color extractives occur naturally in western red

cedar and redwood. It is to these substances that the
heartwood
of these two species owes its attractive color, good stability, and
natural decay resistance. Discoloration occurs when
the extrac-
tives are dissolved and leached from the
wood by water. When
the solution of extractives reaches the painted surface, the water

evaporates, leaving the extractives as a reddish-brown stain. The
water that gets behind the paint and causes moisture blisters
also causes migration of extractives. The discoloration produced
by water wetting the siding from the back side frequently forms
a rundown or streaked pattern.
The emulsion paints and the so-called breather or low-luster
oil paints are more porous than conventional oil paints. If these
paints are used on new wmod without a good oil primer, or if

any paint is applied too thinly on new wood {for example, a
skimpy two-coat paint job), rain or even heavy dew can pene-
trate the coating and reach the wood. When the water dries
from the wood, the extractives are brought to the surface of the
paint. Discoloration of paint by this process forms a diffused
pattern.
On rough surfaces, such as shingles, machine-grooved shakes,
and rough-sawn lumber sidings, it is difficult to obtain an ade-
quately thick coating on the high points. Therefore, extractive
staining is more likely to occur on such surfaces by wâter pene-
trating through the coating. But the reddish-brown extractives
will be less conspicuous if dark-colored paints are used.
Effect of Impregnated Preservatives on Painting
Wood treated with the water-soluble preservatives in common

use can be painted satisfactorily after it is redried. The coating
may not last quite as long as it would have on untreated wood,
l)ut there is no vast difference. A slight loss in durability is not
enough to offer any practical objection to using treated wood
where preservation against decay is necessary, protection against
weathering desired, and appearance of painted wood important.
When such treated wood
used indoors in textile or pulpmills,
is
or other places where the relative humidity may be above 90

per cent for long ])eriods, })aint may discolor or preservative solu-
tion Coal-tar creosote or other dark oily ])reservatives
exude.
tend to stain through paint unless the treated wood has been
exposed to the weather for many months before it is painted.
Wood treated with oilborne, chlorinated phenols can be painted
only when the solvent oils have eva])orated completely from the
treated wood. If volatile solvents that evaporate rapidly are
INTERIOR PAINTING 461
used for the treating solution,
such as in water-repellent pre-
Tas’S*’
INTERIOR PAINTING
For an attractive, long-lasting
paint job, you need to use a
good-quahty paint; properly prepare
the surface for painting-
and apply the paint correctly.
Preparation of the surface— clean-
ing and patching— may
take the most time in painting,
but it
IS the most important
part of the job. Even the best
paint will
not adhere well to an excessively
dirty or greasy surface or hide
large cracks or other mars.
Paint Selection
Many different kinds and formulations of jiaints and other fin-
ishes are available for
interior use. And new ones frequently
appear on the market.
Before making your selection use
Table 8 as a guide for select-
ing paint. For a more
specific selection consult your
local paint
dealer. Reputable paint
dealers keep abreast of the newest
devel-
opments in the paint industry and
stock the newest formulations.
Mpless paint is an examiile of a fairly
recent development
It has a jelled consistency
in the can, but it loses
that form when
picked up on a brush or roller
and spreads evenly and smoothly,
ft IS particularly convenient when jiainting a ceiling.
The usua,l interior paint job consists of
painting wallboard or
plaster walls and ceilings,
woodwork, and wood windows and
coors. or these surfacesyou need to choose first between
solvent-thinned paint (commonly
called oil-based paint) and
water-thinned paint (commonly called
latex paint, but not nec-
eârily latex), and then between
a gloss, scmigloss, or fiat finish
(Enamels, which are made with a
varnish, or resin, base instead
of the usual linseed-oil
vehicle, are included under the broad oil-
paint grouping.)
Oil-based paints are very durable,
are highly resistant to stain-
ing and damage, can
withstand frequent scrubbings, and give
good one-coat coverage. Many
latex paints are advertised as
navmg similar jiroperties.
Table 8
Guide for selecting paint
latex)
i
latex)
(not
(including
paste)
enamel
paint
paint
undercoater
paint
paint or
paint or
varnish
(emulsion)
base primer base

varnish
paint (liquid sealer
paint
or
Semigloss
Emulsion
Aluminum
Enamel Interior Rubber Shellac

Cement
Casein Metal Sealer
Floor Floor Stain
Wood
Flat Wax Wax
Floors
Asphalt tile X«
Concrete X* x»
Linoleum X X X X
Vinyl and rubber X X X X
Wood X* X* X
Masonry
Old X X X XiXJ X. X X X«
New X X X* x« X X X*
Metal
Heating ducts X x« x« X X X*
Radiators X X* X* X X X*
Stairs: 1
Treads 1 X X X X
Risers X* X* X X x« X X
Walls and ceilings:
1
Kitchen and bathroom X X* X X X*

Plaster X X X* X X X*
Wallboard X X X* 1
X X X*
Wood paneling X* X* X
X X
Wood
Windows:
trim
]
X* X* X*
— X X X x« X X
Aluminum X X* X* X X X*
Steel X X* X* X X X*
Wood sill
J
X* X X X J
1
Black dot (X*) indicates that a primer or sealer may be necessary before the
finishing coat (unless the surface has been previously finished).
PAINT SELECTION 463
The main advantages of latex ])aint are easier application,
and simpler tool cleanup. The brushes, rollers, and
faster drying,
other equipment can be easily cleaned with water.
Both oil-based paint and latex paint are now available in
gloss, semigloss, and Glossy finishes look shiny and
flat finishes.
clean easily. Flat finishes show dirt more readily but
absorb
light and, therefore, reduce glare. Semigloss finishes
have prop-
erties of both glossy and flat finishes.
Because enamel is durable and easy to clean, semigloss or full-
gloss enamel is recommended for woodwork and for the
walls of
kitchens, bathiooms, and laundry rooms. For the walls of nurs-
eiies and other playrooms, either oil-based or latex semigloss
enamel paint is suggested. Flat paint is generally used for the
walls of living rooms, dining rooms, and other nonwmrk
or non-
play rooms.
COLOR
Paints are available in a wdde range of colors and
shades.
Dealers usually carry color charts showing the different
possibili-
ties. Some of the colors are ready mixed; others the dealer
has
to mix by adding or combining different colors.
Color selectionmostly a matter of personal preference. Here
is
are some points to keep in mind in selecting your

colors:
1. Light colors make a small
room seem larger. Conversely,
dark colors make an overly large room apjiear smaller.
2. Bright walls in a large room detract from otherwise decora-
tive furnishings.
3. Ceilings appear lowêr when darker than the wâlls and
higher when lighter than the walls.
Paint generally dries to a slightly different color or shade.
4.
For a fast preview of the final color, brush a sample

swatch of
the paint on a piece of clean, white blotting
paper. The blot-
ting paper will immediately absorb the w^t
gloss, and the color
on the pajier will be about the color of the paint whien
it dries
on the w'all.
5. Colors often change under artificial lighting. Look at

color
swatches both in daylight and under artificial lighting.
QUANTITY
For large jobs, paint is usually bought by the gallon. The label
usually indicates the number of square feet a gallon will cover
when applied as directed. To determine the number of gallons
you need:
1. Find the area of the walls in scjuare feet by multiplying the
distance around the room by the height of the walls. (This figure
will include door and window space.)
2. From this figure, subtract 07ie-half of the total area, in
square taken up by doors and windows. To find this area,
feet,
multiply the height of each unit by its width then add the ;
results.
3. Divide the figure obtained by the number of scpiare

in step 2
feet a gallon will cover. Then multiply by the number of coats

to be apj)lied. The result is the number of gallons needed.
Ceilings are frequently painted a different color or shade (usu-

ally white) than the walls and need to be figured separately. To
find the square-foot area of the ceiling, multiply the length by
the width.
Keep in mind that unpainted plaster and wallboard soak up
more paint than j)reviously painted walls and, therefore, require
more paint or primer.

Some paints are guaranteed to give one-coat coverage over all
or most colors if applied as directed at a rate not exceeding the
number of square feet specified on the label of the paint containei
Woodwork
Woodwork (windows, and baseboards) usually has a
doors,
glossy finish. First, wash the surface to remove dirt and grease,
and then sand it lightly to cut the finish so that the new paint
can get a good hold. After sanding, wq')e the surface to iemo\e
the dust.
You can buy liquid preparations that will soften hard, glossy
finishes to providegood adhesion for the new paint.
If there are any bare spots in the wood, touch them
up with
an undercoater or with ihgniented shellac before you paint.
Application
Read the label on the paint can before you start painting. It
APPLlCAriON 465
will contain general application instructions and may contain

special instructions.
EQUIPMENT
Interior j)ainting is usually done with brushes or with brushes
and rollers (Fig. 1). Indoor spray j)ainting is not generally done
by the homeowner, excej')t for small jobs using {)ressurized cans
of i)aint. {See Chap. 15.)
For speed and convenience, use a roller on the walls, ceilings,
and other large surfaces, and then use a brush at corners, along
Fi^. 1.
edges, and in other places that you cannot reach with a roller.
Woodwork is usually painted with a brush.
Special-shaped rollers and other applicators are available for
painting woodwork, corners, edges, and other close places. Some
may work fine; others, not so well. You may find that a small
brush is still best for such work.
Different kinds of brushes and rollers are recommended for
use with different kinds of paint. For example, short-nap rollers
are best for applying gloss enamel on smooth surfaces. Check
with your paint dealer on what kind of brush or roller to buy.
You will need some other equipment for indoor painting: a
step-ladder, drop cloths, and wiping rags.
PAINTING TIPS
For an easier and better paint job proceed as follows:
Do the painting when the room temperature is comfortable for
work (between 60°F and 70°F). And provide good cross ventila-
tion both to shorten the drying time and to remove fumes and
odors.
i\ote:Check the label on the paint can for any special appli-
cation and drying instructions.
Preferably, remove all furnishings from the room. Otherwise,
cover the furniture, fixtures, and floor with drop cloths or news-
]:)apers. No matter how careful you may be, you will spill, drip,
or splatter some paint.
Remove all light-switch and wall-plug plates. Paint the plates
before you replace them after painting the room.
Dip your brush into the paint no more than one-third the
length of the bristles. This will minimize splattering and
dripping.
When using latex paint, wash your brush or roller occasionally
with water. A buildup of the quick-drying paint in the nap of
the roller or at the base of the bristles of the brush could cause
excessive dripping.
Wipe up spilled, splattered, or dripped paint as you go along.
Paint is easier to clean up when wet.
Do not the paint dry out in the can or in brushes or rollers
let
between jobs or during long interruptions in a job. After each

job, replace the can lid, making sure that it is on tightly and
APPLICATION 467
clean brushes or rollers. During long interruptions in a job, also
replace the can lid and either clean brushes or rollers or suspend
them in water.
SAFETY TIPS
For a safer paint job proceed as follows:
Never paint in a completely closed room, and use caution when
painting in a room where there is an open flame or fire.
Some
paints give off fumes that are flammable or dangerous to
breathe
or both. (Avoid prolonged exposure to paint
fumes for a day or
two after painting. Such fumes can he especially harmful to
canaries or other pet birds.)
Use a sturdy stepladder or other support when painting high
places. Be sure that the ladder is positioned firmly, with the
legs fully opened and locked in position.
Face the ladder when climbing up or down it, holding on with
at least one hand. Lean toward the ladder when
painting.
T)o not overreach when painting. Move the ladder frequently
rather than risk a And, to avoid spilling the paint, take
fall.
the few seconds required to remove the paint can from the
ladder
before you move it.
When you finish painting, dispose of the used rags by putting
them in acovered metal can. If left lying around, the oily rags
could catch fire by spontaneous combustion.
Store paint in a safe, but well-ventilated, place where children
and pets cannot get to it. A locked cabinet is ideal if well ven-
tilated. Unless needed for retouching, small quantities of paint
may not be worth saving.
PROCEDURE
Paint the ceiling first. Do not try to paint too wide a strip at
a time. The next strip should be started and lapped into the
previous one before the previous one dries.
If you are putting two coats on the ceiling, apply
the second
coat, and cut in at the junction with the walls, before
you paint
the walls.
When painting walls with a roller proceed as follows: (1)
Start painting a wall at the upper left-hand corner, brush a strip
just below the ceiling line for a width of 2'. (Left-handed per-
sons may find it more convenient to start at the upper right-hand

corner.) Also paint a strip along the left edge from the ceiling
to the floor. (2) Starting in an unpainted area, roll upward
toward the painted area. (3) Complete an area about 2' wide
and 3' deep at a time. (4) At the bottom of the wall, cut in with
the brush whereyou could not reach with the roller. Use a card-
board guard to protect the woodwork. (See Fig. 1.)
Paint the woodwork (windows, doors, and baseboards) last,
preferably after the walls are completely dry.
Flush doors can be painted with a roller. On paneled doors,
some parts can be painted with a roller, other sections will re-
quire a brush. (You may prefer your doors and other trim in
natural color.)
Paint the parts of a window in the order shown in Fig. 2;
(1) mullions, horizontal of sash, (3) verticals of sash, (4)
(2)
verticals of frame, (5) horizontal frame and sill. Windows are
easier to paint and to clean afterward if the glass is masked.
Fig. 2.
PAINTING PLYWOOD 469
Both masking tape and liquid masking are available at local
hardware and paint stores.
A simple way to protect the glass is to cover it with a piece
of wet newspaper. The moisture will paste the newspaper to the
glass and also prevent paint from soaking into the absorbent
paper. When you stri]) the pa])er from the glass after painting,
the paint will come with it.
CLEANUP
Brushes, rollers, and other equipment should be cleaned as
soon as possible after use.
Equipment used to apply latex paint can be easily cleaned
with soap and water. Rinse thoroughly.
Equipment used to apply oil-base paint may be a little harder
to clean. Soak brushes in turpentine or thinner long enough
to
loosen the paint. Then work the bristles against the bottom of
the container to release the paint. To release the paint in
the
center of the brush, squeeze or work the bristles between the
thumb and forefinger. Rinse the brush in the turpentine or
thinner again, and, if necessary, wash it in mild soapsuds and
rinse in clear water.
PAINTING PLYWOOD
Fir plywood has a tendency to show grain pattern

and to
check after being painted, but with proper priming or sealing
this versatile material can be painted, enameled
or varnished
as attractively as any other wood surface.
Procedures. The first step, of course, is to prepare the surface
which must be smooth, clean and without any traces of oil, grease
or laminating glue. Nail holes and wood blemishes should be
filled and sanded, and the sandings removed with
a cloth damp-
ened with turpentine or odorless solvent.
Paints. For an opaque finish which hides the grain completely,
the best results are obtained in the following manner:
Brush on a coat of flat oil or alkyd paint, enamel undercoat
or {)enctrating resin sealer. Do not use a water-thinned latex
paint for this coat, because the water may raise the grain. The
flat paint may be thinned slightly as directed on the label
to make it more brushable. Sand lightly and dust clean as

described.
Then apply a second coat. If the finish coat is to be a gloss
enamel, make this second coat a 50-50 mixture of enamel under-

coat and the finish coat. When dry, sand lightly. Lastly, apply
the top coat as it comes from the can.
If the to be a latex paint, then the prime coat should
top coat is
be either a clear resin sealer or a flat white oil paint. Finish

according to the latex maker’s directions for a sealed surface.
For a clear or natural finish which permits the wood grain to
show through, first select plywood with an attractive grain pat-
tern, free of blemishes and insert “plugs.” Sand smooth and
clean before applying any finish. To retain the completely na-
tural appearance of the wood, first apply a coat of the clear
resin sealer. After it has dried, sand to remove gloss and follow
with one or two coats of flat varnish or brushing lacquer.
For blond effects, brush on a coat of white pigmented resin
sealer thinned according to label instruction or use a white in-
terior undercoat thinned 50-50 with turpentine or odorless solvent.
After 10 to 15 minutes, dry-brush with the grain or wipe with
a dry cloth. This lets the grain show through. After this coat
has dried, sand lightly. Then seal with a coat of clear resin
sealer, and sand lightly with fine sandpaper when dry.
At this point it is also possible to impart any desired color
to the wood. Use tinted interior undercoat, thinned enamel, pig-
mented resin sealer (or clear sealer tinted with colors in oil)
or colors in oil. Light stains may also be used. Sand lightly
when dry.
If a colored grain effect is desired, some craftsmen do not
whiten the wood as a first step. Instead, they tint clear or white
resin sealer with the colors in oil to the desired shade, reduced
25 per cent with proper solvent. This is brushed on and allowed
to set a few minutes, then rubbed into the pores of the wood and
finally wiped off with the grain. After the surface is completely
dry, it is sanded smooth and followed with the desired topcoat
of varnish or brushing lacquer.
PAINTING CONTRACTORS
You may prefer to have all or part of your painting done by

. ,
FINISHES FOR INTERIOR WOODWORK 471

a professional painter. Painting contraetors usually offer three
graclet> of ])aint jol)s, such as preniuu)!., stcindcird and iniiiunuin.
The difference is in the ciuality
and cost of the work.
When you hire a contractor, it is a good idea to get a signed
agreement specifying the following:
The specific ])rice for the job.
Exactly what areas or surfaces are to be painted.
The types, brands, ancl quality of paints to be used and the
number of coats, including primer coats, to be applied.
The measures to be taken to ju’otect the floors, furnishings,
and other parts of the house.
A
completion date (allowing for possible delays, jor example,
because of bad weather)
Check the contractor’s work with friends or neighbors who
may have hired him in the past. Be sure that he is fully insured
(Workmens Compensation and Emj)loyer’s Liabdity Insurance,
Public Liability, and Property Damage Insurance).
Otherwise,
you could be held liable for accidents that occurred on
your
})roperty.
FINISHES FOR INTERIOR WOODWORK

Interior finishing differs from exterior chiefly in that interior
woodwork usually requires much less protection against moisture,
more exacting standards of apjicarance, and a greater variety of
effects. Good interior finishes used indoors should last much
longer than paint coatings on exterior surfaces. Veneered panels
and plywood present special finishing problems because of the
tendency of these wood constructions to surface check.
Opaque Finishes
Interior surfaces may be painted with the materials and by
the ju'ocedures recommended for exterior surfaces. As a rule,
smoother surfaces, better and a more lasting sheen are de-
color,
manded for interior woodwork, especially the wood trim. There-
fore, enamels or semigloss enamels rather than jiaints are used.
472 FAINTING TOOLS AND EQIIPMENT
Before enameling, the wood surface should be extremely

smooth. Imperfections, such as planer marks, hammer marks,
and raised grain, are accentuated by enamel finish. Raised grain
is especially troublesome on flat-grained surfaces of the heavier
softwoods because the hard bands of summerwood are sometimes
crushed into the soft springwood in planing and later are pushed
up again when the wood changes in moisture content. It is help-
ful to sponge softwoods with water, allow them to dry thor-
oughly, and then sandpaper them lightly with sharp sandpaper
before enameling. In new buildings, woodwork should be allowed
adequate time to come to its equilibrium moisture content be-
fore finishing.
For hardwoods with large pores, such as oak and ash, the
pores must be filled with wood filler before the priming coat is
applied. The priming coat for all woods may be the same as
for exterior woodwork, or special priming paints may be used.
Knots in the white pines, ponderosa pine, or southern yellow
pine should be shellacked or sealed with a special knot sealer
after the priming coat is dry. A coat of knot sealer is also
sometimes necessary over wood of white pines and ponderosa
pine to prevent pitch exudation and discoloration of light colored
enamels by colored matter apparently present in the resin of
the heartwood of these species.
One or two coats of enamel undercoat are next applied. This
procedure should completely hide the wood and also present a
surface that can easily be sandpapered smooth. For best results,
the surface should be sandpapered before applying the finishing
enamel, but this operation is sometimes omitted. After the fin-
ishing enamel has been applied, it may be left with its natural
gloss or rubbed to a dull finish. When wood trim and paneling
are finished with a flat paint, the surface preparation is not
nearly as exacting.
Transparent Finishes
Transparent finishes are used on most hardwood and some

softwood trim and paneling, according to personal preference.
Most finishing consists of some combination of the fundamental
operations of staining, filling, sealing, surface coating, or wax-
ing. Before finishing, planer marks and other blemishes of the
TRANSPARENT FINISHES 473
wood surface that would be accentuated by the finish must be
removed.
Both softwoods and hardwoods are often finished without
staining, especially if the wood is one with a jdeasing and charac-
teristic color. When
used, however, stain often provides much
more than color alone because it is absorbed unecjually by dif-
ferent parts of the wood, and it accentuates the natural varia-
tions in the grain. With hardwoods such emphasis of the grain
is usually desirable. The
best stains for this purpose are dyes
dissolved either in water or in oil. The wâter stains
give the
most pleasing results but raise the grain of the wood and require
an extra sanding ojêration after the stain is dry.
The most commonly used stains are the nongrain raising ones
which dry quickly and often approach the water stains in
clear-
ness and uniformity of color. Stains on
softwoods color the
springwood more strongly than the summerwood, reversing
the
natural gradation in color in a manner that often garish.
is Pig-
ment which are essentially thin paints, are less subject
oil stains,
to this objection and are, therefore, more

suitable for softwoods.
Alternatively, the softwood may be coated with clear
sealer be-
fore applying the pigment oil stain to give more
nearly uniform
coloring.
In hardwoods with large yores, the pores must
be filled before
varnish or lacquer is applied if a smooth coating is
desired. The
filler may
be transparent and without effect on the color of the
finish or it may be colored to contrast
with the surrounding
wood.
Sealer (thinned-out varnish or lacquer) is used to
prevent ab-
sorption of subsequent surface coatings and prevent the bleeding
of some and fillers into surface coatings, especially lacquer
stains
coatings. Lacquer sealers have the advantage of being
very fast-
drying.
Transparent surface coatings over the sealer may be of gloss
varnish, semigloss varnish, nitrocellulose lacquer, or
wax. Wax
provides a characteristic sheen without forming a thick coating
and without greatly enhancing the natural luster of the wood.
Coatings of a more resinous nature, especially laccjuer and var-
nish, accentuate the natural lustc'r of some
hardwoods and seem
to permit the observer to look down in the
wood. Shellac ap-
plied by the laborious process of French polishing probably

achieves this impression of depth most fully, but the coating is
expensive and easily marred by water. Rubbing varnishes made

with resins of high refractive index for light are nearly as effec-
tive as shellac.Lacquers have the advantages of drying rapidly
and forming a hard surface but require more applications than
varnish to build up a lustrous coating.
Varnish and lacquer usually dry with a highly glossy surface.
To reduce the gloss, the surfaces may be rubbed with pumice
stone and water or polishing oil. Waterproof sandpaper and
water may be used instead of pumice stone. The final sheen
varies with the fineness of the powdered pumice stone, coarse
powders making a dull surface and fine powders a bright sheen.
For very smooth surfaces with high polish, the final rubbing is
done with rotten stone and oil. Varnish and lacquer made to dry
to semigloss are also available.
Flat oil finishes are currently very popular. This type of fin-
ish penetrates the wood and forms no noticeable film on the

surface. Two coats of oil are usually applied, which may be
followed with a paste wax. Such finishes are easily applied and
maintained but are more subject to soiling than a film-forming
type of finish.
Filling Porous Hardwoods Before Painting
For finishing purposes, the hardwoods may be classified as

follows
H ardwoods with large pores Hardwoods with small pores

Ash Alder, red
Butternut Aspen
Chestnut Basswood
Elm Beech
Hackberry Cherry
Hickory Cottonwood
Khaya (African mahogany) Gum
Mahoganv Magnolia
Oak Maple
Sugarberr>' Poplar
Walnut S^Tamore
Birch has pores large enough to take wood filler effectively

FINISHES FOR FLOORS 47I
when desired but small enough, as a rule, to be finished satisfac-

torily without filling.
Hardwoods with small pores may be finished with paints,
enamels, and varnishes in exactly the same manner
as softwoods.
Hardwoods with large pores require wood filler before
they can
be covered smoothly with a film-forming
finish. Without filler,
the pores not only appear as dei)ressions
in the coating, but also
become centers of surface imperfections and early
failure.
FINISHES FOR FLOORS
Wood possesses a variety of properties that make it a highly

desirable flooring material for your home. A variety of wood
flooring products permit a wide selection of attractive
and ser-
viceable wood floors. Selection is available not only from a va-
riety of different wood species and grain characteristics, but also
from a considerable number of distinctive flooring tyj)es and
pat-
terns.
Interior Floors
The natural and grain of wood floors make them in-

color
herently attractive and beautiful. It is the
function of floor fin-
ishes to enhance the natural beauty of
wood, protect it from
excessive wear and abrasion, and make the floors
easier to clean.
A complete finishing process ipay consist of the following
steps:
sanding the surface, applying a filler for certain
woods, applying
a stain to achieve a desired color effect, and
applying a finish.
Detailed procedures and specified materials depend
largely on
the species of wood used and individual
preference in type of
finish.
Careful sanding to provide a smooth surface is

essential for a
good finish because any irregularities or roughness in
the base
surface will be magnified by the finish. The
production of a
satisfactory surface requires sanding in several
steps with pro-
gressively finer sandpaper, usually with a machine,
unless the
area is small. The final sanding is usually done
with a 2/0 grade
paper. When sanding is complete, all dust must
be removed by
using a vacuum cleaner or tack rag. Steel
wool should not be
used on floors unprotected by finish because
minute steel par-
476 FAIISTING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
tides left in the wood may later cause staining or discoloration.
A filler is required for wood with large pores, such as oak and
walnut, if a smooth, glossy, varnish finish is desired. A filler may
be paste or liquid, natural or colored. It is applied by brushing
first across the grain and then by brushing with the grain. The
surplus filler must be removed immediately after the glossy wet

appearance disappears. Wipe first across the grain to pack the
filler into the pores, and then complete the wiping with a few
light strokes with the grain. The filler should be allowed to dry
thoroughly before the finish coats are applied.
Stains are sometimes used to obtain a more nearly uniform
color when individual boards vary too much in their natural
color. Stains may also be used to accent the grain pattern. If
the natural color of the wood is acceptable, staining is omitted.

The should be an oil-base or a nongrain-raising stain.
stain
Stains penetrate wood only slightly. Therefore, the finish should
be carefully maintained to prevent wearing through the stained
layer. It is difficult to renew the stain at worn spots in a way
that will match the color of the surrounding area.
Finishes commonly used for wood floors are classified either as
sealers or varnishes. Sealers, which are usually thinned-out var-

nishes, are widely used in residential flooring. They penetrate
the wood just enough to avoid formation of a surface coating of
appreciable thickness. Wax is usually applied over the sealer.
If greater gloss is makes an excellent
desired, the sealed floor
base for varnish. The thin surface coat of sealer and wax needs
more frequent attention than varnished surfaces. Rewaxing or
resealing and waxing of high-traffic areas is a relatively simple
maintenance procedure.
Varnish may be based on phenolic, alkyd, epoxy, or polyure-
thane resins. They form a distinct coating over the wood and
give a lustrous finish. The kind of service expected usually de-
termines the type of varnish. Varnishes especially designed for
homes are available. Information on types of floor finishes can
be obtained from flooring manufacturers.
Durability of floor finishes can be improved by keeping them
waxed. Paste waxes generally give the best appearance and
durability. Two coats are recommended and, if a liquid wax is
,
TYPICAL VALUES OF MOISTURE 477
Table 9
Some typical values of moisture excluding effectiveness
of coatings after two
weeks’ exposure of wood initially from 80°F and
66 per cent relative
humidity to 80°F and 97 per cent relative humidity
Coatings
Effec-
Number tive-
Type of ness
coats
Pet.
INTERIOR COATINGS
Uncoated wood 0
Latex paint 2 0
Floor seal 2 0
U
Floor seal plus wax 2 10
Linseed oil 1
1 X
Do 2 o
Do. -x 911
Furniture wax 3 8
Phenolic varnish 1 5
Do 2 40
Do ( O
Sernigloss enamel. 2 52
Cellulose lacquer 3 73
Lacquer enamel _ 3 76
Shellac X 87
EXTERIOR COATINGS
Water-repellent preservative 1 0
FPL natural finish (stain) 1 0
Exterior latex paint 2 3
House paint primer: 1 20
Plus latex paint 2 22
Plus titanium-zinc linseed oil paint (low.
luster oil base) (30 pet. PVC) ^
1 65
Titanium-alkyd oil:
30 pet. PVC L_ 1 45
40 pet. PVC . *
1 3
50 pet. PVC L . 1 0
Aluminum powder in long oil 'phenolic
varnish 1 30
o y
Do 2 88
Do.. 3 95
.
* PVC (pigment volume concentration) is the volume of

pigment, in percent, in the nonvolatile portion of the paint.
used, additional coats may be necessary to get an adequate film
for good performance.
Porches and Decks
Exposed on porches and decks is commonly painted.

flooring
The recommended procedure of treating with water-repellent
preservative and primer is the same as for wood siding. {See
Chap. 24.) After the primer is applied, an undercoat and match-
ing coat of porch and deck enamel should be applied.
Many fully exposed rustic-type decks are effectively finished
with only water-repellent preservative or a penetrating-type pig-
mented stain.Because these finishes penetrate and form no film
on the surface, they do not crack and peel. They may need more
frequent refinishing than painted surfaces, but this is easily done
because there is no need for laborious surface preparation as
when painted surfaces start to peel.
MOISTURE-EXCLUDING EFFECTIVENESS OF COATINGS
The protection afforded by coatings in excluding moisture

vapor from wood depends on a number of variables. Among
them are film thickness, absence of defects and voids in the film,
type of pigment, type of vehicle, volume ratio of pigment to
vehicle, vapor-pressure gradient across the film, and length of
exposure period.
The and fin-
relative effectiveness of several typical treating
ishing systems for wood in retarding adsorption of water vapor
at 97 per cent relative humidity is shown in Table 9. Perfect
protection, or no adsorption of water, would be represented by
100 per cent effectiveness. Complete lack of protection (as with
unfinished wood) by 0 per cent.
Paints which are porous, such as the latex paints and low-
luster or breather-type oil-base paints formulated at a pigment
volume concentration above 40 per cent, afford little protection
against moisture vapor. These porous paints also permit rapid
entry of water and so provide little protection against dew and
rain unless applied over a nonporous primer.
CHAPTER 17
Woodworking Repairs
•
FLOORS
A familiarity with the general construction of a house
floor is
essential if you want to make floor repairs in a
proper and efficient
way. In a well-constructed house the joists, or beams
which sup-
port the flooring, are placed no more than 16" apart. If the
joists exceed a length of they should be bridged, or braced,
8',
with strips of wood or nonrusting metal. Bridging

prevents joist
sway and helps to distribute the stress of additional weight
or
shock, which would otherwise concentrate on the
joists immedi-
ately underneath.
There are two kinds of house and double. The
floors: single
double made in two layers. The bottom layer, secured
floor is
directly to the joists, is called sub flooring and is
made of rough
tongue-and-groove lumber laid diagonally, or at right angles to the
joists. A layer of building paper separates the subfloor from the
finish floor. The finish floor, usuall}" of tongue-and-groove hard-
ood, is laid parallel to one of the walls of the room and is secured
to the subfloor
with finishing nails. These nails have small heads
and must be driven at an angle through the tongue edge of each
board so as to conceal them beneath the adjacent board (Figs.
1 and 2).
In old houses, floors may
sag 'because the joists and girders
have been weakened by rot or by termites or other insects. In
new houses, sagging may result from the use of green lumber or
from improper construction.
Repairing a sagging floor. Sagging indicates structural weak-
ness in the floor, serious warjniig of the joists, or, in severe cases.
479
480 WOODWORKING REPAIRS
Fig, 1. Typical double-floor construction, with diagonal laid subflooring.
sinking of the foundation. If there is a basement beneath the

sagging floor, the sag can be eliminated by using a screw jack of
the type shown in Fig. 3 and several lengths of 4" 4" timber. X
First, cut one of the timbers 3' to 5' in length and lay it on the
basement floor, centered beneath the sagging area. (The purpose
of this timber is to distribute the strain placed on the basement
floor when the sagging area above it is Next, place the
raised.)
screw jack on top of the timber. Nail another 4" X
4" along
the sagging joists and measure the distance from it to the top of
the jack. Cut a piece of 4" X 4" to that length; place it in posi-
tion as shown in Fig. 3 and raise the jack slightly. Do not at-
tempt complete leveling in one operation. Instead reraise the
jack a fraction of an inch each day or so. Check the position of
the floor with a level before reraising the jack.
When the floor has been leveled, measure accurately the dis-
tance from the horiontal 4" X 4" (nailed to the joists) and the
FLOORS 481
Fig. 2. Typical double-floor construction, with straight

laid subflooring.
basement floor. Cut a piece of 4" X 4" to that length and

raise
the jack enough to permit this timber to stand
on end under the
horizontal 4" X 4".
After checking to see that the timber is
resting firmly and is in vertical alignment,
remove the jack and
the 4 X4 placed beneath it. When an entire floor sags, it is
necessary to use more than one vertical support.
01’ weak can also be raised or reinforced by using
floors
Teleposts, which contain built-in screw jacks (Fig.
4). Teleposts
are supplied with two plates, one to rest on the
basement floor
and the other to fit between the top of the post and the
bottom
of the joist. The jack can adjust the post to any
required height.
When Teleposts are used, the jack should be reraised only a frac-
tion of an inch every day or so.' These posts have two advan-
tages: they become a permanent installation and they eliminate
the work required in the use of a
screw jack and timbers.
When sagging occurs in an upper floor, where the joists are not
exposed, the simplest method for leveling is to take up the
finish
flooring carefully, following directions given below
for repairing
482 WOODW ORKING REPAIRS
damaged floors, and then to level the low places in the subfloor
with either a filler compound or filler strips.
Filler compound, a commercial product, is a semiplastic mate-

rial. When using the compound, level it into place on the sub-
flooring with a putty knife and allow it to set for several days
before relaying the finish flooring. Then check the floor with a
spirit level and, if the floor still sags, apply an additional layer
of the compound. Filler strips are thin strips of wood cut to
compensate for the sag in the floor.
After the floor has been leveled by one of these methods, both
of which are shown in Fig. 5, the flooring may be relaid with
the use of finishing nails.
Repairing a damaged or worn floor. When floor boards are
badly damaged or worn, they should be removed. A brace and
bit is used to bore a hole in one of the damaged boards, as near
REPAIRING A DAMAGED OR WORN FLOOR 483
to the joist as possible. If the floor is a single floor, no extra
precautions are necessary when boring the hole. A keyhole or
compass saw can be used to cut across the first board, thus facili-
tating its removal. After the board has been removed, it
first
is a cornpai atively easy matter to remove
the remaining defective
boards. If the floor is a double one, bore the hole
onl}'^ to the
depth of the top flooring and pry up the board.
V\ hen leplacing defective boards with
new flooring, measure
and cut the new boards to the required sizes. Square both
ends
with a chisel or block plane. Figure 6 shows the method of
spacing, or breaking, the joints so that a board which
extends
over a given joist is next to one that ends on the joist.
When
FINISHED FLOOR REPLACED
CEILING
FILLER COMPOUND FILLED TO
PROPER LEVEL TO REPLACE DROP
OR SAG IN SUBFLOOR AND RAISE
FINISH FLOOR REPAIR.
S-
/^STRIPS SAG
it; A
'
i
1 - •
1 .
FILLER STRIPS OF WOOD AND
.
COMPOUND FOR FIRMER DEEPER

SAG DISPLACEMENT REPAIR.
Fig. 4. Using Telepost in base- Fig. 5. Using filler compound

ment for permanent repair of sag- and strips on upper floor,
ging floors.
the joints are broken in this manner, a strong line of joints run-
ning along the same joist is New
boards can also be
obtained.
given additional support by nailing or screwing a small cleat to
the side of the joist on which the board is secured (Fig. 6).
BORE CLOSE
TO JOIST FROM
TOP OF FLOOR
FOR DOUBLE
FLOOR drill thru
TO BOTTOM OF
FIRST FLOORING
OR LOCATE
FROM BOTTOM
IF ACCESSIBLE
COMPASS SAW
HOLES
"BREAK" OR SPACING REPAIR
OF JOINTS ON JOISTS
REMOVING
WORN PORTION
OF FLOORING
CLEATS SUPPORT
ENDS OF NEW FLOORS
JOIST
Fig. 6. Repairing worn or damaged floor boards

REPAIRING FLOOR BOARDS 4S5
Filling cracks in floors. Many older houses have planked

floors containing cracks between the
boards. There are several
commercial plastic fillers that are used to fill cracks,
but some
are flexible and have a tendency to shrink
and crack. Sawdust
and wood glue mixed into a paste makes an excellent
filler for
cracks and is preferable to some commercial
fillers.
Do not attempt to fill cracks before cleaning
them out thor-
oughly. Grease or dirt in cracks will keep the
filler from adher-
ing to the wood. Use a blunt knife to
pack the filler into each
crack until it protrudes above the surface of the
floor. Allow it
to dry and set for several days, then level
off with a chisel, and
finally sand it down to floor level. When a crack is very wide,
glue a thin strip of wood into it and plane or sand it down to
floor level. Finish to match the rest of the floor.
Opening the flooring for repairs. Whennecessary to
it is
get at heating or plumbing pipes or electrical
connections in order
to make replacements or repairs, an opening
must sometimes be
made in the flooring. The procedure for opening up a planked
floor is the same as that for repairing
damaged or worn boards.
When tongue-and-grooved flooring has been used, the procedure
IS quite different. In this type of flooring, the tongue of one
board is fitted into the groove of the next. To attempt
prying
up a board of this type would damage either the tongue
or the
groove or both. The method for lifting one or more
boards with-
out damaging the floor is to cut off the tongue of
one board and
take crosscuts along the joists. This operation can
be accom-
plished by either a compass or keyhole saw. The
three necessary
cuts are shown in Fig. 6.
First, borethrough the flooring at the tongue side near a joist
so that a compass or keyhole saw can be inserted.
After boring
the hole, saw the tongue along the entire length
of the board.
Then saw the board at each end, as close to the joist as possible.
Remove the board by sliding a chisel into the lengthwise
first
cut and lifting the board. After removing the first board,
remove
other boards by sawing each one along the joists.
Before relaying the boards, nail wood cleats to the side of each
with the underside of the floor. The cleats will sup-
joist, flush
port the ends of the boards and will serve as a base on

which
to nail them. Use finishing nails for this phase of the job and
countersink the nailheads below the wood section. Use a commer-
cial filler or a sawdust-glue paste to fill up the holes. Finish to
match the rest of the floor.
COVERING FLOORS AND OTHER SURFACES

Two types of linoleum for covering floors and other surfaces
are in general use: inlaid and printed. In the better grades of
inlaid linoleum, both color and pattern go through to the backing,
which is usually a specially prepared material. In the cheaper
grades of so-called inlaid linoleum, the color and pattern do not
go all the way through. In printed linoleum, sometimes called
“oilcloth,” the color and pattern are printed on the surface only.
With proper care, a good grade of inlaid linoleum should last a
lifetime.
Cleaning linoleum. Linoleum is made of gummed linseed oil
mixed with finely ground cork and other materials. Because of
the composition of linoleum, harsh caustic soaps and scouring
powders eventually destroy the gum that constitutes the major
portion of the ingredients. Cleaning should therefore be done
with a mop or cloth dampened with pure soap suds. White
floating soap or a special linseed-oil soap that can be procured at
any paint shop is best for this purpose. The linoleum should
then be mopped again with clear water to remove all dirt. Never
under any circumstances flood the linoleum with water, because
water will work through the joints and eventually soften and
loosen the cement. When linoleum is properly treated, it should
retain its brightness for a considerable length of time.
Waxing and painting linoleum. To retain its brilliance of
color and smooth surface, linoleum should be given, at least once
a month, a coat of paste wax or of one of the water-wax emul-
sions now on the market. The water-wax emulsions dry with a
medium glossy finish and do not require rubbing or polishing.
They are not so slippery as the paste waxes and are easier to
apply. The directions for application furnished by the manu-
facturer should be followed closely.
If the color or finish of linoleum has worn off, the surface can
be painted or lacquered satisfactorily. Neither paint nor lacquer
should be applied on waxed linoleum unless all traces of wax have
COVERING FLOORS AND OTHER SURFACES
487
been removed. You may remove the wax by softening the wax
coating with benzine, naphtha, or clear gasoline and wiping
dry
with plenty of clean rags. This job is dangerous and should
never be done near a flame; to prevent fire or explosion, make
certain that adequate ventilation is provided. After the linoleum
has been cleaned thoroughly, allow it to dry overnight. Then
apply either lacquer or paint.
Varnish is not recommended as a satisfactory finishing mate-
rial for linoleum. When it is necessary to remove old and dis-
colored varnish from linoleum before lacquering or painting, use
a lukewarm solution of trisodium phosphate, about three pounds
to a gallon of water. Allow the solution to remain on the linoleum
only long enough to soften the varnish. Work on a small section
at a time and do not use too much liquid. After the varnish has
been softened, remove it with fine steel wool, thoroughly rinse
with clear water, and rub the area dry before proceeding to the
next section. This treatment softens the linoleum, which should
be allowed to dry for 18 to 24 hours until hard, before wax,
lacquer, or paint is applied.
Eliminating bulges. Bulges occur in linoleum if not enough
cement was used originally or if the linoleum was not laid properly
and was not forced down on the cement. If a bulge appears along
a seam, lift the edge of the linoleum
and apply linoleum cement
to that part of the floor surface directly beneath the bulge. Use a
spatula or thin, flat stick to apply the cement, which may be
procured at a paint shop. Lay weights on the area to hold the
linoleum firmly in place until the cement has hardened and set.
If the bulge is in the center of a strip of linoleum, make a cut
with a razor blade or other sharp instrument along the pattern
outline of the linoleum where the cut will not show. Press some
cement into the opening and spread it with a spatula or flat, thin
stick. Press the bulge down and place a weight upon it until
the cement has set and hardened.
Patching linoleum. To damaged linoleum,
insert a patch in
use a piece of linoleum that is large enough to more than cover
the damaged area. Lay the new piece on top of the damaged
area and with a sharp knife, razor blade, or special linoleum knife
cut through both the new and the old linoleum (Fig. 7). Remove
the old linoleum and secure the new piece in place with linoleum
cement. If you use a matching piece of linoleum, a skilfully ap-

plied patch will not be conspicuous. Although it is not always
possible to use a matching piece, any piece of linoleum, even one
of contrasting color, can be used effectively to form a medallion
or design.
Filling holes in linoleum. To fill small holes in linoleum,
smooth the edges of the holes with fine steel wool. Crush a small
piece of linoleum of the right color into a fine powder. Mix the
pulverized linoleum with a sufficient quantity of spar varnish to
form a fairly thick paste. Force this paste into the hole as a
filler. After the paste has dried, smooth it with No. 000 sand-
paper and wax the surface.
Laying linoleum. It is advisable to remove old linoleum be-
fore laying new linoleum. Cut any good sections out of the old
linoleum and save them for future use. If the floor boards are
rough or irregular, plane them smooth. Replace any defective
boards. Then wash the entire floor and allow it to dry thor-
oughly. When a floor is in bad condition and a good quality of
inlaid linoleum is to be used, the old floor should be covered with
sheets of plywood to insure a smooth, firm base.
Before laying the new linoleum, remove the quarter rounds
from the foot of the baseboard (Fig. 8).
The better grades of linoleum are felt-backed and are laid
PATCHING LINOLEUM 489
directly on the floor. If the linoleum to be used is not felt-
backed, a base must be fitted and cemented to the floor with
felt
a special cement made by linoleum manufacturers and available

at any paint or hardware store. The felt base should be rolled
down so that it adheres firmly to the entire floor. Take care to
see that no overlapping or bunching occurs.
Linoleum should never be laid in a cold room. You can elimi-
nate the possibility of its cracking or tearing by unrolling it and
RAISE RADIATORS ABOUT 1/2"

WITH WOODEN BLOCKS TO SLIP
LINOLEUM UNDER THE LEGS.
/"A
Fig. 8. Laying linoleum on a typical floor.

allowing it to lie flat overnight in a room having a temperature
of about 65 degrees.
A linoleum knife should be used to cut linoleum. The inner
curved edge, the cutting edge, is sharp enough to cut through the
linoleum as the knife is pulled along a line (Fig. 9).
Cutting linoleum to fit along the straight edges of a room pre-
sents no problem. Cutting it to fit around doorjambs and so on
requires care. The best method is to make an accurate pattern
of the irregularity and attach it to the linoleum with a spot of
glue, then to mark out the pattern with a piece of chalk or pencil
and cut along the marked line.
Fig. 9. knife and cor-

I dnoU'uiii Fig. 10. Use of binding at door-
rect sharpening bex el. ways.
After the linoleum has been cut as directed, lay it with linoleum
cement. With a cement spreader or putty knife, apply the ce-
ment evenly on the floor or on the previously-laid felt base.
After spreading the cement over a few square feet (never more),
l)r ess the linoleum down firmly on the cemented surface. Before
proceeding to a new area, make certain that the surface just com-
pleted has been covered well with the cement and that the lino-
leum has adhered firmly to the surface. This is important, since
any air bubbles that may be under the linoleum are extremely
difficult to remove later. When all the linoleum has been ce-
mented in place, it should be rolled with a heavy roller. A garden
LAYING LINOLEUM 491
roller is satisfactory. Place bricks or other weights on all the

seams to prevent them from loosening before the cement is set.
Replace the quarter rounds at the foot of the baseboard. Nail
them to the baseboard, not to the floor; the linoleum should be
free to contract or expand when the room temperature changes.
If the linoleum ends in a doorway, it should be protected by
a metal strip (Fig. 10). First nail this strip into place; then lay
the linoleum on top of it and trim it to fit under the curved metal
edge of the strip. Finally, bend the curved edge over to form a
permanent protection for the linoleum edge. Procedures for using
other types of metal edgings and bindings are shown in Figs.
11 and 12.
Applying linoleum to sink counters and walls. The meth-
ods just described may also be used in laying linoleum on sink
Fig. 11. Use of angle-type metal Fig. 12. Use of brass seam bind-
edging at doorways with treads. ing at doorways without treads.
counters and plaster walls. Do not, however, lay linoleum over

wallpaper. The metal strip described previously can be used on
sink counters and walls as well as on floors to protect linoleum
edges.
Laying linoleum blocks. Linolepm can be obtained in square
blocks as well as in the conventional roll. The floor should be
prepared in the same manner as for roll linoleum. It is impor-
tant, when laying the blocks, to be sure that they are square with
the walls and that each block is rolled firmly into place after
the cement is applied.
492 WOODWÔRKING REPAIRS
Laying asphalt or cork floor tiles. Asphalt floor tiles can be
laid on a wood floor and also on a dry concrete floor. When lay-
ing them on a wood floor, first cement down a preliminary felt
base. When laying them directly on a concrete floor, coat the
concrete first with a special concrete-floor primer. Then spread
asphalt tile cement and lay the tiles in the same way as linoleum
blocks. Cork tiles are applied in the same manner.
STAIR AND DOOR REPAIRS

Eliminating stair creaking. Stair steps consist of a horizon-
tal board, called a tread, and a vertical board at the back, called
a riser (Fig. 13). Each tread rests on the top edge of the riser
of the step below and, as a rule, overhangs it, with the joint be-
tween the two covered by a molding strip. When stairs run along
a wall, the inner ends of both the treads and the risers are set
into grooves in a board attached to the wall and supported by it
(Fig. 14). In this type of construction, the treads and risers are
secured by wedges glued into the grooves. Because of faulty
construction or age and continued use, the wedges may become
loose and the treads may spring away from the risers. Then, as
the treads are forced down on the risers, the ends of the treads
move in the grooves and creaking results.
To eliminate stair creaking, have someone bear down on the
tread, forcing it against the riser. Then drive a series of 2"
STAIR AND DOOR REPAIRS 493
Fig. 14.
finishing nails in pairs —each of the pairs at opposite angles to

each other—through the tread and into the riser. Make
certain
that the nails are driven at opposite angles (Fig.
15). If they are
driven straight down, they will eventually work loose.
Also be
sure that the nails are placed far enough away from
the edge of
the tread so that they will enter the riser and not
pass in front
of or behind it. The nailheads should be countersunk with a
nail set and the holes filled with plastic wood or- other suitable
filler. When the filler is set, sand it smooth with the surface.
In the newer type of stair construction, a tongue on the
top
edge of the riser fits into a groove that is cut in the under edge
of the tread. In this type of construction, creaking
can be elimi-
nated by driving the thin edge of an ordinary shingle, a wooden
wedge, into the joint, in order to wedge the tread firmly against
the riser. To do this, first remove the molding under the over-
hanging front edge of the tread to expose the After cut-
joint.
ting the shingle flush with the front surface of the riser,
replace
the molding.
Fig. 15. Procedure for making stair repairs and eliminating creaks.
Replacing worn treads and risers. To replace worn treads

or risers proceed as follows: When only the tread is to be re-
placed, remove it from the stairs. When a riser is to be replaced,
riser and tread must be removed. Cut all nails flush with the
stringers or side supports of the stairs. Old treads and risers
can be used as patterns for cutting the new treads and risers to
required size.
When only a tread is to be replaced, place the new tread on

top of the stringers and riser. Secure tread onto stringer with
finishing nails driven at an angle. Then drive several nails
through the top of tread into the lower or supporting riser. When
both riser and tread are to be replaced, first secure new riser to
stringers; then proceed as previously described for the replace-
ment of stair treads. Be sure to countersink all nails, fill nail
holes with filler or plastic wood, and sandpaper flush with the
surface.
Eliminating door sticking. Door sticking is usually caused
REPLACING W ORN TREADS AND RISERS 495
by loose hinge screws. The top hinges
loosen under continual
strain, the door sags and, as a result, the corners stick.
This
condition can be avoided by keeping hinge
screws tight. Periodic
inspection and tightening of hinges should
do the job.
Doors will also stick
because of swelling and distortion of the
doorframe. To eliminate sticking in this case is
not so easy, since
the door must be removed. To remove
a door, open it and sup-
port the outer corner with wooden wedges
to relieve the hinges
of weight. Door hinges are usually
made with a pin connecting
the two parts of the hinge. Withdraw the pin by pulling it up-
ward. If the pin sticks, drive it by hammering
a prying bar at
an upward angle against the top knob of the
hinge. When re-
moving a door, free the bottom hinge first. When
replacing the
door, attach the top hinge first.
If door sticking occurs because the front edge
of the door is
striking the doorframe, and examination
shows a space between
the rear edge and the frame, set the hinges
deeper in the frame by
cutting away
wood behind them with an ordinary wood chisel.
the
If there is no space between the
front and back edges and the
frame, plane the back edge down to a perfect
fit. This requires
resetting the hinges, a simpler operation
than resetting the lock,
which would be required if the front edge were
planed to fit.
If the latchon a door does not catch, insert a piece of thin
plywood or hard cardboard between the hinge leaves
on the door
and the frame. To do this, the hinges must be unscrewed.
When
replacing the hinges, use longer screws to make up for the added
thickness (Fig. 16).
If the outer bottom corner of a door strikes the sill, a thin
wooden wedge placed behind the bottom hinge will tilt the
door
slightly upward, allowing it to clear the sill.
If the outer top
corner strikes the frame, the wedge must be placed
behind the
top hinge. This operation is easier than the
alternative one of
setting one hinge deeper into the doorframe.
Eliminating door sagging. Heavy garage doors tend to sag
if
their hinges are not checked and tightened
periodically. Usually
the bottom strikes the ground so that considerable
effort is re-
quired to open or close the door.
To fix a sagging garage door, block it up with a wooden wedge.
Drive the wedge in at the outer corner, along the bottom edge.
Fig. 16. Repairs to sagging and sticking doors.
SO that the door hangs properly and clears without sticking (Fig.
17). Inspect the hinge screws; in nine cases out of ten it will
be found that sagging has been caused by a loose hinge. Do not
remove the wedge, but proceed to tighten the loose screws with
a heavy-duty screwdriver. If the tightened screws appear to be
holding the door in place, remove the wedge and the door will
clear without sticking.
Whenthe screws can be tightened too easily, they should be
replaced with longer screws. In severe cases, the hinges must be
removed and reset so that the screws will be held in solid wood.
If thedoor continues to sag and stick, a brace may be used, as
shown in Fig. 17. To attach a brace, jack up the door with a
wedge until it is hanging straight. Then screw the diagonal
and turnbuckle as shown in Fig. 17.
brace, or rod,
Correcting door warpage. Outer door and doors between
kitchens and passageways are usually subject to warpage, being
exposed to dampness on one side and heat on the other. When
CORRECTING DOOR WARPAGE 497
Fig. 17. Repairing a sagging garage door.
warpage occurs, the door must be taken off and laid flat on blocks
of wood withthe dry or concave side up. If you place heavy
weights or bricks on the high end of the warped portions, the
door will warp slightly in the opposite direction and, after
a few
days, will become straight. Before rehanging, paint and
varnish
the edges to check further absorption of moisture.
Eliminating door creaking. Door creaking is usually caused
by rusted hinges. To eliminate this annoyance, first remove the
hinge pins the outer edge of the door should be held securely by
,
an assistant while the pins are being removed. Then with a wad
of cotton secured to a stiff wire and dipped in machine
oil, swab
the length of each pin opening. Then replace the pins.
Eliminating door rattling. A properly fitted doorlatch does
not on the doorframe until
slip into its hole in the striking plate
the door is pressed firmly against the molding in the frame. If

the latch does not slip into this hole, the door will rattle. To
eliminate rattling, shift the position of the plate slightly by mov-
ing it closer to the molding. The plate is usually recessed in the
doorframe and moving it will require slight cutting with a chisel
or a knife.
Before the plate is placed in new position, all the old screw
its
holes must be filled with plastic wood or similar wood filler.

Then the plate can be set and fastened with screws.
Fitting and hanging doors. Three operations are involved in
the fitting and hanging of a door:
reducing it to proper size to fit the
doorframe, attachment of hinges,
and installation of the lock latch
assembly and striking plate. The
tools required are a jointing plane
18" or 20" in length, a ripsaw, and
a 1" chisel.
When fitting a panel door, see
that the back stile is the same
width from top to bottom and of
the same width as the front stile
when the planing of the edges is
completed (Fig. 18).
Bring the door into position
with the back stile resting lightly
against the edge of the doorframe
to which it will be hinged. Hold
the door in this position and mark
a line down the other stile, using
the edge of the jamb as a guide, in
order to show the amount of ma-
terial that will have to be removed
before the door will between fit
the jambs. Plane the back or

hinge edge and square with the
face of the door.
FITTING AND HANGING DOORS 499
To find out the amount of material thatmust be removed from
the rad, hold the door in place between the jambs. Then mark
the bottom rail with a line parallel to
the threshold or floor. Do
not take off all the material from the
bottom rail to secure the
final fit. Some material must also be removed from the top
rail
to true up the door. After ascertaining
the amount of material
to be removed from both the bottom
and the top rails, remove
the excess material with a saw or plane.
Do not plane directly
from edge to edge. To avoid splitting,
plane halfway in one
direction, then plane the remaining half
in the opposite direction.
Allow 3/,g" all around the door to afford easy
hanging and swing-
ing. If this precaution is taken and the door is properly hineed
it will never bind.
Attaching door hinges. The butt hinge shown
in Fig. 19 is
the most commonly used hinge. To
attach this type of hinge,
make undercuts in both the door edge and the door jamb
so that
the leaves of the hinges are recessed and set
flush with the wood
of both members.
It is good practice to locate all door
hinges throughout the
LOOSE PIN
STUDS
1
/ 18 -
CLEARANCC
SIDE
JAMB
STOP
BEAD
SHIM
CARDBOARD
OR THIN
PLYWOOD
FILLER IN-
SERTED BE-
TWEEN HINGE
AND DOOR
GAIN TO
CORRECT
SAG OR
STICKING
Fig. 19. Attaching butt hinge to eliminate door sag. Parts of hinge are
shown (upper left).
500 WOODWORKHSG REPAIRS
house in the same positions. Locate the lower hinge about a foot
from the floor, so that the lower edge of the hinge leaf lines up
with the upper edge of the lower door rail. Locate the upper
hinge about 10" to 12" from the top of the door.
Remove the pin from one of the hinges and place the leaf of
the hinge on the door edge. Mark around the hinge leaf with a
pencil or the point of a knife. On the back edge of the door,
mark a line to indicate the width and the thickness or depth of
the hinge leaf. Make the necessary undercut on the door edge
to fit the leaf of the hinge. With a chisel and hammer, cut along
the marked lines on the door edge, as shown in Fig. 20. Continue
by making several cuts to approximately the depth of the under-
cut, as shown in the same illustration. With a chisel, pare out
Fig. 20.
ATTACHING DOOR HINGES
501
the material to be removed, exercising
extreme care not to make
the undercut too deep. Take light
paring cuts with the chisel and
from time to time test the depth of
the undercut with the hinge
leaf^ If the undercut is too deep,
the door will bind against the
jamb and will strain the hinge screws when
it is closed. If the
undercut is not deep enough, the door
will not close properly.
Mark the screw holes in the proper position, drill
the holes, and
with screws of correct size attach
the hinge leaf to the door.
Attach the second hinge in the same
manner.
Now assemble the leaves of the hinges and
insert the pins.
Hold the door in position m the doorway
and mark the hinge
positions on the jamb to correspond
with the positions of the
inges on the door. Remove the door
and separate the leaves of
the hinges by removal of the pins.
Place the leaves in position
on the jamb, as indicated by the markings
just made. Then, with
a pencil or the point of a knife, mark
around the outline of the
hinge leaf. Make the necessary
undercut as previously outlined.
Drill the screw holes and secure
the hinge leaves with screws of
the proper size. Place the door in
and fasten the leaves
position
together with the pins.
Installation of door locks. Locks are
installed or attached
to doors in different ways. The
method of installation is deter-
mined by the kind or type of lock used.
There are four main
classifications of locks: mortise,
bore-in, rim, and half-mortise
As a general rule, mortise locks, so called
because they are mor-
tised or set into the door edge,
are used for all outside doors (Fig.
21). To mark the positions of the knob spindle
hole, keyhole
and lock edge, lay the lock against the
side of the door. After
making the necessary markings remove the
lock and make
new markings which must be the width
of the thickness of the
lock cover plate that is to be placed in the door edge.
Drill the
necessary holes of adequate size for
both the kevhole and the
knob spindle as shown in Fig. 21. Extend
the lock edge markings
around to the door edge. Using a brace
and bit, cut out the
mortise to the size required to receive
the lock (Fig. 22). For
directions on cutting out mortises, see
Mortise and Tenon Joints
Chap. 3.
502 ^WOODWORKING REPAIRS
DOOR
y
Fig. 21. Locating and installing mortise door lock.
Place the lock into the mortise and, with the point of a knife
or pencil, accurately mark around the cover plate. Make the
necessary undercut, following the directions just given for the
undercuts of hinge leaves. This undercut must be just deep
enough to permit the cover plate to fit flush with the door edge
(Fig. 22). Install the lock, securing it in place with screws of
the proper size and then also attach with screws the keyhole,
knobs, and spindle plate.
To determine the position of the striking plate, close the door
and operate both the lock and latch so that the jamb can be
marked for installation of the plate. Open the door, but hold the
plate in place and make a pencil mark around the plate. Make
an undercut in the jamb into which the plate will fit. Hold the
plate in position in the undercut and mark the jamb for mortis-
ing. With a 1/4" chisel, make the necessary mortises into the
jamb and latch action.
to a depth sufficient for both lock bolt
Test for proper mortise depth by working the latch and lock,
before attaching the striking plate to the jamb with screws of
the correct size.
Bore-in locks are generally used for interior doors and are
comparatively easy to install. They are installed in two holes,
that are bored in the edge and in the stile of the door (Fig. 23).
The procedure for cutting the mortise for the lock front is identi-
INST 41 A. AT ION OF DOOR LOCKS 503
cal to that previously described
(Fig. 22). Install the lock in
the cut-out mortise, and complete
installation in the same man-
ner as described for mortise locks.
Tubular lock sets are a
type of bore-in locks, easily installed
Using the template provided with the lock,
bore two holes at right
angles and cut out recess for front of
lock (Fig. 24). This small
cross-bore also conserves strength of the
door. Adjustment for
Fig. 22. Installation of a mortise Fig. 23. In.st a Hat ion of bort'-in lock:
lock: Top, bore holes in edge and Top, bore holes in edge and stile;
stile; center, cut and complete center, cut mortise for lock front;
with chisel; bottom, install lock. bottom, install lock.
Fig. 24, Using template for locating and boring holes necessary for in-
stallation of a tubular lock.
door thickness is made by screwing outside rose to align center

of lock with recess in edge of door. The inside springclainp of
the locknut compensates for any dimensional changes in the

wood. The latchbolt unit is inserted and interlocked with out-
side knob unit by merely turning Tighten inside lock-
the knob.
nut with spanner wrench or screwdriver, snap rose onto spring-
clamp, then snap on inner knob, and the new lockset is durably
and securely installed. Fig. 25 shows the four basic steps for the
installation of a tubular lock.
Rim locks (copies of colonial box locks) are sometimes chosen
for appearances. Night latches are the only rim locks widely
used on full-size doors. These locks are placed on the surface
of the door and are easily installed by simply boring a hole for the
cylinder.
Half-mortise locks are generally used on cabinet doors and
drawers. These are installed by cutting a recess on the inside
surface of the drawer and boring a hole for the cylinder or tube
of the lock.
INSTALLATION OF DOOR LOCKS 505
Fig. 25. Progressive steps for the installation of a tubular lock.
WINDOWS
Two
kinds of windows are in general use: The casement and
the double-hung. The casement window consists of one sash,
usually metal, which is attached to each side of the window frame
wdth hinges. When this type of window requires adjustment, it
is necessary only to tighten or replace the hinge screws.
The double-hung window is most commonly used. It consists
of two movable sashes, both assembled in the window frame,
which is mounted in the wall (Fig. 26). Cords to which weights
are attached run over pulleys and down both sides of each sash
(Fig. 26). The weights move up and down in pockets on each
side of the frame when either or both of the sashes are raised and
lowered. A discussion follows of the various adjustments and
repairs required by this type of window.
Fixing light double-hung window sashes. Tight window
sashes are caused by hardened paint in one or more of the grooves
of the window frame in which the sashes slide, or by shrinkage or
DETAILS OF UPPER SASH DETAILS OF LOWER SASH

Fig. 26. Details of a double-hung window sash.
swelling of the sashes or frame, or by the settling of the walls or

foundation of the house.
AVhen paint has worked and hardened between the edges
in
of a sash and its groove, the molding tliat forms the front edge
of the groove must be removed before the })aint can be scraped
or sanded off. If the molding is secured by screws, remove the
screws, then the molding. If it is nailed, carefully work a putty

knile or other thin blade under the molding to pry the nails loose.
Pull out the nails with the claw of a tack hammer, using a block
of wood under the hammer to j)revent marring the surface of the
molding. With the {)utty knife, scra])e off the {)aint and smooth
the surface with No. 000 sandpaper. Clean the surface with tur-
pentine and then rub a small quantity of paraffin or wax on the
groove. Replace the molding.
Tight window sashes are also caused by a swollen sash or a
swollen bead molding, which forms the channel in which the sash
slides. To remedy this condition, sand the beading until enough
material has been removed to facilitate the sliding of the sash.
However, when the condition is too severe, pare the beading with
WINDOfVS 507
a chisel, taking light, even cuts and removing
just enough ma-
terial so that the sash slides easily.
If both the beading and the sash are swollen, it is
necessary to
remove the sash from the frame. This procedure is
described
below; see Replacing sash cords. Plane the sides of the sash
with a jointer plane, taking light, even cuts
and making careful
tests between each cut to avoid removing too much material
from
the sash. Before replacing the sash, put
a thin coat of linseed
oil on the edges of the sash and in the
grooves of the frame.
The binding or sticking of lower
window sashes sometimes can
be relieved by pulling on the sash cords and letting
them snap
back quickly. A few drops of linseed oil poured
down the
grooves also helps considerably.
Replacing sash cords. 1 he initial step in replacing a
broken
sash cord is to remove the sash from the window
frame. First,
detach the molding that is screwed or nailed to the
frame. Do
this carefully, as described above, to avoid
splitting or damaging
the finish of the molding. Turn the lower sash partly sideways
and remove it from the frame.
If the broken cord is attached to the lower
sash, slip the
knot
on the end of the cord out of the hole in the sash. When doing
this, use extreme care to prevent the knot
on the good cord from
slipping out of the hole, since this would permit
the sash weight
to drop and possibly snap the good cord when
the knot hits the
pulley. To remove the upper sash, it is necessary
to remove the
lower sash first. Then take out
the beading strip that separates
the two sashes and turn the upper sash partly sideways
for re-
moval.
The strip of wood that forms the sash-weight pocket cover in
the side of the window frame must be taken out. It usually is
found at the lower end of the groove in which the lower
sash
moves and is held in place by one or more screws. Unscrew and
remove this cover to gain access to the sash weights.
Tie a knot one end of the pew cord and, making the neces-
in
sary allowance for the knot at the other end, measure the
correct
new sash cord. Thread the unknotted end over the
length for the
pulley and down into the sash-weight pocket, drawing the
cord
out through the opening and tying it to the sash weight with a
square or bowline knot.
508 WOODW ORKIJSG REPAIRS
Then bring the sash into position, set the knot into the hole
in the sash, and replace the sash in the window frame. Replace
the sash-weight pocket cover, beading, and molding in their
original positions.
When sash chains are used instead of cord, a link of the chain
isopened with a pair of pliers
and is secured to the sash
weight, then reclosed with the
pliers.
Replacing broken win-

dowpanes. Windowpanes are
usually held in place with
small, three-pointed metal
fasteners called glazier’s points
and a triangular beading of
putty. These triangular points
are available in several sizes,
ranging from No. 00, the larg-
est, to No. 3. As a rule. Nos.
1 and 2 are the sizes used.
Glazier’s putty is available in
cans of various sizes.
To replace a broken win-

dowpane, carefully remove all
the broken pieces and scrape
off the old putty and glazier’s
points with a scraper. Spread

a thin layer of putty on the
back of the rabbet, or groove
(Fig. 27). The thin layer of
putty provides a seal between
the glass and the inner part of
the sash.
With a glass cutter, cut the
glass to the required size.
(For specific directions on the

use of a glass cutter see Chap.
2, page 93. ) Press the new
pane of glass firmly into place Fig. 27. Replacing a windowpane.
REPLACING BROKEN WINDOWPANES 509
against the layer of putty and keep j)ressing it around the edges
until the putty has been spread evenly between the glass and
the
edge of the rabbet.
Lay the glazier’s points against the pane, about 3" apart, so
that the points are toward the wooden sash. With a light tack
hammer drive them carefully into the sash to about half their
length. Repeat around the pane.
this all
Since putty does not adhere to bare wood, apply as preliminary
priming a thin coating of linseed oil. Roll some putty between
your hands to form a rope approximately in diameter. Lay
the rope of putty around the edge of the pane. Press it firmly
into place with a putty knife to form a neat triangular beading
that adheres to both the wood and the pane.
Allow at least a week for the putty to set and dry before paint-
ing. When
painting putty, allow the paint to overlap about
Vh"
onto the glass pane. Overlapping seals the joint between the
glass and the putty and retards the entrance of moisture, which
would harden the putty and loosen the seal.
Applying weather stripping. Weather strips are used to close
the joints around window sashes and doorframes; efficient
weather stripping retains indoor temperature, checks the entrance
of air and moisture, and results in a fuel saving of 15 to 25 per
cent.
Many kinds of weather stripping are available. Some are
flexible; others are rigid. The type commonly used by the home
craftsman isa commercial product available at all hardware
dealers. Made of a specially treated, flexible felt that is nominal
in cost, easily installed, and efficient in operation, it is the most
practical kind of stripping to use and, though not permanent,
will last for several seasons. It may be attached to window
sashes and doorframes with small tacks or brads.
To apply weather stripping on double-hung windows,
flexible
first close the windows. Fasten to the outside of the window
frame, as close as possible to the sash, the weather stripping for
the upper, or outer, sash. Then fasten the stripping for the inside
of the upper sash on the inside stop-bead molding of the window
frame. For the lower, or inner, sash, fasten a piece of stripping
to each side and also to the bottom, so that the stripping will fit
snugly against the sill of the window. Fasten a final piece of
stripping to the top of the lower sash, in order to cover the crack
between the upper and the lower sash. The same procedure is
followed when using rigid weather stripping.

Rigid weather stripping makes for a more permanent job. It
is made of light-gauge metal with a felt interior that projects just

far enough to form a tight seal between the sash and the win-
dow frame. The manufacturers of rigid weather stripping pro-
vide a small cardboard gauge to aid in locating the stripping cor-
rectly along the frame and sash before it is nailed in place. The
use of this gauge insures a weathertight stripping job and elimi-
nates binding of the sash and damage to the stripping caused by
itsimproper placement.
When applying rigid stripping, miter the corners of the strip-
ping to make effective weathertight joints. All measurements
must be absolutely correct before the strips are cut. Miters are
cut with a hacksaw and miter box (see Jointing in Chap. 3 for a
discussion of this)
Either flexible or rigid weather stripping can be used on steel
casement windows. The felt weather stripping must be secured
with a special adhesive and the rigid stripping with special clamps
available for that purpose. Before using the adhesive, which
may be a type of thick shellac, amberoid, or metallic cement
called liquid solder, make certain that the metal window frames
have been thoroughly scraped and cleaned of paint, rust, or cor-
rosion and wiped with benzine. Do not apply the adhesive before
the window is completely dry.
A special type of weather stripping is available for metal-
framed casement windows. It is made to snap into the grooves
along the edges of the sash and is held in position by the spring-
iness of the metal itself. In fitting and securing this type of
weather stripping, check all measurements carefully before cut-
ting the material.
Eliminating window-frame leaks. Window frames are
tightly fitted to the walls; in houses of good construction, the
joints between both the frames and the walls are closed with
sheet-metal flashings and building paper along the sides and bot-
toms. Even with sheet-metal flashings, the shrinkage of the
wood sometimes opens the joints between the window frames and
the walls, creating cracks that admit air and rain. Leaks of this
ELIMINATING WINDOW-FRAME LEAKS 511
ty])e result in smudges on the inside wall areas adjacent to the
window frames. important that such cracks be closed.
It is
In some types of construction, the joints between the window
frames and the walls are covered with either moldings or flat
strips. To get at window-frame leaks, remove the strips by pry-
ing them loose with a prying bar to exjiose the joints. Then use
a flat-ended dowel stick to force tow into the open joints to
within approximately %"
of the surface. T ow is a material made
ot the coarse jiart of flax or hemp and can be secured at a marine
supply house.
kill the remaining sfiace with a calking compound, which can
be secured at a hardware or jiaint store. It has the consistency
of sott putty and never becomes quite hard. While a hard skin
forms on the surlace, the undei’part remains pliable enough to
take uj) any subsequent expansion or contraction of wood or
other material and thus jirevents further leakage. Force the
calking compound into the cracks with a jiutty knife or similar
tool, and allow it to set for several days. Then replace the mold-
ings or strips that were removed.
CHAPTER 18
Interior Woodworking Projects
PLANNING THE WORKSHOP

In planning the home workshop consideration must not only be
given to present equipment and requirements, but also to proper
provision for accommodating any additional tools and equipment
that may be added later on.
Generally, space that cannot be utilized for any other purpose
in the basement, attic, or garage can be used for the-home work-
shop. This space need not be large. An efficient workshop accom-
modating a work bench and as many as four power tools (that
may be acquired at some future time) will not require a space
larger than 4' X 12' (Fig. 1).
TOOL SHELF
WORK BENCH
22" X 48 PI
o»=4_|d>'
LATHE
VISE
BAND SAW
FLOOR SPACE
CIRCULAR 4’ X 12’
SAW DRILL PRESS
Fig. 1. Floor plan showing arrangement of a small workshop

using power tools.
Where a larger space is available and a more elaborate work-

shop is desired the floor plans shown in Figs. 2 and 3 can be
adapted to any particular requirement.
512
WORKBENCH AND TOOL RACK 513
Fig. 3. Another efficient workshop floor plan.
CONSTRUCTING A WORKBENCH AND TOOL RACK

The construction of the woodworking bench and tool rack
shown in Fig. 4 is a simple project that requires a minimum
514 INTERIOR WOODWORKING PROJECTS
amount of toolsand material. Workbenches are subjected to

hard usage; therefore it is good practice to secure straight, high-
grade, kiln-dried birch or pine for the body of the bench, and
maple for the working top. Lumber required is as follows:
BILL OF MATERIALS
Pieces Part Size
4 Legs, each 2" X 4' X 30"

2 Top (inner) leg stretchers 2" X 2" X 16"
2 Top (inner) leg stretchers 2" X 2" X 48"
4 Top and bottom (outer) leg stretchers H" X 4" X 24"
3 Top and back (outer) leg stretchers H" X 4" X 53M"
6 Bottom section of top
(dressed and matched) each H" X 5"X 60"
1 Front apron X 6"X 60"
1 Back (for tool rack) X 7^" X 60"
1 Tool rack H" X 4" X 60"
12 Working top (maple or other hardwood) IH" X 5" X 24"
:
W ORKBENCH AND TOOL RACK 515

If the lunibei- has been cut to size, the
tools required to construct
this bench and tool rack are: a
compass or keyhole saw, a brace
and bit, and a screwdriver. If the lumber has not been cut to
size, the iollowing additional tools will be required:
a marking
^tauge, a try square, a rule, and a saw. In the latter case, the
lumber must be cut to size and prepared for use
as described in
(Jha{). 3.
To assemble the cut pieces of lumber, proceed as follows

(refer
to Fig. 4 throughout)
Measure 8"
from bottom of each of the four pieces
(2"X4"X30") forming the legs and fasten the four bottom
outer leg stretchers with screws and glue.
Fasten the four top outer leg stretchers with screws
and glue.
Fasten the four top inner leg stretchers with screws
and glue
to the top outer leg stretchers. Space these
screws approximately
4" apart.
Screw the six pieces of dressed and matched lumber
forming
bottom section of top of bench onto the frame.
With a chisel round the bottom corners of the 6' board form-
off
ing the front apron. Fasten this front apron to the bottom section
of the top. For instructions covering rounding of corners with
chisel, see Chap. 2.
With a % bit and brace and a 1/2^^ countersink, drill and
countersink three holes, 6" apart, through each of
the 12 pieces
of maple or hardwood forming the working top
of the bench. For
directions on drilling and countersinking, see Chap. 2.
With a chisel, cut a bevel on one end of each of these
12 pieces.
Screw the 12 pieces forming the working top onto the bottom
section of top.
countersunk screw holes with plastic wood.
Fill
Secure the piece forming the back for the tool rack with
screws
and glue.
Make a template of cardboard to use in marking the holes
to
be drilled and the notches to be cut out of the tool
rack. These
notches and holes, spaced at intervals of 4" to 5", are
used to hold
and similar tools.
chisels, files
With a bit and brace drill holes for small tools and
cut out
notches with a keyhole or compass saw. For
directions on the
use of compass and keyhole saws see Chap. 2.
516 INTERIOR W OODWORKING PROJECTS
Round off two outer corners of the tool rack and fasten it to
the back with screws.

Sandpaper entire job.
Suggestions for finishing. The top of the woodworking bench
should be finished with linseed oil. Other parts of the bench, in-
cluding the tool rack, should be oil-stained and varnished.
BOOK AND MAGAZINE TABLE
Low an interesting
lines,
surfboard shape and a sliglit

tilt to the end [mnel give this
useful book and magazine table

character and grace .
The sturdy, unusual legs can

be fabricated easily from alu-
minum tubing. The plan shown
in Fig. 5 gives all the infor-
mation required. To take care
of minor variations in angle
and dimensions, you probably
will save yourself extra work
by having the legs bent before
beveling and drilling the bot-
tom shelf, and cutting partition
(C) to proper height.
Paint the legs with flat black

enamel or in a color to contrast
with the shelves.
Cut, rabbet, dado and drill
all parts as required. Sand and
3t
f /
LCO PVATCS SCRCWfD ID Fig. 5.

PLAN OF TOP uNocnsioc or tot
TELEPHOJSE BENCH 517
PARTS RE(H'IRED
CODE REQ'D SIZE PART IDENTIFICATION

A 1 X Bottom Shelf
B 1 16"x32" Top Shelf
C 1 7'/4"x14" Divider
D 1 8'/2"x16" End
2 Sets Vi" Diameter Wrought Iron Legs
2 Ea. 1 "x2'/2"x'/8" Leg Plates
Miscellaneous — 6(d Finish Nails and Glue

"
1 No. 8 R. H. Screws as required
fill exposed edges, and mat-

fit by drilling blind holes under-
ing parts together. Glue and neath top shelf. Plates can be
nail all the joints. threaded up or down a few
Fasten end (D) to bottom turns for positive location.
shelf Nail partition (C)
(A). Install legs after finishing as
in slot, then sii])]:)ort shelf (B) recommended, making sure the
on a block wliile attaching to threaded ends of the legs at
fC). Some adjustment for open end of rack are exactly
length of legs can be obtained vertical.
TELEPHONE BENCH
A massive, expensive-looking
effect is achieved at little cost
in this design of telephone
bench, through applying bev-
eled wood molding to the edges
of inexpensive fir plywood.
Take the plan shown in Fig.
6 to any welding or metal
work shop to have the steel
Fig. 6.
frame and legs fabricated, or, Tilt the and

bench panel
if you can, do it yourself. Alu- notched edges will fit around
minum tubing can be used for frame. Nail and glue molding
the steel frame and legs, if de- mitred to fit around plywood
sired, which is easily formed. panels screwed to frame. Pro-
Finish in black enamel or
flat tect frame with masking
the
in a color that contrasts with tape while finishing as recom-
bench and shelf or in natural mended.
aluminum.
PARTS REQUIRED
CODE NO. REQ’D SIZE PART IDENTIFICATION
A 1 16''xl6'' Top Shelf

B 1 1 6"x60'^ Seat
1 6 Lin. Ft. y/'xl’/T Edging
1 Only Vb" Diameter Wrought Iron Frame
MISCELLANEOUS—&d Finish Nails and Glue

I'/g" No. 9 R. H. Screws as required
Finishing Materials
BUILT-IN MAGAZINE AND BOOK RACK 519
BUILT-IN MAGAZINE AND BOOK RACK
Complete flexibility to fit

B C —
nearly any circumstance fea-
B C
tures this built-in magazine
and book rack (Fig. 7). Con- A D
tract, lengthen or expand it ver- A
tically by changing its dimen- Z/a"* A'-O't 8'-0" INTERIOR A-D
sions.
Assemble the wall cabinet
wmmmm
before hanging on stringers. All
joints should be glued and
nailed. Cut parts according to
l/4’x 4-0"x 0^0" INTERIOR A-0
the diagrams shown in Fig. 7
CUTTING DIAGRAMS
and parts list, rabbet ends, da-
do top and bottom panels for
i 2 '« ie‘«
1/4' PLY
10-7/lB". 76*
*
1
« 3/»‘ PLY
'/' DOO«3\
_ C-2 OLiDC
6-5/®
BRACKET 3/4' QUARTER

( MAKE NINE I SLIDING DOOR DETAIL ROUND
2*3 aEAR FM
>
^^FIjOOR to celing
SECTION A
0 0
0 7 1
(£>•
^ ®]
END DETAIL
PLYWOOD
1/4“ FRONT VIE¥/
Suomo DOORS
Fig:. 7.
PARTS REQUIRED
CODE NO. SIZE PART IDENTIFICATION

REQ'D
A 2 lOVa X 76" Shelf

B 2 13" X 76" Top and Bottom
'*
C 2 13" X 131 /4 End
"
D 1 II3/V X 121 /2 Standard
E 1 12" X 76" Shelf Back
F 4 I2-13/I6"xl8-I3/I6" Sliding Doors
G 1 121/2" X 741/2" Back of Unit
H 2 12" X 18" Shelf Back
9 See Drawing Bracket
lO'A Lin. Ft. 2" X 2" Back Stop
" X "
IO '/2 Lin. Ft. 1 1 Blocking for Bracket
13 Lin. Ft. 1" X 3" Cabinet Support
20 Lin. Ft. 34 " Quarter Round Magazine Support
1 Pc. 2" X 3"— 8'-0" Long Wood Stanchion
If> Lin. Ft. Adjustable Metal Shelf Standard
8 Ea. As Req'd. Metal Shelf Brackets
1 Ea. I'/j" Angle Brace
MISCELLANEOUS —4d and 6d finish nails & brads

glue and finishing materials.
doors, sand edges and check fit and nail into ends of 1" x I"
of all mating parts. and beveled 2" x 2" blocking
Nail ends and divider to top nailed to shelves. Glue and
and bottom and check to be nail sloping racks to blocks and
sure cabinet is square. brackets, and install quarter-
Nail 1" X 3" stringers to wall round along shelf edges.
studs, level with floor. When Use angle brace to at-
you apply back (G) ,
heads of tach cabinet to post, which
large nails will be covered. should be a snug fit between
Leave space for cabinet end, if floor and ceiling.
installing at a corner. Finish completely as desired,

Hang cabinet by nailing slip sliding doors in })lace and
through top panel into stringer. install shelves on adjustal)le
Bandsaw magazine rack brackets at wall stud locations.
brackets to shape, sand edges
ROOM DIVIDER WITH STORAGE SPACE
By using various multiples Fig. 8, this room divider fills
of individual units as shown in any space attractively and use-

ROOM DIVIDER WITH STORAGE SPACE 521
fully. Cabinets may be either
drawer or door sections, de-
pending on your need and use.
Cutting diagrams (Fig. 8 )
and the parts list provide four

sections as illustrated.
Butt joints in cabinets, which
should be glued and nailed,
simplify construction.
Whenparts are cut and fitted
for the sections you select, nail
sides (E) or (L) to bottoms
(B) or (I). Then install backs
and tops. Square up each as-
sembly perfectly before driving
nails flush.
Drawer guides can be posi-
tioned most easily before as-
sembly.
Is ail drawer sides and back
to bottom, then install front
panel after fitting drawer in
})lace in the cabinet.
Paint cabinets as desired be-

fore hanging on partition posts
and installing hardware.
Nail 1x4 strip to ceiling
and nail first dadoed post to
wall (at a stud, if possible).
H ,
i K « SECTION THRU SECTION THRU

1
DRAWER UNIT DOOR UNIT • DESK
|I
L
‘ Support cabinet at desired
i
height on blocks and drive
•'-O* J/4', 4'-0'it 4’-0'
screws through side into that
2 "tQ’D 2 4C0 D
cutting DIAGRAMS j)ost. Slip lower square panel
ALL Purwooo PLYBANtL A-D t«CtPT AS NOTCO
(comi)lctely finished) into da-

doed slot, with bottom edge
resting on cabinet, then toe-nail
cross-member to post. Insert
top partition panel in slots, fit
and position each post, and at-
tach cabinet with screws. Re-
peat procedure for each section.
I ACQ'O 'iNTtftlOff A'A
Fig. 8.
(continued)
NO. PART IDENTIFICATION

CODE REQ'D
SIZE
A 2 221 /2 " * 23" Top of Drawer Unit

B 2 21" X 23" Bottom of Drawer Unit
c 2 23" X 24" Drawer Fronts
D 2 23" X 24" Back of Drawer Unit
E 4 221/2 " X 23'/4" Side of Drawer Unit
P 2 23" X 23" Desk Top
G 2 211/4" X 22'/2" Adjustable Shelf
H 2 221/2 " X 23" Top of Door Unit
1 2 21" X 23" Bottom of Door Unit
J 2 23 '
X 24" Door
K 2 23" X 24" Back of Door Unit
"
L 4 22'/2" X 231/4 Side of Door Unit
M 8 43/4 " X 22'/2" Drawer Side
N 4 43/4 " X 203/8" Drawer Back
O 4 103/4 " X 22'/2" Drawer Side
P 2 103/4 " X 203/8" Drawer Back
Q 6 205/8" X 22" Drawer Bottom
•'
" Plywood Panels
R 8 23-/4 X 231/2
48 L. F. 2" X 4" Clear Partition Framing
9 L. F. 1" X 4" Clear Nailing Strip
2 L. F. 2" X 2" Cut Glue Block — Drawer
Diagonally
8 L. F. ^4" X 3^" Drawer Guides
12 Ea. Door, Drwr. & Desk Top Pulls
4 Pr. Pin Hinges
6 L. F. Adjustable Shelf Hardware
6 Ea. Door & Desk Top Catches
4 L. F. Piano Hinge
MISCELLANEOUS—Ad and 8d finish nails and glue

finishing materials
RECORD FLAYER AND RADIO CABINET 523
RECORD PLAYER AND RADIO CABINET
Figure 9 shows an attrac-

tive record player and radio
cabinet that can be constructed
4-0** 6'-0*
with simple hand tools. 3i/ir «
PLVPANtL 4-0
This plan (Fig. 9 does not
)
nniJi uiiiini..,trnTTitrTw CUTTING
give exact dimensions for cer- DIAGRAM
tain parts because components
which may be installed vary
greatly.Determine space your
equipment requires before lay- 1
ing out plywood.
Cut all similar dimensions on

mating or related parts without
changing saw setting. All
joints should be nailed and
glued. Drill panels (F) and
(H) for equipment before as-
sembly.
First nail two sides (B) to
ends (C), (E) to (H), and (D)
to (G). Then install the shelves
Fig. 9.
sides, which still will provide

and vertical dividers according
to bracing required. Amplifier ventilation.
and radio hang from control Finish completely as desired,

panel (F) . If this is not practi- attach to welded cradle and in-
cal for the chassis you have, install hardware and components.
stall a half-shelf between the Connect a remote speaker.
PARTS REQUIRED
NO. PART IDENTIFICATION

CODE REQ'D
SIZE
A 2 16“ X 18“ Lid

B 2 123/4 “ X 36“ Side
C 2 133/4 “ X I4'/2“ End
“
D 1
11“ X 141 /2 Vertical Divider
"
E 1 SV2" X 141 /2 Vertical Divider
"
F 1
• X 141 /
2 Control Panel
“
G 1 ± 31/4" X 141/2 Bottom - Record Storage
H 1
• X 14'/2" Record Changer Support
1 Only 1
/2
“ Diameter Wrought Iron Cradle Frame
2 Metal Lid Supports
4 Cabinet Hinges
Miscellaneous; 6 cl finish nails and glue

Screws, wire and staples as required
Finishing materials
• Dimensions vary -see drawings
1
HIGH FIDELITY AND TV ROOM DIVIDER 525

This handsome music center er location from midpoint on
(Figs. 9 A, and B, and 10 )dem- the long living room wall; (2)
onstrates rather dramatically it was hoped that the TV set
that solutions to requirements could be seen either from the
ot a particular situation or a kitchen in one direction or the
combination of circumstances living room in the other; (3
create the most successful de- storage space should be pro-
signs. vided for a large number of long
In this case, (1) room acous- play record albums; (4) a room
tics dictated a change in speak- divider was needed between
SECTION A SECTION B
dining and living areas; and Study the plan Fig. 10 and
(5) an orderly, easily acces- you will see that all space be-
sible arrangement for a large hind the left hand door is de-
assortment of monthly maga- voted to three record album
zines was most desirable. compartments only. If that
When all those factors com- exceeds your needs greatly, or
bined, this very satisfying ar- if your room is not big enough
rangement of elements just na- for a cabinet seven feet long,

turally developed. eliminate that section.
kCTAL PIN with fUANGt

0LOCK TO HOCO T V TU8CI
UtCI
'
ADJUST HCWHT TO FIT

TfLEVISION SET—.-
"
84 " 28
REAR ELEVATION RIGHT END
Fig. 10. (continued)

HIGH FIDELITY AND TV ROOM DIVIDER 527
6
4 9 14 20
r
a
M
- •
!
3 7
i 10
a ifi'
,
? \Yy-
iHL:-
1,
2 13 lie 16 22 |k
6 a
1 1
2f 23
10 17
35 35
ALL PLVWOOO PlYPANCL A O
35 36 35
CUTTING DIAGRAMS
36 35 35
1
1/4*' 4'-0'V e'-O" I/4*'a4'- 0"^ 4'- 0" ' 5

‘-
0
"
Dimensions given make it Notice that a diagonal section

possible to cut all parts before isremoved from the four posts
assembly, but minor variations about 18" above the base. Ex-
that generally crop out in a act length of these segments
project this large make it ad- depends on the height of the
visable to cut and fit as you TV chassis your turntable must
go. Identical dimensions on accommodate, as they are used
mating or matching parts still later for corner posts in the
should be cut at the same time sub-assembly for the TV turn-
without changing saw setting table.
for perfect fit. Before installing shelves, con-
Glue and nail all the joints. struct the air-tight speaker en-
Start at the base. Nail the mi- closure shown in Section C.
tred plywood legs to the rab- Dimensions and form shown
beted 2" X 3" frame. Dado bot- were specified for the 10"
tom })anel 24 for record album speaker used in this installa-
partitions and notch edges for tion. To modify for a 12", 15"
2" X 2" posts, 1" X 2" stiles and or co-axial speaker, consult
speaker mounting board before your high-fidelity supplier. Line
nailing to base. all surfaces of the enclosure
Nail all posts and stiles, di- completely with 1" glass fiber
vider panels 14 and 20, and sound absorbing blanket, to
ends 13 and 17 in place next. control resonance.
You now are ready to install in place and notching, drilling,

fixed dadoed shelves with pan- mortising and installing rollers
els 16 and 26. Note that an arc and pivots as shown. Attach
is cut out of tuner shelf 11, to strips shown on either side of
let the TV turntable swing. the picture tube opening and

Nail through 26 into back blocks shown above and below.
edge of magazine rack shelves Lift sub-assembly over posts
8. Bevel cleats, magazine rack into socket for pivot tube.
panels, hardwood edge and 1/4- Drill socket in underside of
round stop can be installed any top panel 9 for upper turntable
time. pivot and attach top to posts,
Leave open behind
space dividers and end 13. Nail front
panels 33 and 34, to run wiring. panel 3 in place; the amplifier
Cut, fit and drill your tuner can be installed through back
control panel and install with before you install corresponding
diagonal masks 40 and parti- perforated panel.
tion 21. Using 4d finish andnails
Assemble record changer car- glue, attach mitred hardwood
riage after checking model you edge around top and bullnose
are installing to be sure you al- casing around base. These do
low ample clearance for its en- not extend around left end in
closed mechanism and to pass front elevation, since cabinet
center stile, with sliding hard- was built to project from wall.
ware in place. Finish unit completely as de-
Cut, fit, drill and attach fixed sired. Slip partitions in place
shelf 28 below TV turntable. and hinge doors. Move into
Face the upper surface with a position and slide TV set into
disc of stiff plastic laminate to turntable compartment through
provide a smooth, hard track back. Install and connect
for rollers. speaker, amplifier, tuners and
As a sub-assembly, join turn- changer. Apply grill cloth with
table top, bottom and end pan- prefinished molding. Attach
els with segments from 2" x 2" back panels to aluminum an-
corner posts, after checking fit gles for ventilation.
PARTS REQUIRED
CODE NO. REQ’D Sizl PART IDENTIFICATION
1 2 17ye"x28'/e" Doors
2 2 17y8"xl4H*' Doors
FARTS REQUIRED FOR ROOM DIVIDER 529
I’AiMs Hi 1:0 (coiituiued)
CODE NO, REQ'D SIZE PART IDENTIFICATION
3 1 17"x28'/8'' Doors
4 1 17M4y8" Doors
5 1 414"x16'/4" Changer Face
6 1 25'/8"x26%" Revolving Shelf
7 1 26'/4''x26%" Revolving Top
8 2 6"x36%" Magazine Shelves
9 1 28"x84" Top
10 2 1 8%"x20Vi" Shelves
11 1 17y2"x27" Tuner Shelf
12 1 17''x 175/8'' Mount Board
13 1 26'/2"x42!/2'' End
14 1 26’/2"x413/4*' Standard
15 2 1 8V8''x20!4'' Shelves
16 1 20!4"x41%'' Standard
17 1 18y8"x24" End
18 1 23y8"x24'' TV End
19 1 23>/8''x24'' TV Standard
20 1 18y8"x24'' Standard
21 1 14"x245/8" Standard
22 1 11%''x175/8'' Speaker Frame
23 1 7y2"x26%'' Speaker Back
24 1 27^x8 2 /2 ''
Bottom
25 2 4y8"x84" Legs
26 1 36%"x4iy4" Magazine Back
27 1 22"x26%" Speaker Top Enclosure
28 1 25y8"x26%" TV Stationary Shelf
29 1 4y8"x28" Legs
30 12 14'/4"x15" Record Partitions
31 1 14"x17%" Record Backs
32 1 12'/4"x17%" Record Backs
33 2 X 00
Record Backs
34 "
1 1 2y4"xi 8 /4 Record Backs
35 8 12'/2"x13" Record Partitions
36 2 1 45/8"x36%" Magazine Rack
37 1 1 2y2"x36%" Magazine Rack
38 1 16"x19'/4" Changer Mount Bd.
39 1 14"xl7’^" '
Dial Panel
40 2 2'/2"x14" Dial Panel Sides
41 1 3y8''xl5" Changer Back
42 2 3y8"xl9’/4" Changer Sides
28 Lin. Ft. '/4 V/4 "
Hardwood Edging
1 7 Lin. Ft. '/2"x1'/2" Bullnose Casing
20 Lin. Ft. 2"x3" Framing
1 0 Lin. Ft. Vi" Quarter Round Stops for Magazines
8 Lin. Ft. net Moulding For Fabric Screen
530 hM ERIOH ir OOniFOHKING PROJECTS
I’Ains Ki;(ii ii;i;i) (continued)
2 Lin. R. yA”x\W net Bottom Edge Facing — TV

Cabinet
2 Lin. Ft. net Bot. Edge Support — TV Set
14 Lin. R. l"xr' Nailer Back of Record Partitions
1 0 Lin. R. y4"xy4" net Stops and Facing

1 Pc. iy8"xiy4"x6" Block to Hold TV Tube
20 Lin. Ft. %"x2j net Stiles
1 6 Lin. R. 2"x2" net Vertical Framing
12 Lin. Ft. 1 "x2" Cleat and Ledger

2 Lin. Ft. 2"x4'' Blocking for Record Player
1 Pc. 3/l6"x4'-0"x4'-0" Perforated Hardboard

1 Ea. IVa" Diam. — 3^^
Long Copper Tube and Flange
1 Ea. 'A" Dia. Metal Pin with Flange
4 Ea. %" Diam. Steel Rollers
1 Pr. — Drawer Guides for Changer

5 Pr. H-Type Wrought-lron Hinges
5 Ea. — Wrought-lron Door Pulls
1 6 Lin. R. 'AW Aluminum Angle
Miscellaneous Ad, 6cl and 8d Finish Nails and Glue

F. H. and Sheet Metal Screws as required
PHOTOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT AND PROJECTOR CABINET
Protection for films, slides disorder and confusion, that so

and equipment replaces possi- often handicap show- home film
ble damage and loss when this ings, into convenience and a
projector cabinet is put into smooth performance.
use (Fig. 11). Also, it turns
Fig. 11.
PHOTOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT AND PROJECTOR CABINET 531
Sf*Ct iNSiCC DETAL OETAL 2

^ F0« 2.2' $C»OCS I
omma> \
•orroM
DETAL 3 DETAIL 4
SK*
•01
A A c
9
~
• c
0
r
1 C
III i/2V4'-0%4'-0'
V4V 4*-0*i< t'-O*

Saw framing members and (L) and 32" long facing strip
structural plywood parts to cut from panel (A). It is neces-
exact size, sand edges and check sary to nail through shelf into
mating parts for fit. the end of 1" x 2" slide track,
Use the same saw settings to so that member should be in-
groove panels (A) and (B) and stalled before adding the bot-
to cut out doors, drawer front tom and skirt sub-assembly.
and facing strip as diagrammed Now hang the doors. All door
from (A), to obtain uniform sliding panel and lid edges
grain pattern (Fig. 12). should beprimed thoroughly
Glue and nail all joints. after sanding, and it is impor-
Since you will not be able to tant to apply equal finish coats
nail through bottom panel (D) to both inner and outer faces.
into skirt pieces after shelf (D) Install drawer guides, film
is in place, first attach skirt to can partitions and lid. Drawei-
bottom. For the same reason, construction is clearly shown in
nail shelf (D) to fixed divider detail in Fig. Assemble

12.
(F) before assembly. Stand sliding panel (F) and cabinet

this sub-assembly on end to top. Finish as desired. Attach
attach back; then fasten sides, casters and hardware fittings.
storage compartment bottom (See Fig. 12).
note- HWJCCTW top 18

MAI8C0 *T HAND TO 42* WtHERC
SntWO MU SNAPS INTO PLACE
I PULL OUT TO NELEASe )
Fig. 12,
BUILT-IN BAR CABINET 533
PARTS REQUIRED
A 1 25'/4"x32" Front of Unit
B 1 25'/4"x32" Back of Unit
C 2 14'/2"x25'/4" Side of Unit
D 2 1 4'/2"x30!/2" Bottom and Shelf
E 2 16"xl6" Projector Top and Lid
F 2 14'/2"x18" Fixed and Sliding Standard
G 1 13y8"xl4’/2" Drawer Bottom
"
H 2 3 "x 141/2 Drawer Side
1 2 2'/2"x 133/8" Drawer Front and Back
J 5 2'/2"x12'/2" Drawer Dividers
K 9 8"x8" Reel Dividers
L 1 14'/2"x14'/2" Bottom of Compartment
M 4 3"xl2" Skirt Board
"
N 2 3 "x 14 /2 Skirt Board
5 Lin. Ft. VaW/' Drawer Guides
2 V2 Lin. Ft. 2"x3" Caster Blocks
1 Ea. 2"x2"x3/4" Spring Bolt Block
4'/2 Lin. Ft. 1 x2 Slide Track
2 Ea. 7"x9" Metal Shelf Brackets
1 Only No. 1697 Window Spring Bolt
4 Ea. — Rubber Wheel Casters
2 Ea. — Door Pulls
1 Ea. — Drawer Pull
2 Pr. — Pin Hinges
Miscellaneous — 4d and 6d Finish Nails and Glue
BUILT-IN BAR CABINET

This built-in bar cabinet struction. Rigid panels elim-
(Fig. 13) offers one of the best inate any need for the
examples of how plywood framing normally used
simplifies and speeds con-
11
TrnrTTTTTT-nTrm
iii!i li 1.
' 1 f u Id
M M N N 0
3/4‘* 4-<r. 4'-0* 4.'- 0"* 4'- 0" 3/4". A'-O"- A'-O"
PLVPI4WCL A-0 PLVPANCL A-0 PLVPANtL A D
Fig. 12. {continued)

for tlie framing normally used
in cabinets this large.
Cut parts to size, rabbet
sides (A) %" deep for back
panel and matching pieces
fit
together. To sides, join bottom

shelf (B), facing strip (O), Inmnnkimiimi
3/4". 4'-0 » # 0"
3/4"»4' 0"« «'-0” -
divider (Q), bottom (P) of light 5/l6\ 4'-0Ve'-0"

ftRusHCO Plywood
PLYPANCL A-0 PLYP4N€L A-0
trough and {)artition (C), being

careful to keep entire structure
exactly square (Fig. 14). Glue
and nail all the joints. PLASTIC
LAMP.ATC SURFMX OM 3/e" PLY TOP
Next, and nail the brushed

fit
A--S
"soss" MCTAL-
plywood back in place. Nail MCTAl!
eoQC HINOCS cDoe
and glue brushed plywood tt)

FRONT OP BAR
back of door material and cut TlJfTURC
Fig. 14.
BUILT-IN BAR CABINET 535
to size. Intermediate shelves fixed top (M), shelves (H),
may be nailed in iôsition, or (I ), (J) , bottom (G) and hinged
installed with adjustable shelf side (E) before exposed side
supports after finishing. (E) is installed. Apply texture
Before assembling the hinged one-eleven front, hinged to]^
front bar, notch partitions (F) and casters last.
and (K) for the 1" x 4" nailing Move cabinet into place
strip across the top. Because against wall and attach doors
working space is limited, as- and hinged front bar after fin-
semble these i)artitions with ishing as desired.
CEILING
7 a
I/)
tn
30-3/4' 47-1/4-
V
4". '
© EQ EQ.
r 37
drill hole for RNOER pull

i eke.
mn
E
00
"
SPACE
FOR TR>0S V t.ORMWERS
41-1/4' A2"
UJ
>
SHELF
/I
4J'
FLOOR
4
FROhJI ( CLOSED ) BACK OF FRONT BAR

PARTS REQUIRED
A 2 1 6"x80‘' Side — Back Bar
B 1 1 SYt^xASyA" Lower Shelf — Back Bar

C 1 1 5y8"x30!/j" Standard — Back Bar
D 1 Shelf — Back Bar

E 2 1 5y2"x4oy4" Side — Front Bar
F 2 1 5V2"x38V2'' Standard — Front Bar

G 1 1 5y2"x4oy4" Bottom Shelf — Front Bar
H 1 1 5y2"x26%'' Shelf — Front Bar
1 1 1 5V2"x26%" Drawer Shelf — Front Bar

J 1 9V2’'x}5V2" Shelf — Front Bar
K 1 6"x\5V2'' Divider Between Drawers
L 2 6"xl3" Drawer Front

M 2 1 2"x42'/4" Bar Top
N 2 8"x30y8" Shelf — Back Bar
O 1 6"x45y4" Face of Light Trough

P 1 1 5y8"x45%" Bottom of Plant Box
Q 1 6"x45y4" Divider between Plant Box
and Light Trough
" *
R 4 5%"x 143/8 Drawer Side
*
S 2 5y8"xl2" Drawer Back
*
T 2 1 2"xl 378" Drawer Bottom
U 1 46y2"x80" Back of Back Bar
V 1 1 6"x383/4" Door and Door Backing
W 1 31'/4"x383/i" Door and Door Backing
3 Pcs. 16"x79y2" 2" T 1-11 Doors and Bar Front**
3 V2 Lin. Ft. '/4 "xl" Filler
3 V2 Lin. Ft. 1 "x4" Bracing

1 Pc. 5y2"x453/8" Obscure Glass
1 Only 40-Watt-36" Long Fluorescent Tube
2 Pcs. 1 2"x42'/4" Plastic Laminate Top
1 1 V2 Lin. Ft. For 3^" Edge Metal Edging

3 Ea. “Soss" Bar Top Hinges
6 Ea. For 3^" Plywood Hinges
2 Ea. — Pin Hinges
3 Ea. As Required Rubber-Tired Casters
1 Ea. — Door Stop for Bar
Miscellaneous — 4d and 6d Finish Nails and Glue

* Parts not identified on drawings by letters
** Cut from 3— 1'-4"x8'-0" Panels of 2" Texture,

One-Eleven-
DARK-ROOM CABINET
DARK-ROOM CARINET
When time for a hobby is
limited, organization of work-
ing space, equipment and ma-
terials is most important. Any
photographer will be well re-
paid for building this dark-
room cabinet (Fig. 15), in
added convenience and effi-
ciency.
If necessary, adjust any di-
mensions to your siiace, then
cut jiarts specified in the dia-
grams and material list. Nail
and glue all joints.
Cut toe space, rabbet ends,
and dado frame and bottom for
doors. Nail ends to bottom and-
base strip (F), fit and nail back
into rabbet, and install 1" x 2"
framing for drawers.
Construction of drawers ac-
cording to detail given in Fig.
15, and fitting guides (M) to
frame and underside of drawers
will be done most easily before
nailing top (E) to sides.
A-O
Cut' and fit sliding doors, CUTTING DIAGRAM
sealing edges carefully and
all
painting inner and outer faces

alike.
Apply plastic top, metal edg- i/2 x 4'-<r « r-r plvpancl a-o
ing, and finish completely as

required.
\Mien building the paper
cabinet shown m Fig. 15, fit all
pieces carefully to insure light-

iirn 4'.<r. s-o'
alyaancl a-o
Fig. 15.
tight joints. Note that side (C). Fit hang

shelves (0),
(R) projects past front door, finish completely and

edge of side (J), for hinging, apply felt strips and quarter-
Dado sides for shelves, nail to round to keep out light. Hang
back and top, and install by shelves on adjustable standards
nailing up through middle shelf or fixed brackets, as desired.
1/
—®
'
--If
i
MAIL 1/2" OT* MO. ©

TO CA8IMCT
CCMCMT 1/2^ FELT
STMIF TO DOOR
--jr
itMl-CONCCALID MINOtS
2*4
1
2^
NO eo KNA^ A. VOOT DAOrP

PAPtR TARIhJrT
CAB t
NO ISO RN*Pt L VOGT paper cabinet ADJUMAW_i: STANOAW)
BMCLf »RAC«TS optional >
OPTIONAl.
SECTION
ll»
T ,
1
»0
r
* -
«
u u_
Qv
^ r MOLt
a**!'
' NAIL l/2"QTR RO
25V TO CABINET jcr
CEMENT 1/2" FELT
STRIP TO DOOR
3^*
f
END ELEVATION
FRONT ELEVATION
Fig. 16.
MIXING CENTER CABINET 539
PARTS REQUIRED
CODE NO REQ’D SIZE PART IDENTIFICATION

A 2 1 6''x29'/4" Ends
B 1 1 SVa'xSW Bottom
C 3 1 2"x48" Shelf
D 2 3%''x17-3/l6" Drawer Front
E 1 1 6"x36" Top
F 3’/2"x36"
1
Base
G 4 3V4'U]4V,'' Drawer Sides
H 2 3"x16" Drawer Back
1 1 1 1'/4''x12'/2" Door — Paper Cabinet
J 1 ll'/4"xn'/2" Side — Paper Cabinet
K 1 n'/2 "x 11 '/2 " Top — Paper Cabinet
L 1 ioy4"xip/2'' Back — Paper Cabinet
M 6 y4"xl 5'/4" Drawer Guides
N 2 i7y8"x2oy8" Door
O 2 n"xi 2
''
Shelf — Paper Cabinet

P 1 25%"x35'/4" Back
Q 2 14y8"xl6" Drawer Bottom
R 1 1 1'/4''x12" Side — Paper Cabif.ot
1 4 Lin. Ft. 1 "x2" Framing
1 Pr. For Vi" Plywood Semi-Concealed Hinges
4 Lin. Ft. — Felt Strip and Qtr. Round
* ^
6 Lin. Ft. — Adjustable Shelf Standard
} 6 Ea. — Shelf Brackets — 1
2"
% tr ,
6 Lin. Ft. 1 X 1 Drawer Stop and Nailer
Miscellaneous— 4d and 6d Finish Nails
Waterproof Glue
* Optional— Use fixed brackets if desired
MIXING CENTER CABINET
Accurate measurements are Cut structural parts to size

most important before con- after detailed dimensions have
structing this mixing center been determined, sand edges
cabinet. Any or all of the sev- and fit together. Attach bottom
eral parts of the unit may be to base and ledger strips first.
built, as desired. This flexibility Fasten ends and back in place,
of choice — with the several then tip forward and install in-
variable elements shown in Fig. termediate standards.
17 —
make it possible to fit Tip back onto base to install
practically any space available. fixed shelves, frames for top
THIS OIMKNSIOM tZ'/t FOO *A'

OVtHMAMO Of COOHTEO iOSl
r. 2' FRAME
END
A.->r HARDWOOD GUIDE
>-LAP tOARD
%-DOOR
DO BOTTOM AND
SIDES INTO FACE
Fig. 17
SLIDING SPICE RACK 541
and lap board and drawer hang doors, being careful to
guides.
seal edges thoroughly. Finish
Use glue and 6d or 8d finish doors inside and out equally.
nails at all joints.
Move into position, level up Dimensions drawers and
for
if floor is uneven and nail to sliding shelves will be deter-
floor or wall.
mined by the cabinet sizes you
Install facing strip and top, select. Cut all parts to size,
apply surfacing material, band dado the joints, sand and as-
edges and finish plywood as
semble with glue and 4d finisli
desired. Attach hardware and nails. Finish as desired.
SLIDING SPICE RACK
This unique sliding spice rack or built into a new overhead

and tuckaway shelf put space cabinet as shown in Fig. 18.
to maximum use and provide
If you are building the com-
for tall bottles as well as small
plete overhead cabinet, measure
cans and boxes (Fig. 18). This the over-all dimensions of your
unit can easily be added to the
space which fix the size of var-
shelves in an existing cabinet ious parts.
30‘
Fig. 18.
SPICE RACK SECTION
Fig. 18.
(continued)
OPTIONAL ADJUSTABLE
SHELF DETAIL
When building the sliding and back with 4d finish nails.

rack and tuckaway shelf for an Hang cabinet on wall by driv-
existing cabinet, its size de- ing screws through back into
termines the variable width wall studs.
shown. Also use 4d finish nails and
Cut all parts to size, sand glue to assemble the sliding
edges and check for proper fit. spice rack. Install track and
All joints should be glued and hang doors on cabinet. Finish
nailed. as desired. Be very careful to
Use 6d or 8d finish nails in prime edges of doors and finish
assembling the cabinet. Fasten both faces alike.
the tuckaway shelf to shelves
SINK CABINET 543
SINK CABINET
Convenience at the sink work Use only plywood made with

center saves hours of time 100% waterproof glue (EXT-
daily, because so much house- DFPA) around locations ex-
keeping revolves around that posed to moisture or dampness.
area. Aplywood sink cabinet Sand edges and fit together.
(Fig. 19) lets you choose any
Assemble with waterproof
color you want, to match other glue and 6d or 8d finish nails
cabinets and provide relief at all joints. Fasten bottom
from the stark monotony of an
panel to base and ledger strips
all-white kitchen.
first. Then install ends, back
Adjust any variable dimen- and frame.
sions to fit your space and the
Tip cabinet forward so you
size of the sink you are install- can nail through bottom when
ing.
installing the intermediate
Cut all structural panels and standard. After face, top and
frame parts to size (Fig. 19). shelf are fastened, move cabi-
'WASHINGTON LINt*/
PIN HINCC NO lOJM
Fig. 19. I
AUTOMATIC POP-UP GANSAGC C0NTA<NCN

net into position and level up very important to prime edges

to correct any unevenness in of doors well and to finish inner
the floor. and outer faces alike.
and hang doors, which
Fit Finish the entire cabinet as
should be cut from the same required, apply surfacing ma-
panel as the face to insure terial to counter and install
matching grain patterns. It is fixtures and accessories desired.
FRUIT-VEGETABLE STORAGE
Fruit and vegetable storage for your kitchen.

space that is easy to clean and To facilitate cleaning vege-
does not collect grime is pro- tables, these bins should be
vided by convenient metal bins situated near the sink. They
as shown in Fig. 20. The entire can be built as a separate unit
unit is neatly concealed by a ( Fig. 20) or combined with
,
single door beneath the cutting other base cabinets.

board, so you still have com- Cut all structural panels and
plete freedom in choice of colors
DRAWER DIVIDER
VV PLTWOOO
W > IV HAMOWOOO RNire MACK
DADO OAAWCH SiOCS

•OTTOM MK> fACt
iN.rcftMAr(
; WASHINGTON LINC* NO AH MTail
alternate dr PIN HINGE DRAWER AN» TOP DETAIL

GUIDE detail Fig. 20.
FRUIT VEGETABLE STORAGE
frame parts to size, sand edges match, sand edges and install.
and fit together. Be sure to prime all edges of
All joints should be glued and the door and apply equal fin-
nailed. Fasten bottom to base ishing coats inside and out.
and ledger strips first, using 6d
or 8d finish nails. Then install
Cut drawer parts, check in
place for sand edges and
fit,
ends, back and frames. Move
assemble with 4d or 6d finish
cabinet into position and level
nails.
base if floor is uneven.
Cut door drawer front and Finish entire cabinet as de-
face strips from one piece of sired and install cutting block
plywood so grain pattern will and baskets.
CHAPTER 19
Exterior Woodworking Projects
CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW, DOOR, AND PORCH SCREENS

While ready-made screens are available in a variety of sizes
and shapes to meet almost all requirements, considerably better
screens can be constructed at a fraction of the cost.
The screening material used, known as “screen cloth,’' is avail-
able in 14, 16, and 18 mesh openings per inch and in widths rang-
ing from 18" to 48". It is made of finely drawn wire so that it
will not exclude air and light. Since screens are exposed to all
kinds of weather these fine strands of wire will rust if the metal
is not corrosion-resistant. A single break in the mesh renders the
entire screen useless. Bronze or copper insect-screen cloth have
proved to be highly resistant to rust and other forms of corrosion
that destroy ordinary screens, and will provide lasting protection.
For the handy man who would like to make his own screens,
only a few simple hand tools are necessary. Materials can be
readily procured at lumber and hardware dealers. Secure well-
seasoned wood that is free from knots. All nails, tacks, and
staples used should be of copper, while hinges, screws, handles,
and corner pieces should be of brass or bronze. This will assure
a rustproof screen that will give satisfactory service over a period

of years.
With these materials and a cross-cut saw, a hammer, a square,
and a miter box, proceed as follows. Measure each window frame
carefully, as they may vary as much as i/4". Select the type of
joint preferred, mark the lumber carefully and cut exactly on the
marks to insure a close fit for the finished job.
The step joint is the simplest and strongest joint. The upright
546
WINDOW, DOOR, AND PORCH SCREENS 547
pieces should be the full height of the
frame while the cross mem-
bers should be cut the width of one
side member shorter than the
nieasured width of the frame. Cut square
notches, half the width
of the side members Fig. 1). Stagger the nails and
drive them
on a slight slant toward the inside so they
won’t meet and either
split the wood, bend, or come
out at the side. If the screen is
over ûr feet high, strengthen it with
a crosspiece (B, Fig. 1).
Drawing C illustrates another simple joint that may be employed
at the corners.
The mitered joint, strengthened with a cross-corner brace, is
another easily made type {A, Fig. 2) .Cut the lumber the full
size of the openings both ways, then with a miter box
saw the
ends at a 45° angle. The point of the angle
should be exactly on
the corner of the piece. Then miter
the cross-corner members,
also with a 45° angle. Employ plenty
of nails and check the
alignment with a square as the fastening
proceeds. Countersink
the nails for a neat appearance. Instead
of a cross-corner brace,
there are many fastening appliances available at any hardware
dealer that may be used in building screens. Shown in Fig.
3 are
an angle (^), corner brace (B), and corrugated
fasteners (C),
all of which will add to the
strength of a screen frame.
The doweled joint is a mitered joint fastened with two
diagonal
dowels instead of the corner brace {B, Fig.
4) After the lumber
.
has been cut and mitered, fasten with a

small nail to keep the
joints from slipping; then bore two holes
through the corners, in-
sert the dowels, and glue the joint. After it has set, trim’ the
dowels flush with the frame. The square-end doweled
joint, sim-
ilar to the doweled mitered joint, is
shown at C, Fig. 4.
After sandpapering, give the frames two coats
of good paint,
permitting each to dry thoroughly. The first step in
applying the
insert of screen cloth is to lay the
frame on a flat surface and
place a section of lumber under each end. Then
bend the frame
down in the center and fasten lightly with a nail or clamp. Trim
the screen cloth and tack with 4-bz. copper tacks
on both ends.
Release the frame and the screen cloth will be stretched
tightly.
Tack the sides and then cover all edges of the screen cloth with a
half-round molding of appropriate size. Put identifying
num-
bers on each screen and the corresponding window
frame. When
brass or bronze hangers, hinges, and handles are affixed, the
screen
548 EXTERIOR W OODWORKING PROJECTS
screens.
Fig. 1. Two simple types of joints

used in the construction of screens.
Fig. 2. Method of fastening a

mitered joint with a corner Fig. 4. T wo
types of doweled
brace in constructing all types joints used in the construction
of screens. of screens.
WINDOW DOOR, AND PORCH SCREENS
,
549
isready for service. Screens should be
hung on hinges and se-
cured with hooks and eyes.
Exercise care in storing screens when
they are not in use. Each
spring, scrub the screens thoroughly
with soap and hot water and
coat with thinned clear lacquer, as
copper screens may otherwise
stain a house with white walls.
CONSTRUCTING AND FITTING STORM SASHES

hen planning and constructing storm
sashes always consider
standard glass sizes. As a general rule,
glass that is available in
standard sizes, such as 8" X 10", 12"
X 14", 16" X18" and
other sizes will not have to be cut if
the widths of the stiles and
rails of the sash are planned in accordance. In
other cases, the
"idths of stiles and rails can be altered
slightly by planing. The
ideal lumber to use for
storm sashes is either straight-grain kiln-
dried pine or cypress, usually from is/,,,"
to n/g" thick.
The ]irocedures for construction are
comparatively simple
Measure each window carefully before cutting
any of the lumber.
Cut rabbets in the stock for the glass
panes (Fig. 5; Chap.
3). While miter joints are sometimes used in
making storm
sashes they are not particularly
recommended for this purpose.
A stub tenon joint set in a mortise and
secured with two nails in
addition to the usual gluing is preferable
(Fig. 5). For making
mortise and tenon joints, see Chap.
3. Hardware dealers stock
special storm-sash hinges and
fasteners. The procedure for fit-
ting and attaching hinges is similar
to that described for doors
in Chap. 17. The procedure
for attaching the fastener depends
on the type used. Directions are usually
furnished by the man-
ufacturer. After assembling the frame
of the sash and attach-
ing hinges to the frame, proceed
to set in place and putty the
glass as directed in Chap. 17. Storm
sash should be painted to
conform with the color scheme of the exterior
of tlie house.
GARDEN FENCES, GATES, TRELLISES, AND PERGOLAS

The construction of these various garden accessories
has been
simplified to a tremendous degree by the availability
of ready-cut
lumber for this specific purpose. Since these garden accessories
550 EXTERIOR WOODWORKING PROJECTS
TO SUIT OPENING —
MORE THAN CLASS -11“ SET
’• 5AWCUT
ANY WIDTH
PROM ^4 TO
1
3" TO MAKE UP
GLASS
RABBET
O.A WIDTH REQUIRED
n
BOTTOM
RAIL SAME
AS TOP BUT
1 WIDER
Fig. 5. Procedure details for the construction and fitting of storm sashes.
will be exposed to different weather conditions, an excellent qual-

ity of lumber should be used. While pine and cypress are used
to some extent, California redwood is really the ideal type for
this purpose. comparatively inexpensive, is an easy
Redwood is
material to either paint or stain, and if left unpainted will acquire

a natural weathered effect.
In the construction of any of these projects, preferably set all
posts in concrete. Coat the ends of the posts with tar where they
will come in contactwith the concrete; secure some roofing tar,
melt it in a large galvanized pail and dip each post into the
melted tar. This acts as a sealer and forms a bond between the
wood and the concrete, decreasing any likelihood of moisture
collecting there. Use an ordinary concrete mixture, set all posts
square, and tamp the concrete well.

Building garden fences. All of the materials required for the
construction of the various fences shown are available in ready-
HVILDING CARDEN FENCES 551
Fig- 6. Fig. 7.
cut form. Variations of stock picket designs can be made by the

ingenious man who desires to have a garden fence individual in
design. An angular cut^ a
design of drilled holes or a silhouette
cut out in each of the pickets can be used effectively to produce
distinctive patterns.Secure the horizontal rails to the posts with
a simple rabbet joint and countersunk screws in all of these
de-
signs. Nail the pickets or boards to the rails with galvanized
nails. Fig. 6 illustrates a simplified dart motif used for the top
of the pickets; a fence of this type is strictly in character with
the modern derivatives of English cottage architecture. The
decoration at the top of the pickets is made entirely with straight
saw and can be done either at the planing mill before de-
cuts,
livery or by the builder on the job. Place posts ten feet apart
and space pickets their own width. Each ten feet of this fence
will require the following materials:
2 horizontal rails 2" X 4" X 10' 0"

1 post 4" X 4" X 6' 0"
1 board 1" X 8" X 10' 0"
16 pickets X
1” 4'"
X 36'^
Fig. 6 shows the fence three feet high. This dimension may be
changed to suit the requirements of the site.
By cutting the tops of pickets symmetrically (Fig. 7), it is
possible to introduce a feeling of movement into the design of a

fence. Be sure to make the angle of the picket face toward the
house for the aesthetic purpose of making the house itself the
most important part of the landscape design. Notice the extra
strips placed outside the row of pickets parallel to the rails.
Place posts at ten foot intervals and carry corner posts to the
full height of the fence; intermediate posts only as high as upper
rail. For each ten feet of fence, the following materials are
needed:

2 strips 1" X 2" X 10' 0"
1 post 4" X 4" X 7' 0"
20 pickets 1" X 4" X 47"
Board fences. By so simple an expedient as notching the sides

of the board, it is possible to relieve the monotony usually in-
herent in a board fence, and give it a very pleasant decorative

effect. Rough boards may be used if the paint is to be sprayed
on or if the boards are to be dipped before applying. If painted
by hand, it will be far easier to use surfaced stock.
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
BOARD FEI\CES 553
Such a fence may be of various heights. That shown in Fig. 8
is 2 V2 high. Its proportions might be improved by increasing
the height somewhat. Note the baseboard which is placed di-
rectly against the posts and upon which the
vertical boards are
set. For each ten feet of fence, the following materials are
needed:
2 horizontal rails 2" X 4^'

X 10' 0"
vortical post
1
14 vertical boards (notched as

4" ^ ^ 0 0" ' q'/
shown) 1" X 8^^

X 2'
1 baseboard 1" X 6" X 10' 0"
Though somewhat more elaborate in structure than other board
fences, the design shown in Fig. 9 has the
advantage of present-
ing exactly the same appearance from both
sides. There is no
“inside” or “outside.” Depending upon its height, it
may be used
to insure privacy
from passers-by. It will also serve to keep chil-
dren and pets from wandering out into the street.
The finial
shown may, if desired, be eliminated. For each ten feet of fence,
the following materials will be needed:
2 horizontftl rails 2^^

X 4" X 10' 0"
1 horizontal bottom 0"
rail 1" X 4" X 10'
1 horizontal top board (cut scalloped top
as indicated) j" 0" ^ jq'
1 post y/
square molding
1
1" X 2" X 10' 0"
17 vertical boarding 1" X 6" X 3' 0"
1 redi-cut turned finial 4" X 4" X I'O"
redi-cut square finial base
1
1" X 0" X 0' 6"
Lattice fencing. Lattice fencing of the type shown in Fig. 10
has become particularly popular because of its
double usefulness
in the garden: it affords a good-looking
windbreak for the plants
behind and can also give support for climbers or espaliers. It
it
is simply constructed of redwood

materials obtainable at any
lumber yard. Lattice strips need be nailed only to the rails
and
posts and at their ends. Materials heeded for each
ten-foot unit
of fence are:
2 horizontal rails 2" X 4" XlO'O"

^ 4" X 4" X 7' 0"
lattice
^ jQ.Q.
IW
SECT ON;
I
Fig. 10. Fig. 11.
One
Gates. of the simplest gates to build is the straight picket
gate shown in Fig. 11. The procedures for the construction for
this and other gates are similar to that described for fences. The
pickets themselves are available in pre-cut redwood. The first
step in its construction is to build a simple rectangular frame

with a single cross brace of 2 X The pickets are placed
4’s.
against this, spaced at approximately their own width to fit the

opening. Though illustrated as built between brick piers, it is
also suitable for use with picket fences.

Note the small stopping block sunk into the brick at the left.
This will not be needed if double-swing hinges are used. The
materials needed are:

1 cross brace 2" X 3" X 3' 6"
9 pickets 1" X 3" X 2' 6" net 21/2 " wide,

35" long in Picket Pack
1 block gate stop 2" X 6" X 3" cut to form

stop as indicated
A more elaborate gate that presents the same appear-

slightly
ance from both sides is shown in Fig. 12. The ends of the two
side framing members and the top rail may be cut with a band-
GATES 555
saw. In building the gate, place the vertical pickets first, then
cut diagonal pieces to fit. Besides their decorative value, they
serve as bracing members for the gate to prevent sagging. For
each such gate, materials needed are:
2 horizontal rails 2" X 6" X 3' 6" tongue-and-grove and

glued to vertical rails
2 vertical rails 2" X 4" X 2' 6" ends cut as shown,
grooved to receive tongue of
horizontal rails
^ 1 X 1 ii/ie" X 12' 0" straight
molding No. 1622
block gate stop
1 2" X 6" X 3" cut to form stop as
indicated
Pergolas. Pergolas add beauty and utility to a garden and are

inexpensive to build. In order to use standard lengths of
material
and to prevent waste this per-
gola has been laid out on a
two-foot module or unit plant
(Figs. 13 and 13A). All di-
mensions are taken from cen-
ter line to center line. A di-
mension less than one module
would be one-half module or
one foot. Any dimension less
than one foot should be used
only to space lattice uniformly.
One complete unit can be built ELEVATION SECT
3 6 •" r
and another unit added later. BALL BEARING
: •
.
^viL'SPR NG CATCH -•
''\U •
i
:’
•
The sizes of individual mem-

I
bers, such as PLAN ’ •
beams,
•
posts, r
/.I
rafters,and lattice, may be UTTTTTTTn

whatever standard size pre-
Fig. 12.
ferred that is procurable.
Posts should be constructed of an all-heart grade of lumber.
The brackets, beam, and rafter end designs can run from the
straight line effects to the scroll type. Scroll ends can be cut
and
shaped by hand tools, if necessary. However, if power equip-
ment is available it can be used to advantage. Materials required
are as follows:
Fig. 13. Construction details and completed pergola.
MATERIAL LISTS
Posts Set One Module on Center

4 Posts 4" X 4" X 10' 0"
2 Beams .... 4" X 4" X 8' 0"
4 Rafters .... 2" X 6" X 10' 0"
4 Brackets . .
3" X 6" X 2' 0"
2 Bottom rails 2" X 4" X 2' 0"
14 Roof lattice 5/i6" X 1%" X8' 0"
4 Side panels ¥i6"X1%"X7'0"
16 Side panels %6"X1%"X2'0"
pergolas 557
Posts Set T wo M od]ilps on Center

4 Posts
2 Beams
4" X 4" X 10' 0
4" X 4" X 10' O'
5 Rafters 2" X 6" X lO'O'
4 Brackets 3" X 6" X 2' 0"
2 Bottom rails 2" X 4" X 4' 0"
2 Middle rails 2" X 4" X 7' 0"
14 Roof lattice
8 Side panels
ym" X 1%" X 10' 0
16 Side panels
yir," X 1%" X 7'0"
yic" X 1%" X 4'0"
Trellises. A number of siip;p,ested trellis designs are shown
in
Fig. 14. As can be seen, tlieir construction is extremely
simple.
With a little originality trellises can be built in many pleasing
and original designs. Lattice, battens, and lath are available in
the following standard sizes:
LATTICE, BATTENS, OR LATH FOR TRELLISES
Type Thickness Width

in Inches in Inches
Lattice m
iH
Lattice
Lattice m
iVs
Lattice
Lattice Ke m
2H
Batten
Batten 2H
Batten 2y2
Batten 2^2
Batten 2H
Lath
—
LaUice lengths Standard lengths are 6' and longer in multiples of T up
to and including 10', and in multiples of 2' from 10' to 20 .
10'
Batten lengths— to 10' in 1' multiples, and in multiples of 2' from
to 20'.
Lath lengths —4', 6', and 8'. 50 laths per bundle.
The number of lineal feet of lattice required for each design is

shown in Fig. 14.
GARDEN FURNITURE
construction of attractive and serviceable garden furniture
The
presents no special difficulties. The suggested designs shown in
Figs. 15 to 21 are simple in construction. power equipment
If
is not available they can all be constructed with the hand tools
generally found in a home tool kit.
Lawn chair. The chair shown in Fig. 15 is a variation of the
conventional Adirondack-type chair, featuring folding arm ex-

tensions and supports. Cut all parts to sizes and shapes (Fig. 15)
from %" clear kiln-dried lumber. The curved members forming
the arm rests, the supports, and the chair seat can be cut out on
a bandsaw. If a not available, proceed as described in
bandsaw is
Chap. 2 for cutting convex and concave cuts with a saw and
chisel. After cutting all members to size and shaping, assemble
with countersunk screws and nails in the following order.
GARDEN FURNITURE 559
Secure apron to the two front uprights, then
attach the side
pieces to the uprights. Next, with hinges secure
the hinged part
of each of the arms. Assemble and secure the
back supports to
the bottom side members (Fig. 15). Secure the crosspiece forming
Fig. 14. Suggested trellis designs and material required. (All are 1'
X 6'.)
1. 24 lineal feet; 2. 30 lineal feet; 3. 36 lineal feet; 4. 48
lineal feet; 5. 48
lineal feet; 6. 36 lineal feet; 7. to 10. 42 lineal feet.
Fig. 15. Construction of lawn chair with folding arms.
the back support {A, Fig. 15). Nail pieces forming seat and
back members and proceed by securing the arms to the back and
the front uprights. Finally, fit and secure the folding arm sup-
ports in place with hinges {B, Fig. 15). Sand and finish the com-
pletely assembled chair.
Roll-away lounge. The comfortable roll-away lounge shown
in Fig. 16 is a unique piece of garden furniture that can easily
be constructed of kiln-dried clear pine or cypress. While
the dimensions given in the drawing will accommodate a 24" X
60" plastic-covered pad of foamite rubber, dimensions can be
altered as desired.
ROLL AWAY LOUNGE 561
As can be seen in the working drawing (Fig. 16), all of the

joints are butted together and secured with
countersunk screws.
A series of holes are drilled in the main frame and the hinge
section of the lounge, through which is threaded a
sash cord.
This cord is laced and forms the necessary support for the
pad-
ding. Make the entire pad of two thicknesses
of rubber foam,
cement together and cover wdth one of the many types of water-
proof and washable plastic materials now available at local
up-
holstery or hardware stores. The hinged section can be
adjusted
to several heights by means of the notch supports
fastened to
the main frame (A, Fig. 16). Bandsaw the 8" wheels from
stock or from two thicknesses of F/s" stock glued together.
For
a discussion of procedures on gluing and clamping see Chap. 3.
Mount the 8" wheels on a 1" hardwood dowel with P/;" dowels
on the end of the axle to hold them in place {B, Fig. 16). Assem-
ble and finish as desired.
Roll-away lawn seat. This lawn seat is a companion piece
to
the roll-away lounge previously described. The
novel feature of
this piece of garden furniture is the two removable
chairs which
can be placed in almost any desired position (Figs. 17
and 18).
The seats are perfectly square and are identical with the excep-
tion of the arms. One of the seats has the arm on the left, while
the other has on the right. Construction details are shown in
it
Fig. 19. The completeness of this working drawing, combined

with the simplicity of construction, makes any detailed instruc-
tions unnecessary. When assembled, the lawn seat should be
finished.
Lawn tables. The designer of the lawn table shown in Fig. 20
conceived the clever idea of making the tops of these tables from
Fig. 17. Roll-away lawn seat.
Fig. 18. Roll-away lawn seat.
discarded barrel tops. Where barrel tops are not available, cut
the table tops from stock either to the size shown or to any
size desired and bevel off the edges on the shaper. Use
stock for the legs and stretchers of the table and bandsaw them
to the required shape. Half-lapped joints are used throughout
with the exception of the necessary dado cuts for setting in the
LAWN TABLES 563
legs at the required angle {A, Fig. 20).
See Chap. 3 for the mak-
ing ofdado joints. Assemble the table with countersunk flat-
head wood screws. Sand the top smooth and finish natural bv
19. Construction and details of a roll-away lawn seat.

applying several coats of clear Valspar or similar waterproof var-
nish. The balance of the table should be either painted or lac-
quered.
Outdoor gymnasium for the children. The working plans
for an outdoor gymnasium of simple yet sturdy construction that
can be fitted into a comparatively small space are shown in Fig.
21. This outdoor gym can be assembled with carriage and log
bolts to make it easy to take apart and set up in the basement
for use during the winter months.
Clear 2" X 4" pine or cypress is used for most of the parts.
The bottom frame, which comes in contact with the ground, should
be given a coat of creosote to prevent the w’ood from rotting.
Assemble the framework of the gym with carriage and log bolts.
Make the ladder rungs and the teeter-totter handles from either
oldbroom handles or maple dowels. The teeter-totter is
mounted on a piece of or 1" pipe cut to size shown with reg-

ular pipe straps for fittings {A, Fig. 21). To add rigidity to the
entire structure, put metal reinforcement plates on all corners
and bracing members (Chap. 3).
Round or break all edges and sharp corners before proceeding
w’ith the finishing and painting.
Fis. 20. Lawn table construction and details.

CHILDREN’S OUTDOOR GYMNASIUM 565
Fig. 21. Construction of children’s outdoor gymnasium.
TOOL SHED AND LATH HOUSE

For anyone seriously interested in gardening, a small lath house
or greenhouse is almost an essential. Almost any space in the
garden will do for such a structure. It can be screened by shrub-
bery or, if neatly painted, can be exposed to view as a functional
part of the garden itself (Fig. 22). The combination lath
house
and tool shed detailed in the working drawings. Figs. 23 and
24,
occupies a space of 12' X
24', but may be scaled either up or
down, according to requirements. Notice, for instance, that the
lath poi tion is planned in 6
units or modules so that the rear wall
could be placed at various distances back from the tool
shed.
If it is necessary to make
a narrow building, an 8' width would
prove economical because lumber dealers stock this length of
material and consequently there would be little waste in cutting.

The whole structure may be erected easily without special tools.
Note that the complete bill of materials for the construction of
the tool and lath house includes those required for the work-
benches and tables (Fig. 25). A notation, such as y^' listed in the
column headed “Pieces Required,” indicates that seven pieces will
be needed, each 8' long. Because the wood will be exposed to
weathering and alternate wetting and drying, a durable species
of lumber such as California redwood should be used. All items
on the material list are usually carried in stock by lumber dealers.
Fig. 22. Completed tool shed and lath house.
R.W. SHINGLES ST OCX

ON OPEN I” X 4 2/8”x 6/8”
HEATH NGI
DOOR
SIDE ELEVATION ENCLOSED END
Fig. 23. Elevation details.

TOOL SHED AND LATH HOUSE 567
Structural details. Notice that roof bracing in the lath house

poition of the structure is designed to carry off rainwater.
Braces
arc slanted toward alternate rafters. (Only nailing strips are
necessary under the shingled portion of the roof.)
Fig. 25. Floor plan.

LATH HOUSE —MATERIAL LIST
Item Pieces Net Length Pieces Required
Sills 2/10' 2/12'

2/14'
Studs 13 5' 8" 1/6' 6/12'
Horizontal braces 36 6' 0" 18/12'
Diagonal braces 21 2' 4" 7/8'
Plates 6/12'
Rafters 14 6' 7" 7/14'
Nailing joist 24 6' 0" 12/12'
Ridge boards 2 12' 0" 2/12'
Door header 1 2' 8"
(
1/6'
Window frame 1 1' 8" i
—
Boards sides 24 6' 0" 12/12'
—
Boards ends 48 2/6' 8/8'
3/14' 4/18'
Battens 4/18'
3/6' 8/8'
3/14' 12/12'
Roof sheathing 20 6' 6" 10/14'
Shingles 1 Square
Side lath 3 Bundles 6'
End lath 1 Bundle 6'
Top lath 3 Bundles 8'

Cornice molding 4 12' 0" 4/12'
Benches:
Horizontal supports 13 2' 0" 1 3/12'
3 3' 0" [
Legs 18 3' 0" 9/6'

Top (sides) 8/12' 1/6'
Top (center) 3/14'
Nail gutters of galvanized metal or copper to the underside of

roof members. These may be obtained from a local sheet metal
worker.
The necessary concrete foundation can be poured per standard
procedures. Other constructional details are shown in Figs. 23
and 24.
The moat in the concrete foundation receives water from the
gutter system, so that it may be drained off at a convenient point.
CHAPTER 20
Construction of Stairs
Stairways in houses should be designed

and constructed to
afford safety and adequate headroom
for the occupants as well
as space for the passage of furniture.
The two types of stairs
commonly used in houses are (a) the finished
main stairs lead-
ing to the second floor or split-level
floors and (b) the basement
or service stairs leading to the
basement or to the garage area.
The mam stairs are designed to provide
and descent and
ascent
may be made
a feature of the interior design. The
service stairs
to the basement areas are usually
somewhat steeper and are
constructed of less-expensive materials,
although safety and con-
venience should be the prime factors in
their design.
Most finish and service stairs are constructed in place.
The
mam stairs are assembled with prefabricated
parts, which include
housed stringers, treads, and risers. Basement
stairs may be
made simply of 2" by 12" carriages and plank treads. In split-
level design or a midfloor outside
entry, stairways are often com-
pletely finished with plastered walls,
handrails, and appropriate
moldings.
Wood species appropriate for main stairway components in-
clude oak, birch,
maple, and similar hardwoods. Treads and
risers for the basement or service
stairways may be of Douglas
fir, southern pine, and similar
species. A hardwood tread with a
softwood or lower-grade hardwood riser may
be combined to
provide greater resistance to wear.
569
570 CONSTRUCTION OF STAIRS
TYPES OF STAIRWAYS
Three general types of stairway runs commonly used in house

construction are the straight run {A, Fig. 1), the long L {B,
Fig. 1), and the narrow U {A, Fig. 2). Another type is similar
to the long L except that winders or pie shaped treads (B, Fig.
2) are substituted for the landing.This type of stairs is not
desirable and should be avoided whenever possible because it is
obviously not as convenient or as safe as the long L. It is used
where the stair run is not sufficient for the more conventional
stairway containing a landing. In such instances, the winders
should be adjusted to replace the landings so that the width of
the tread, 18" from the narrow end, will not be less than the
tread width on the straight run {A, Fig. 3). Therefore, if the
standard tread is 10" wide, the winder tread should be at least
10" wide at the 18" line.
Another basic rule in stair layout concerns the landing at the
top of the stairs when the door opens into the stairway, such as
on a stair to the basement. This landing, as well as middle

landings, should not be less than 2' 6" long {B, Fig. 3)
Sufficient headroom in a stairway is a primary requisite. For

main stairways, clear vertical distance should not be less than
6' 8" {A, Fig. 4). Basement or service stairs should provide not
less than a 6' 4" clearance.
The minimum tread width and riser height must also be con-
sidered. For closed stairs, a 1" tread width and an 8^" riser
height should be considered a basement stair-

minimum even for
ways {B, Fig. 4). Risers with less height are always more de-
sirable. The nosing projection should be at least 1%", but if the
projection is too much greater, the stairs will be awkward and
difficult to climb.
RATIO OF RISER TO TREAD
There is a definite relation between the height of a riser and

the width of a tread, and all stairs should be laid out to conform
to well-established rules governing these relations. If the com-
bination of run and rise is too great, there is undue strain on the
leg muscles and on the heart of the climber. If the combination

TYPES OF STAIR RUNS 571
Fig. 1. Common types of stair runs. A, straight. B, long “L”.

UP
!_ _
T
1
Fig. 2. Space-saving stairs. A, narrow ‘‘U”. B, winder.

RATIO OF RISFJi TO TREAD 573
of run and rise is too small, his or her footmay kick the riser
at each step and an attempt to shorten stride may be tiring.
Experience has proved that a riser 71/2 " to 7%" high with ap-
jiropriate tread width combines both safety
and comfort.
A rule of thumb which sets forth a good relation between the
height of the riser and the width of the tread
is as follows.
The tiead width multiplied by the riser height in inches should
ec|ual to 72 to 75. The stairs shown in Fig. 4 would conform
to this rule (9 times 8%" = 741/4 ") . If the tread is 10", the riser
should be lYz which is more desirable for common
,
stairways.
Another rule sometimes used: the tread width plus
twice the
riser height should equal about 25.
These desirable riser heights should be used to determine
the
number of steps between floors. For example, fourteen risers
are
commonly used for main stairs between the first and second
floors. The 8' ceiling height of the first
floor plus the upper story
floor joists, subfloor, and finish floor result in a floor-to-floor
Fig. 3. Stair layout. A, winder treads. B, landings.

MIN. RUN
-I I Vb" min.
TREAD. NOSING
MINIMUM eW'
MAX. RISE
L = 6'-8" MAIN STAIR
L = 6'-A" BASEMENT STAIR cH— B
RISER
Fig. 4. Stairway dimensions. A, minimum headroom.

B, closed stair dimensions.
height of about 105". Therefore, 14 divided into 105 is exactly

71/2 ", the height of each riser. Fifteen risers used for this height
would result in a 7" riser height.
STAIR WIDTHS AND HANDRAILS
The width of main stairs should not be less than 2' 8" clear
of the handrail. However, many main stairs are designed with a
distance of 3' 6" between the centerline of the enclosing side-
walls. This will result in a stairway with a width of about 3'.
Split-level entrance stairs are even wider; for basement stairs,
the minimum clear width is 2' 6".
A continuous handrail should be used on at least one side of

the stairway when there are more than three risers. When stairs
are open on two sides, there should be protective railings on each

side.
FRAMING FOR STAIRS 575
FRAMING FOR STAIRS
Openings in the floor for stairways, fireplaces, and
chimneys
are framed out during construction of
the floor. {See Chap. 21,
Figs. 9 and 11.) The long dimension
of stairway openings may
be either parallel or at right angles to the
However, it is
joists.
much easier frame a stairway opening when its length is
to
parallel to the joists. For basement stairways,
the rough open-
ings may be about 9' 6" long by 32"
wide (two joist spaces).
Openings in the second floor for the main stair
are usually a
minimum of 10' long. Widths may be 3'
or more. Depending on
the short header required for one or both
ends, the opening is
usually framed as shown in A, Fig. 5 when
joists parallel the
length of the opening. Nailing should conform
to that shown in
Chap. 21, Figs. 9 and 11.
Fig. 5. Framing for stairs. A, length of opening parallel to joists

B, length of opening perpendicular to joists.
576 CONSTlWCriON OF STAIRS
When the length of the stair opening is perpendicular to the
length of the joists, a long doubled header is required {B, Fig.
5). Aheader under these conditions without a supporting wall
beneath is usually limited to a 10' length. A load-bearing wall
under all or part of this opening simplifies the framing im-
mensely, as the joists will then bear on the top plate of the wall
rather than be supported at the header by joist hangers or other
means. Nailing should conform to that shown in Chap. 21, Figs.
9 and 11.
The framing for an L-shaped stairway is usually supported in
the basement by a post at the corner of the opening or by a
load-bearing wall beneath. When a similar stair leads from the
first to the second floor, the landing can be framed out (Fig. 6).
The platform frame is nailed into the enclosing stud walls and
provides a nailing area for the subfloor as well as a support for
the stair carriages.
Fig. 6. Framing for stair landing.

STAIRWAY DETAILS 577
STAIRWAY DETAILS
BASEMENT STAIRS
Stair carriages which carry the treads
and support the loads
on the stair are made in two ways. Rough stair
carriages com-
monly used for basement stairs are made from 2" by 12"
planks.
The effective depth below the tread and riser notches
must be
at least 31/2 " {A, Fig. 7). Such carriages
are usually placed only
at each side of the stairs. However,
an intermediate carriage is
required at the center of the stairs when
the treads are H/ie''
thick and the stairs wider than 2' 6".
Three carriages are also
required when treads are 1%" thick and
stairs are wider than
3'. The carriages are fastened to the joist header at the
top of
the stairway or rest on a supporting ledger
nailed to the header
{B, Fig. 7).
Firestops should be used at the top and
bottom of all stairs as
shown at A, Fig. 7.
Perhaps the simplest system is one in which
carriages are not
cut out for the treads and risers. Rather,
cleats are nailed to
the side of the unnotched carriage and
the treads nailed to them.
This design may not be as desirable as the
notched carriage
system when walls are present. Carriages may
also be supported
by walls located below them.
The bottom of the stair carriages may restand be anchored
to thebasement floor. A better method is to use an anchored 2"
by 4" or 2" by 6" treated kicker plate {C, Fig. 7).
Basement stair treads can consist of simple l^/^" thick plank
treads without risers. From the standpoint of appearance and
maintenance, the use of 1%" finished tread material and nominal
1" boards for risers is usually justified. Use finishing nails to
fasten them to the plank carriages.
A fully enclosed stairway might be used from the main floor to
the attic. It combines the rough notched carriage with a finish
stringer along each side {A, Fig. 8). The finish stringer is fas-
tened to the wall, before carriages are fastened. Treads and
risers are cut to fit snugly between the stringers and are fastened
to the rough carriage with finishing nails {A, Fig. 8). This may
be varied by nailing the rough carriage directly to the wall and
by notching the finished stringer to fit [B, Fig. 8). The treads
and risers are installed as previously described.
MAIN STAIRWAY
An open main stairway with and balusters ending
its railing
in a newel post can be very decorative and pleasing in the tra-
ditional house interior. It can also be translated to a contempo-
rary stairway design and again result in a pleasing feature.
The main stairway differs from the other types previously
described because of (a) the housed stringers which replace the
Fig. 8. Enclosed stairway details. A, with full stringer.
B, with notched stringer.

STAIRWAY DETAILS 579
rough plank carriage; the routed and grooved treads and
(b)
risers, (c) the decorative railing
and balusters in open stairways;
and (d) the wood species, most of which can
be given a natural
finish.
The suppoiting member of the finished

main stairway is the
housed stringer Fig. 9). One is used on each side of
the
stairway and fastened to the plastered
or finished walls. They
are routed to fit both the tread and
the riser. The stair is as-
sembled by means of hardwood wedges which
are spread with
glue and driven under the ends of the
treads and in back of the
risers. Assembly usually done from under and the rear side
is
of the stairway. In addition, nails

are used to fasten the riser to
the tread between the ends of the step
{B, Fig. 9). When treads
and risers are wedged and glued into housed stringers, the maxi-
Main stair detail. A, with hoirsed stringer. I?, with combination of

treads and risers.
mum allowable width is usually 3' 6". For wider stairs, a notched
carriage is used between the housed stringers.
When stairs are open on one side, a railing and balusters should
be used. The balusters may be fastened to the end of the treads
which have a finished return (Fig. 10). The balusters are also
fastened to a railing which is terminated at a ne’wel post. Balus-
ters may be turned to form doweled ends, which fit into drilled
holes in the treads and the railing. A stringer and appropriate
moldings are used to complete the stairway trim.
Fig. 10. Details of open main stairway.

ATTIC FOLDING STAIRS 581
ATTIC FOLDING STAIRS
Where attics areused primarily for storage and where space

for a fixed stairway is not available, hinged or
folding stairs are
often used and may be purchased ready to install. They
operate
through an opening in the ceiling of a hall and swing up into the
attic space, out of the way when not in use. Where such stairs
are to be installed, the attic floor joists should be
designed for
limited floor loading. One common size of folding stairs
requires
only a 26" by 54" rough opening. These openings
should be
framed out as described for normal stair openings.
EXTERIOR STAIRS
Proportioning of risers and treads in laying out porch steps or
approaches to terraces should be as carefully considered as the
design of interior stairways. Similar riser-to-tread ratios
can be
used. The riser used in principal exterior steps should
be be-
tween 6 and 7 in height. The need for a good support or
foundation for outside steps is often overlooked. AVhere wood
steps are used, the bottom step should be concrete or
supported
by treated wood members. Where the steps are located over
backfill or disturbed ground, the foundation should
be carried
down to undisturbed ground.
CHAPTER 21
Floor Framing
The framing in a wood frame house consists specifically

floor
of the posts, beams, sill plates, joists, and
subfloor. {See Chap. 1,
sections on Framing.) When these are assembled

on a founda-
tion, they form a level, anchored platform
for the rest of the
which sup-
house. The posts and center beams of wood or steel,
with a
port the inside ends of the joists, are sometimes replaced
masonry wall when the basement area is divided
wood frame or
into rooms. Wood frame houses may also be constructed upon a
framing
concrete floor slab or over a crawl-space area with floor
similar to that used for a full basement.
DESIGN
of the important factors in the design of wood

floor sys-
One
tems is to equalize shrinkage and expansion
of the wood framing
and at the center beam. This is usually ac-

at the outside walls
complished by using approximately the same total depth of
wood
at the center beam as the outside framing. Therefore, as beams
and joists approach moisture equilibrium or the moisture con-
in the
tent they reach in service, there are only small differences
amount of shrinkage. This will minimize plaster cracks and pre-
vent sticking doors and other inconveniences caused by
uneven
shrinkage. If there is a total of 12'' of wood at the
foundation
wall (including joists and sill plate), this should be balanced
with about 12" of wood at the center beam.

Moisture content of beams and joists used in floor framing
should not exceed 19 per cent. However, a moisture content
of
DESIGN 583
about 15 per cent is much more desirable. Dimension
material
can be obtained at these moisture contents when
so specified.
\\ hen moisture contents are in the higher
ranges, it is good prac-
tice to allow joists and beams to approach their moisture
equi-
librium before applying inside finish and trim, such
as baseboard,
base shoe, door jambs, and casings.
Grades of dimension lumber vary considerably by species. For
specific uses in this book, a sequence of first-,
second-, third-,
fourth-, and sometimes fifth-grade material is
used. In general,
the first grade is for a high or special use, the
second for better
than average, the third for average, and the fourth and
fifth for
more economical construction. and girders are usually
Joists
second-grade material of a species, while sills and posts are
usu-
ally of third or fourth grade. (See Chap.
3, section on Lumber
Grades.)
NAILING PRACTICES
Of primary consideration in the construction of a house
is the
method used to fasten the various wood members together.
These
connections are most commonly made with nails, but on occa-
sion metal straps, lag screws, bolts, and adhesives
may be used.
(See Chap. 3, section on Nail Holding.)
Proper fastening of frame members and covering
materials
pro\ides the rigidity and strength to resist severe
windstorms and
other hazards. Good nailing also important
is from the stand-
point of normal performance of wood parts. For
example, proper
fastening of intersection walls usually reduces
plaster cracking
at the inside corners. [See Chap. Fig. 5 for sizes
3, of common
and finishing nails.)
Nailing practices for the framing and sheathing of
a well-con-
structed wood frame house is shown in Table 10.
POSTS AND GIRDERS

Wood or steel posts are generally used in
the basement to sup-
port wood girders or steel beams.
Masonry piers may also be
used for this purpose and are commonly
employed in crawl-
space houses.
The round steel post can be used to support
both wood girders
and steel beams and is normally supplied
with a steel bearing
»
584 FLOOR FRAMING
a
V
S
V
u
kl
k k k k
40 40 40
V 44 44
40
44 44
00
a oO
44
cn ^00
44 44
40
d d
44
40
d9 d
40
d
40
d
40
d
40
C8 O 0 40 40 4- 40 40 40 40
;zi
•1^ •!— 40 U 00
d d d d
c ja -d o 0 0 0
o ja d d ja
u o « 0 0 u • • •
c CO CO
40
CO
40
«
cO
40
_d d _d d
4^
_d 2
j
sheathing 0 0 44 'O VO VO
HH 'O CO < f-H r-H
kl
and 4)
o
house
(/) O 00 O CO VO
-r)
CO CO 00 CO vOvO'OCOÔO'Ov©
^.-41—1 rHi—tr—(f—
framing
s CO <N CO (M (N <N (N
CO (M fO c^
wood-frame
the
10
bC o
C bC
O fi
00 bC
nailing
ja 4^
cO CO
Table
4) -C « 00
o
6 CO o
for <Si • pX '3 '3 '3 '3
bC J5
'4-1
::3 cO
well-constructed
a cO
A CQ
"2 d d d d d
CO cO cO d d • 1 1 1 •
ti la d
dd dd
• 1
CO
c c c fi
d 40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
O
40
40
4P 4 cO
4;>
o o o
;>
o C4 cS 04 CQ CQ
schedule
W H H H « H W H a a a a
a d
of OO
k
4>
na CO
kl
Recommended
bC k OO
kl o fi
O
o 3 k
4;>
«
£ «
£ X
’o
4;>
00 40 SOh ^
OO
CO
^
00
b£ ^
o d
.d
b£) O d
C
•M
k
a
OO
4->
o d 12
CO
dd
a OO
00 o S3
<M CO 'o s •bD
I
CO
'o
s H k
o
d
^ cc
k k S OO 40
k Oh
40 40
bC
cO
40
cO •
d -d o
CO
o ^
k
^ d -d • • d
Ô d Ma â =5
44
CO
u 40 40
44
00 1.
•2 o
"
.
40
4- 00 Ôh •'
6 d CO
• pm
O
55
o 00
« .2 .3 ^ JH o
O
O O B ^ Oh dn
Ô'"'""
40 40
Oh 44
na o VO CO <N 3 ^ ® /O
o
4-» 00
d
cO
^® d
•- 40
40
^ 00 4)
d
CU
O
du
O
kT
k k fl k 5 5 k k
40 40 8 ^ <5 V
'd d d d « d 9 d pH a
-d CO 40
CO
40
00 3 d ^=
CO
40
-d
9 9
Oh
2 3 & d.
a a £ C/3 CD CD CD H CD CD Q U a a
«
RECOMMENDED SCHEDULE FOR NAILING 585
43
HN
ea
43
43 .3
E
u
72 43
w
J3
O
ea
V 43 ,3
4N
ea <N
V
In rH
<ti
+->
43 ^3
c 3 3 ns ns 3
4) 43 43 3 3 s
O 43 43 ->
93
43
-M
X X 43
« ea
c ^2 3 3 43
be
0 00
0 0 -3 -3 -0 .S TO
43 43
ea ea
tl . 3 3 43
-3
•
3
M _s 43 43
• 3
43
ea 4N
3
(M CM CM +->
CM
W 90 MO -H MO
^0 -3
(NCOVOCOOOOCOO
^"O
(M 00
'-o "O
00
ns TO
O MO
'o
o
CM)
TO ni
00 CO :2 CO
no
00
TO TO
MO CO
cC'^C^LneofOT#'^ <M fO CSJ (N (M 90 CM
« cQ
(Q fi
I
93
?
« cd
c 93
93
c c
93
•
93
c c
•
ea
•
ea
c
93
3 3
ea
I
ea
3 3I
ea
I
ea
3 3
I
ea
I
93
3
ea
3 3
ea
c V c 4; C I
Cn 4; V V 4; V 43 43 43 43 43 43
I
43 o o
o V O V TO 4J b£ o « o « o O O 43 O O 43 43 43 43
93 O 93 O c no «a ea ea ca 93 ea 93 93 ea ea ea ea ea 93
Hti-iHtj-itHWfHW flH [jiH bn
43
HN
s
43
'Oh E TO ea
4?
0 -3
bc 3
43
In
O
o N
T3 ea o -0 no
In
v £ 43
no >-S
nC TO 3 AH
u
no u 43
ea
In
ea
3 0 -N ^3
V o
+->
00
* TO n3 •
-3 "3 3 43 43 CO
OD tc
X> «
ea
L
0^
u 2 o Ôh "Oh
4) V _ L.
<u
43 C c 1
MO
be 0 .2 Oi Oh
^ % o 4;>
TO M
t_.
r>
N rg ea ea
O oo 1
’Sn 'H- !2 43
ea
43 E 1—
nC 43
-3 43
O
"3 be 93 §
§ rt Oh 43
V 0
•M
^ a 4->
00 JO
kj
4)
3
O
In
u
n3
•j: be—H .•A 00
cC 4-» • ^ TO
In
43 *->
u
43 no .3 3 TO 00
u Ui u ka
ca
Ih
v Oh ea 4)
H-i
In
JS «iH 3 _i<! 3 fcJD (ft 0
o o ea
00
> (ft
> > "Oh
TO 90
-2 bC In 43 43 ^ CL be
ea Ui i-i
0 2 O
ea
V
a,
ea
"Sh c In
43
* -Q
S 6
h£)
^ O
-fJ 43 72 3
„
CD
In be . TO be
3-3-3
u •£
^ ^no TO
JO •M 43
3 a 3 3
2 - - 0
• mm
43 ca no CQ
s
43 43
G
,
2 2|^ no
ki
.E
-3
10
ea ea 3-3“ .S
jO
.S
J 93 93
o
©00
3
g
00
*2
00
•« hN
o
HN
43
0
HN
>
o
4N
u
ea
o O
ea
43 Sd^
“
« '3
CO
©
NS
00 00
In
43
'Sd
Oh
Mn 00 MO
*33
43 .3 -3 i o.s 43 43 .3 -3
43 43 3 3 ti JO 40 nQ jO JO Krc
C tUD M) 3 -m "S
H
i3
£3
Ih
43
In
43
In
43 43
be
Ud
V
w
In
ea <M ^ 3 cn i-H
\MJ
U (— 1 r-H eo\ i-h\ r~i\ C4 co\ *-h\
53
o « 'S
J03
«NH
ea
»*H
4-)
ea ea
w
T3
^
Vm
CO 'o
dS ‘3 43
43
5a 8 8
U CJ CJ Vi
•
Q:; Oh u m
3
« cd Vi
586 FLOOR FRAMING
plate at each end. Be sure to secure anchoring to the girder or
beam (Fig. 1).
Wood posts should be solid and not less than by 6" in size
6"
for freestanding use in a basement. When combined with a

framed wall, they may be A" by 6^^ to conform to the depth of
the studs. Wood posts should be squared at both
ends and se-
the post
curely fastened to the girder (Fig. 2). The bottom of
2" to 3"
should rest on and be pinned to a masonry pedestal
prac-
above the finish floor. In moist or wet conditions it is good
tice to treat the bottom end of the post or use
a moisture-proof
covering over the pedestal. {See Chap. 3, section on Posts.)
Both wood girders and steel beams are used in present-day
house construction. The standard 1-beo.M and wide ficinge

beam
are the most commonly used steel beam shapes. Wood
girders
are of two types — solid and built up. The built-up beam is pre-
ferred because it can be made up from drier dimension material
and is more stable. Commercially available glue-laminated

beams may be desirable where exposed in finished basement
rooms.
GIRDER ] GIST II\STALLATIOI\ 587
Fig. 2. Wood post for wood girder. A, connection to girder. B, base.
The
built-up girder (Fig. 3) is usually made up of two or more
pieces of 2" dimension lumber spiked together, the ends of the
]heces joining over a supporting post. A two-piece girder may
be nailed from one side with tenpenny nails, two at the end of
each piece and others driven stagger-fashion 16" apart. A three-
piece girder is nailed from each side with twentypenny nails,
two near each end of each piece and others driven stagger-fash-
ion 32" apart.
Ends of wood girders should bear at least 4" on the masonry
walls or pilasters. When wood is untreated, a %" air space
should be provided at each end and at each side of wood girders
framing into masonry (Fig. 3). In termite-infested areas, these
pockets should be lined with metal. The top of the girder should
be level with the top of the sill plates on the foundation walls,
unless ledger strips are used. If steel plates are used under ends
of girders, they should be of full bearing size.
GIRDER.JOIST INSTALLATION
The simplest method of floor joist framing is one where the

joists bear directly on the wood girder or which steel beam, in
case the top of the beam coincides with the top of the anchored
sill (Fig. 3). This method is used when basement heights pro-
vide adequate headroom below the girder. When wood girders
are used in this manner, the main disadvantage is that shrinkage
is usually greater at the girder than at the foundation.
P'or more uniform shrinkage at the inner beam and the outer
588 FLOOR FRAMING
wall and to provide greater headroom, joist hangers or a sup-

porting ledger strip are commonly used. Depending on sizes of
joists and wood girders, joists may be supported on the ledger

strip in several ways (Fig. 4). Each provides about the same
depth of wood subject to shrinkage at the outer wall and at the
center wood girder. A continuous horizontal tie between exterior
walls obtained by nailing notched joists together (A, Fig. 4).
is
Joists must always bear on the ledgers. In B, Fig. 4, the con-

necting scab at each pair of joists provides this tie and also a
nailing area for the subfloor. A steel strap is used to tie the
joists together when the tops of the beam and the joists are level
(C, Fig. 4). It is important that a small space be allowed above
the beam to provide for shrinkage of the joists.
When a space is required for heat ducts in a partition sup-
ported on the girder, a spaced wood
sometimes neces-
girder is
sary (Fig. 5). Solid blocking is used at intervals between the

two members. A single post support for a spaced girder usually
requires a bolster, preferably metal, with sufficient span to sup-
port the two members.
WÔOD GIRDERS 589
NOTCH
WOOD GIRDER
ALLOW SPACE
UNDER
JOIST
Fig. 4. Ledger on center wood girder. A, notched joist. B, scab tie

between joist. C, flush joist.
Fig. 5. Spaced wood girder.

590 FLOOR FRAMING
Joists may be arranged with a steel beam generally the same
way as illustrated for a wood beam. Perhaps the most common
methods used, depending on joist sizes, are as follows:
1. The joists rest directly on the top of the beam.

2. Joists rest on a wood ledger or steel angle iron, which is
bolted to the web (A, Fig. 6).

3. on the flange of the beam {B, Fig. 6).
Joists bear directly
In the third method, wood blocking is required between the
joists near the beam flange to prevent overturning.
WOOD SILL CONSTRUCTION
The two general types of wood sill construction used over the
foundation wall conform either to platform or balloon framing.
The box sill is commonly used in platform construction. It con-
sists of a 2" or thicker plate anchored to the foundation wall
over a sill sealer which provides support and fastening for the
joistsand header at the ends of the joists (Fig. 7). Some houses
are constructed without benefit of an anchored sill plate although
Fig. 6. Steel beam and joists. A, bearing on ledger. B, bearing on flange.

W OOD SILL CONSTRUCTION 591
STUD
SUBFLOOR
WOOD OR
PLYWOOD ^
SHEATHING
Fig. 7. Platform construction.
HEADER
JOIST SILL
NAIL TO JOIST BOLT {
8' O.C. )
TOENAIL TO SILL
SILL sealer
SHEATHING
2 X A FIRESTOP
STUD ADD NAILER FOR
DIAGONAL SUBFLOOR
ANCHOR BOLT
(
8' O.C. )
JOIST
Fig. 8. Sill for balloon framing.
this is not entirely desirable. (See Chap. 1, section on Woods

and Wood-Based Products for Various House Uses, Foundations
— Sills and Beams.) The floor framing should then be anchored
with metal strapping installed during pouring operations.
Balloon frame construction uses a nominal 2" or thicker wood
sill upon which the joists rest. The studs also bear on this mem-
ber and are nailed both to the floor joists and the sill. The sub-
floor is laid
diagonally or at right angles to the joists and a fire-
stop added between the studs at the floorline (Fig. 8). When
diagonal subfloor is used, a nailing member is normally required
between joists and studs at the wall lines.
Because there is less potential shrinkage in exterior walls with
balloon framing than in the platform type, balloon framing is
usually preferred over the platform type in full two-story brick
or stone-veneer houses.
592 FLOOR FRAMING
FLOOR JOISTS
Floor joists are selected primarily to meet strength and

stiff-
ness requirements. Strength requirements depend upon

the loads
to be carried. Stiffness requirements place an

arbitrary control
limiting
on deflection under load. Stiffness is also important in
vibrations from moving loads that are often a cause of
annoy-
are
ance to occupants. Other desirable qualities for floor joists
good nail-holding ability and freedom from warp. {See Chap. 1,
section on Framing —
Joists, Rafters, and Headers.)
Wood-floor joists are generally of 2" (nominal) thickness and

of 8", 10", or 12" (nominal) depth. The size depends
upon the
loading, length of span, spacing between joists, and the
species
and grade of lumber used. As previously mentioned, grades in

generally
species vary a great deal. For example, the grades
used for joists are Standard for Douglas fir. No. 2 or No.
2KD
for southern pine, and comparable grades for other
species.
Joist Installation
After the sill plates have been anchored to the foundation walls
or the joists are located according to the house design.

piers,
(Sixteen-inch center-to-center spacing is commonly used.)
Any having a slight bow edgewise should be so placed
joists
that the crown is on top. A crowned joist will tend to straighten

out when subfloor and normal floor loads are applied. Since
knots on the upper side of a joist are on the compression side of
the member and will have less effect on strength, the largest edge
knots should be placed on top.
The header joist is fastened by nailing into the end of each
joist with three sixteenpenny nails. In addition, the header
joist
and the stringer joists parallel to the exterior walls in platform

construction (Fig. 9) are toenailed to the sill with tenpenny nails
spaced 16" on center. Each joist should be toenailed to the sill
and center beam with two tenpenny or three eightpenny nails.
Then the joists should be nailed to each other with three or four
sixteenpenny nails when they laj) over the center beam. If a
nominal 2" scab used across the butt ended joists, it should
is
be nailed to each joist with at least three sixteenpenny nails at

each side of the joint. These and other nailing patterns and
FLOOR FRAMING 593
MAXIMUM
EDGE
sill.
board
S"
to
SQUARE
header
SUBFLOOR
Nailing
(2)
WIDTH
Toenailing
DIAGONAL
joists.
(4)
to
joists.
bridging
to
header
Nailing
(1)
Nailing
(3)
framing.
joists.
Floor
to
9.
subfloor
Fig.
0
1
u
z
<
594 FLOOR FRAMING
practices are shown in Table 10.
The in-line joist splice is sometimes used in framing the floor
and ceiling joists. This system normally allows the use of one
when center supports are present. It consists
smaller joist size
of uneven length overhanging joist is cantilevered
joists; the long
(Fig.
over the center support, then spliced to the supported joist
10). Overhang joists are alternated. Depending
on the span,
species, and the overhang varies between T 10" and
joist size,
2' 10". Plywood splice plates are used on each side of the end
joints.
It is good practice to double joists under all parallel-bearing
partition walls. If spacing is required for heat ducts, solid block-

ing is used between the joists (Fig. 9).
Framing for Floor Openings
Whenframing for large openings such as stairwells, fireplaces,

and chimneys, the opening should be doubled. A method of fram-
ing and nailing for floor openings is shown in Fig. 11.
Joist hangers and short sections of angle iron are often used
to
support headers and tail beams for large openings. {See Chap.
23, Construction of Stairs.)
Fig. 10. “In-line” joist system. Alternate extension of joists over the cen-
ter support with plywood gusset joint allows the use of a smaller joist size.
BRIDGING 595
Fig. 11. Framing for floor openings. Nailing trimmer to first header.
(1)
(2) Nailing header to tail beams. (3) Nailing header together. (4) Nailing
trimmer to second header. (5) Nailing trimmers together.
BRIDGING
Cross bridging between wood joists has often been used in
house construction, but research by several laboratories has
questioned the benefits of bridging in relation to its cost, es-
pecially in normal house construction. Even with tight-fitting,
well-installed bridging, there is no significant ability to transfer
loads after subfioor and finish floor are installed. Some building
codes require the use of cross bridging or solid bridging. {See
Table 10.)
Solid bridging often used between joists to provide a more
is
rigid base for partitions located above joist spaces. Well-fitted

solid bridging securely nailed to the joists will aid in supporting
partitions above them (Fig. 9). Load-bearing partitions should
be supported by doubled joists.
SUBFLOOR
Sub flooring is used over the floor joists to form a working plat-
form and base for finish flooring. It usually consists of (a)
square-edge or tongued-and-grooved boards no wider than 8"
and not less than •%" thick or (b) plywood to %" thick,
depending on species, type of finish floor, and spacing of joists
(Fig. 9). (See Chap. 1, section on Subfloors.)
596 FLOOR FRAMING
Boards
Subflooring be applied either diagonally (common) or at

may
right angles to the joists. When subflooring is placed at right
angles to the joists, the finish floor should be laid at right angles
to the subflooring. Diagonal subflooring permits finish flooring
to be laid either parallel or at right angles (common) to the

joists. End joints of the boards should always be made directly
over the Subfloor is
joists. nailed to each joist with two eight-
penny nails for 8" widths.
The joist spacing should not exceed 16" on center when finish
flooring is where parquet finish floor-

laid parallel to the joists or
ing is used. The spacing should not exceed 24" on center when
finish flooring at least thick is at right angles to the joists.
Where balloon framing is used, blocking should be installed
between ends of joists at the wall of nailing the ends of diagonal
subfloor boards (Fig. 8).
Plywood
Plywood can be obtained in a number of grades designed to

meet a broad range of end-use requirements. All interior-type
grades are also available with waterproof adhesive identical with
those used in exterior plywood. This type is useful where a
hazard of prolonged moisture exists, such as in underlayments or
subfloors adjacent to plumbing fixtures and for roof sheathing
which may be exposed for long periods during construction.
Under normal conditions and for sheathing used on walls, stan-
dard sheathing grades are satisfactory.
Plywood suitable for subfloor, such as standard sheathing.
Structural I and II, and C-C Exterior grades, has a panel iden-
tification index marking on each sheet. These markings indicate
the allowable spacing of rafters and floor joists for the various
thicknesses when the plywood is used as roof sheathing or sub-
floor. For example, an index mark of indicates that the
plywood panel is suitable for a maximum spacing of 32" for
rafters and 16" for floor joists. Therefore, no problem of strength
differences between species is involved since the correct identifi-
cation is shown for each panel.
Normally, when some type of underlayment is used over the
PLYWOOD 597
plywood subfloor, the minimum thickness of the subfloor for
species such as Douglas fir and southern pine is when joists
are spaced 16" on center and %" for such
plywood as western
lemlock western white pine, ponderosa
pine, and similar species,
hese thicknesses of plywood
might be used for 24" spacing of
joists when a
finish 25/32" strip flooring is
installed at right an-
g es to the joists. It is very important
to have a solid and safe
platform for the workmen during
construction of the remainder
of the house. For this reason,
it is necessary to have
a slightly
thicker plywood subfloor, especially
when joist spacing is greater
Plywood can also serve as combined plywood subfloor and

underlayment, eliminating separate
underlayment because the
p ywood functions as both a structural
subfloor and as a good
substrate. This is applied to
thin resilient floorings, carpeting
and other nonstructural finish flooring.
The plywood used in this
manner^ must be tongued-and-grooved
or blocked with 2" lumber
a ong tne unsupported
edges. Following are
recommendations
lor its use;
Grade: Underlayment, underlayment

with exterior glue '
C-C
plugged.
Spacing and thickness:
(a) For species such as Douglas (coast type)
fir and southern
pme: 1/2" minimum thickness for 16" joist spacing, %" for 20"
joist spacing, and for 24" joist spacing.
For species such as western hemlock,
(b)
western white pine,
and ponderosa pme: %" minimum
thickness for 16" joist spac-
ing, %" for 20" joist spacing, and for 24" joist spacing.
Plywood should be installed with the grain direction
of the
outer piles at right angles to the
joists and be staggered so that
end joints in adjacent panels break
over different joists. Ply-
wood should be nailed to the joist at each
bearing with eight-
penny common or sevenpenny threaded
nails for plywood to %"
% thick. Space nails 6" apart along
all edges and 10" along
intermediate members. When plywood serves as both subfloor
and underlayment, nails may be spaced 6" to 7"
apart at all
joists and blocking. Use eightpenny
or ninepenny common nails
or sevenpenny or eightpenny
threaded nails.
598 FLOOR FRAMING
Fig. 12. Floor framing at wall projections. A, projection of joists for bay
window extensions. B, projection at right angles to joists.
FLOOR FRAMING AT WALL PROJECTIONS 599
For the best performance, plywood should not be laid up with
tight joints, whether used on the interior or exterior.
The fol-
lowing spaces are recommendations by the American Plywood
Association:
Plywood Location and Use Spacing

Edges Ends
(Inches) (Inches)
Underlayment or interior wall lining
^'32 %2
Panel siding and combination subfloor
^16 yi6
underlayment
Roof sheathing, subflooring, and wall sheathing. i/j^
(Under wet or humid conditions, spacing
should be doubled.)
FLOOR FRAMING AT WALL PROJECTIONS

The framing for wall projections —such as a bay window or
first-or second-floor extensions beyond the lower wall should —
generally consist of projection of the floor joists (Fig. 12). This
extension normally should not exceed 24" unless designed specifi-
cally for great projections, which may require special anchorage
at the opposite ends of the joists. The joistsforming each side
of the bay should be doubled. Nailing, in general, should conform
to that for stair openings. The subflooring is carried to and
sawed flush with the outer framing member. Rafters are often
carried by a header constructed in the main wall over the bay
area, which supports the roofload. Therefore, the wall of the bay
has less load to support.
Projections at right angles to the length of the floor joists
should generally be limited to small areas and extensions of not
more than 24". In this construction, the stringer should be
carried by doubled joists {B, Fig. 12). Joist hangers or a ledger
will provide good connections for the ends of members.
CHAPTER 22
Basement Rooms
Many houses are designed so that one or more of the

now
rooms in lower floors are constructed on a concrete slab. In
multilevel houses, this area may include a family room, a spare
bedroom, or a study. Furthermore, it is sometimes necessary to
provide a room in the basement of an existing house. Therefore,
in a new house or in remodeling the basement of an existing
one,
several factors should be considered, including insulation, water-

proofing, and vapor resistance.
FLOORS
In the construction of a new building having basement rooms,

provision should be made for reduction of heat loss and for pre-
vention of ground moisture movement. Perimeter insulation re-
duces heat loss and a vapor barrier under a concrete slab will
prevent problems caused by a concrete floor damp from ground
moisture (Fig. 1).Providing these essential details is somewhat
more difficult in existing construction than in new construction.
The installation of a vapor barrier over an existing unpro-
tected concrete slab normally required when the floor is at or
is
below the outside ground level and some type of finish floor is
used. Flooring manufacturers recommend that preparation of the
slab for wood-strip flooring consist of the following steps:
1. Mop or spread a coating of tar or asphalt mastic followed

by an asphalt felt paper.
2. Lay short lengths of 2" by 4" screeds in a coating of tar or
600
BASEMENT FLOOR DETAILS 601
asphalt, spacing the rows about 12" apart, starting at one

wall
and ending at the opposite wall.
Place insulation around the perimeter^ between screeds, where
3.
the outside ground level is near the basement floor

elevation.
4. Install wood-strip flooring across the
wood screeds.
This procedure can be varied somewhat by placing a conven-
tional vapor barrier of good quality directly over the
slab. Two-
by four-inch furring spaced 12" to 16" apart are then
strips
anchored to the slab with concrete nails or with other types of
commercial anchors. Some leveling of the 2 by 4’s might be re-
quired. Strip flooring is then nailed to the furring strips after
perimeter insulation is placed (Fig. 2). If a wood-block flooring
is desired under these conditions, a plywood subfloor may be used
over the furring strips. Plywood', 1/2^^ or
Yh" thick, is normally
used if the edges are unblocked and furring strips are spaced 16"
or more apart.
\\ hen insulation
not required around the perimeter because
is
of the height of the outside grade above the

basement floor, a
602 BASEMENT ROOMS
Fig. 2. Basement floor details for existing construction.
other type
much simpler method can be used for wood-block or
of tile finish. An asphalt mastic coating,
followed by a good
recom-
vapor barrier, serves as a base for the tile. An adhesive
vapor
mended by the flooring manufacturer is then used over the
barrier, after which the wood tile is applied. It is important that
a smooth, vapor-tight base be provided for the
tile.
It is likely that such floor construction

should be used only
out-
under favorable conditions where drain tile is placed at the
side footings and soil conditions are favorable. When the slab
or walls of an existing house are inclined to be damp, it is often
difficult to insure a dry basement. Under such conditions, it is
finish over some

often advisable to use resilient tile or a similar
is to be
type of stable base such as plywood. This construction
coatings.
preceded by installation of vapor barriers and protective
WALLS
walls is
Theuse of an interior finish over masonry basement
if the out-
usually desirable for habitable rooms. Furthermore,
insulation
side wall is partially exposed, it is advisable to use
wall
between the wall and the inside finish. Waterproofing the
is important if there is any possibility
of moisture entry. It can
WALLS 603
be done by applying one of the many waterproof coatings
avail-
able to the inner surface of the masonry.
After the wall has been waterproofed, furring strips are
com-
monly used to prepare the wall for interior finish. A 2" by 2"
bottom plate is anchored to the floor at the junction of the wall
and the floor. A 2" by 2" or larger top plate is fastened to
the
bottom of the joists, to the joist blocks, or anchored to the wall
(Fig. 3). Studs or furring strips, 2" by 2" or
larger in size, are
then placed between the top and the bottom plates,
anchoring
them at the center when necessary with concrete nails or similar
fasteners (Fig. 3). Electrical outlets
and conduit should be in-
stalled and insulation with vapor barrier placed between the
furring strips. The interior finish of gypsum board, fiberboard,
plywood, or other material is then installed. Furring strips
are
commonly spaced 16" on center, but this depends on the type
and thickness of the interior finish.
F oamed plastic insulation sometimes used on masonry walls
is
without furring. It is important that the inner face of
the wall be
smooth and level without protrusions when this method
is used.
After the wall has been waterproofed, ribbons of
adhesive are
applied to the wall and sheets of foam insulation
installed (Fig.
Fi§r* 3. BasGm6nt wall finish with furring strips.

604 BASEMENT ROOMS
Fig. 4. Basement wall finish without furring strips.
4). Dry wall adhesive is then applied and the gypsum board,
plywood, or other finish pressed into place. Manufacturers
rec-
ommendations on adhesives and methods of installation should

be followed. Most foam plastic insulations have
some vapor re
sistance in themselves, so the need for a separate
vapor barrier
not as great as when blanket-type insulation is used.
is
CEILINGS
Some type of finish usually desirable for the ceiling of the

is
basement room. Gypsum board, plywood, or fiberboard sheets

may be used and nailed directly to the joists. Acoustic ceiling
tile and similar materials normally
require additional nailing
1" by 2" or 1" by 3" strips
areas. This may be supplied by
size of the
nailed across the joists and spaced to conform to the
ceiling tile (Fig. 5).
A suspended metal angles hung from
ceiling, consisting of light
the ceiling joists, may also be desirable. Tiles are then

dropped
into place. This will decrease sound transfer from
the rooms
above. Be sure to install ceiling lights, heat supply and

return
ducts, or other utilities before the finish is applied.

INSTALLATION OF CFALING TILE 605
JOIST
tile.
ceiling
of
Installation
CHAPTER 23
Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish
Interior finish the material used to cover the interior framed

is
areas or structures of walls and ceilings. It should be prefinished

or serve as a base for paint or other finishes including wallpaper.
Because of moisture conditions, finishes in the bath and the
kitchen areas should have more rigid requirements. Several types
of interior finishes are used in the modern home: (a) lath and
plaster, (b) wood paneling, fiberboard, or plywood, and (c)
gypsum wallboard.
TYPES OF FINISHES
Though lath and plaster finish is widely used in home con-

struction, use of dry wall materials has been increasing. Dry
wall is often selected because there is usually a time saving in
the work. A plaster finish, being a wet material, requires drying
time before other interior work can be started; dry wall finish
does not. A gypsum dry wall demands a moderately low moisture
content of the framing members in order to prevent nail pops.
This happens when frame members dry out to moisture equi-
librium, causing the nailhead to form small humps on the surface
of the board. Furthermore, stud alignment is more important for
single-layer gypsum finish in order to prevent a wavy, uneven
appearance. Therefore, there are advantages to both plaster and
gypsum dry wall finishes, and each should be considered along
with the and future maintenance involved.
initial cost
A plaster finish requires some type of base upon which to be

applied. Rock lath is the most common such base. Fiberboard
lath is also used; and wood lath, common many years ago, is
606
LATH AND PLASTER 607
permitted in some areas. Metal lath or similar mesh forms are
normally used only in bathrooms and as reinforcement. They
provide a rigid base for plaster finish but usually cost more than
other materials. Some of the rigid foam insulations cemented
to
masonry walls also serve as plaster bases.
There are many types of dry wall finishes. One of the most
widely used is gypsum board in 4' by 8' sheets and in lengths
up to 16', used for horizontal application. Plywood, hardboard,
fiberboard, particle board, wood paneling, and similar types,
many in prefinished form, are also used.
LATH AND PLASTER

Plaster Base
A plaster finish requires

some type of base upon which to be
applied. The base must have bonding qualities so that plaster
adheres to, or is keyed to, the base which has been fastened to
the framing members.
One of the most common types of plaster base that may be
used on sidewalls or ceilings is gypsum lath which is 16" by 48"
and is applied horizontally across the framing members. It has
paper faces with a gypsum filler. For stud or joist spacing of
16 on center,
1 "
%
thickness is used. For 24" on-center spacing,
'
/2 thickness is required. This material can be obtained with a

foil back that serves as a vapor barrier. If the foil faces an air
space, it also has reflective insulating value. Gypsum lath may
be obtained with perforations, which, by improving the
bond,
would lengthen the time the plaster would remain intact when
exposed to fire. Some city building codes require such perforation.
Insulating fiberboard lath, 1
/2 " in thickness and 16" by 48" in
size, is also used as a plaster base. It has greater insulating
value than the gypsum lath, but horizontal joints must usually
be reinforced with metal clips.
Metal lath in various forms such as diamond mesh, flat rib,
and wire lath is another type of plaster base. It is 27" by 96"
in size and is galvanized or painted to resist
rusting.
Installation of Plaster Base
(rypsu)n lath should be applied horizontally with joints broken

608 INTERIOR WALL AND CEILING FINISH
Fig. 1. Application of gypsum lath.
(Fig. 1). Vertical joints should be made over the center of studs
or joists and nailed with 12-gage or 13-gage gypsum lathing

long and with a %" flat head. Nails should be spaced
"
nails IY2
5" on center, or four nails for the 16" height, and used at each
stud or joist crossing. Some manufacturers specify the ring-shank
nails with a slightly greater spacing. Lath joints over heads of
openings should not occur at the jamb lines (Fig. 1).

Insulating lath should be installed in much the same mannei
as gypsum lath, except that slightly longer blued nails
should be
used. A special waterproof facing is provided on one

type of
gypsum board for use as a ceramic tile base when the tile is
applied with an adhesive.

Metal lath is often used as a plaster base around tub recesses
and other bath and kitchen areas (Fig. 2). It is also used when
a ceramic tile is applied over a plastic base. It must be
backed
with water-resistantsheathing paper over the framing. The
backing
metal lath is applied horizontally over the waterproof
with side and end joints lapped. It is nailed with No. 11
and No.
"
12 roofing nails. These are long enough to provide
about 11/2
penetration into the framing member or blocking.
PLASTER REINFORCING 609
Fig. 2. Application of metal lath.
Plaster Reinforcing
Because some drying usually takes place in wood framing mem-

bers after a house is completed, some shrinkage
can be expected.
This may cause plaster cracks to develop around
openings and
in corners. To minimize, not eliminate, this cracking, use ex-
if
panded metal lath in key positions over the plaster-base material

as reinforcement. Strips of expanded metal
lath may be used
over window and door openings (A, Fig. 3). A strip
about 10"
by 20" is placed diagonally across each upper corner of
the open-
ing and tacked into place.
Metal lath should also be used under flush beams to
ceiling
prevent plaster cracks {B, Fig. 3). On wood drop beams extend-
ing below the ceiling line, the metal lath is
applied with self-
furring nails to provide space for* keying of the
plaster.
Corner beads of expanded metal lath or of perforated
metal
should be installed on all exterior corners (Fig.
4). They should
be applied plumb and level. The bead acts as
a leveling edge
when walls are plastered and reinforces the corner
against me-
Fig. 3. Metal lath vised minimize cracking. A, at door and window

to
openings. B, under flush beams.
inside corners at
chanical damage. To minimize plaster cracks,
be reinforced.
the juncture of walls and of ceilings should also
into
Metal lath or wire fabric (cornerites) are tacked lightly
place in these areas. Cornerites provide a key
width of 2" to
21/2 " at each side for plaster.
Plaster Grounds
or strike-off
Plaster grounds are strips of wood used as guides
edges when plastering and are located around
window and door
openings and at the base of the walls. Grounds around interior
sides over
door openings are often full-width pieces nailed to the
{A, Fig. 5). They
the studs and to the underside of the header
are 5i/4" in width, which coincides with standard
jamb widths
for interior walls with a plaster finish, and they are removed
after plaster has dried. Narrow-strip grounds might also be used
around these interior openings {B, Fig. 5).
normally
In window and exterior door openings, the frames are
Therefore, the inside edges of
in place before plaster is applied.
the side and head jamb can serve as grounds. The
edge of the
window sill might also be used as a ground, or a narrow

%"
2" by 4
thick ground strip is nailed to the edge of the
sill.
Narrow %" by 1" grounds might also be used around window and
door openings (C, Fig. 5). These are normally left in place and
are covered by casing.
A similar narrow ground or screed is used at the bottom of
the wall in controlling thickness of the gypsum plaster
and pro-
viding an even surface for the baseboard and molding
{A, Fig.
PLASTER MATERIALS 611
Fig. 4. Reinforcing of plaster at corneis. A, outside. B, inside.
5). These strips are also left in place after plaster has been
applied.
Plaster Materials
Plaster for interior finishing is made from combinations of

sand, lime, or prepared plaster and water. Waterproof-finish wall
materials are available and should be used in bathrooms, espe-
cially in showers or tub recesses when tile is not used, and some-
times in the kitchen wainscot.
Method of Application
Plaster should be applied in three-coat or two-coat double-up
work. The minimum thickness over %" gypsum lath should be
about 1/2". The first plaster coat over metal lath is called the
scratch coat and is scratched, after a slight set has occurred, to

insure a good bond for the second coat. The second coat is called
the brown or leveling coat, and leveling is done during the appli-
cation of this coat.
The double-up work, combining the scratch and brown coat,
is used on gypsum or insulating lath, and leveling and plumbing
of walls and done during application.
ceilings are
The final or finish coat consists of two general types: the sand
float finish, lime is
fioat finish and the putty finish. In the sand
mixed with sand and results in a textured finish, the texture
depending on the coarseness of the sand used. Putty finish is
used without sand and has a smooth finish. This is common in
kitchens and bathrooms where a gloss paint or enamel finish
is used and in other rooms where a smooth
finish is desired.
“Keene’s” cement is often used as a finish plaster in bathrooms

because of its durability.
The plastering operation should not be done in freezing weather
without constant heat for protection from freezing. In normal
construction, the heating unit is in place before plastering is
started.
Insidating plaster, consisting of a vermiculite, perlite, or other
aggregate with the plaster mix, may also be used for wall and
ceiling finishes.
DRY WALL FINISH
Dry a material that requires little, if any, water

wall finish is
for application. Dry wall finish includes

gypsum board, ply-
as wood
wood, fiberboard, or similar sheet material, as well
paneling in various thicknesses and forms.
The use of thin sheet materials such as gypsum board or ply-
wood requires that studs and ceiling joists have good alignment
to provide a smooth, even surface. Wood sheathing will often
correct misaligned studs on exterior walls. A strong back
pio-
vides for aligning of ceiling joists of unfinished attics (A, Fig. 6 )

and can be used at the center of the span when ceiling joists are
uneven.
See Table II for thicknesses of wood materials commonly used
for interior covering.
PLASTER GROUNDS 613
Fig. 5. Plaster grounds. A, at doorway and floor. H, stiip ground at

doorway. C, ground at window.
Table 11
Maximum thicknesses for plywood, fiberboard, and wood paneling
Thickness
Framing spaced
(inches) Plywood Fiberboard Paneling
In. In. In.
16 Va y2 Vs
20 Vs V V2
24 Vs H Ve
Gypsum Board
a sheet material composed of a gypsum

filler
Gypsum board is
faced with paper. Sheets are 4' wide and 8' in length but can
The edges along the length are
be obtained in lengths up to 16'.
on all edges.
usually tapered, although some types are tapered
material may also
This allows for a filled and taped joint. This
vapor barrier on
be obtained with a foil back which serves as a
exterior wails. It also available with vinyl or other prefinished
is
In new construction, 1/2 " thickness is recommended

for
surfaces.
applications, two
single-layer application. In laminated two-ply
%" thick sheets are used. The %" thickness, while considered
stud spacing in single-layer applications,
is
minimum for 16"
specified for repair and remodeling work.
Table 12 lists maximum member spacing for the variou-s thick-
nesses of gypsum board.

Table 12
Gypsum board thickness (single layer)
Maximnm spacing of
Installed long Minimum supports (on center)
direction of thickness
sheet Walls Ceilings
In. In. In.
Parallel to Vs 16
framing members Vi 24 16
Vs 24 16
Vs 16 16
Right angles to Yi 24 24
framing members Vs 24 24
APPLICATION OF GYPSUM BOARD FINISH 615
When the single-layer procedure is used, the 4' wide gypsum
sheets are applied vertically or horizontally on the walls after
the ceiling has been covered. Vertical application covers three
stud spaces when studs are spaced 16" on center and two when
spacing is 24".
Edges should be centered on studs, and only
moderate contact should be made between edges of the sheet.
Fig. 6. Application of gypsum board finish. A, strong hack. B, vertical

application. C, horizontal application.
.
616 INTERIOR W ALL AND CEILING FINISH
Fivepenny cooler-type nails (!%" long) should be used with

1 " gypsum, and fourpenny (!%" long) with the %" thick
/2
shorter, can also be
material. Ring-shanked nails, about Vs"
used. Some manufacturers recommend the
use of special screws
to reduce bulging of the surface {nail pops

caused by drying out
of the frame members) If moisture content of the framing

.
mem-
is applied, nail
bers is less than 15 percent when gypsum board
pops will be greatly reduced. It is good practice,
when framing
approach
members have a high moisture content to allow them to
moisture equilibrium before application of the
gypsum board.
5" to 7" for
Nails should be spaced 6" to 8" for sidewalls and
ceiling application {B, Fig. 6). Minimum edge
distance is
The horizontal method best adapted to rooms

of application is
in which full-length sheets can be used

since it minimizes the
of vertical joints. Where joints are

necessary, they
number
made at windows or doors. Nail spacing is the same
should be
as that used in vertical application. When
studs are spaced 16
are normally
on center, horizontal nailing blocks between studs
center
notrequired when stud spacing is not greater than 16 on
and gypsum board is %" or thicker. When spacing is greater, or
an impact-resistant joint is required, nailing blocks may be used
(C, Fig. 6). .
two-
Another method of gypsum board application (laminated
ply) includes an undercourse of %" material
applied vertically
and nailed in place. The finish %" sheet is applied

horizontally,
adhesive is
usually in room-size lengths, with an adhesive. This
either applied in ribbons or spread with a notched trowel. Be
is
sure to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.

with
Nails in the finish gypsum wallboard should be driven
the heads slightly below the surface. The crowned
head of the
hammer will form a small dimple in the wallboard {A, Fig. 7)
A set should not be used, and care should be
nail
taken to avoid
breaking the paper face.
Taping
Joint cement spackle is used to apply the tape over the tapered
It comes in
edge joints and to smooth and level the surface.
consistency
powder form and is mixed with water to a soft putty
FINISHING GYPSUM—DRY WALL 617
so that can be easily spread with a trowel or putty knife. It
it
can also be obtained in premixed form.

The procedure for taping (B, Fig. 7) is as follows:
1. Use a wide spackling knife (5") and spread the cement in

the tapered edges, starting at the top of the wall.
2. Press the tape into the recess with the
putty knife until the
joint cement is forced through the perforations.
3. Cover the tape with additional cement, feathering the outer
edges.
4. Allow to dry, sand the joint light, and then apply the second
coat, feathering the edges. A steel trowel is sometimes used in
the second coat. For good results, a third coat may be
Fig. 7. Finishing gypsum dry A, nail set with crowned hammer.

wall. B,
cementing and taping joint. C, taping at inside corners.
applied, feathering beyond the second coat.

5. After the joint cement is
dry, sand smooth with an electric
Sanders.)
hand vibrating sander. {See Chap. 6, sections on
fill with joint cement and
6 For hiding hammer indentations,
second coat when
sand smooth when dry. Repeat with the
necessary.
Interior corners be treated with tape. Fold the tape down
may
apply cement at
the center to a right angle (C, Fig. 7) and (1)
finish the corner
the corner, (2) press the tape in place, and (3)
with joint cement. Sand smooth when dry
and apply a second
coat.
The between walls and ceilings
interior corners
may also be
concealed with some type of molding (D, Fig, 7).
When mold-
used, taping this joint is not necessary. Wallboard
ings are
corner beads at exterior corners prevent damage to the
will
gypsum board. They are fastened in place and covered with the
joint cement.
Plywood
available in a number of species, and
Prefinished plywood is
walls or to cover
its use should not be overlooked for accent
room wall areas. Plywood for interior covering may
be
entire
used in 4' by 8' and longer sheets. They may be applied ver-
Fig. 7. D
(continued) D, alternate finish at ceiling.
HARDBOARD AND FIBERBOARD 619
tically or horizontally, but with solid
backing at all edges. For
16" frame member spacing, 14 " thickness is considered minimum.
For or 24" spacing,
20 " plywood is the minimum thickness.
Casing or finishing nails 1 ^" to II/ "
long are used. Space them
2
8 apart on the walls and 6 " apart on the ceilings. Edge nailing
distance should be not less than 3//'. Allow 1
/32 " end and edge
distance between sheets when installing.
Most wood or wood-
base panel materials should be exposed to
the conditions of the
room before installation. Place them around the
heated room for
at least 24 hours.
Adhesives may also be used to fasten prefinished plywood and
other sheet materials to wall studs. These
panel adhesives usu-
ally eliminate the need for more
than two guide nails for each
sheet. Application usually conforms
to the following procedure:
(a) position the sheet
and fasten it with two nails for guides at
the top or side, (b) remove plywood and
spread contact or sim-
ilar adhesive on the framing
members, (c) press the plywood in
place for contact using the nails for positioning, (d)
full
pull
the plywood away from the studs and
allow adhesive to set, and
(e) plywood against the framing members and tap lightly
press
with a rubber mallet for full contact.
Manufacturers of adhe-
sives supply full instructions for
application of sheet materials.
Hardboard and Fiberboard

Hardboard and fiberboard are applied the same way
as ply-
wood. Hardboard must be at least
4 " when used over open
i/
framing spaced 16" on center. Rigid backing

of some type is
required for %" hardboard.
Fiberboard in
tongued-and-grooved plank or sheet form must
be thick when frame members are spaced 16"
on center and
3/4" when 24" spacing is used as previously described. The casing
or finishing nails
must be slightly longer than those used for
plywood or hardboard, and spacing is about the same.
Fiber-
board also used in the ceiling as acoustic tile and
is
may be
nailed to strips fastened to ceiling joists.
It is also installed in
12 by 12 or larger tile forms on wood
or metal hangers which
are hung from the ceiling joists. This is called a suspended
ceiling.
620 INTERIOR W ALL AND CEILING FINISH
Wood Paneling
available for appli-
Various types and patterns of woods are
effects. For informal
cation on walls to obtain desired decorative
fir, sound wormy
treatment, knotty pine, white-pocket Douglas
or stained and var-
chestnut, and pecky cypress, finished natural
of a room. Wood
nished, may be used to cover one or more sides
moisture content
paneling should be thoroughly seasoned to a
areas it is about
near the average it reaches in service. In most
Allow the material to reach this condition by placing
8 percent.
it around the wall of the heated room. Boards may be applied
horizontally or vertically, but the same general methods of appli-
cation should pertain to each. The following may be used as a
guide in the application of matched wood paneling:
Apply over a vapor barrier and insulation when

application
1.
WOOD P AN FAJ NO 621
ISon the exterior wall framing or blocking (Fig.
8).
2. Boards should not be wider
than 8" except when a long
tongue or matched edges are used.
Thickness should be at least %" for 16" spacing of
3.
frame
members, 1/2 " for 20" spacing, and %" for 24" spacing.
4. Maximum
spacing of supports for nailing should be 24" on
center (blocking for vertical applications).
5. Nails should be fivepenny or sixpenny casing
or finishing
nails.
Use two nails for boards 6" or less wide and three nails for
8" and wider boards. One
nail can be blind-nailed in matched
paneling.
Wood
paneling in the form of S7nall plywood squares can
also
be used for an interior wall covering (Fig.
9). When these
squares are used over framing and a vapor barrier,
blocking
should be so located that each edge has full bearing.
Each edge
should be fastened with casing or finish nails.
When two sides
are tongued-and-grooved, one edge (tongued
side) may be blind-
nailed. When
paneling (16" by 48" or larger) crosses studs, it
should also be nailed at each intermediate bearing.
Matched
(tongued-and-grooved) sides should be used when no horizontal
blocking is provided or paneling is not used over
a solid backing.
Application of tongued-and-grooved paneling over studs.

CHAPTER 24
Exterior Wood Coverings

• —
for exterior
Because siding and other types of coverings used
appearance as well as
walls have an important influence on the
selection of the pat-
on the maintenance of the house, a careful
tern should be made. The homeowner now
has a choice of many
cover ex-
wood and wood-base materials which may be used to
plastic siding, and other
terior walls. Masonry, veneers, metal or
materials are additional choices. Wood siding
can be
nonwood
obtained in many different patternsand can be finished nat-
urally, stained, or painted. Wood shingles,
plywood, wood siding,
are some of the types
or paneling, fiberboard, and hardboard
used as exterior coverings. Many prefinished sidings are avail-
of base
able, and the coatings and films applied to several types
for many
materials presumably eliminate the need of refinishing
years.
WOOD SIDING
One of the materials most characteristic of the extermrs

of
re-
American houses is wood siding. The essential properties
quired for siding are good painting characteristics,
easy working
qualities, and freedom from warp. Such

properties are present
to a high degree in the cedars, eastern

white pine, sugar pine,
western white pine, cypress, and redwood; to a

good degree in
western hemlock, ponderosa pine, the spruces, and
yellow poplar;
southern
and to a fair degree in Douglas fir, western larch, and
pine.
should
Material used for exterior siding which is to be painted
pitch pockets.
preferably be of a high grade and free from knots,
622
HORIZONTAL SIDINGS 62:
and waney edges. Vertical grain and mixed grain
(both vertical
and flat) are available in some species such
as redwood and
western red cedar.
The moisture content at the time of application should be that
which it would attain in service. This would be approximately
10 to 12 percent except in the dry southwestern
states where the
moisture content should average about 8 to
9 per cent. To mini-
mize seasonal movement due to changes in
moisture content,
vertical-grain (edge-grain) siding is preferred.
While this is not
as important for a stained finish, the
use of edge-grain siding
for a paint finish will result in longer
paint life. A three-minute
dip in a water-repellent preservative
before siding is installed
will not only result in longer paint
life but also will resist mois-
ture entry and decay. Some manufacturers
supply siding with
this treatment. Freshly cut ends should be brush-treated
on
the job.
HORIZONTAL SIDINGS
Some wood-siding patterns are used only horizontally and
others only vertically. Some may be used in either manner if
adequate nailing areas are provided. Following
are descriptions
of each of the general types.
Bevel Siding
Plain bevel siding can be obtained in sizes
from I/
2
" by 4"
to 1/2 " by 8" and also in sizes of
by 8" and by 10"
(Fig. 1). “Anzac” siding (Fig. 1) is by 12" in size. Usually
the finished width of bevel siding 1
about /2 " less than the size
is
listed. One side of bevel siding has a smooth planed surface,
while the other has a rough resawn
surface. For a stained finish,
the rough or sawn side is exposed
because wood stain is most
successful and longer lasting on rough
wood surfaces.
Dolly Varden Siding
Dolly Varden siding similar to true bevel siding except that
is
shiplap edges are used, resulting in a
constant exposure distance
(Fig. 1). Because it lies flat against the studs, it is sometimes
used for garages and similar buildings without
sheathing. Diag-
onal bracing is then needed to provide
racking resistance to
the wall.
624 EXTERIOR W OOD COVERINGS
nominal
SIZES
1/2 X A TO
3/4 X lO
3/4 X 12
(BEVEL)
3^X 6 TO
3/4 X lO
DOLLY
VAR DEN
1x6 TO
1x8
DROP
(PATTERN 106)
1x6 TO
1x8
DROP
(PATTERN I2A)
HOR IZONTAL APPLICATION
lx A TO
I X 12
PANELING
{ WC 130 )
I X A TO
I X 12
PANELING
( WC lAO )
HO R I ZO N T AL OR VERTICAL APPLICATION
Fig. 1. Wood siding types.

OTHER HORIZONTAL SIDINGS 625
Other Horizontal Sidings
Regulai op sidings can be obtained in several patterns^ two
di
of which are shown in Fig. 1. This siding,
with matched or ship-
lap edges, can be obtained in 1" and 6" and 1"
by 8" sizes. This
type is commonly used for lower-cost dwellings and
for garages,
usually without benefit of sheathing. Tests conducted have
shown that the tongued-and-grooved (matched) patterns
have
greater lesistance to the penetration of wind-driven
rain than the
shiplap patterns when both are treated with
a water-repellent
preservative.
Fiberhoard and hardboard sidings are also available in
various
forms. Some have a backing to provide rigidity
and strength
while others are used directly over sheathing.
Plywood horizontal
lap siding, with medium density overlaid
surface, is also avail-
able as an exterior covering material. It
is usually 3/^" thick
and 12" and 16" wide. It is applied in much
the same manner
as wood siding, except that a shingle wedge
is used behind each
vertical joint.
SIDINGS FOR HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL

APPLICATIONS
A number of siding or paneling patterns can
be used hori-
zontally or vertically (Fig. 1). These are
manufactured in nom-
inal 1" thicknesses and in widths
from 4" to 12". Both dressed
and matched and shiplapped edges are
available. The narrow-
and medium-width patterns will likely be more
satisfactory when
there are moderate moisture-content
changes. Wide patterns are
more successful if they are vertical grain to keep
shrinkage to
a minimum. The correct moisture
content is also important to
prevent shrinkage to a point where the
tongue is exposed when
tongue-and-grooved siding is wide.
Treating the edges of both drop and the
matched and ship-
lapped sidings with water-repellent preservative
usually prevents
wmd-driven from penetrating the joints if exposed to
rain
weather. In areas under wide overhangs, or in
jiorches and other
protected sections, this treatment not as important.
is Some
manufacturers provide siding with this treatment ajiplied at
the factory.
Sidings for Vertical Application
of siding application, popular

for some architectural
A method
vertically.
rough sawn boards and battens applied
styles, utilizes
ways: (a) board an
These boards can be arranged in various
s
batten, (b) batten and board, (c)
board and board (Fig. 2).
siding materials, nominal
in the vertical application of most
sheathing boards or plywood sheathing
%" or %" thick shou
SINGLE
nailing
board and batten_
NAIL FOR FIRST BOARD - 8d OR 9d

NOTE ;
NAIL FOR SECOND BOARD " I2d
Fig. 2. Vertical board siding.

|
SIDING W ITH SHEET MATERIALS 627

be used for nailing surfaces. When other
types of sheathing
materials or thinner plywood are used, nailing
blocks between
studs commonly provide the nailing areas.
Nailers of 1" by 4",
laid horizontally and spaced from 16"
to 24" apart vertically
can be used over nonwood sheathing. Special
or thicker casing
IS sometimes required around
doors and window frames when
this procedure is used. It is good practice
to use a building paper
over the sheathing before applying the vertical
siding.
SIDING WITH SHEET MATERIALS

A number of sheet materials are nowavailable for use as
siding. These include plywood in a variety of face treatments
and species, paper-overlaidplywood, and hardboard. Plywood
or paper-overlaid plywood is sometimes
used without sheathing
and IS known as panel siding, with %" often
considered the
minimum thickness for such use for 16" stud spacing. However,
from the standpoint of stiffness and strength, better
performance
is usually obtained by using 1
/2 " or %" thickness.
These 4' by
and longer sheets must be applied vertically
8'
with intermediate and perimeter nailing to

provide the desired
rigidity. Most other methods of applying
sheet materials require
some type of sheathing beneath. When horizontal joints
are nec-
essary, they should be protected
by a simple flashing.
An exterior-grade plywood should always be used for siding
and can be obtained in such surfaces as grooved,
brushed, and
saw-textured. These surfaces are usually finished with
some type
of stain. If shiplap or matched edges are
not provided, some
method of providing a waterproof joint should be used. This
often consists of caulking and a batten at each
joint and a batten
at each stud if closer spacing is desired for
appearance. An edge
treatment of water-repellent preservative will also aid in
reduc-
ing moisture penetration. Allow
Vic'^ edge and end spacing when
installing plywood in sheet form.
Exterior grade particle hoard might also be considered
for
panel siding. Normally %" thickness is required for 16" stud
spacing and %" for 24" stud spacing.
Paper-overlaid plywood has many of the advantages of ply*
wood with the addition of providing a very satisfactory base for
628 EXTERIOR WOOD COVERINGS
paint. A medium-density, overlaid plywood is most commonly

used.
Hardboard sheets used for siding are applied the same way as
—
plywood by using battens at vertical points and at
intermediate
studs. Medium-density fiberboards might also

be used m some
sheathing.
areas as exterior coverings over certain types of
Many of these sheet materials resist the passage of water
a good vapor
vapor. When they are used, it is important that
barrier, well installed, beemployed on the warm side of the in-
sulated walls. {See Chap. 15, Thermal Insulation,
Vapor Bar-
riers, and Sound Insulation.)
WOOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES
Wood shingles and shakes are desirable for sidewalls m many

In Cape Cod or Colonial houses, shingles may
styles of houses.
designs, wide
be painted or stained. For ranch or contemporary
effect. They
exposures of shingles or shakes often add a desired
are easily stained and, therefore, provide a finish
which is long
lasting on those species commonly used for shingles.
Grades and Species

al-
Western red cedar is perhaps the most available species,
though northern white cedar, bald cypress, and redwood are
also
satisfactory. The heartwood of these species has a

natural decay
unpainted
resistance which is desirable if shingles are to remain
or unstained.
Western red cedar shingles can be obtained in three grades.
The grade (No. I) is all heartwood, edge grain, and knot

first
free. It is primarily intended for roofs but is

desirable in double-
exposed.
course sidewall application where much of the face is
Second-grade shingles (No. 2) are often used in single-course
shingle
application for sidewalls, since only three-fourths of the
length is blemish free. A I" width of sapwood and mixed vertical
and flat grain are permissible.

The third-grade shingle (No. 3) is clear for 6"
from the butt.
Flat grain is acceptable, as are greater widths of sapwood.
Third-grade shingles are likely to be somewhat thinner than the
first and second grades. They are used for secondary buildings
SHINGLE SIZES 629
and sometimes as the undercoiirse in double-course application.
A grade than the third grade, known as under-coursing
lo^\er
shingle, is used only as the under and completely
covered course
in double-course sidewall application.
Shingle Sizes
Wood shingles are available in three standard lengths — 16",
18 ,
and 24". The 16" length is perhaps the most popular, having
five butt thicknesses per 2" when green (designated
%). These as
shingles are packed in bundles with 20 courses on each
Four
side.
bundles will cover 100 square feet of wall or roof with
an ex-
posure of 5". The 18" and the 24" length shingles have
thicker
butts, five in 2^/4" for the 18" shingles and four in 2"
for the
24" lengths.
Shakes are usually available in several types, the most popular
being the split and resawn. The sawed face is used as
the back
face. The butt thickness of each shake ranges
between and
11/2 ". They are usually
packed in bundles (20 sq. ft.), five bun-
dles to the square.
OTHER EXTERIOR FINISH

Nonwood materials, such as asbestos cement siding and shin-
gles, metal sidings, and the like are available
and are used in
some types of architectural design. Stucco or a cement plaster
finish,preferably over a wire mesh base, is most often seen in
the southwest and the west coast areas. Masonry
veneers may
be used effectively with wood siding in various finishes
to en-
hance the beauty of both materials.
Some homeowners favor an exterior covering which requires a
minimum of maintenance. While some of the nonwood materials
are chosen for this reason, developments by the paint
industry
are providing comparable long-life coatings for wood-base
mate-
rials. Plastic films on wood siding or plywood
are also promising,
so that little or no refinishing is indicated for the life of the house.
INSTALLATION OF SIDING
One of the important factors in successful performance of
the type of fasteners used. Nails are
various siding materials is
the most common of these, and it is poor economy to use them

sparingly. Corrosion-resistant nails, galvanized or made of alu-
or similar metals may cost more, but

minum, stainless steel,
their use will insure spot-free siding under
adverse conditions.
types of nails are commonly used with siding, the
finish-
Two
ing nail having a small head and the siding nail having a mod-
nail is set (driven
erate size flathead. The small head finishing
with a nail set) about below the face of the siding, and the
VW
paint is applied.
hole is filled with putty after the prime coat of
with
The flathead siding nail is commonly used and driven flush
the face of the siding. The head is later
covered with paint.
{See Chap. 3, Fig. 5 and Table 4.)

time and
Ordinary steel wire nails tend to rust in a short
In some cases,
cause a disfiguring stain on the face of the siding.
the putty and
the small-head nails will show rust spots through
that will not cause rust are
the paint. Noncorrosive nails
available.
preserva-
Siding to be natural finished with a water-repellent
steel or aluminum
tive or stain should be fastened with stainless
In some types of prefinished sidings, nails with
color-
nails.
matched heads are supplied.
In recent years, nails with modified shanks have become
quite
popular. These nails include the annularly threaded

shank nail
with-
and the helically threaded shank nail. Both have greater
this reason,
drawal resistance than the smooth shank nail and, for
a shorter nail is often used.
nails in siding should be driven just flush with
the
Exposed
surface of the wood. Overdriving may not only show the ham-
mer mark but may also cause objectionable splitting and crush-
overlays,
ing of the wood. In sidings with prefinished surfaces or
the nails should be driven so as not to damage the
finished
surface.
Bevel Siding
The minimum lap for bevel siding should not be less than 1 .
The average exposure distance is usually determined by the dis-

the
tance from the underside of the window sill to the top of
drip cap (Fig. 3). From the standpoint of weather resistance
BEVEL SIDING 631
Fig. 3. Installation of bevel siding.
and appearance, the butt edge of the course of siding above

first
the window should coincide with the top of the window drip
cap.
In many one-story houses with an overhang,
this course of siding
is often re])laced with a
frieze board. It is also desirable that
the bottom of a siding course be flush
with the underside of the
window sill. This may not always be j)ossible because
of varying
window heights and the types of windows that might
be used in
a house.
One procedure used determine the siding exposure width so
to
that it is about equal both above and below the window
sill is
as follows:
Divide the overall height of the window frame
by the approx-
imate recommended exposure distance for
the siding used (4 for
12"
6" wide siding, 6 for 8" siding, 8 for 10" siding, and 10 for
siding). This will result in the number of courses
between the
height
top and bottom of the window. For example, the overall
of the window from top of the drip cap to the
bottom of the
sill is 61". If 12" siding is used, the number of courses
would
be 61/10 = 6.1 or six courses. To obtain the exact exposure
dis-
tance, divide 61 by 6 and the would be 10)4

result The next •
step is to determine the exposure distance from the bottom of

just below the top of the foundation wall. If this
is
the sill to
31", three courses at each should be used. Therefore, the
10% "
exposure distance above and below the window would be
almost
the same (Fig. 3).

When this procedure is not satisfactory because of big differ-
ences in the two areas, it is preferable to use an equal exposure
distance for the entire wall height and notch the siding at the
window sill. The fit should be tight to prevent moisture entry.
Siding be installed starting with the bottom course. It
may
is normally blocked out with a starting strip
the same thickness
course
as the top of the siding board (Fig. 3). Each succeeding
overlaps the upper edge of the lower course. Siding should be
nailed to each stud or on 16" centers. woodWhen plywood or
sheathing or spaced wood nailing strips are used over nonwood

21/2 " long)
sheathing, sevenpenny or eightpenny nails (2%" and
may be used for %" thick siding. If gypsum or fiberboard
sheathing is used, the tenpenny nail is used to penetrate into the
stud. For 1/2 " thick siding, nails may be %" shorter than those
used for %" siding.
The nails should be located far enough up from the butt to
miss the top of the lower siding course (Fig. 4). This clearance
distance usually Vg". This allows for slight movement of the
is
siding due to moisture changes without causing splitting. Such

8"
an allowance is especially required for the wider sidings of
to 12" wide.
It good practice to avoid butt joints whenever possible. Use
is
the longer sections of siding under windows and other long

stretches and utilize the shorter lengths for areas between win-
dows and doors. If unavoidable, butt joints should be made over
a stud and staggered between courses as much as practical (Fig.
3).
NAILING OF SIDING 633
Fig. 4. Nailing of siding.

.

at window
Siding should be square cut to provide a good joint
moisture
and door casings and at butt joints. Open joints permit
is good practice
to enter, often leading to paint deterioration. It
siding in a water-
to brush or dip the freshly cut ends of the
place. Using
repellent preservative before boards are nailed in
water-repellent pre-
a small finger-actuated oil can to apply the
is also
servative at end and butt joints after siding is in place
helpful.
Drop and Similar Sidings

Drop siding is installed much same way as lap siding
the
except for spacing and nailing. Drop, Dolly Varden, and similar
sidings have a constant exposure distance. This face width is
normally 5^^' for 1" by 6'' siding and 7^ for 1 by 8

siding.
should
Normally, one or two eightpenny nails or ninepenny nails
be used at each stud crossing depending on the
width (Fig. 4)
The length of the nail depends on the type of sheathing used,
but penetration into the stud or through the wood
backing should
be at least
should
Horizontally applied matched paneling in narrow widths
finishing
be blind nailed at the tongue with a corrosion-resistant
additional nail
nail (Fig. 4). For widths greater than 6", an
should be used as shown in the illustration.
Other materials such as plywood, hardboard, or medium-density
to 12",
fiberboard, which are used horizontally in widths up
should be applied in the same manner as lap or drop
siding,
applied
depending on the pattern. Prepackaged siding should be
according to the manufacturers’ directions.
Vertical Sidings
matched and similar sidings having inter-

Vertically applied
lapping joints are nailed in the same manner as when
applied
horizontally. However, they should be nailed to

blocking used
between studs or to wood or plywood sheathing. Blocking

is
1"
spaced from 16" to 24" apart. With plywood or nominal
board sheathing, nails should be spaced on 16" centers.
When the various combinations of boards and battens are
used, they should also be nailed to blocking spaced from
16
to 24" apart between studs, or closer for wood sheathing. The

PLYWOOD AND OTHER SHEET SIDING 6S5
first boards or battens should be fastened with
one eightpenny
nail or ninepenny nail at each
blocking, to provide at least II/ "
2
penetration. For wide underboards, two
nails spaced about 2"
apart may be used rather than the single
row along the center
(Fig. 2). The second
or top boards or battens should be nailed
with twelvepenny nails. Nails of the
top board or batten should
always miss the underboards and not be
nailed through them
(Fig. 2).
In such applications, double nails
should be spaced
closely to prevent splitting if the
board shrinks. It is also good
practice to use a sheathing paper, such
as 15-pound asphalt felt ’
under vertical siding,
Plywood and Other Sheet Siding

Exterior-grade plywood, paper-overlaid plywood, and similar
sheet materials used for siding are usually applied
vertically.
When used over sheathing, plywood should be at least %" thick,
although '^0 and %" will normally provide a more even surface.
Hardboard should be thick and materials such as medium-
density fiberboard should be
All nailing should be over studs and total effective
penetration
into wood should be at least ^^ "- For example,
2 plywood
siding over ^
wood sheathing would require about a seven-
penny nail, which is 2^" long. This would result in a lYs"
penetration into the stud, but a total effective penetration of
into the wood.
Plywood should be nailed at 6'' intervals around the perimeter
and 12" at intermediate members. Hardboard siding should be
nailed at 4" and 8" intervals. All types of sheet material
should
have a joint caulked with mastic unless the joints are of the
interlapping or matched type or battens are installed. A strip
of
15-pound as{>halt felt under uncalked joints is good practice.
Corner Treatment
The method of finishing wood siding or other materials at
exterior corners often influenced by the overall design of the
is
house. A mitered corner effect on horizontal siding or the using

of corner boards are perhaps the most common methods of
treatment.
Siding details. A, miter corner. B,

metal corners. C, corner boards
Fig. 5.
D, siding return at roof.
CORNER TREATMENT 637
Mitering corners (A, Fig. 5) of bevel and similar

sidings, un-
less carefully done to prevent openings,
is not always satisfac-
tory. To maintain a good joint, it is
necessary that the joint fit
tightly the full depth of the miter. It is also good practice to
treat the ends with a water-repellent preservative prior to nailing.
Metal corners Fig. 5) are perhaps more commonly used
than the mitered corner and they give a mitered effect.
They are
easily placed over each corner as the
siding is installed. The
metal corners should fit tightly without openings and
should be
nailed on each side to the sheathing or corner
stud beneath. If
made of galvanized iron, they should be cleaned with a mild
acid wash and primed with a mkal primer before the house is
painted to prevent early peeling of the paint.
Weathering of
the metal will also prepare itprime paint coat.
for the
Corner hoards of various types and sizes may be
used for
horizontal siding of all types {C, Fig. 5). They also provide a
satisfactory termination forplywood and similar sheet materials.
Vertical applications of matched paneling or
of boards and bat-
by lapping one side and nailing into the edge

tens are terminated
of this member, as well as to the nailing members beneath. Cor-
ner boards are usually or 1%" material and for a distinctive
appearance may be quite narrow. Plain outside casing
commonly
for corner
used for window and door frames can be adapted
boards.
Prefinished shingle or shake exteriors sometimes are
used with
color-matched metal corners. They can also be lapped over the

is called
adjacent corner shingle, alternating each course. This
lacing. This type of corner treatment usually
requires that some
kind of flashing be used beneath.

corner
IntevioT covnevs {E, Fig. 5) are butted against a square
thickness
board of nominal 1%" or 1%" size, depending on the
of the siding.
roof surface, such as at a
When siding returns against a
dormer, there should be a clearance of about 2 {D, Fig. 5).
after rains
Siding cut tight against the shingles retains moisture
and usually results in paint peeling. Shingle flashing extending
well up on the dormer wall will provide the necessary resistance
to entry of wind-driven rain. Be sure to use a water-repellent

preservative on the ends of the siding at the roof line.
Material Transition
in the walls
times, the materials used in the gable ends and
At
construction
below differ in form and application. The details of
be such that
used at the juncture of the two materials should
boards and
good drainage is assured. For example, if vertical
siding below, a
battens are used at the gable end and horizontal
(Fig. 6). Flashing
drip cap or similar molding might be used
moisture will
should be used over and above the drip cap so that
clear the gable material.
Another method of material transition might also be used.
By
the wall
extending the plate and studs of the gable end out from
the gable siding
a short distance, or by the use of furring strips,
will project beyond the wall siding and provide
good drainage
(Fig. 7).
GABLE-END PROJECTION 639
Fig. 6. Gable-end finish (material transition).

INSTALLATION OF WOOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES
Wood shingles and shakes are applied in a single- or double-
course pattern. They may be used over wood plywood sheath-

or
ing. If sheathing is %" plywood, use threaded nails. For non-

wood sheathing, 1" by 3" or 1" by 4" wood nailing strips are
used as a base. In the single-course method, one course is simply
laid over the other as lap siding is applied. The shingles can be
second grade because only one-half or less of the butt portion

is exposed (Fig. 8). Shingles should not be soaked
before appli-
cation but should usually be laid up with about %" to space

between adjacent shingles to allow for expansion during rainy
weather. When a siding effect is desired, shingles should be laid
up so that they are only lightly in contact. Prestained or treated

shingles provide the best results for this method.
Fig. 8. Single coursing of sidewalls (wood shingles-shakes).

.
INSrALLAriON OF W OOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES 641

In a double-course method, the undercourse is applied over
the wall and the top course nailed directly over a i/4" to
projection of the butt (Fig. 9). The first course should be nailed
only enough to hold it in place while the outer course is being
applied. The first shingles can be of a lower quality, such as
third grade or the undercourse grade. The top course, because
much of the shingle length is exposed, should be first-grade
shingles.
Exposure distance for various-length shingles and shakes can
be guided by those shown in Table 13.
As mroof shingles, joints should be broken so that the butt
joints of the upper shingles are at least 11 " from the under
/2
shingle joints.
Fig. 9. Double coursing of sidewalls (wood shingles-shakes)

Table 13
Exposure distances for wood shingles and shakes on sidewalls
Maximum exposure
Double coursing
Material Length Single
coursing No. 1 No. 2
grade grade
In. In. In. In.
Shingles 16 VA 12 10
18
24
m
nVi
14
16
11
14
Shakes (hand split 18 14
and resawn) 24 iiL 20
32 15
Closed or open joints may be used in the application of shin-

gles to sidewalls at the discretion of the worker (Fig. 8). Spacing
of 1/4" to %" produces an individual effect, while close spacing
produces a shadow line similar to bevel siding.
Shingles and shakes should be applied with rust-resistant nails

long enough to penetrate into the wood backing strips or sheath-
ing. In single coursing, a threepenny or fourpenny zinc-coated
shingle nail is commonly used. In double coursing, where nails
are exposed, a fivepenny zinc-coated nail with a small flat head
is used for the top course and threepenny or fourpenny size for
the undercourse. Be sure to use building paper over lumber
sheathing.
Nails should be placed in from the edge of the shingle a dis-
tance of %" (Fig. 8). Use two nails for each shingle up to 8"
wide and three nails for shingles over 8". In single-course appli-
cations, nails should be placed I" above the butt line of the next
higher course. In double coursing, the use of a piece of shiplap
sheathing as a guide allows the outer course to extend below
the undercourse, producing a shadow line (Fig. 9). Nails should
be placed 2" above the bottom of the shingle or shake. Rived
or fluted processed shakes, usually factory stained, are available
and have a distinct effect when laid with closely fitted edges
in a double-course pattern.
CHAPTER 25
Floor Coverings
•
The term finish flooring refers to the material used as the final
wearing surface that is applied to a floor. Perhaps in its simplest
form it might be paint over a concrete floor slab. Any one of
the many resilient tile floorings applied directly to the concrete
slab would likely be an improvement from the standpoint of
maintenance but not necessarily from the standpoint of comfort.
FI.OORING MATERIALS
Numerous flooring materials are available and may be used

over a variety of floors. Each has a property that adapts it to
a particular usage. Of the practical properties, durability and
maintenance ease are the most important. The initial cost, com-
fort, and beauty or appearance must also be
considered.
There is a wide selection of wood materials that are used for
flooring. Hardwoods and softwoods are available as strip floor-
ing in a variety of widths and thicknesses and as random-width
planks and block flooring.
Other materials include linoleum,
asphalt, rubber, cork, vinyl, and other materials in tile or sheet
forms, rile flooring is also available in a particle board which
ismanufactured with small wood j)articles combined with resin
and fabricated under high jwessure. Ceramic tile and carpeting
are used in many areas nowadays. Plastic floor coverings used
over concrete or stable wood subfloors are another variation in
the types of finishes available.
643
644 FLOOR COVERINGS
WOOD-STRIP FLOORING
Softwood finish flooring costs less than most hardwood

species
and is often used to good advantage in bedroom and closet areas

where traffic is light. It might also be selected to fit the interior
decor. It is less dense than the hardwoods, less
wear resistant,
and shows surface abrasions more readily. Softwoods most com-
monly used for flooring are southern pine, Douglas fir, redwood,
and western hemlock.
Softwood flooring has tongued-and-grooved edges and may be
hollow-backed or grooved. Some types are also end-matched.
Vertical-grain flooring generally has better wearing qualities than
flat-grain flooring under hard usage. Table 14 lists the
grades
and description of softwood strip.

The hardwoods commonly used for flooring are red oak, white
oak, beech, birch, maple, and pecan. {See Table 14.) Manufac-
turers supply both prefinished and unfinished flooring.
The most widely used pattern is a by 2^/4" strip floor-
ing. These strips are laid lengthwise in a room and
normally at
right angles to the floor joists. Some type of subfloor of diagonal
boards or plywood normally used under the finish floor. This

is
type of strip flooring is tongued-and-grooved and end-matched

2' to 16"
(Fig. 1). Strips are of random length and vary from
or more. End-matched strip flooring in thickness is gen-
erally hollow-backed {A, Fig. 1). The face is slightly wider than
the bottom so that tight joints result when flooring is laid. The
tongue fits tightly into the groove to prevent movement and floor
squeaks. These details are designed to provide beautiful finished

floors that require a minimum of maintenance.
Anothermatched pattern is available in %" by 2" size (B,
Fig. 1). used for remodeling work or when subfloor is
This is
edge-blocked or thick enough to provide very little deflection

under loads.
Square-edged strip flooring {C, Fig. 1) is used occasionally.
It is %" by 2" in size and is laid up over a substantial subfloor;
face nailing is required.

W ood-block flooring (Fig. 2) is made in a number of patterns.
Blocks may vary from 4" by 4" to
in size 9" by 9" and larger.
"
Its thickness varies by type from ^% 2 ^^r laminated blocking
GRADE AND DESCRIPTION OF STRIP FLOORING 645
species
several
of
flooring
requirement.
orientation
strip
a
grain
of is
color
and
description
of
uniformity
and
Grade
which
in
available
are
grades
Special
646 FLOOR COVERINGS
B, thin
Fig. 1. Types of strip flooring. A, side- and end-matched
flooring strips (matched). C, thin flooring strips (square-edged).
TONGUE
Fig. 2. Wood-block flooring. A, tongued-and-grooved. B, square-edged

(splined).
INSTALLATION OF WOOD-STRIP FLOORING 647
or plywood block tile (A, Fig. 2) to stabilized veneer. Solid
wood tile is often made up of narrow strips of wood splined or
keyed together in a number of ways. Edges of the thicker tile
are tongued-and-grooved, but thinner sections of wood
are usu-
ally square-edged {B, Fig. 2). Plywood blocks
may be s/g" and
thicker and are usually tongued-and-grooved. IMany block
floors
are factory finished and require only waxing after
installation.
While stabilized veneer squares are still in the development stage,
it is likely that research will
produce a low-cost wood tile which
can even compete with some of the cheaper nonwood resilient
tile now available.
Installation of Wôod-Strip Flooring
Flooring should be laid after plastering or other interior wall

and ceiling finish is completed and dried out, when windows and
exterior doors are in place, and when most of the interior
trim,
except base, casing, and jambs, are applied so that it may not
be damaged by wetting or by construction activity.
Board suhfioors should be clean, and covered with a
level,
deadening felt or heavy building paper. This felt or paper will
stop a certain amount of dust, will deaden sound, and where
a
crawl space used will increase the warmth of the floor by
is
preventing air infiltration. To provide nailing into the joists

wherever possible, location of the joists should be chalklined on
the paper as a guide. Plywood sub floor does not normally require
building paper.
Strip flooring should normally be laid crosswise to the floor
joists {A, Fig. 3). In conventionally designed houses,
the floor
joists span the width of the building over a center-supporting
beam or wall. Hence, the finish flooring of the entire floor area
of a rectangular house will be laid in the same direction. Floor-
ing with L- or T-shaped plans will usually have a direction
change at the wings, depending on joist direction. As joists usu-
ally span the short way in a living room^ the flooring will be laid
lengthwise to the room. This is desirable for the sake of appear-
ance and will also reduce shrinkage and swelling effects on the
flooring during seasonal changes.
Flooring should be delivered only during dry weather and
stored in the warmest and driest place available in the house.
648 FLOOR COVERINGS
Fig. 3 , Application of strip flooring. A, general application.

B, starting strip.
INSTALLATION OF W OOD-STRIP FLOORING 649
The recommended average moisture content
for flooring at the
time of installation varies somewhat in
different sections of the
United States. Moisture absorbed after
delivery to the site of
the house will cause open joints
between flooring strips to appear
after several months of the heating season.
Floor squeaks are usually caused by
the movement of one
board against another. Such movement
may occur because (a)
floor joists are too light, causing
excessive deflection, (b) sleepers
over concrete slabs are not held down
tightly, (c) tongues are
oose fitting, or (d) nailing is poor. Adequate nailing isan im-
portant means of minimizing squeaks;
another is to apply the
finish floors only after the joists
have dried to 12 per cent mois-
ture content or less. A much better job results when it is pos-
sible to nail the finish floor through the subfloor into the joists
than if the finish floor is nailed only to the subfloor.
Various types of nails are used in nailing
different thicknesses
of flooring. For flooring, use eightpenny flooring nails;
for
1 "
/2 use sixpenny; and for use fourpenny casing nails. These
types of flooring are blind-nailed. For
thinner square-edged
flooring, use a II/ " flooring brad
2 and face nail every seven
inches with two nails, one near each
edge of the strip, into the
subfloor.
The ling shank and screw shank type of nails have been
developed m
recent years for nailing of flooring.
When using
these nails, be sure to check with the
floor manufacturer’s rec-
ommendations as to size and diameter
for specific uses. Flooring
brads are also available with blunted
points to prevent splitting
of the tongue.
Figure shows the method of nailing the first strij) of floor-
/:?, 3
ing placed 1/2 " to %" away from
the wall. The space is to allow
for expansion of the flooring when moisture content
increases.
The nail is driven straight down through the board
at the groove
edge. The nails should be driven into
the joist and near enough
to the edge so that they will be
covered by the base or shoe
molding. The first strip of flooring can
also be nailed through
the tongue. Figure A, 4 shows in
detail how nails should be
driven into the tongue of the flooring at
an angle of 45° to 50°.
The nail should not be driven (piite flush in
order to prevent
damaging the edge by the hammerhead (F, Fig.
4). The nail
650 FLOOli COVERINGS
of nail.
Fig. 4. Nailing of flooring. A, nail angle. B, setting
or by laying the
can be set with the end of a large-size nail set
evice^
nail set flatwise against the flooring [B, Fig. 4). Nailing
nails are often used y oor-
using standard flooring or special
ing contractors. One blow of the
hammer on the plunger drives
and sets the nail. . , r •
i i
is sometimes desirable^
o
To prevent splitting the flooring, it
iiredrill through the tongue,

especially at the ends of the stiip.
the wall, select pieces so
For the second course of flooring from
that the butt joints will be well
separated from those the is m
course. Under normal conditions
each board should be driven up
tightly. Crooked pieces may

require wedging to force them into
the ends of the course or
alinement or may be cut and used at
flooring, a 1/2 " to %" space is
pro-
in closets. In completing the
last flooring strip. Because o
vided between the wall and the
strip is usually face-nailed so
that
the closeness of the wall, this
nailheads.
the base or shoe covers the set
Wood Flooring Over Concrete Slabs

Installation of
barrier to be used
The mostdesirable properties in a vapor
vapor transmission rating
under a concrete slab are: (a) good
moisture
(lessthan 0.5 perimeter) (b) resistance to damage by
;
normal usage during pour-

and rot; and (c) ability to withstand
ing operations.
INSTALLING WOOD FLOORING OVER CONCRETE 651
The \ apor barrier
placed under a slab during construction.
is
An alternate method must be used when the
concrete is already
in place. (See Chap. 22, Fig. 2. )
Another method of preparing a base wood

for flooring when
there is no vapor barrier under the
slab is shown in Fig. 5. To
resist decay, treated 1"
by 4" furring strips are anchored to the
existing slab, shimming when necessary
to provide a level base.
Strips should be spaced no more than 16"
on center. A good
waterproof or water-vapor-resistant coating
on the concrete be-
fore the treated strips are applied
is usually recommended to aid
in reducing moisture movement. A vapor
barrier, such as a 4-
mil polyethylene or similar membrane,
is then laid over the an-
chored 1" by 4" wood strips and a second set of 1 by 4’s nailed
to the first. Use 1%" long nails spaced 12" to 16" apart in a
staggered pattern. The moisture content of these second mem-
bers should be about the same as that of the strip flooring to be
applied (6 to 11 per cent). Strip flooring
can then be installed as
previously described in this chapter.
When other types of finish floor, such as a resilient tile,
are
used, plywood is placed over the 1 by
4’s as a base.
Fig. 5. Base for wood flooring on concrete slab (without an underlying

vapor barrier).
652 FLOOR COVERINGS
WOOD AND PARTICXE BOARD TILE FLOORING
are applied with adhesive on
a
Wood and particle board tile
" wood-block
is 2 % 2
plywood or similar base. The exception
other
floor which has tongues on
two edges and grooves on the
base wood, these tiles commonly nailed
are
two edges. If the is
However, wood block may
through the tongue into the subfloor.
an adhesive. Wood-block floor-
be applied on concrete slabs with
grain direction of alternate
ing is installed by changing the
and swelling o
blocks.This minimizes the effects of shrinking
the wood.
of a number of narrow
One typeof wood-floor tile is made up
these
slats to form 4" by
4" and larger squares. Four or more of
a block, blats
squares with alternating grain direction form
with an easily removed
squares, and blocks are held together
slab or under-
membrane. Adhesive is spread on the concrete
blocks installed im-
layment with a notched trowel and the
blocks
mediately The membrane is then removed and the
tamped in place for full adhesive contact.
Be sure to follow the
adhesive and method of
manufacturer’s recommendations for the
application.
edges are anot er
Plywood squares with tongued-and-grooved
the same as for the wood
form of wood tile. Installation is much
Usually tile of this type is factory
tile previously described.
finished. -77board^
Awood-base product used for finish floors is particle
It is commonly 9" by
9" by %" in size with tongued-and-
tile
grooved edges. The back face is often

marked with small saw
a better key for the ad-
kerfs to stabilize the tile and provide
adhesive
hesive. Manufacturer’s directions as to the type of
complete. Some
and method of installation are usually very
preparation of
manufacturers even include instructions on the
laid. This tile should not
the base upon which the tile is to be
be used over concrete.
BASE FOR RESILIENT FLOORS

directly over a board
Resilient floors should not be installed
Underlayment grade of wood-based panels
or plank subfloor.
CARPETING 653
such as plywood, particle board, and hardboard is widely used

for suspended floor applications {A, Fig.
6).
Plywood or particle board panels 4' by 8' and in a range of
thicknesses from % to are generally selected for use in new
construction. Sheets of untempered hardboard, plywood, or par-
ticle board by 4' or larger and Ya' or %" in thickness are used
4'
in remodeling work because of the floor

thicknesses involved.
The underlayment grade of particle board is a standard product
and IS available from many producers. Manufacturer’s instruc-
tions should be followed in the care and use of the product. Ply-
wood underlayment is also a standard product and is available
in interior types, exterior types, and interior
types with an ex-
terior glueline. The underlayment grade provides
for a sanded
panel with a .C-plugged or better face play and a C-ply or better
554 FlJyOR COVERINGS
resists damage
immediately under the face. This construction
loads such as chair legs
to the floor surface from concentrated
and the like.
4 n 4
separate and mstalle
Generally, underlayment panels are
Combination subfloor un-
over structurally adequate subfloors.
find increasing usage.
derlayment panels of plywood construction
tongued-and-grooved or
Panels for this dual use generally have
to provide a smooth,
blocked edges and C-plugged or better faces
even surface for the resilient floor covering.
The method plywood combination subfloor and

of installing
section on Sub-
underlayment has been covered in Chap. 21 ,
as described
floor Plywood. Underlayment should be laid up
with 1/3 2" edge and end spacing. Sand
smooth to provide a level
prevent nails from showing
base for the resilient flooring. To
have a mois-
on the surface of the tile, joists and subfloor should
reach in service.
ture content near the average value they
somewhat de-
The thickness of the underlayment will vary
pending on the floors in adjoining rooms.
The installation of
tile in a kitchen area, for
example, is usually made over a %
in the adjoining living or
dining
underlayment when finish floors
(B, Fig. 6). When thinner wood
areas are 2%," strip flooring
floors areused in adjoining rooms, adjustments

are made m t e
thickness of the underlayment.

prepared with a good
Concrete for resilient floors should be
the soil and the finish
vapor barrier installed somewhere between
slab. Concrete should be leveled
floor, preferably just under the
a resilient floor is to be used directly
on the slab;
carefully when
minimize dips and waves.
this will
slab until the slab has
Tile should not be laid on a concrete
used to determine
completely dried. One method which may be
or
if the slab is dry to place a small square of polyethylene
is
other low-perm material on the slab overnight. If the underside

is dry in the morning, the slab is usually considered dry enough
for the installation of the tile.
CARPETING
Carpeting of a home from living room to kitchen

and bath is
are devel-
becoming more popular as new carpeting materials
CARPETING 655
oped. The cost, however, may be considerably higher
than a
finished wood floor, and the life of the
carpeting before replace-
ment would be much less than that of the
wood floor. Many
wise homeowners or builders will specify
oak floors even though
they expect to carpet some areas. The
resale value of the home
is then retained even if
the carpeting is removed. However,
the
advantage of carpeting in sound-absorption
and impact-resistant
materials should be considered. This
is particularly important
in multifloor apartments where
impact noise reduction is an ex-
tremely important phase of construction.
If carpeting is to be
used, subfloor can consist of %"
(minimum) tongued-and-
grooved plywood (over 16" joist spacing).
Top face of the ply-
wood should be C-plugged grade or better.
Mastic adhesives are
also being used to advantage in
applying plywood to floor joists
Tlywood, particle board, or other
underlayments are also used
for a carpet base when installed
over subfloor.
CHAPTER 26
Interior Doors, Frames, Trim,

Cabinets, and Other Millwork
Interior trim, door frames,

and doors are normally installed
is in place. Cabinets,
built-m bookcases an
after the finish floor
fireplace mantels, and other

secured at this time. (Sec
millwork units are also
also Chap. 27, Exterior Frames,
Win- ^
dows, and Doors.)
decorative treatment
doors, trim, and other
The decorative treatment for interior
natural finish stain vamis
millwork may be paint or a
finish de-
other nonpigmented material. The paint or natural
or
e
the woodwork in various rooms often determines
sired for
used. Interior fi^nisi a is
type of species of wood to be
grained, and free from pitch
painted should be smooth, close
®
these requirements in a
streaks. Some species having
a
northern white pine, redwood,
gree include ponderosa pine,
resistance to hard usage are
a i-
spruce. When hardness and
such as birch, gum, and yel ow
pop
tional requirements, species
lar are desirable. „ j „ „„ri
figure, hardness, an
. i
treatment, a pleasing
For natural-finish
Species with these require-
uniform color are usually desirable.
maple, oak, and walnut. Some
ments include ash, birch, cherry,
ance.
reouire staining for best appeal - . ,
content for interior finish varms

The recommended moisture
depending on the climatic condi-
from 6 per cent to 11 per cent,
tion.
656
TRIM PARTS FOR DOORS AND FRAMES 657
TRIM PARTS FOR DOORS AND FRAMES
Door Frames
Rough openings in the stud walls for interior doors are usually
framed out to be 3" more than the door height and 21 " more
/2
than the door width. This provides for the frame and its plumb-
ing and leveling in the opening. Interior door
frames are made
up of two side ja7nbs and a head jamb and include stop moldings
upon which the door closes. The most common of these jambs
is the one-piece type (A, Fig. 1). Jambs may be obtained in
standard 5^/4 " widths for plaster walls and 4%" widths for walls
with 1 "
/2 dry wall finish. The two-piece and three-piece ad-
justable jambs are also standard types (B and C, Fig.
1). Their
principal advantage is in being adaptable to a
variety of wall
thicknesses.
Fig. 1. Interior door parts. door jambs and stoi)s. B, two-pieee jamb.
C, three-piece jamb. D, Colonial casing. E, ranch casing.
,
558 INTERIOR TRIM AND OTHER MILLWORK

door frames with the
interior
Some manufacturers produce
Application of the
door fitted and prehung, ready for installing.
casing completes the job. When used
with two-piece or three-
at the factory.
piece jambs, casings can even be installed
(a)
Common minimum widths for single interior doors are:
2' 6"; (b) bathrooms, 4 2'
bedroom and other habitable rooms, ;
(c) small closet and linen closets,

2'. These sizes vary a great
units, and similar types are
deal, and sliding doors, folding-door
6' or more in width. In
often used for wardrobes and may be
are used in some
most cases, the jamb, stop, and casing parts
manner to frame and finish the opening.
6' 8" for first
Standard interior and exterior door heights are
floors, but 6' 6" doors are sometimes used on the upper floors.
Casings
openings and is
Casing is the edge trim around interior door
door
also used to finish the room side of windows and exterior
de
frames. Casing usually varies in width from 2/4 to 3 /2 >
obtained m thicknesses
pending on the style. Casing may be
from 1/2 " to although n/ie" is standard in many of the
narrow-line patterns. Two common patterns are shown in D and
E, Fig. 1.
Interior Doors
are
As door styles, the two general interior types
in exterior
doors, such as the folding-
the flush and the panel door. Novelty
standard interior
door unit, might be flush or louvered. Most
doors are 1%" thick.
door usually made up with a hollow core
The jiush interior is
of light some type with thin plywood or hard-

framework of
board (A, Fig. 2). Plywood-faced flush doors

may be obtained
in gum, birch, oak, mahogany, and
woods of other species, most
which are suitable for natural finish. Nonselected grades are
of
usually painted as are hardboard-faced doors.
The panel door consists of solid stiles (vertical side members)
rails (cross pieces), and panel filters of various types.
The five-
the
cross panel and the colonial-type panel doors are perhaps
louvered door
most common of this style {B and C, Fig. 2). The
{D, Fig. 2) is also popular and is commonly
used for closets
DOOR FRAME AND TRIM INSTALLATION 659
A B
Fig. 2. Interior doors. flush. B, panel (five-cross). C, panel (Colonial).

D, louvered. E, folding (louvered).
because it provides some ventilation.

Large openings for ward-
robes are finished with sliding or folding doors
or with flush or
louvered doors {E, Fig. 2). Such doors are usually 1%"
thick.
Hinged doors should open or swing in the direction of natural
entry against a blank wall whenever possible
be obstructed by other swinging doors. Doors
and should not—
should never be
hinged to swing into a hallway.
Door Frame and Trim Installation

When the frame and doors are not assembled and
prefitted,
the side jambs should be fabricated by nailing through
the notch
into the head jamb with three sevenpenny or
eightpenny coated
nails {A, Fig. 1). The assembled frames are then fastened in the
rough openings by shingle wedges used between
the side jamb
and the stud {A, Fig. 3). One jamb is jilumbed and leveled
using
four or five sets of shingle wedges for the height
of the frame.
finishing nails are used' at each
wedged area,
Two eightpenny
(A, Fig. 3). The
one driven so that the doorstop will cover
it
opposite side jamb isfastened in place with shmgle wedges

now
a guide in keeping a
and finishing nails, using the first jamb as
uniform width.
framing studs
PLASTER GROUND
NAIL
SHINGLE WEDGE
BUTT JOINT
joint for casing.

Fig. 3. Doorframe and trim. A, installation. B, miter
C, butt joint for casing.
DOOR FRAME AND TRIM INSTALLATION 66 ]
Casings are nailed to both the jamb and the
framing studs or
header, allowing about a edge distance from the face of the
jamb (A, Fig, 3 ).
Finish or casing nails in sixpenny or
seven-
penny sizes, depending on the thickness of
the casing, are used
to nail into the stud. Fourpenny
or fivepenny finishing nails or
1^2 brads are used to fasten the thinner edge
of the casing to
the jamb. In hardwood, it is
advisable to predrillto prevent
splitting.Nails in the casing are located in pairs
(A, Fig. 3 )
and spaced about 16 " apart along the
full height of the opening
and at the head jamb.
Casing with any form of molded shape
must have a mitered
joint at the corners (B, Fig.
3 ). When casing is square edged,
a butt joint may be made at the junction of the side and head
casing (C, Fig. 3 ). If the moisture content of the
casing is well
above that recommended, a mitered joint
may
open slightly at
the outer edge as the material dries.
This can be minimized by
using a small glued spline at the
corner of the mitered joint.
Actually, use of a spline joint under
any moisture condition is
considered good practice, and some
prefitted jamb, door, and
casing units are provided with splined
joints. Nailing into the
joint after drilling will aid in
retaining a close fit (B and C
The door opening is now complete
except for fitting and secur-
ing the hardware and nailing
the stops in proper position. In-
terior doors are normally hung with
two 31/2" by 31/2" loose-pin
butt hinges. The door is fitted into the
opening with the clear-
ances shown in Fig. 4 The clearance
.
and location of hinges,
lock set, and doorknob may vary
somewhat, but they are gen-
erally accepted by craftsmen
and conform to most millwork
standards. The edge
of the lock stile should be beveled slightly
to permit the door to clear the
jamb when swung open. If the
door IS swing across heavy carpeting, the bottom
to
clearance
may be slightly more.
Thresholds are used under exterior doors
to close the space
allowed for clearance. Weather strips
around exterior door open-
ings are very effective in reducing
air infiltration.
In fitting doors, the stops are usually
temporarily nailed in
place until the door has been hung.
Stops for doors in single-
Fig. 4. Door clearances.
may be %" to 2 A
piece jambs are generally VW thick and
at the junction of
wide. They are installed with a mitered joint
45° bevel cut at the bottom of the
the side and head jambs. A
finish floor, will eliminate a
dirt
stop, about 1" to 11/2 above the
"
of the floor easier (

pocket and make cleaning or refinishing
,
prefitted door jambs and doors

Some manufacturers supply
for installation. A similar
with the hinge slots routed and ready
stops and casing is also
door buck of sheet metal with formed
available.
INSTALLATION OF DOOR HARDWARE
Hardware for doors be obtained in a number of finishes,

may
the most common. Door
brass, bronze, and nickel are perhaps
sets are usually classed as: (a)
entry lock for exterior doors.
,
HINGES 663
Fig. 5. Installation of door hardware. A, hinge. B, mortise lock.

C bored lock set.
(b)bathroom set (inside lock control with safety

slot for open-
ing from the outside), (c)
bedroom lock (keyed lock), and (d)
passage set (without lock).
Hinges
Using three hinges for hanging %’’ exterior doors
1
and two
hinges for the lighter interior doors
is common practice. There
IS some tendency for exterior doors to
warp during the winter
because of the difference in exposure
on the opposite sides The
three hinges reduce this tendency.
Three hinges are also useful
on doors that lead to unheated attics
and for wider and heavier
doors that may be used within the
house.
Loose-pin butt hinges should be used
and must be of the
proper size for the door they support.
For thick doors, use
4" by 4" butts; for
doors, 31/2" by 31/2" butts. After the
oor IS fitted to the framed opening,
with the proper clearances
hinge halves are fitted to the door.
They are routed into the
door edge with about a backdistance (A, Fig. 5) One
hinge half should be set flush with
the surface and must be
fastened square with the edge of the
door. Screws are included
with each pair of hinges.
The door is now placed in the opening and blocked up at
the
bottom for proper clearance. The jamb is marked at the hinge
locations, and the remaining hinge half is routed and fastened
m place. The door is then positioned in the opening and the
pins
s ipped in place. If hinges have been installed
correctly and
the jambs are plumb, the door will swing freely.
Locks
installation, in
Different types of door locks differ in their
to set them. Lock sets
cost and in the amount of labor required
are supplied with instructions that should
be followed for in-
stallation. Some types require drilling of

the edge and face of
the door and routing of the edge to

accommodate the lock set
type {C, Fig.
and faceplate (B, Fig. 5). A more common bored
is much easier to install since it
requires only one hole drilled
5)
Boring jigs and
in the edge and one in the face of the door.
installation.
faceplate markers are available to provide accurate
36" to 38"
lock should be installed so that the doorknob
is
The
above the floorline. Most come with paper templates mark-
sets
ing the location of the lock and size of the holes to be drilled.
Strike Plate
The strike plate which isrouted into the door jamb holds the
plate,
door in place by contact with the latch. To install the
jamb and locate the
mark the location of the latch on the door
the marked outline with a
strike plate in this way. Rout out
(A, Fig. 6). The strike plate
chisel and also rout for the latch
the face of the door jarnb.
should be flush with or slightly below
with the edge
When the door is latched, its face should be flush
of the jamb.
Doorstop
during fitting of the
stop which has been set temporarily
The
door and installation of the hardware may
now be nailed place m
11/2 " long, should be used.
permanently. Finish nails or brads,
first, setting it tight
The stop at the lock side should be nailed
latched. Space the nails
against the door face when the door is
16" apart in pairs (A, Fig. 6).
nailed next, and a
I
/32
The stop behind the hinge side is
clearance from the door face should be

alloved {B, Fig. 3) to
prevent scraping as the door is opened. The

head jamb stop is
then nailed in place. Remember that

when door and trim are
painted, some of the clearances will be taken up.
W OOD TRIM INSTALLATION
665
STOP
HINGE SIDE B
DOOR
m
SLIGHT BEVEL
LOCK SIDE
PLAN VIEW
Fig. 6. Door details. A, installation of strike plate. B, location of

stops.
WOOD TRIM INSTALLATION

The casing around the window frames on the interior of the
house should be the same pattern as that used around the in-
terior door frames. Other trim which is used for
a double-hung
window frame includes the sash stops, stool, and apron {A, Fig.
7). Another method of using trim around windows
has the en-
tire opening enclosed with casing ('B, Fig. 7). The stool is then
a filler member between the bottom sash rail and the bottom
casing.
The stool IS the horizontal trim member that laps the window
silland extends beyond the casing at the sides, with each end
notched against the plastered wall. The apron serves as a finish
OUTSIDE CASING —
JAMB
PARTING STRIP ^
— PLASTER
CASING
NAIL STOOL TO SILL
STOOL
SIUU
JAMB
APRON
toenail
CASING
STOP
CASING
NARROW STOOL
Installation of window trim. A, with stool and apron. B, enclosed

Fig. 7.
with casing.
of
member below the stool. The window stool is the first piece
against
window trim to be installed and is notched and fitted
the edge of the jamb and the plaster line,
with the outside edge
being flush against the bottom rail of the window

sash {A, Fig.
the casing and
7). The stool is blind nailed at the ends that
usually necessary
the stop will cover the nailheads. Predrilling
is
The stool should also be nailed at midpoint

to prevent splitting.
to the sill and to the apron with finishing nails. Face nailing
to the sill is sometimes substituted or
supplemented with toe-
nailing of the outer edge to the sill (^4^ Fig. 7).
The casing is applied and nailed as described for door frames
{A, Fig. 3), except that the inner edge is flush
with the inner
joint between
face of the jambs so that the stop will cover the
BASE AND CEILING MOLDINGS 667
the jamb and casing. The window stops are then nailed to the
jambs so that the window sash slides smoothly. Channel-type
weather stripping often includes full- width metal
subjambs into
which the upper and lower sash slides replacing the
parting strip.
Stops are located against these instead of the sash
to provide a
small amount of pressure. The apron is cut to a
length equal to
the outer width of the casing line {A, Fig.
7). It is nailed to
the window and to the 2" by 4" framing sill below.
sill
When casing is used to finish the bottom of the window frame

as well as the sides and top, the narrow
stool butts against the
side window jamb. Casing is then mitered
at the bottom corners
(B, Fig. 7) and nailed as previously
described.
BASE AND CEILING MOLDINGS

Base Moldings
Base iHoldiug serves as a between the finished wall and
finish
floor.It is available in several widths and
forms. Two-piece
base consists of a baseboard topped with a small
base cap {A,
Fig. 8). When plaster is not straight and true, the small base
molding will conform more closely to the variations than will
Fig. 8. Base molding. A, square-edge base. B, narrow ranch base. C, wide

ranch base. D, installation. E, cope.
668 INTERIOR TRIM AND OTHER MILLIfORK
the wider base alone. A common size for this type of baseboard
is %" by 3%" or wider. One-piece base varies in size from

to 1/2 " by %" and wider {B and C, Fig. 8).
Although a
by
wood member is desirable at the junction of the wall and carpet-
sometimes
ing to serve as a protective huni'per, wood trim is
eliminated entirely.
Most baseboards are finished with a base shoe, by %" in
size (A, B, C, Fig. 8). single-base molding wdthout the shoe

A
is sometimes placed at the wall floor junction, especially where
carpeting might he used.
Installation of Base Molding
Square-edged baseboard should be installed with a butt joint at

inside corners and a mitered joint at outside corners
[D^ Fig. 8).
finishing
It should be nailed to each stud with two eightpenny
nails. Molded single-piece base, base moldings, ajid base shoe
should have a coped joint at inside corners and a mitered
joint
at outside corners. A coped joint is one in which the

first piece
is square-cut against the plaster or base and

the second, molding
coped. This accomplished by sawing a 45° miter cut and trim-

is
ming the molding along the inner line of the miter with a coping
saw {E, Fig. 8). The base shoe should be nailed into the sub-
floor with long slender nails and not into the baseboard
itself.
Therefore, if there is a small amount of shrinkage of the joists,
no opening will occur under the shoe.
Ceiling Moldings
Ceiling moldings are sometimes used at the junction of

wall
and ceiling for an architectural effect or to terminate dry wall

paneling of gypsum board or wood (A, Fig. 9). As in the base
moldings, inside corners should also be cope-jointed. This insures

a tight joint and retains a good fit if there are minor moisture
changes.
A cutback edge at the outside of the molding will partially
conceal any unevenness of the plaster and make painting easier

where there are color changes {B, Fig. 9). For gypsum dry wall
construction, a small crown molding might be desirable {C, Fig.
9). Finish nails should be driven into the upper wallplates
and
also into the ceiling joists for large moldings when possible.
,
CABINETS AND OTHER MILLWORK 669
Ceiling moldings. A, installation (inside corner). B, crown molding.

C small crown molding.
CABINETS AND OTHER MILLWORK
Millwork as a general term usually includes most of those

wood materials and house components which require manufac-
turing. This not only covers the interior trim, doors, and other
items previously described, but also such items as kitchen cabi-
nets, fireplace mantels, china cabinets, and similar units.
Most
of these units are produced millwork manufacturing plant
in a
and are ready to install in the house. They differ from some
other items because they usually’ require only fastening to the
wall or to the floor.
Whde many units are custom made, others can be ordered
directly from stock. For example, kitchen cabinets are often
stock items which may be obtained in 3" width increments, usu-
ally beginning at widths of 12" or 15" and on up to 48" widths.
in the case of interior trim, the cabinets,

shelving, and simi-
As
If the millwork
lar items can be made of various wood species.
is to be painted, ponderosa pine, southern pine, Douglas fir,
and
gum, and similar species may be used. Birch, oak, redwood,
variations
knotty pine, or other species with attractive surface
are some of the woods that are finished with
varnish or sealers.
Recommended moisture content for bookcases and other in-

terior millwork may vary from 6 to 1 1 per cent in different parts
of the country.
Kitchen Cabinets
the rest of
The kitchen usually contains more millwork than
This in the form of wall
the rooms in the house combined.
is
and base cabinets, broom closets, and other items. An efficient
only reduce work

plan with properly arranged cabinets will not
reduce costs be-
and save steps for the housewife; it will often
of the refrigerator,
cause of the need for a smaller area. Location
sink, dishwasher,and range, together with the cabinets, is also
electrical con-
important from the standpoint of plumbing and
artificial, is also impor-
nections. Good light, both natural and
tant in designing a pleasant kitchen.
be con-
Kitchen cabinets, both base and wall units, should
Figure 10 shows
structed to a standard of height and depth.
as
common base cabinet counter heights and depths as well
While the counter height limits
clearances for wall cabinets.
36". Wall
range from 30" to 38", the standard height is usually
installation at
cabinets vary in height depending on the type of
the counter. tops of wall cabinets are located at the same
The
14" drop ceiling or stoiage
height, either free or under a 12" to
cabinet. Wall cabinets can also be obtained in 12", 15", 18 ,
and 24" heights. The shorter wall cabinets are usually placed
over refrigerators.
Narrow wall cabinets are with single doors; the
furnished
ma}^
wider ones, with double doors {A, Fig. 11). Base cabinets
be obtained in full-door or full-drawer units or with
both drawers
corner
and doors (R, Fig. 11). Sink fronts or sink base cabinets,
cabinets, broom closets, and desks are some of the special units
KITCHEN CABINETS 671
Fig. 11. Kitchen cabinets. A, wall cabinets. B, base

cabinets.
which may Cabinets are

be used in planning the ideal kitchen.
fastened to the wall through cleats located at the back of each
cabinet. It is good practice to use long screws to penetrate into
each wall stud.
Four basic layouts are commonly used in the design of a
kitchen. The U-type with the sink at the bottom of the U and
the range and refrigerator on opposite sides is very efficient {A,
Fig. 12). The L-type {B, Fig. 12), with the sink and range on
one leg and the refrigerator on the other, is sometimes used with
a dining space in the opposite corner. The parallel wall or pull-
man kitchen plan {C, Fig. 12) is often used in narrow kitchens
and can be quite efficient with proper arrangement of the sink,
range, and refrigerator. The sidewall type {D, Fig. 12) usually
is preferred for small apartments. All cabinets, the sink, range,
and refrigerator are located along one wall. It must be kept in
mind that counter space is usually somewhat limited in small
kitchens.
Closets and Wardrobes
The simple clothes closet is normally furnished with a shelf

and a rod. Others may have small low cabinets for the storage
of shoes and similar items. Larger wardrobes with sliding or
folding doors, in addition to space for hanging clothes, may con-
tain a dresser complete with drawers and mirror. Many built-in
combinations are possible, all of which reduce the amount of
bedroom furniture needed. Linen closets may be simply a series
wall” type.
Fig. 12. Kitchen layouts. A, U-type. B, L-type. C, “parallel
D, sidewall type.
MANTELS 673
of shelves behind a flush or panel door.
Others may consist of
an open cabinet with doors and drawers built
directly into a
notch or corner of the wall located near the
bedrooms and bath.
Mantels
Fig. 13. Fireplace mantel.

China Cases
Another millwork item often incorporated in the dining room

of a formal or traditional design is the china case. It is usually
designed to fit two corners of the room. This corner

into one or
cabinet often has glazed doors above and single-panel doors or
double-panel doors below (Fig. 14). It may be 7' or more high
with a drop ceiling above with a face width of about 3 Shelves .
are supplied in both the upper and lower cabinets.

China cases or storage shelves in dining rooms of contemporary
houses maybe built in place. A row of cabinets or shelves may
act as a separator between dining room and kitchen and
serve
as a storage area for both rooms.
Fig. 14. Corner china case.

CHAPTER 27
Exterior Frames, Windows, and Doors
Windows, doors, and their frames are

millwork items that are
usually fully assembled at the factory. Window
units, jor ex-
ample, often have the sash fitted and weatherstripped,
frame
assembled, and exterior casing in place. Standard
combination
storms and screens or separate units can also be
included. Door
frames are normally assembled ready for use in
the building.
All such wood components are treated
with a water-repellent
preservative at the factory to provide protection
before and after
they are placed in the walls. {See also Chap.
26, Interior Doors,
Frames, Trim, Cabinets and Other Millwork.)
Windows exist mainly to allow entry of light and air, but they
may also be an important part of the architectural design.
Some
variation may occur, but normally in habitable rooms the glass
area should be not less than 10 per cent of the
floor area. Natural
ventilation should be not less than
4 per cent of the floor area
in a habitable room unless a
complete air-conditioning system is
used.
TYPES OF WINDOWS
Windows are available in many types, each
having advan-
tages. The principal types are double-hung, casement, station-
ary, awning, and horizontal sliding. They may be made of wood
or metal. Heat loss through metal frames and sash is much
greater than through similar wood units. Glass
blocks are some-
times used for admitting light in places where
transparency or
ventilation is not required.
Insulated glass, used both for stationary and
movable sash.
675
676 EXTERIOR FRAMES, WINDOWS, AND DOORS
consists of two or more sheets of spaced glass with hermetically

sealed edges. This type has more resistance to heat loss
than a
single thickness and is often used without a storm sash.
Wood sash and door and window frames should be made from
a clear grade of all-heartwood stock of a decay-resistant
wood
treatment.
species or from wood which is given a preservative
Species used include ponderosa and other pines, the
commonly
cedars, cypress, redwood, and the spruces.
Tables showing glass size, sash size, and rough opening
size
are available at lumber dealers, so that the wall openings

can be
framed accordingly.
DOUBLE-HUNG WINDOWS
The double-hung window is perhaps the most familiar window

type. It consists of an upper and lower sash that slide vertically
in separate grooves in the side jambs or in full-width metal
weatherstripping (Fig. 1). This type of window provides a max-
imum face opening for ventilation of one-half the total window
area. Each sash is provided with springs, balances, or compres-
sion weatherstripping to hold it in place in any location. For
example, compression weatherstripping prevents air infiltration,
provides tension, and acts as a counterbalance. Several types
allow the sash to be removed for easy painting or repair.
The jambs (sides and top of the frames) are made of nominal
1" lumber; the width provides for use with dry wall or plastered
interior finish. Sills are made from nominallumber and 2
sloped at about 3 in 12 for good drainage {D, Fig. 1). Sash

are
normally 1%" thick and wood combination storm and screen

windows are usually thick.
Sash may be divided into a number of lights by small wood

members called muntins. A ranch-type house may provide the
best appearance with top and bottom sash divided into two
horizontal lights. A colonial or Cape Cod house usually has each
sash divided into six or eight lights. Some manufacturers pro-
vide preassembled dividers which snap in place over a single
light, dividing it into six or eight lights. This simplifies
painting
and other maintenance.

Assembled frames are placed in the rough opening over strips
:
DOUBLE-HUNG WINDOWS 677
XT
—Tl
'2 '3
'2 'a UPPER SASH
0/
ivitt 1 llM^ rfAILÔ
1
>
.
(
\
1
*
t
L.U W E R SASH
1 1
1
i'J
iL i_
Fig. 1 • Double-hung windows. Cross sections: A, head jamb. B, meeting

rails. C, side jambs. D, sill.
of building paper put around the perimeter to minimize air infil-

tration. The frame is plumbed and nailed to side studs
and
header through the casings or the blind stops at the sides. Where
nails are exposed, such as on the casing, use the
corrosion-
resistant type.
H ardware double-hung windows includes the sash lifts that
for
are fastened to the bottom rail, although they are sometimes
eliminated by providing a finger groove in the rail. Other hard-
ware consists of sash locks or fasteners located at the meeting
rail. They not only lock the window, but also draw the sash
together to' provide a windtight fit.
Double-hung windows can be arranged as a single unit,
doubled (or mullion) type, or in groups of three or more. One

or two double-hung windows on each side of a large stationary
insulated window are often used to effect a window wall. Such
large openings must be framed with headers large enough to
carry roofloads.
CASEMENT WINDOWS
Casement windows consist of side-hinged sash, usually de-

signed to swing outward (Fig. 2) because they can be made
more weathertight than the in-swinging style. Screens are lo-
cated inside these out-swinging windows, and winter protection

is obtained with a storm sash or by using insulated
glass in the
sash. One advantage of the casement window over the double-

hung type is that the entire window area can be opened for
ventilation.
Weatherstripping provided for the casement window, and
is
units are usually received from the factory entirely assembled

with hardware in place. Closing hardware consists of a rotary
operator and sash lock. As in the double-hung units, the case-
ment sash can be used in many ways — as a pair or in combina-
tions of two or more pairs. Style variations are achieved by
divided lights. Snap-in muntins provide a small, multiple-pane
appearance for traditional styling.
Metal sash are sometimes used, but, because of low insulating
value, should be installed carefully to prevent condensation and
frosting on the interior surfaces during cold weather. A full
storm window unit may be used to eliminate this problem in cold

climates.
OUT-SW INGING CASEMENT SASH 679
HEADER
DRIP CAP
CASING
HEAD JAMB, RABBETED
STOP AND WEATHERSTRIP
INSULATED GLASS
B
MEETING STILES
AND WEATHERSTRIP
Fig. 2. Out-swinging casement sash. Cross sections;

A, head jamb
B, meeting stiles. C, side jambs. D,
sill.
STATIONARY WINDOWS
\îth double-
Stationary windows used alone or in combination
sash with
hung or casement windows usually consist of a wood
single light of insulated glass. They are
designed to
a large
provide light, as well as for attractive appearance, and are
fastened permanently into the frame (Fig. 3).

Because of their
size (sometimes 6' to 8' wide) 1%," thick
sash is used to pro-
vide strength. The thickness is usually required

because of the
thickness of the insulating glass.

Other types of stationary windows may be used without
a
sash. The glass is set directly into rabbeted frame

members and
units, back
held in place with stops. As with all window sash
a stop)
puttying and face puttying of the glass (with or without
will assure moisture resistance.
TYPICAL USE IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER

TYPES
Fig. 3. Stationary window. Cross sections: A, head jamb. B, sill.

AWNING WINDOWS 681
AWNING WINDOWS
An awning window unit consists of a frame in which one or
more operative sash are installed (Fig. 4). These units often
are made up for a large window wall and consist of three or more
units in width and height.
Sash of the awning type are made to swing outward at the
bottom. A similar unit, called the hopper type, is one in which
the top of the sash swings inward. Both types provide protec-
tion from rain when open.
Jambs are usually more thick because they are
rabbeted, while the sill is at least thick when two or more
sash are used in a complete frame. Each sash may also be pro-
vided with an individual frame, so that any combination in width
and height can be used. Awning or hopper window units may
consist of a combination of one or more fixed sash with
the
remainder being the operable type. Operable sash are provided
with hinges, pivots, and sash-supporting arms.
\\ eatherstripping and storm sash and screens are usually pro-
vided. The storm sash is eliminated when the windows are glazed
with insulated glass.
Fig. 4. Awning window. Cross sections; A, head jamb. B, horizontal

mullion. C, sill.
682 EXTERIOR FRAMES, WINDOW'S, AND DOORS
HORIZONTAL SLIDING WINDOW UNITS

similar to casement sash.
Horizontal sliding windows appear
in separate tracks
However, the sash (in pairs) slide horizontally
or guides located on the sill and
head jamb. Multiple window
units and may be used
openings consist of two or more single
window wall effect desired. As in most modern window
when a is
water-repellent preservative
units of all types, weatherstripping,
these fully
treatments, and sometimes hardware are included in
factory-assembled units.
EXTERIOR DOORS AND FRAMES

6' 8" high.
Exterior doors are 1%" thick and not less than
3' wide and the side or rear service
The main entrance door is
door 2' 8" wide. .
made of IVs" or thicker ma-

The frames for these doors are
provides stops
terial, sothat rabbeting of side and head jambs
for the main door (Fig. 5). The
wood sill is often oak for wear
softer species are used, a metal
nosing an
resistance, but when
the window units, t e
weatherstrips are included. As in many of
combination or screen
outside casings provide space for the IVs"
door.
nailed to studs and headers of the
rough open-
The frame is
on the
ing through the outside casing. The sill must rest firmly
which commonly
header or stringer joist of the floor framing,
other means. Aftei
must be trimmed with a saw and hand ax or
flooring is in place, a hardwood or
metal threshold with a
finish
plastic weatherstop covers the joints
between the floor and sill.
can vary
The exterior trim around the main entrance door
pilaster with a decora-
from a simple casing to a molded or plain
tive head casing. Decorative designs
should always be m keep-
ing with the architecture of the house.

Many combinations o
door and entry designs are used with
contemporary houses, and
most styles.
manufacturers have millwork which is adaptable to
If there is an entry hall, it is
usually desirable to have glass
provided.
included in the main door if no other light is
EXTERIOR DOOR AND FRAME 683
Fig. 5. Exterior door and frame. Exterior door and combination

door
(screen and storm). Cross sections: A, head jamb. B,
side jamb.
COMBINATION DOOR
EXTERIOR DOOR
THRESHOLD AND
WEATHERSTRIP
SILL
TYPES OF EXTERIOR DOORS

doors can
Exterior doors and outside combination and storm
of almost any
be obtained in a number of designs to fit the style
usually the panel
house. Doors in the traditional pattern are
They consist of stiles (solid vertical members),
type [A, Fig. 6).
rails members), and filler panels in a number of de-
(solid cross
signs. Glazed upper panels are combined with raised wood or
plywood lower panels.
rather
Exterior fiush doors should be of the solid-core type
season.
than hollow-core to minimize warping during the heating
(Warping is caused by a difference in moisture content on the
exposed and unexposed faces.) Flush doors consist of thin
plywood faces over a framework of wood with a wood-block
or
particle-board core. combinations of designs can be ob-

Many
tained, ranging from plain flush doors to others
with a variety y
of panels and glazed openings {B, Fig. 6).
Wood combination doors (storm and screen) are available in
TYPES OF EXTERIOR DOORS 685
Fig. 6. Exterior doors. A, traditional panel. B, flush. C, combination.
several styles {C, Fig.

Panels which include screen and
6).
storm inserts are normally located in the upper portion of the
door. Some types can be obtained with self-storing features,
similar to window combination units. Heat loss through metal
combination doors is greater than through similar-type wood
doors.
Weatherstripping of the thick exterior door will reduce
both air infiltration and frosting of the glass on the storm door
during cold weather.
CHAPTER 28
Thermal Insulation, Vapor Barriers,

and Sound Insulation
- • ————— —
Most materials used in houses have some insulating value.

Even air spaces between studs resist the passage of heat. When
these stud spaces are filled or partially filled with a material
high in resistance to heat transmission, namely thermal insula-
tion,the stud space has many times the insulating value of the
air alone.
The inflow of heat through outside walls and roofs in hot
weather or outflow during cold weather have important ef-
its
fects upon (a) the comfort of the occupants of a house and (b)
the cost of providing either heating or cooling to maintain tem-
peratures at acceptable limits for occupancy. During cold
weather, high resistance to heat flow also means a saving in

fuel. While the wood in the walls provides good insulation, com-
mercial insulating materials are usually incorporated into ex-

posed walls, ceilings, and floors to increase the resistance to heat
passage. The use of insulation in warmer climates is justified
with air not only because of reduced operating

conditioning,
costs but also because units of smaller capacity are required.
Therefore, whether from the standpoint of thermal insulation
alone in cold climates or whether for the benefit of reducing
cooling costs, the use of 2" or more of insulation in the walls
can certainly be justified.
CLASSES OF INSULATING MATERIALS /
C omniercial manufactured in a variety of forms

insulation is
and types, each with advantages for specific uses. Materials
686
FLEXIBLE INSULATING MATERIALS 687
commonly used for insulation may be grouped in the following
classes: (1) flexible insulation (blanket and batt) (2) loose fill
;
insulation; (3) reflective insulation; (4) rigid insulation (struc-

tural and nonstructural)and (5) miscellaneous types.
;
The thermal properties of most building materials are known,

and the rate of heat flow or coefficient of transmission for most
combinations of construction can be calculated. This coefficient,
or U-value, is a measure of heat transmission between air on
the warm side and air on the cold side of the construction unit.
The insulating value of the wall will vary with different types
of construction, with materials used in construction, and with
different and thickness of insulation. Comparisons of
types
U-values may be made and used to evaluate different combina-
tions of materials and insulation based on overall heat loss,
potential fuel savings, influence on comfort, and installation
costs.
Air spaces add to the total resistance of a wall section to heat
transmission; but an empty air space is not as effective as one
filledwith an insulating material. Great importance is frequently
given to dead air spaces in speaking of a wall section. Actually,
the air is never dead in cells where there are differences in tem-
perature on opposite sides of the space since the difference causes
convection currents.
FLEXIBLE INSULATING MATERIALS
Flexible insulation is manufactured in two types, blanket and

batt. Blanket insulation (A, Fig. 1) is furnished in rolls or
packages in widths suited to 16" and 24" stud and joist spacing.
Usual thicknesses are U/ 2 'b 2", and 3". The body of the blanket
is made of felted mats of mineral or vegetable fibers, such as
rock or glass wool, wood and cotton. Organic insulations
fiber,
are treated to make them resistant to fire, decay, insects, and
vermin. Most blanket insulation is covered wdth paper or other
sheet material with tabs on the sides for fastening to studs or
joists. One covering sheet serves as a vapor barrier to resist
movement of water vapor and should always face the warm side
of the wall. Aluminum foil or asphalt or plastic laminated paper
are commonly used as barrier materials. Batt insulation {B,
688 THERMAL INSULATION AND VAPOR BARRIERS
also made of fibrous material preformed to thicknesses

Fig. 1 ) is
and 6" for 16" and 24" joist spacing. It is supplied with
of 4"
(See section on Vapor Barriers, in
or without a vapor barrier.
is supplied
this chapter.) One friction type of fibrous glass batt
without a covering and is designed to remain in place without

the normal fastening methods.
LOOSE FILL INSOLATION

composed of ma-
Loose fill insulation (C, Fig. 1) is usually
in bags or bales, and placed
terials used in bulk form, supplied
This includes rock or
by pouring, blowing, or packing by hand.
glass wool, wood shredded redwood bark, cork, wood-pulp
fibers,
shavings. Fill insulation is
products, vermiculite, sawdust, and
joists in unheated attics.
suited for use between first-floor ceiling
It is also used in sidewalls of
existing houses that were not m-
sulated during construction. Where no

vapor barrier was in-
stalled during construction, suitable
paint coatings, as described
chapter, should be used for vapor barriers
when
later in this
blown insulation is added to an existing house.
REFLECTIVE INSULATION 689
REFLECTIVE INSULATION
Most materials reflect some radiant heat, and some materials
have this property to a very high degree. Materials high in re-
flective properties include aluminum foil, sheet metal with tin
coating, and paper products coated with a reflective oxide com-
position. Such materials can be used in enclosed stud spaces, in
attics, and in similar locations to retard heat transfer by radia-
tion. These reflective insulations are effective only when
used
where the reflective surface faces an air space at least or
more deep. Where a reflective surface contacts another material,
the reflective properties are lost and the material has little or no
insulating value.
Reflective insulations are equally effective regardless of
whether the reflective surface faces the warm or cold side. There
is a decided difference in the equivalent conductance and the
resistance to heat flow. The difference depends on (a) the orien-
tation of the reflecting material and the dead air space, (b) the
direction of heat flow (horizontal, up, or down), and (c) the
mean summer or winter temperatures. Each possibility requires
separate consideration. Reflective perhaps more
insulation is
effective in preventing summer heat flow through ceilings and
walls. It should likely be considered more for use in the southern
United States than in the northern.
Reflective insulation of the foil type
sometimes applied to
is
blankets and to the stud surface side of gypsum lath. Metal
foil suitably mounted on some supporting base makes
an ex-
cellent vapor barrier. The type of reflective insulation shown
in D, Fig. 1, includes reflective surfaces and air spaces between
the outer sheets.
RIGID INSULATION
Rigid insulation is usually a fiber,board material manufactured

in sheetand other forms {E, Fig. 1). The most common types
are made from processed wood, sugarcane, or other vegetable
products.Structural insulating boards, in densities ranging from
15 pounds to 31 pounds per cubic foot, are fabricated in such
forms as building boards, roof decking, sheathing, and wall-
board. While they have moderately good insulating properties,
their primary purpose is structural.
provide
Roof insulation nonstructural and serves mainly to
is
roofs. It is called slab or
thermal resistance to heat flow in
block insulation and is manufactured m rigid units /g to d
4' in size.
thick and usually 2' by \a
the most common forms of( rigid
In house construction, perhaps
decorative coverings in sheets or
in
insulation are sheathing and
board is made m thicknesses of /2 an
tile squares. Sheathing
asphalt compound to
2%,". It is coated or impregnated with an
or
are made in 2 by 8 size
provide water resistance. Sheets
4' by 8' or longer for vertical
appli-
horizontal application and
cation.
MISCELLANEOUS INSULATION
insulations do not fit the classifications previously
in
Some
described, such as insulation blankets
made up of mu tiple layers
types, such as lightweight
vermicu-
of corrugated paper. Other
plaster as a
lite and perlite aggregates,
are sometimes used in
means of reducing heat transmission. ii j

i
insulations, which include

Other materials are foamed-in-place
usua y
sprayed and plastic foam types. Sprayed insulation is
against a clean surface whic
inorganic fibrous material blown
coating. It is often left ex-
has been primed with an adhesive
insulating properties.
posed for acoustical as well as
loams may e
Expanded polystyrene and urethane plastic
insulation may also be
molded or foamed-in-place. Urethane
applied by spraying. Polystyrene
and urethane m board form
1 " to 2".
can be obtained in thicknesses from /2
values of some insulat-
See Table 15 for thermal conductivity
as “k” values or heat con-
ing materials. These are expressed
ductivity and are defined as the
amount of heat, in British
through one square foot
thermal units, that will pass in one hour
of material one inch thick per
1°F temperature difference be-
example, “k” represents heat
tween faces of the material. For
the better the insulating
loss; the lower this numerical value,
or “R” value wlnTh

^'Tnsulation is also rated on its resistance
is merely another expression
of the insulating value. The
resistance of the wall or
value is usually expressed as the total
batt, whereas ''k” is the rating
of a thick insulating blanket or
a “k” value of one inch of
per inch of thickness. For example,
WHERE TO INSULATE 691
insulation is 0.25. Then the
3
resistance, “R’’ is
% 95 or 4.0. For
inches of this insulation, the total “R” is three times 4 0 ’
or 12.0.
Table 15
Theimal conductivity values of some insulating materials
Insulation group
k range
General Specific type (conductivity)
Flexible 0.25 - 0.27

Fill Standard materials .28 - .30
Vermiculite .45 - .48
Reflective
(0
(2 sides)
Rigid Insulating fiberboard .35 - .36
Sbeatbing fiberboard .42 - .55
Foam Polystyrene .25 - .29
Uretbane .15 - .17
Wood Low density .60 - .65
1
Insulating value equal to slightly more than
is 1 inch of
flexible insulation. (Resistance, ''R” = 4.3)
The value is the overall heat loss value of all materials

in the wall. The lower this value, the better the insulating value.
Specific insulating values for various materials are also avail-
able. For comparison with Table 15, the value of the win-
dow glass is:
Olass U value
Single 1.13
Double
Insulated, with air space .61
Storm sash over single glazed window .53
WHERE TO INSULATE
To reduce heat from the house during the cold weather in
loss
most climates, all walls, ceilings, roofs, and floors that separate
the heated spaces from the unheated spaces should be insulated.
Insulation should be placed on all outside walls and in the
,

spaces,
ceiling {A, Fig. 2). In houses involving unheated crawl
or around the wall
it should be placed between the floor joists
(blanket or batt) is
perimeter. If a flexible type of insulation
joists by slats and a
used, it should be well supported between
the vapor barrier
galvanized wire mesh or by a rigid board with
insulations
installed toward the subflooring. Press-fit or friction
a small amount of
fit tightly between joists and require only
insulation is often used
support to hold them in place. Reflective
for crawl spaces, but only one dead air
space should be assumed
space is ventilated. A
in calculating heat loss when the crawl
as polyethylene
ground cover of roll roofing or plastic film such
to decrease the
should be placed on the soil of crawl spaces
moisture content of the space as well as of the
wood members.
should be placed
In one and one-half story houses, insulation
adjacent to unheated
along all walls, floors, and ceilings that are
(knee) walls,
areas {B, Fig. 2). These include stairways, dwarf
ventilation of the
and dormers. Provisions should be made for
unheated areas.
insu-
Where attic space is unheated and a stairway is included,
lation should be used around the stairway
as well as in the first-
floor ceiling (C, Fig. 2). leading to the attic should

The door
be weatherstripped to prevent heat loss.
Walls adjoining an
unheated garage or porch should also be insulated.
in walls, floor, and ceiling. B, in one

Fig. 2. Placement of insulation. A,
and one-half story house. C at attic door. D, in flat roof.
HOW TO INSTALL INSULATION 693
In houses with flat or low-pitched roofs (D, Fig.
2), insulation
should be used in the ceiling area with sufficient
space allowed
above for clear unobstructed ventilation between the
joists. In-
sulation should be used along the perimeter
of houses built on
slabs. A
vapor barrier should be included under the slab.
In the summer, outside surfaces exposed to
the direct rays of
the sun may attain temperatures of 50°F
or more above shade
temperatures and will tend to transfer this heat
toward the
inside of the house. Insulation in the
walls and in attic areas
retards the flow of heat and consequently less
heat is transferred
through such areas resulting in improved summer comfort con-
ditions.
Where air-conditioning systems are used, insulation should
be
placed m
all exposed ceilings and walls in
the same manner as
insulating against cold weather heat loss.
Shading of glass
against direct rays of the sun and the use
of insulated glass
will aid in reducing the air-conditioning
load.
Ventilation of attic and roof spaces is an
important adjunct
to insulation. Without ventilation, an attic space may become
very hot and hold the heat for many hours.
(See Chap. 31,
\entilation.) More heat will be transmitted
through the ceiling
when the attic temperature is 150°F than when
it is 100° to
120 F. Ventilation methods suggested for
protection against cold
weather condensation apply equally well to
protection against
excessive hot weather roof temperatures.
The use of storm windows or insulated glass will
greatly
reduce heat loss. Almost twice as much heat
loss occurs through
a single glass as through a window glazed
with insulated glass
or protected by a storm sash. Furthermore,
double glass will
normally prevent surface condensation and frostforming on inner
glass surfaces in winter. When excessive condensation persists,
paint failures or even decay of the sash rail or other parts can
occur.
HOW TO INSTALL INSULATION

Blanket insulation or batt insulation with a vajior
barrier
should be placed between framing members so that
the tabs of
the barrier lap the edge of the studs as well
as the top and
bottom plates. This method assures a minimum amount
of vapor
loss as compared to the loss occurring when tabs are stapled to
as well
the sides of the studs. To protect the head and soleplate
as the headers over openings, it is good practice to use
narrow
of vapor-barrier material along the top and bottom of
the
strips
wall (.4, Ordinarily, these areas are not covered too
Fig. 3).
well by the barrier on the blanket or batt. A hand stapler
is
commonly used to fasten the insulation and the barriers in place.

For insulation without a barrier (press-fit or friction-type),
a plastic film vapor barrier such as 4-mil polyethylene is com-
monly used to envelop the entire exposed wall and ceiling (B,
Fig. 3). It covers the openings as well as window and
door
headers and edge studs. This system is one of the best from
Fig. 3. Application of insulation. A, wall section with blanket type. B,

wall section with “press-fit” insulation.
HOW TO INSTALL INSULATION 695
LEVELING
BOARD
INSULATION
CEILING JOIST
VAPOR BARRIER
C, ceiling with full insulation.
the standpoint of resistance to vapor movement.

Furthermore,
it does not have the installation
inconveniences encountered when
tabs of the insulation are stapled over the edges of the
studs.
After the dry wall is installed or plastering is completed, the
film trimmed around the window and door openings.
is
Reflective insulo-tion, in a single sheet form with two reflective

surfaces, should be placed to divide the space formed
by the
framing members into two approximately equal spaces. Some
reflective insulations include air spaces and are furnished with
nailing tabs. This type is fastened to the studs to provide at
least a space on each side of the reflective surfaces.
Fill insulation is commonly used in ceiling areas and is poured
or blown into place (C, Fig. 3). A vapor barrier should be used
on the warm side (the bottom, in case of ceiling joists) before
insulation is placed. A leveling board, as shown in the illustra-
tion, will give a constant insulation thickness. Thick batt in-
sulation is also used in ceiling areas. Batt and fill insulation
might also be combined to obtain the desired thickness with the
vapor barrier against the back face of the ceiling finish. Ceiling
insulation six ormore inches thick greatly reduces heat loss in
the winter and also provides summertime protection.
PRECAUTIONS IN INSULATING
head
Areas over door and window frames and along side and
with
jambs also require insulation. Because these areas are filled
small sections of insulation, a vapor barrier must be
used around
openings (A,
the opening as well as over the header above the
Fig. 4). Enveloping the entire wall eliminates the need for this
type of vapor-barrier installation.
basements,
In one and one-half and two-story houses and in
the area at the joist header at outside walls should
be insulated
and protected with a vapor barrier {B, Fig. 4).

Insulation should be placed behind electrical outlet boxes
and
condensa-
other utility connections in exposed walls to minimize
tion on cold surfaces.
Fig. 4. Precautions in insulating. A, around openings.

VAPOR BARRIERS 697
B, joist space in outside walls.
VAPOR BARRIERS
Somediscussion of vapor barriers has been included in pre-
vious sections of this chapter because vapor barriers are usually
a part of flexible insulation. A, Figure 5 illustrates water vapor
from inside the house moved out through the wall. When the
vapor met outside cold air, moisture condensed and froze. As
the outside temperatures rose in the spring and summer, ice
melted, and the moisture was free to move through the siding
and destroy the paint coating. B, Figure 5, shows that the vapor
barrier (on the warm side of the wall) has prevented moisture
from getting into the walls.
Most building materials are i)ermeable to water vapor. This
j)resents problems because considerable water vapor is generated
in a house from cooking, dishwashing, laundering, bathing,
humidifiers, and other sources. In cold climates during cold
Fig. 5.
weather, this vapor pass through wall and ceiling materials
may
and condense in the wall or attic space therefore, in severe
j
finish or
cases it may damage the exterior paint and interior
protection, a
ev'en result in decay in structural members. For
material highly resistive to vapor transmission, called a
vapor
barrier, should be used on the warm side of a wall
or below
the insulation in an attic space.

Among the effective vapor-barrier materials are asphalt lam-
inated papers, aluminum foil, and plastic films. Most blanket
and batt insulations are provided with a vapor barrier on one
side, some of them with paper-backed aluminum
foil. Foil-
backed gypsum lath or gypsum boards are also available and

serve as excellent vapor barriers.
The perm (a measure of water-vapor movement through a
material) values of vapor barriers vary, but ordinarily it is good
i/4
practice to use those which have values less than (0.25)
perm. Although a value of ^2 psrm is considered adequate, aging

reduces the effectiveness of some materials.
Some types of flexible blanket and batt insulation have a hai-
rier material on one side. Such flexible insulations should be
attached with the tabs at their sides fastened on the inside (nar-
row) edges of the studs, and the blanket should be cut long
enough so that the cover sheet can lap over the face of the sole-
plate at the bottom and over the plate at the top of the stud
space. When a positive seal is desired, wall-height rolls of plastic
film vapor barriers should be applied over studs, plates, and

window and door headers. This system (called enveloping) is
used over insulation having no vapor barrier or to insure excel-
lent protection when used over any type of insulation.
The
barrier should be fitted tightly around outlet boxes and sealed
if necessary. A ribbon of sealing compound around an outlet or
switch box will minimize vapor loss at this area. Cold air returns
in outside walls should consist of metal ducts to prevent
vapor
loss and subsequent paint problems.
Paint coatings on plaster may be very effective as vapor bar-
riers if materials are properly chosen and applied. They do
not
offer protection during the period of construction, and moisture

may cause paint blisters on exterior paint before the interior
paint can be applied. This is most likely to happen in houses
SOUND INSULATION 699
that are constructed during periods when outdoor temperatures
are 25°F or more below inside temperatures. Paint coatings can-
not be considered a substitute for the membrane types of vapor
barriers, but they
do provide some protection for houses where
other types of vapor barriers were not installed during con-
struction.
Of the various types of paint, one coat of aluminum 'primer
followed by two decorative coats of fiat wall or lead and oil
paint is quite effective. For rough plaster or for houses in very
cold climates, two coats of aluminum primer may be necessary.
A primer and sealer of the pigmented type, followed by decora-
tive finish coats or two coats of rubber-base paint, are
also
effective in retarding vapor transmission.
Because no type of vapor barrier can be considered 100 j)er
cent resistive and some vapor leakage into the wall may be
expected, the flow of vapor to the outside should not be impeded
by materials of relatively high vapor resistance on the cold side
of the vapor For example, sheathing paper should be
barrier.
of a type that is waterproof but not highly vapor resistant. This
also applies to permanent outer coverings or siding. In such
cases, the vapor barrier should have an equally low perm value.
This will reduce the danger of condensation on cold surfaces
within the wall.
SOUND INSULATION
Development of the quiet home or the need for incorporating
sound insulation in a new house
becoming more and more im-
is
portant. In the past, the reduction of sound transfer between

rooms was more important in apartments, hotels, and motels
than in private homes.
House designs now often incorporate a
family room or active living room as well as quiet living room.
It is usually desirable in such designs to isolate these rooms from
the remainder of the house. Sound insulation between the bed-
room area and the living area is usually desirable, as is isolation
of the bathrooms. Isolation from outdoor sounds is also often
advisable. Therefore, sound control has become a vital part of
house design and construction and will be even more important
in the coming years.
700 THERMAL HSSULATION AND VAPOR BARRIERS
HOW SOUND TRAVELS
How does sound travel? How is it transferred through a wall

or floor? Airborne noises inside a house, such as loud conversa-
tion or a barking dog, create sound waves which radiate outward
from the source through the air until they strike a wall, floor,
or ceiling. These surfaces are set in vibration by the fluctuating
pressure of the sound wave in the air. Because the wall vibrates,
it conducts sound to the other side in varying degrees,
depending
on the wall construction.
The resistance of a building element, such as a wall, to the
passage of airborne sound is rated by its Sound Transmission
Class (STC). Therefore, the higher the number, the better the
sound barrier. The approximate effectiveness of walls with vary-
ing STC numbers is shown in the following table.
STC No. Effectiveness

25 Normal speech can be understood quite easily
35 Loud speech audible but not intelligible
45 Must strain to hear loud speech
48 Some loud speech barely audible
50 Loud speech not audible
Sound travels readily through the air and also through some
materials. When
airborne sound strikes a conventional wall, the
studs act as sound conductors unless they are separated in some
way from the covering material. Electrical switches or con-
venience outlets placed back-to-back in a wall readily pass
sound. Faulty construction, such as poorly fitted doors, often
allows sound to travel through. Therefore, good construction
practices are important in providing sound-resistant walls.
Thick walls dense materials such as masonry can stop
of
sound. But in the wood frame house, an interior masonry wall
results in increased costs and structural problems created by
heavy walls. To provide a satisfactory sound-resistant wall eco-
nomically has been a problem. At one time, sound-resistant
frame construction for the home involved significant additional
costs because it usually meant double walls or suspended ceil-
ings. A relatively simple system has been developed using sound-
WALL CONSTRUCTION 701
deadening insulating board in conjunction with a
gypsum board
outer covering. This provides good sound
transmission resistance
suitable for use in the home with only slight
additional cost. A
number of combinations are possible with this system,
providing
different STC ratings.
WALL CONSTRUCTION
As the STC
table shows, a wall providing sufficient resistance
to airborne sound transfer more than likely
has an STC rating
of 45 or greater. Therefore, in construction of such a wall be-
tween the rooms of a house, its cost as related to the STC
rating
should be considered. As shown in Fig.
6, details A, with gypsum
wallboard, and 5, with plastered wall, are commonly used for
partition walls. However, the hypothetical rating of 45 cannot
be obtained in this construction. An 8" concrete block wall (C,
Fig. 6) has the minimum rating, but this construction is not
always practical in a wood frame house.
Good STC ratings can be obtained in a wood frame wall by
using a combination of materials for D
and E, Fig. 6. One-half-
inch sound-deadening board nailed to the studs,
followed by a
lamination of /2 " gypsum wallboard, will provide an STC
1
value
Fig. 6. Sound insulation of

single walls.
of 46 at a relatively low cost. A slightly better rating can be
obtained by using %" gypsum wallboard rather than A

very satisfactory STC rating of 52 can be obtained by using
resilient clips to fasten gypsum backed boards to the studs, fol-
lowed by adhesive laminated fiberboard {E, Fig. 6). This
method further isolates the wall covering from the framing.
A similar isolation system consists of resilient channels nailed
horizontally to 2" by 4" studs spaced 16" on center. Channels
are spaced 24" apart vertically and %" gypsum wallboard is
screwed to the channels. An STC rating of 47 is therefore ob-

tained at a moderately low cost.
The use of a double wall, which may consist of a 2 by 6 or
wider plate and staggered 2" by 4" studs, is sometimes desir-
able. One-half-inch gypsum wallboard on each side of this wall
{A, Fig. 7) results in an STC value of 45. However, two layers
A
h—.—
'^BETWEEN OR
"WOVEN"
C
D
Fig. 7. Sound insulation of double walls.
FLOOR CEILING CONSTRUCTION 703
0^ gypsum wallboard add little, if any, additional sound-
transfer resistance (B, Fig. 7). When 1%" blanket insulation is
added to this construction (C, Fig. 7), the STC rating increases
to 49. This insulation may
be installed as shown in the illustra-
tion or placed between studs on one wall. A single wall with
31/2 ''
of insulation will show a marked improvement over an
open stud space and is low in cost.
The use of sound-deadening board and a lamination of
gypsum wallboard in the double wall will result in an STC
rating of 50 (D, Fig. 7). The addition of blanket insulation to
this combination will likely provide an even higher value, per-
haps 53 or 54.
FLOOR-CEILING CONSTRUCTION
Sound insulation between an upper floor and the ceiling of a

lower floor not only involves resistance of airborne sounds but
also that of impact noises. Therefore, impact noise control must
be considered as well as the STC value. Impact noise is caused
by an object striking or sliding along a wall or floor surface,
such as dropped objects, footsteps, or moving furniture. It may
also be caused by the vibration of a dishwasher, bathtub, food-
disposal apparatus, or other equipment. In all instances, the
floor is set into vibration by the impact or contact and sound
is radiated from both sides of the floor.
A method measuring impact noise has been developed and
of
is commonly expressed as Impact Noise Ratings (INR). (INR
ratings, however, are being abandoned in favor of Impact In-
sulation Class (IIC) ratings. IIC is a new system utilized in
the Federal Housing Administration recommended criteria for
impact sound insulation.) The greater the positive value of the
INR, the more resistant is the floor to impact-noise transfer.
F or example, an INR of —2 is better than one of —17, and one of
+5 INR is a further improvement in resistance to impact-noise
transfer.
Figure 8 shows STC and aj)proximate INR (db) values for
several types of floor constructions. A, Figure 8, perhaps a min-
imum assembly with tongued-and-grooved floor and %"
floor
gypsum board ceiling, has an STC value of 30 and an approx-
B
•' —
2x8-
Relative impact and sound transfer in floor-ceiling

combinations
Fig. 8.
(2" by 8" joists).
imate INK value of -18. This improved somewhat by con-

is
struction shown in B, Fig. 8, and still further by the combination

of materials in C, Fig. 8.
The value of isolating the ceiling joists from a gypsum lath
by means of spring, clips is illustrated in A,
and plaster ceiling
Fig. 9. An STC value of 52 and an approximate INK value of
—2 result.
Foam rubber padding and carpeting improve both the STC
and the INK values. The STC value increases from 31 to 45
and the approximate INR from —17 to —5 {B and C, Fig. 9).
This can likely be further improved by using an isolated ceiling
finish with spring clips. The use of sound-deadening
board and
a lamination of gypsum board for the ceiling would also
improve
resistance to sound transfer.
An economical construction similar to (but an improvement
FLOOR-CEILING CONSTRUCTION 705
Fig. 9. Relative impact and sound transfer in floor-ceiling combinations

(2" by 10" joists).
over) r, Fig. 9, with an STC value of 48 and an approximate

INR of +18, consists of the following: (a) a pad and carpet
over tongued-and-grooved plywood underlayment, (b) 3"
between joists, (c) resilient channels
fiberglass insulating batts
spaced 24" apart, across the bottom of the joists, and (d) %"
gypsum board screwed to the bottoin of the channels and finished
with taped joints.
The use of separate floor joists with staggered ceiling joists
below provides reasonable values but adds a good deal to con-
struction costs. Separate joists with insulation between and a
soundboard between subfloor and finish provide an STC rating
of 53 and an approximate INR value of —3.
SOUND ABSORPTION
Design of the quiet house can incorporate another system of
sound insulation, namely, sound absorption. Sound-absorbing
materials can minimize the amount of noise by stopping the
reflection of sound back into a room. Sound-absorbing materials
do not necessarily have resistance to airborne sounds. Perhaps
the most commonly used sound-absorbing material is acoustic
tile. Wood fiber or similar materials are used in the manufacture
of the tile, which is usually processed to provide some fire resis-
tance and designed with numerous tiny sound traps on the tile
surfaces. These may consist of tiny drilled or punched holes,

fissured surfaces, or a combination of both.
Acoustic tile is most often used and areas where
in the ceiling
it is not subjected to excessive mechanical damage, such as
above a wall wainscoting. It is normally manufactured in sizes
from 12" by 12" to 12" by 48". Thicknesses vary from %" to
%", and the tile is usually factory finished ready for applica-
tion. Paint or other finishes which fill or cover the tiny holes
or fissures for trapping sound will greatly reduce its efficiency.
Acoustic tile may be applied to existing ceilings or any smooth
surface with a mastic adhesive designed specifically for this pur-
pose or to furring strips nailed to the underside of the ceiling
joists. Nailing or stapling tile is the normal application method
in this system. It is also used with a mechanical suspension
system involving small “H,” “Z,” or “T” members. Manufac-
turers’ recommendations should be followed in application and
finishing.
CHAPTER 29
Porches and Garages
An attached porch or garage which is in keeping with the

house design usually adds to its overall pleasing appearance.
Therefore, any similar attachments to the house after it has
been built should also be in keeping structurally and architec-
turally with the basic design. In such additions, the connections
of the porch or garage to the main house should be by means of
the framing members and roof sheathing. Rafters, ceiling joists,
and studs should be securely attached by nailing to the house
framing.
When additions are made toan existing house, the siding or
other finish is removed so that framing members can be easily
and correctly fastened to the house. In many instances, the sid-
ing can be cut with a skill saw to the outline of the addition
and removed only where necessary. When concrete foundations,
piers, or slabs are added, they should also be structurally cor-
rect. Footings should be of sufficient size, the bottoms located
below the frostline, and the foundation wall anchored to the
house foundation when possible.
PORCHES
There are m.any types and designs of porches, some with roof
slopes continuous with the roof of the house itself. Other porch
roofs may have just enough pitch to provide drainage. The
fundamental construction principles are somewhat alike no mat-
ter what type is built. Therefore, a general description together —
with several construction details — can apply to several types.
707
708 PORCHES AND GARAGES
Figure 1shows the construction details of a typical flat-roofed
porch with a concrete slab floor. An attached porch can be open
or fully enclosed, or it can be constructed with a
concrete slab
floor (insulated or uninsulated). A porch can also be constructed

using wood framing over a crawl space (Fig. 2). Most
floor
out-
details of such a unit should comply with those previously
lined for various parts of the house itself.
Fig. 1. Details of porch construction for concrete slab.

PORCH FRAMING AND FLOORS 709
Porch Framing and Floors

Porch whether wood or concrete, should have sufficient
floors,
slope away from the house to provide good drainage. Weep holes
or drains should be provided in any solid or fully sheathed
perimeter wall. Open wood balusters with top and bottom rail-
ings should be constructed so that the bottom rail is free of the
floor surface.
Floor framing for wood floor construction should be at least
18" above the soil. The use of a soil cover of polyethylene or
similar material under a partially open or a closed porch is good
practice. [Fee Chap. 21, Floor Framing.)
Slats or grillwork used around an open crawl space should be
made with a removable section for entry in areas where termites
may be present. A fully enclosed crawl-space foundation should
»
be vented or have an opening to the basement.

Wood species used for finish porch floor should have good
decay and wear resistance, be nonsplintering, and be free from
warping. Species commonly used are cypress, Douglas fir, west-
ern larch, southern pine, and redwood. Only treated material
should be used where moisture conditions are severe.
Porch Columns
Supports for enclosed porches usually consist of fully framed

stud walls. The studs are doubled at openings and at corners.
Because both interior and exterior finish coverings are used, the
walls are constructed much like the walls of the house. In open
or partially open porches, solid or built-up posts or columns are
used. A more finished or cased column is often made up of
doubled 2 by 4’s which are covered with 1" by 4" casing on two
opposite sides and 1" by 6" finish casing on the other sides (A,
Fig. 3). Solid posts normally 4" by 4" in size are used mainly
for open porches. An open railing may be used between posts.
A formal design of a large house entrance often includes the
use of round built-up columns topped by Doric or Ionic capitals.
These columns are factory made and ready for installation at
the house site.
Fig. 3. Post details. A, cased post. B, pin anchor and spacer.

C, flashing at base.
BALUSTRADE 711
The base of posts or open porches should be de-

columns in
signed so that no pockets are formed to retain moisture and

encourage decay. In single posts, a steel pin may be used to
locate the post and a large galvanized washer or similar spacer
used to keep the bottom of the post above the concrete or wood
floor (B, Fig. 3). The bottom of the post should be treated to
minimize moisture penetration. Often single posts of this type
are made from a decay-resistant wood species. A cased post can
be flashed under the base molding (C, Fig. 3). Post anchors
which provide connections to the floor and to the post are avail-
able commercially, as are post caps.
Balustrade
A porch balustrade usually consists of one or two railings with

balusters between them. They are designed for an open porch
in order to provide protection and to improve the appearance.
There are innumerable combinations and arrangements of them.
A closed balustrade may be used with screens or combination
windows above (A, Fig. 4). A balustrade with decorative railings
may be used for an open porch {B, Fig. 4). This type can also
be used with full-height removable screens.
All balustrade members that are exposed to water and snow
should be designed to shed water. The top of the railing should
be tapered and connections with balusters protected as much as
possible (A, Fig. 5). Railings should not contact a concrete floor
but should be blocked to provide a small space beneath. When
wood must be in contact with the concrete, it should be treated
to resist decay.
Connection of the railing with a post should be made in a
way that prevents moisture from being trapped. One method
provides a small space between the post and the end of the rail-
ing {B, Fig. 5). When the railing is treated with paint or water-
repellent preservative, this type of connection should provide
good service. Exposed members, such as posts, balusters, and
railings, should be all-heartwood stock of decay-resistant or
treated wood to minimize decay.
GARAGES
Garages can be classified as attached, detached, basement, or

Fig. 4. Types of balustrades. A, closed. B, open.

GARAGES 713
Fig. 5. Railing details. balustrade assembly. B, rail-to-post connection.
carport. The selection of a garage type is often determined by

the limitations of the site and the size of the lot. Where space
is not a limitation, the attached garage has much in its favor.
It may give better architectural lines to the house, it is warmer
during cold weather, and it provides covered protection to pas-
sengers, convenient space for storage, and a short, direct entrance
to the house.
Building regulations often require that detached garages be
located away from the house toward the rear of the lot. Where
there is considerable slope to a lot, basement garages may be
desirable, and generally such garages will cost less than those
above grade.
Carports are car-storage spaces, generally attached to the
house, that have roofs but often have no sidewalls. To improve
the appearance and utility of this type of structure, storage
cabinets are often used on a side and at the end of the carport.
Size
small for convenient

It a mistake to design the garage too
is
use. Cars vary in size from the small

import models to the large
models are now up
foreign and domestic sedans. Many popular
to 215" long, and the larger and
more expensive models are
Therefore, while the
usually over 230" (almost 20' in length).
take all sizes with
garage need not necessarily be designed to
adequate room around the car, it is wise to provide a minimum
of the front and
distance of 21' to 22' between the inside face
space is required at
rear walls. If additional storage or work
the back, a greater depth is required.
less than
The inside width of a single garage should never be
IT; much more satisfactory.
13' is
The minimum outside size for a single garage, therefore, would

22' by
be 14' by double garage should be not less than
22'. A
clearance and
22' in outside dimensions to provide reasonable
use. The addition of a shop or storage

area would increase these
minimum sizes.
should extend
For an attached garage, the foundation wall
floor level. It
below the frostline and about 8" above the finish
should be not less than 6" thick, but it is usually
more because
The plate should
of the difficulty of trenching this width.
sill
be anchored to the foundation wall with

anchor bolts spaced
Extra anchors
about 8' apart, at least two bolts in each sill piece.
be required at the side of the main door. The
framing of
may
the exterior cover-
the sidewalls and roof and the application of
similar to that of
ing material of an attached garage should be
the house.
choice.
The interior finish of the garage is often a matter of
The studs may be left exposed or covered with some type
of
building codes
sheet material or they may be plastered. Some
require that the wall between the house and the
attached garage
regulations
be made of fire-resistant material. Local building
begun.
and codes should be consulted before construction is
fire
If fill is required below the floor^ it should

preferably be sand
or gravel well-compacted and tamped. If other

types of soil fill
are used, it should be wet down so that it will be well-compacted

Time must be allowed before
and can then be well-tamped.
GARAGE SIZE 715
pouring. Unless these precautions are taken, the concrete floor
will likely settle and crack.
The floor should be of concrete not less than 4" thick and laid
"
with a pitch of about 2 from the back to the front of the garage.
The use of wire reinforcing mesh is often advisable. The garage
floor should be set about one inch above the drive or apron level.
It is desirable at this point to have an expansion joint between
the garage floor and the driveway or apron.
.GLAZED
r~r
1
1
1 J - J
1
1
Fig. 6. Garage doors. A, one-section swing. B, sectional.

Garage Doors
used are the
The two overhead garage doors most commonly
types. The swing door [A
sectional and the single-section swing
overhead
Fig. 6) hung with side and overhead brackets and an
is
slightly at the bottom as it
track and must be moved outward
or five
is opened. sectional-type door [B, Fig. 6), in four
The
track extending along
horizontal hinged sections, has a similar
with a roller for the side
the sides and under the ceiling framing,
of each section. It is by lifting and is adaptable to auto-
opened
devices. The standard
matic electric opening with remote-control
9' in width by 61/2' or 7' in
desirable size for a single door is
height. Double doors are usually by 61/2' or 17' in size.
16'
are the panel
Doors vary in design, but those most often used
fillers. A glazed panel
type with solid stiles and rails and panel
section is often included. Clearance
above the top of the door
low
required foroverhead doors is usually about 12". However,
clearance not
headroom brackets are available when such
is
possible.
ior ê
,
j (
The header beam over garage doors should be designed
above. In wide
snow load which might be imposed on the roof
openings, this be a steel I-beam or a built-up wood section.
may
of high-grade
For spans of 8' or 9', two doubled 2 by lO’s
Douglas fir or similar species are commonly used
when only snow
are also imposed on the
loads must be considered. If floor loads
header, a steel I-beam or wide-flange beam is
usually selected.
CHAPTER 30
Roof Coverings
Roof coverings should provide a long-lived waterproof finish

that will protect the building and its contents from rain, snow,
and wind. Many materials have withstood the test of time and
have proved satisfactory under given service conditions.
MATERIALS
Materials used for pitched roofs are wood, asphalt, and as-
bestos shingles, and also tile and slate. Sheet materials such as
roll roofing, galvanized iron, aluminum, copper, and tin are also
used. Perhaps the most common covering for flat or low-pitched
roofs is the built-up roof with a gravel topping or cap sheet.
Plastic films, often backed with an asbestos sheet, are also being
applied on low-slope roofs. While these materials are relatively
new, it is likely that their use will increase, especially for roofs
with unusual shapes. The choice of roofing materials is usually
influenced by cost, local code requirements, house design, or
preferences based on past experience.
In shingle application, the exposure distance is important and
the amount depends on the roof slope and
of exposure generally
the type of material used. This may vary from a 5 " exposure
for standard-size asphalt and wood shingles on a moderately
steep slope to about 3V2" for flatter slo})es. However, even flatter
slopes can be used for asphalt shingles with double underlay and
triple shingle coverage. Built-up construction is used mainly
for flat or low-pitched roofs but can be adapted to steeper slopes
by the use of special materials and methods.
717
718 ROOF COVERINGS
Roof underlay material usually consists of 15-pound or 30-
pound asphalt-saturated felt and should be used in moderate-
and lower-slope roofs covered with asphalt, asbestos, or slate
shingles, or tile roofing. It is not commonly used for wood
shingles or shakes. In areas where moderate to severe snowfalls
occur, cornices without proper protection will often be plagued
with icedams {A, Fig. 1). These are formed when snow melts,
runs down the roof, and freezes at the colder cornice area. Grad-
ually, the ice forms a dam that backs up water under the shin-
gles. Under these conditions, it is good practice to use an
under-
course (36" width) of 45-pound or heavier smooth-surface roll
roofing along the eave line as a flashing {B, Fig. 1). This will
minimize the chance of water backing up and entering the wall.
However, good attic ventilation and sufficient ceiling insulation
are of primary importance in eliminating this harmful nuisance.
These details are described in Chap. 31, Ventilation.
Metal roofs (tin, copper, galvanized iron, or aluminum) are
sometimes used on flat decks of dormers, porches, or entryways.
Joints should be watertight and the deck properly flashed at the
juncture with the house. Nails should be of the same metal as
that used on the roof, except that with tin roofs, steel nails may
be used. All exposed nailheads in tin roofs should be soldered
with a rosin-core solder.
WOOD SHINGLES
Wood shingles of the types commonly used for house roofs are
Fig. 1. Snow and ice dams.

WOOD SHINGLES 719
No. 1 grade. Such shingles are all-heartwood, all-edge-grain, and

tapered. Second-grade shingles make good roofs for secondary
buildings as well as excellent sidewalls for primary buildings.
Western red cedar and redwood are the principal commercial
shingle woods since their heartwood has high-decay resistance
and low shrinkage.
Four bundles of 16" shingles laid 5" to the weather will cover
100 square feet. random widths, the narrower
Shingles are of
shingles being in the lower grades. Recommended exposures for
the standard shingle sizes are shown in Table 16.
Table 16
Recommended exposure for wood shingles^
Maximum exposure
Shingle Shingle thickness Slope Slope

length (Green) less ^
5 in 12
than and
4 in 12 over
In. '
In. In.
16 5 butts in 2 in. 5
18 5 butts in 23^ in.
24 4 butts in 2 in.
^
As recommended by the Red Cedar Shingle and Handsplit
Shake Bureau.
*
—
Minimum slope for main roofs 4 in 12.
Minimum slope for porch roofs — 3 in 12.
720 ROOF COVERINGS
Figure 2 illustrates the proper method of applying a wood

shingle roof. Underlay or roofing felt is not required for
wood
shinglesexcept for protection in ice-dam areas. Spaced roof
boards under wood shingles are most common, although spaced
or solid sheathing is optional.
The following rules should be followed in the application of
wood shingles:
1. Shingles should extend about 1^2^^ beyond the eave line and
about beyond the rake (gable) edge.
2. Use two rust-resistant nails in each shingle.
Space the nails
about from the edge and 1V2^^ above the butt line of the next
course. Use threepenny nails for 16" and
18" shingles and four-
penny nails for 24" shingles in new construction. A ring shank

nail (threaded) is often recommended for plywood roof sheathing
less than 1/2 " thick.
3. The first course of shingles should be doubled. In all
courses, allow to space between each shingle for expan-

sion when wet. The joints between shingles should be offset at
least 11/2 " from the joints between shingles in the course below.
The joints in succeeding courses should be spaced so that they

do not directly line up with joints in the second course below.
Fig. 2. Installation of wood shingles.

ASPHALT SHINGLES 721
4. When valleys are present, shingle away from the valleys,

selecting and precutting wide valley shingles.
5. A
metal edging along the gable end will aid in guiding the
water away from the sidewalls.
6. In laying No. 1 all-heartwood edge-grain shingles no split-
ting of wide shingles is necessary.

Wood
shakes are applied much the same as wood shingles. Be-
cause shakes are much thicker (longer shakes have the thicker
butts), long galvanized nails are used. To create a rustic ap-
pearance, the butts are often laid unevenly. Shakes are longer
than shingles and, therefore, have a greater exposure. Exposure
distance usually 71/2 " for 18" shakes, 10" for 24" shakes, and
is
13" for 32" shakes. Shakes are not smooth on both

faces; and
since wind-driven snow might enter, it is essential to use an
underlay between each course. An 18" wide layer of 30-pound
asphalt felt should be used between each course with the bottom
edge positioned above the butt edge of the shakes a distance
equal to double the weather exposure. A 36" wide starting strip
of the asphalt felt is used at the eave line. Solid sheathing should
be used when wood shakes are used for roofs in areas where
wind-driven snow is expected.
ASPHALT SHINGLES
The usual minimum recommended weight for asphalt shingles
is 235 pounds for square butt strip shingles. This may change
in later years since 210 pounds (weight per square) was con-
sidered a minimum several years ago. Strip shingles with a 300-
pound weight per square are available, as are lock-type and
other shingles weighing 250 pounds and more. Asphalt shingles
are also available with seal-type tabs for wind resistance. Many
workers apply a small spot of asphalt roof cement under each
tab after installation of regular asphalt shingles to provide simi-
lar protection.
The square butt strip shingle is 12" by 36" and has three tabs.
It is usually laid with 5" exposed to the weather. There are 27
strips in a bundle; three bundles will cover 100 square feet. Bun-
dles should be piled flat for storage so that strips will not curl
722 roof coverings
are opened for use. The method of laying an
when the bundles
asphalt shingle roof is shown in A, Fig. 3.
A metal edging is
additional protection {B,
often used at the gable end to provide
Fig. 3).
See Table 17 to determine the need for
and the method of ap-
plying underlayment for asphalt shingles
on roofs of various
slopes. Underlayment is commonly 15-pound saturated felt.

(Headlap for single coverage of underlayment should be 2" and
for double coverage, 19".)
Table 17
Underlayment requirements for asphalt shingles
Minimum roof slope

Underlayment
Double coverage ^ Triple coverage
shingles shingles
7 in 12
2 4 in 12
Not required
2 4 in 12 3 3 in 12
Single
2 in 12 2 in 12
Double
usually an
Double coverage for a 12- by 36-in. shingle is
triple coverage.
exposure of about 5 in. and about 4 in. for
2 May be 3 in 12 for porch roofs.
3 May be 2 in 12 for porch roofs.
asphalt shingle roof can also be protected from ice

An dams
roofing,
by adding an initial layer of 45-pound or heavier roll
36" wide. This will also insure good ventilation and insulation
ASPHALT SHINGLES
A course of wood
shingles or a metal edging should be
used
along the eave line before application
of the asphalt shingles.
The course of asphalt shingles is doubled;
first
or a starter
course may be used under the first asphalt
shingle course. This
firstcourse should extend downward beyond
the wood shingles
(or edging) about 1 " to prevent
/2 the water from backing up
under the shingles. A I/2 " projection should
also be used at the
rake.
Several chalklines on the underlay will help aline the shingles
so that tab notches will be in a straight line for
good appear-
ance. Each shingle strip should be fastened securely according
to the manufacturer’s directions. The use of six 1 "
galvanized
roofing nails for each 12" by 36" strip is considered good prac-
tice in areas of high winds. A sealed tab or the
use of asphalt
sealer will also aid in preventing wind damage during storms.
Some workers use four nails for each strip when tabs are sealed.
When a nail penetrates a crack or knothole, it should be re-
moved, the hole sealed, and the nail replaced in sound wood;
otherwise it will gradually work out and cause a hump in the
shingle above it.
724 ROOF COVERINGS
BUILT-UP ROOFS
roofing companies that
Built-up roof coverings are installed by
specialize in this work. Roofs of this
type may have 3, 4, or 5
layers of roofer’s felt, each mopped

down with tar or asphalt,
asphalt and covered wit
with the final surface coated with
gravel embedded in asphalt or tar, or
covered with a cap sheet.
roofs as 10-
For convenience it is customary to refer to built-up
depending upon the method of
year, 15-year, or 20-year roofs,
application.
^
deck {A, Fig. 4) may
For example, a 15-year roof over a wood
roofer’s felt laid dry,
have a base layer of 30-pound saturated
roofing nails. All nailing
with edges lapped and held down with
having %" heads
should be done with either (a) roofing nails
special roofing nails
driven through 1" diameter tin caps or (b)
intended to prevent
having 1" diameter heads. The dry sheet is
of
tar or asphaltfrom entering the rafter spaces. Three layers
15-pound saturated felt follow, each of which is
mopped on with
tar— not nailed. The final coat of tar or asphalt may be
hot
roll roofing.
covered with roofing gravel or a cap sheet of
finished
The cornice or eave line of projecting roofs is usually
as a drip. A metal
with metal edging or flashing, which acts
flashing at the eaves
gravel strip is used in conjunction with the
when the roof covered with gravel {B, Fig. 4). Where built-up
is
finished against another wall, the roofing is

turned up
roofing is
often also flashed
on the wall sheathing over a cant strip and is
generally extended up
with metal {C, Fig. 4). This flashing is
about 4" above the bottom of the siding.
OTHER ROOF COVERINGS

slate, tile, metal, and
Other roof coverings, including asbestos,
specialized applicators, are per-
others, many of which require
asphalt shingles and
haps less commonly used than wood or
built-up roofs. Several new materials,
such as plastic films an
future moderate-cost roo
coatings, are showing promise for
coverings. However, most of them
are more expensive than the
materials now commonlybeing used for houses. These newer

BUILT-UP ROOF 725
CANT
STRIP
Fig. 4. Built-up roof. A. installation of roof, B, gravel stop. C, flashing

at building lino.
726 ROOF COVERINGS
asphalt shingles. B, Boston

Fig. 5. Finish at ridge. A, Boston ridge with
ridge with wood shingles. C, metal
ridge.
FINISH AT RIDGE AND HIP 72:
materials, as well as other new products, are likely to come into
more general use during the next decade.
FINISH AT RIDGE AND HIP
The most common type and hi]) finish for wood and
of ridge
asphalt shingles is known as the Boston ridge. Asphalt shingle
squares (one-third of a 12" by 36" strip) are
used over the ridge
and blind nailed (A, Fig. 5). Each shingle 5"
is lapped to 6" to
give double coverage. In areas where driving rains occur, it is
well to use metal hashing under the shingle
ridge. The use of a
ribbon of asphalt roofing cement under each
lap will also greatly
reduce the chance of water penetration.
A wood shingle roof [B, Fig. 5) also should be finished in a
Boston ridge. Shingles 6" wide are alternately
lapped, fitted,
and blind nailed. As shown in the illustration,
the shingles are
nailed mplace so tliat exposed trimmed edges are
alternately
lapped. Preassembled hip and ridge units are
available and save
both time and money.
A metal ridge roll can also be used on asphalt shingle or
wood
shingle roofs {C, Fig. 5). This ridge is formed
to the roof slope
and should be copjier, galvanized iron, or aluminum.
Some metal
lidges are formed so that they provide an outlet
ventilating area.
However, the design should be such that it jirevents rain
or snow
from blowing in.
CHAPTER 31
Ventilation
—•—
Condensation of moisture vapor may occur m attic spaces an
under flat roofs during cold weather.Even where vapor bar-

riers are used, some vapor will
probably work into these spaces
protected areas and some
around pipes and other inadequately
the vapor barrier itself. Although the
amount might e
through
con-
unimportant equally distributed, it may be sufficiently
if
centrated in some cold spot to cause

damage. While wood shin-
resist vapor movement, such
gle and wood shake roofs do not
roofs are highly re-
roofings as asphalt shingles and built-up
practical method of removing the
moisture is
sistant. The most
by adequately ventilating the roof spaces.
A warm attic that is inadequately ventilated and insulated
formation of ice dams at the cornice. During
cold
may cause
the snow next to
weather after a heavy snowfall, heat causes
the roof to melt. (.See Fig. 1, Chap. 30.)
Water running down
the cornice, often form-
the roof freezes on the colder surface of
cause water to back up
ing an ice dam at the gutter which may
eaves and into the wall and ceiling. Similar
dams often
at the
provides part of the
form in roof valleys. Ventilation, therefore,
ceiling and ade-
answer to the problems. With a well-insulated
quate ventilation, attic temperatures are low
and melting of snow
over the attic space will be greatly reduced.
spaces offers an
In hot weather, ventilation of attic and roof
effective means of removing hot air,
thereby lowering the tem-
perature in these spaces. Insulation should be
used between ceil- ^
further retard heat
ing joists below the attic or roof space to
flow into the rooms below and materially
improve comfort con-
ditions.
728
AREA OF VENlILAfORS 729
It is coiinnon practice to install louvered openings in the end
walls of gable roofs for ventilation. Air movement through such
openings depends primarily on wind direction and velocity. No
appreciable movement can be expected when there is no wind or
unless one or more openings face the wind. Alore positive air
movement can be obtained by providing openings in the soffit
areas of the roof overhang in addition to openings at the gable
ends or ridge. Hip roof houses are best ventilated by inlet ven-
tilators in the soffit area and by outlet ventilators along the
ridge. The differences in temperature between the attic and the
outside will then create an air movement independent of the
wind, also a more positive movement when there is wind.
Where there is a crawl space under the house or the porch,
ventilation necessary to remove moisture vapor rising from the
is
soil. Such vapor may otherwise condense on the wood below

the floor and facilitate decay. A permanent vapor barrier on the
soil of the crawl space greatly reduces the amount of ventilating
area required.
Tight construction (including storm windows and storm doors)
and the use of humidifiers have created potential moisture prob-
lems which must be resolved through planning of adequate ven-
tilation as wellthrough the proper use of vapor barriers.
as
Blocking of ventilating areas, for example, must be avoided since
such practices will prevent ventilation of attic spaces. Inade-
quate ventilation will often lead to moisture problems which, to
correct, can result in unnecessary costs.
AREA OF VENTILATORS
Types of ventilators and minimum recommended sizes have
been generally established for various types of roofs. The mini-
mum net area for attic- or roof-space ventilators is based on the
projected ceiling area of the rooms below (Fig. 1). The ratio of
ventilator o{)enings as shown in Fig. 1 are net areas, and the
actual area must be increased to allow for any restrictions such
as louvers and wire cloth or screen. The screen area should be
double the specified net area as shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
730 V ENT I L AT ION
j << h
0 o
< Ll) LlI lij
0 0
I- I- q: q: j 0 0
OU< < h fO Q 0>
01
D LJ
O Z
QQ
° 3< J 5
O-- 111
I-
o
UJ
u 0
o
<Suo _l
z
0)
Q: >1-
roofs.
gable
of
areas
Ventilating
GABLE ROOFS 731
the vent, use a frame of required size to hold the screen away
from the ventilator opening. Use as coarse a screen as conditions
j)ermit, not smaller than No. 16, since lint and dirt tend to clog
fine mesh Screens should be installed in such a way
screens.
that ])aint brushes will not easily contact the screen and close
the mesh with j)aint.
GABLE ROOFS
Louvered openings are generally provided in the end walls of
gable roofs and should be as close to the ridge as possible (A,
Fig. 1). The net area for the openings should be 1/300 of the
ceiling area (A, Fig. 1). For example, where the ceiling area
equals 1,200 square feet, the minimum total net area of the
ventilators should be 4 square feet.
As previously explained, more positive air movement can be
obtained additional openings are provided in the soffit area.
if
The minimum ventilation areas for this method are shown in B,

Fig. 1.
Where there are rooms in the attic with sloping ceilings under
the roof, the insulation should follow the roof slope and be so
placed that there is a free opening of at least U/^" between the
roof boards and insulation for air movement (U, Fig. 1).
HIP ROOFS
Hip roofs should have air-inlet openings in the soffit area of the
eaves and outlet openings at or near the peak. For minimum
net areas of openings see A, Fig. 2. The most efficient type of
inlet opening is the continuous slot, which should provide a free
0 {)ening of not less than The air-outlet oi)ening near the
peak can be a globe-type metal ventilator or several smaller roof
ventilators located near the ridg(‘. They can be located below
the peak on the rear slope of the roof so that they will not be
visible from the front of the house. Gabled extensions of a hip-
roof house are sometimes used to provide efficient outlet ven-
tilators {B, Fig. 2).
732 VENTILATION
h-
UJ o o
AREA
AREA
J o o
OTAL
h- 10 0)
JET
D
0
o^
ii.52z
o-2tij 1“
o
pZhU ijJ o
o o
J 0) 0)
ELEVATIONS
roofs.
hip
SIDE
of
areas
Ventilating
2.
SECTIONS
Fig.
CROSS
ELEVATIONS
END
FLAT HOOFS 733
FLAT ROOFS
A greater ratio of ventilating area is required
in some types of
flat roofs than in pitched roofs because
the air movement is less
positive and
dependent upon wind. It is important that there
is
be a clear open space above the ceiling

insulation and below the
loof sheathing for free air movement from
inlet to outlet open-
ings. Solid blocking should not be
used for bridging or for brac-
ing over bearing partitions if its use
prevents the air circulation.
Perhaps the most common type of flat or low-pitched
roof is
one in which the rafters extend beyond the
wall, forming an
overhang (A, Fig. 3). When soffits are used, this area
can con-
tain the combined inlet-outlet ventilators, preferably a continu-
ous slot. When single ventilators are used, they should
be
distributed evenly along the overhang.
A
parapet-type wall and flat roof combination may be con-
structed with the ceiling joists separate from the
roof joists or
combined. When members are separate the space between
can
be used for an airway {B, Fig. 3). Inlet and outlet
vents are
then located as shown in the illustration, or a series
of outlet
stack vents can be used along the center line of the roof in
com-
bination with the inlet vents. When ceiling joists and flat
rafters
are served by one member parapet construction, vents
in may be
located as shown in C, Fig. 3. Wall-inlet ventilators combined
with center stack outlet vents might also be used in this type of
roof.
TYPES AND ISOLATION OF OUTLET VENTILATORS
Various styles of gable-end ventilators are available ready for

installation. Many are made with metal louvers
and frames,
while others may be made of wood to fit the house
design more
closely. However, the most important factors are to have suffi-
cient net ventilating area and to locate ventilators as close to
the ridg(j as jiossible without affecting house apfiearance.
One of the tyjies c.ommonly used fits the slope of the roof and
is located luair the ridge (A, Fig. 4). It can be made of wood or
metal; in metal it is often adjustable to conform to the roof
slojie. A wood ventilator of this type is enclosed in a frame and
734 VENTILATION
I-
<< UJ
o
-I, liJU
J o
lO o _
h -"q
D Q
^ O U lU
cco Z z
U.50Z QD CD
°i<=! 5
0 0
Szpo I-
UJ
o o
J O O
z
roofs.
flat
of
area
CQ O Ventilating
w
z
g ec
K
U til
u
(/)
if)
if)
o
q:
o
OUTLET VENTILATORS 735
Fig. 4. Oiitlot ventilators. A, triangular. B, typical cross section.

C, half-circle. 1), scpiare. K, v('rtical. F, soffit.
736 VENTILATION
placed in the rough opening much as a window frame {B, Fig.

4). Other forms of gable-end ventilators which might be used
are shown in C, D, and E, Fig. 4.
A
system of attic ventilation which can be used on houses with
a wide roof overhang at the gable end consists of a series of
small vents or a continuous slot located on the underside of the
soffit areas {F, Fig. 4). Several large openings located near the
ridge might also be used. This system is especially desirable on
low-pitched roofs where standard wall ventilators may not be
suitable.
It is important that the roof framing at the wall line does not
block off ventilation areas to the attic area. This might be ac-
complished by the use of a ladder frame extension. A flat nail-
ing block used at the wall line will provide airways into the
attic. This can also be adapted to narrower rake sections by pro-
viding ventilating areas to the attic.
TYPES AND LOCATION OF INLET VENTILATORS
Small, well-distributed ventilators or a continuous slot in the

soffit provide inlet These small louvered and
ventilation.
screened vents can be obtained in most local lumberyards or
hardware stores and are simple to install.
Only small sections need to be cut out of the soffit and can be
sawed out before the soffit is applied. It is more desirable to use
a number of smaller well-distributed ventilators than several
large ones (A, Fig. 5). Any blocking which might be required
between rafters at the wall line should be installed in order to
provide an airway into the attic area.
A continuous screened slot, which is often desirable, should be
located near the outer edge of the soffit near the facia {B, Fig.
5). Locating the slot in this area will minimize the chance of
snow entering. This type may also be used on the extension of
flat roofs.
CRAWL-SPACE VENTILATION AND SOIL COVER
The crawl space below the floor of a basementless house and

II\LET VENTILATORS 737
>
Figr. 5. Inlet ventilators. A, small insert ventilator. H, slot ventilator.
under porches should he ventilated and protected from ground

moisture by the use of a noil cover (Fig. 6). The soil cover should
be a vapor barrier with a [term value of less than 1.0. This in-
cludes such barrier materials as plastic films, roll roofing, and
738 VENTILATION
asphalt laminated paper. Such protection will minimize the ef-

fect of ground moisture on the wood framing members. High
moisture content and humidity encourage staining and decay of
untreated members.
Where there is a partial basement open to a crawl-space area,
no wall vents are required if there is some type of operable win-
dow. The use of a soil cover in the crawl space is still important.
For crawl spaces with no basement area, provide at least four
foundation wall vents near corners of the building. The total
free (net) area of the ventilators should be equal to 1/160 of the
ground area when no soil cover is used. Therefore, for a ground
area of 1,200 square feet, a total net ventilating area of about 8
square feet is required, or 2 square feet for each of the four
ventilators. More smaller ventilators having the same net ratio
are satisfactory.
CRAW L-SPACE VENTILATION 739
W hen a vapor-barrier ground cover is used, the required ven-

tilating area is greatly reduced. The net ventilating area re-
quired with a ground cover 1/1600 of the ground area, or for
is
the 1,200-square-foot house, an area of 0.75 square foot. This

should be divided between two small ventilators located on op-
posite sides of the crawl space. Vents should be covered (Fig. 6)
with a corrosion-resistant screen of No. 8 mesh.
The use of a ground cover is normally recommended under all
conditions. not only protects wood framing members from
It
ground moisture but also allows the use of small, inconspicuous
ventilators.
) ))
Index
Abrasives, 206, 320—322 332-348 painted, wood species

Asphalt shingles (See Roof adjustment table and used, 670
coverings. controls, 333-335 term defined, 669
Attic folding stairs (See blades, types of, 337-338 Carpeting, 653-655
Stairs. checking and adjusting, advantages of, 655
Awning window unit (See 335-336 master adhesives, 655
Windows. grilles, extension, 333 materials for suspended
Band saw, 370-380 molding cutters and floor application,
blades, 374—375 fences, 338 654-655
checking blade tension, motor, 335 subfloor, 655
375 mounting or replacing underlayments, 654-655
blade guide blocks, thrust new saw, 338 Combination electric screw-
wheels, adjusting, operations, 339-348 drill (See Electric
375 crosscutting, 342-343 screw-drill.)
mounting blade, 374-375 cutting miters, 343—344 Chisels and gouges, 63-73
controls, 374 cutting off duplicate butt, 63
function, 370 work, 347 corner, 63
installation procedures, resawing, 341-342 former, 63
372-374 ripping, 339-341 mill, 63
operations, 375-380 safety rules, 348 packet, 63
checking before starting sanding and other paring, 63
saw, 376-377 operations, 348 sharpening, 71
cutting circles, 378 parts, 332-335 slikh, 63
socket, 64-65
cutting circular rails, Braces and bits, 73-80
379 tang, 64
auger bits, 74-75
cutting combination sharpening, 74—75 types of, 63-67
curves, 378-379 sizes of, 74-75
uses of,251-
63-67
cutting curves, 377 types of, 74-75
using chisels, 67-68
maintenance and working parts of, 75 using gouges, 68-69
lubrication, 380 braces, types of, 73-74
whetting and grinding
multiple cutting, 379 corner, 73
gouge, 71-73
straight sawing, 377 wood-carving, 65-73
plain, 73
parts, 370-372 classification, 65-67
ratchet, 73-74 252-
Basement rooms, 600-605 work-carving gouge or
use of, 73-74, 76-78
ceilings, 604—605 chisel, using, 69-71
countersink bits, 79-80
acoustic ceiling tile, Circular saw, portable,
types of, 79
installing, 604-605 253
use of, 79-80
finish, types of, 604 adjustments, 251-252
depth gauge, 77
nailing, 604-605 bottom plate of, 252
dowel bits, 75
suspended, 604 expansion or extension for crosscutting or
floors, 600-602 bits, 78-79
ripping, 251-252
existing, details for, Forstner bits, 76 operation, 251
600 gimlet bits, 75-76 saw blades, various,
new construction, twist drills, using, 78
proper use of,
details for, 600 253
vapor barrier, installation Cabinets, 669—674 sizes, 251
installation of, and other millwork, Clamps, 90 (See Chaps.
600-602 669-674 3 and 5.)
at or below outside china cases or storage bar, 90
ground level, shelves, 674 C-clamps, 90
600-602 closets and wardrobes, cabinetmaker’s, 90
concrete slab, prepara- 672-673 cramping, 90
tion of, for wood built-in combinations, hand screws, 91)
strip, flooring, 672 use of, 90

procedure (list), clothes closet, 672 Covering floors and other
600-601 linen closets, 672—673 surfaces, 486-492
over existing unpro- wardrobes, with sliding Coverings for exterior walls,
tected concrete or folding doors, 622-642
600-602
slab, 672 Doors, 494-504
tile,use of, 601-602 kitchen, 670-672 butt hinges, 499-501
varied procedure, 601 basic layouts of kitchen, attaching, procedure
walls, 602-604 f7-type, L-type, for, 499-501
foamed plastic insula- parallel wall or locating, 499-500
tion, use of, 603-604 Pullman, sidewall tools needed, 500-501
furring strips, 603 type, 672 door creaking, eliminat-
insulation, 602 various types of, 670-672 ing, 497
interior finish, types of, mantels, with built in door locks, 601-504
use of, 602 cabinets, 673 bore-in, 502-503
preparing for interior millwork, 669 classification of, 501
finish, 603 finished with varnish half-mortise, 504
waterproofing, 602-603 and sealers, woods installing, 501-504
Bench or circular saws. used, 670 mortise, 501-502
) )
rim, 504 399-401 templates, routing,

tools and equipment tools required, 399-401 236-239
needed, 501-502 power and speed, 391 Electric screw-drill, 202-205
tubular, 503-504 spindles, 391 combination, 202-205
door rattling, eliminating, types 390
of, maintenance, 205
497 unpacking, cleaning, 392 brushes, 205
door warpage, 496-497 Electric drill, portable, cable, 205
cause, 496 246-247 lubrication, 205
correcting, method accessories, 246-247 operation, 202-205
used, 496-497 chuck and chuck key, 246 chuck, removing,
of doors between controls, various, 246-247 202-203
kitchens and sizes,246 drilling, adjusting unit,
passage ways, 496 uses, 246 for wood, brick,
of outer doors, 496 Electric hand finishing cement, cinder
fitting and hanging, Sander, 206-211 block or similar
498-499 abrasives for, attaching, materials, 203-205
operations, 498-499 206 switch, 203
panel door, fitting, assembly of, 207-208 Exterior frames, windows,
procedure used, 498 description of, 206 and doors, 675-685
tools required, 498 lubrication, 210-211 millwork items, 675-685
sagging or sticking maintenance of, 210-211 (See individual
garage doors, brushes, 210 items.
eliminating, 495-496 cable, 210 Exterior projects. 546-568
brace, use of, 496 motors, 210 board fences, 552-553
causes, 495 operation of, 208-209 decorative effect, 552
procedure used, 495-496 Electric hand power plane, heights, various, 553
sticking, eliminating, 211-215 materials needed,
494-495 adjustment, 212-213 (lists), 553
causes, 494-495 brushes, 211-212 other boards used, for
hinges, 95 cable, 212 privacy, 553
latch, 495 grounding, 212 painting, 552
procedures used, 495 motor, 211 rough boards, 552
Doors and frames, operation, 214-215 surfaced stock, use of,
exterior, 682-685 lubrication, 215 552
combination or screen safety precautions, 215 garden fences, 549-553
door, 682 Electric heavy duty hand building, 549-552
exterior trim, 682 router, 215-226 materials used, 551, 552
frames, 682 assembly, 217 placing posts, 550
size, 682 attaching bits and ready-cut lumber, form,
types of, 684-685 cutters, 219-220 quality of, design,
flush, 684 cuts and joints, making, 550-551
panel, 684 226-236 gates, 554-555
with self-storing dado cuts, 226-227 bandsaw, use of, 554-555
features, 685 dovetail dado, 227-228 construction, procedures
wood combination dovetail joints, 235-236 for, 554-555
(storm and screen), mortise-and-tenon joints, double-swing hinges,
684-685 231-234 554
weatherstripping, 685 rabbet cuts, 228-229 materials needed (lists),
Drill press, 390-407 spline joints, 234-235 554, 555
description, 390-391 tongue-and-groove pre-cut redwood, 554
drilling in wood, 402-405 joints, 239-231 straight picket, 554
deep holes, 403-404 inlay work, 240-241 lattice fencing, 553
in round work, 404-405 maintenance and care, advantages of, 553
large holes, 404 216-218 materials needed (list),
pivot points, 405 cable, 218 553
procedure, 402-403 motor and current, 217 lawn chair, 558-560
speeds, 402 molding, 242-243 construction of, 558—560
to depth, 403 cutting, 242-243 cutting parts, 558
functions, 390 designs, 242-243 handtools or power
installing, 392-398 operating procedures, equipment, use of,
adjusting belt tension, general, 215-217 558
393-394 operating router, 220-221 materials needed,
adjusting spindle return free-hand routing, 221 558-559
spring, 395 T-square guide, 221 sanding and finishing,
adjustments, 396—397 operation safety, 218-219 560
changing spindle speeds, lubrication, 219 lawn tables, 562-564
394 regulating cutting depth, bandsaw, use of, 562
changing spindles, 394 220 barrel toi)s, use of, 562
chucking drills, 398 slot and circle cutting construction of,
double-acting depth attachnjent, use of, procedure, 562-563
gage, 397 225-220 dado joints, 563
lubrication, 394 straight and circular (See Chap. 3.
mounting chuck, 397 guide, 222-225 half-lapped joints, 562
mounting motor, attaching and adusting, materials needed, 562
392-393 222-223 stock for tops, 562
removing chuck, 397 curved and angular cuts, outdoor gymnasium,
replacing spindle, 395 224 564-565
miscellaneous drill press inside cuts, 225 construction of,
operations, 405-407 measuring feature, 225 procedure, 564
countersinking, 406 straight cuts, 224 for children, 564
grinding, 405-406 tapered legs, making, materials needed, 564
sanding, 406-407 243-245 plans, 564-565
operation, 398-401 tapering fixture, pergolas, 555-557
laying out work. making, 243-245 construction.
procedures, 555 installing, 634 thickness of, 627
designs, 555 nails used, 634 vapor barrier, use of,
dimensions, 555 prepackaged siding, 628 (See Chap. 15,
hand tools, use of, 555 application of, 634 section on Vapor
individual members, exterior corners, 635-638 barriers.)
size of, 555 corner boards, for veneers, 622
materials needed (lists), horizontal siding, vertical sidings, 634-635
556, 557 types, sizes, 637-638 installing, 634-635
power equipment, finishing wood siding or nailing, 634-635
use of, 555 other materials, sheathing paper, use of,
roll-away lawn seat, methods of treat- 635
561-562 ment, 635-638 wood and wood-base
construction details, 561 interior corners, use of materials, 622
finish, 562 shingle flashing, 638 wood shingles and shakes,
seats, 561 metal corners, 639 628-629, 640-642
roll-away lounge, 560-561 mitering, 637 building paper, use of,
assembly and finish, 561 prefinished shingle or 642
construction of, shake, use of, lacing, exposure distance on
procedures, 560-561 658 sidewalls, 641-642
gluing and clamping, water repellent preserva- for sidewalls, 628
561 (See Chap. 3.) tive, use of, 638 grades and species,
hinged section, 561 fiberboard, 622 628-629
materials needed, 561 hardboard, 622 in double course method,
storm sashes, 549 horizontal or vertical shingles used, 641
constructing, 549 sidings, 623-627 in single coui’se method,
fitting, 649 bevel or “Anzac” shingles used, 640
glass sizes, standard, 549 sidings, 623 installation of, 640-642
joints, 549 Dolly Varden, uses, 623 joints used, 642
procedures, 549 nailing areas, 623 nailing, 642
special storm-sash sizes, 623-625 nails used, 642
hinges and types of, 623-627 painted or stained, 628
fasteners, 549 installation of siding, shakes, types of, 629
tool shed and lath house, 629-638 shingle sizes, 629
565-568 annularly and helically shingles, 622
combination, 665-568 threaded shank siding effect, 640
concrete foundation, 568 nails, use of, 630 single or double course
floor plan, 567 fasteners used, types of, pattern, 640-641
gutters, 568 importance of, threaded nails, use of,
materials needed (list), 629-630 with plywood
568 masonry, 622 sheathing, 640
structural details, 567 material transition, use of, 640—642
wood used, type of, 566 638-639 wood nailing strips,
trellises, 557-558 gable-end finish, example, use of, as base, for
construction of, 557 638-639 nonwood sheathing,
designs, 557 gable-end projection, 640
lattice, battens, or lath 638-639 wood siding, 622-623
for (list), 557 metal or plastic siding, materials used for,
materials required, 558 622 622-623
window, door, and porch other exterior finish, 629 moisture content, 623
screens, 546-549 asbestos-cement siding properties required for,
construction of, 546-549 and shingles, 629 622
doweled joint, 547 masonry veneers, with water-repellent
materials and hardware wood siding, 629 preservative, treat-
needed, 546-547 metal sidings, 629 ment, 623
mitered joint, 647 nonwood materials, 629 wood siding or paneling,
procedure, 546-547 plaster films, on wood 622
sandpapering, 547 siding or plywood, Finishes for floors, 475-478
screening materials, 546 629 coatings, 478
seasoned wood, 646 stucco or cement effectiveness of, 478
selection of joint, plaster finish, over interior floors, 475-478
546-547 wire mesh base, 629 filler, 476
step joint, 546-547 other non-wood materials, liquid wax, 476, 478
storing, 549 622 paste waxes, 476
tools needed, 546 plywood, 622, 635 sanding, 475-476
Exterior walls, 622-642 and other sheet siding, procedures, 475-478
application of horizontal 635 sealers or varnishes,
sidings, 625 hardboard siding, 635 description of, 476
application of vertical nailing, over studs, stains, 476
sidings, 626-627 example, intervals, porches and decks, 478
bevel siding, 630—634 635 exposed flooring on, 478
average exposure dis- prefinished siding, 622 (See Chap. 24.)
tance, determining, sheathing used over, 635 procedure, 478
example, 631-632 sheet materials for sidings, Finishes for interior
installing procedures, 627-628 woodwork, 471-478
632-634 applying, methods used, Finishes, natural, 452-456
nailing, 632-633 627 for exterior wood, 452-456
squai*e cut, 634 hardboard, 627 natural weathering,
water repellent hardboard sheets, 628 452-453
preservative, use of, paper-overlaid plywood, weathered wood, 452-453
634 627 pigmented penetrating
coverings for, 622-642 particle board, exterior- stains, 456
drop siding, 634 grade, for panel advantages, 456
and similar sidings, 634 siding, 627 Forest Products Labora-
constant exposure plywood, exterior-grade, tory natural finish,
distance, 634 627 description of, 456
) ) ) )
description of, 456 girder-joist installation,

box sill, in platform
water-repellent 587-590
construction,
preservatives, bolster, use of, 588
590-591 (See Chap.
453-456 connecting scab tie, 588
1, section on
applying solution, floor framing for, Foundations-Sills
methods used, 453 method of, 587 and Beams.)
pigmented colors added joist hangers or sup- construction of, 590-591
to solutions, 453-456 porting ledger strip, types of, 590
refinishing, 453 587-588 Flooring, 643-655
treatment, 453 joists, arrangement of,
materials, 643-655 (See
weathered wood, 452-453 590 Floor coverings.)
appearance of, 452-453 notched joists, 588
spaced wood girder, 588
resilient tile, when used,
nails used, importance 651
of, 453 steel beam, 587
strip, installation of,
Finishes, opaque, 471-475 steel strap, use of, 588
method used, 647-650
enamel undercoat, 472 wood girders,
floor squeaks, causes,
enamels, use of, 471 disadvantage of, 587
in wood frame house, 649
fillingporous hardwoods wood and particle board
before painting, 582-599 (See Chap.
sections on 652
tile,
474-475 1,
adhesive, type of, 652
birch, 474-475 Framing.
application, method of,
hardwoods with large plywood, 596-598
652
pores (list), 474 for end use require-
particle board tile, 652
hardwoods with small ments, 596 649-
plywood squares, with
pores (list ) 474 for subfloors, 596-598
, tongued-and-groove
procedures, 474-475 panel identification edges, 652
for interior woodwork, 475 index marking, 650- 644-647
wood-block,
procedures, 472 example, 596 flooring, 644
472- underlayment, use of,
before enameling, 472 nailing, method of,
for hardwoods with 596-597
651
large pores, 472 use of, recommendations
nails used, 644
in new buildings, 472 (lists), 597-598 wood flooring over
semigloss enamels, use of, posts and girders, 583-587 concrete slabs,
471 built-in girder, types of,
651
transparent finishes, nailing, 587 installation of, 650-651
474 glue-laminated beams, vapor barrier, use of,
filler, 473 commercially properties in, pro-
473-
flat oil finishes, 474 available, where cedures employed,
lacquers, 474 used, 586 651 (See Chap. 22,
on hardwoods, 472-473 masonry piers, use of, Fig. 2.)
on softwoods, 472-473 in crawl space wood 644-650
strip,
sealer, 473 houses, 583 end-matched, 644
shellac, 474 steel beams, shapes, 586 hardwoods, prefinished
stains used, 473 wood girders, types of, and unfinished, 644
transparent surface ends of, 586-587 softwoods, 644
coatings, various, (See Chap. 3, square-edged, 644
474 section on Posts.) tongued-and-grooved,
use of, 472 wood or steel posts, 644
varnish, 474 use of, type, Floors, 479-486 (See also
wax, 474 583-586 Chap. 25.)
Floor coverings, 643 subflooring, 595—596 construction of, 479-486
other materials, 643 balloon framing, 596 damaged or worn floor,
asphalt, 643 boards, patterns, sizes, 482-484
carpeting, 643 595 (See Chap. 1, cleats, use of, 484
ceramic tile, 643 section on Subfloors.) floor boards, removal of,
cork, 643 laying, 596 482
linoleum, 643 use of, 595 repairing, 482-484
particle board, 643 wall projections, 598-599 replacing, 483
plastic, 643 bay window, 598 tools needed, 482-483
rubber, 643 extensions, first- or filling cracks, 485
vinyl, 643 second-floor, 598 cleaning cracks before,
wood materials, 643 floor framing at, procedure, 485
as strip flooring, 643 598-599 fillers, types of, 485
hardwoods, 643 joist hangers or in planked floors, 485
softwoods, 643 ledger, 598 house, 479
Floor framing, 582-599 joists, 598 double, 479
bridging, 595 nailing, 598 finish floor, 479
cross, 595 rafters and headers, single, 479
partitions, 595 598 subflooring, 479
_
solid, 595 subflooring,^ 598 types of, 479

floor joists, 592-595 wood floor system, 582-583 opening flooring, 485-486
in-line joists, 594 beams and joists, cleats and nails used,
installation, 592-595 moisture content of, 485-486
other qualities for, 592 582-583 fillers,486
selection of, require- design of, factor, for repairs, for planked
ments, 592 (See 582-583 floor, 485-486
Chap. 1, section on lumber, grades of, 583 for tongue-and-grooved
Framing — Joists, nailing, example, 583
(See Chap. 3,
flooring, procedure
used, tools needed,
Rafters, and
Headers. section on Nail 485-486
wood, size, grade, 592 Holding. sagging, 479-482
floor openings, 594-595 wood sill, 590-591 causes, 479
(See Chap. 23, balloon frame, wood sill eliminating, 480
Construction of used, nailing, filler compound, 482
stairs. 591-592 finishing nails, 482

)
in upper floors, 481-482 gluing methods, 182-186 section on Vapor

479- methods used,
repairing, applying glue, hints on, barriers.
482 184-186 blanket, 687
screw480-
jack, use of, steps to follow, 182-183 descriptions of, 687-688
481 gluing properties, of fibrous glass batt,
teleposts, use of, 481 different woods, friction type of, 688
timber, use of, 480 178-179 how to install insulation,
Garages, 711, 713-716 animal, 180 683-694
carports, 713 casein, 180 batt insulation, 695
classification, 711, 713 phenol resin, 180 blanket or batt insula-
doors, 715-716 polyvinyl resin emulsion, tion, with vapor
automatic electric open- 180 barrier, 693-694
ing, with remote- resorcinol and phenol- fill insulation 695
control devices, 716 resorcinol resin, 180 hand stapler, use of, 694
header beam over garage starch, 180 reflective insulation, 695
doors, for snow load, synthetic resin, 180 without a barrier,
for floor loads, 716 thermosetting, 180 system used,
panel type, 716 urea resin, 180 694-695
sectional, hanging, vegetable protein, 180 loose 688
fill,
operating, 716 Hammers, 32-35 composition of, 688
single-section swing, claw, 32 in bags or bales,
hanging, operating, ripping, 32 available, 688
716 smooth-face, 33 use 688
of,
sizes, 716 bell, 33 materials, 686-687
interior finish, 714-715 plain, 33 classes of, 686-687
choice of, 714 tack, 32 commercial, 686-687
fill, below floor,when toenailing, 33-34 flexible, 687
required, type, driving corrugated loose fill, 687
714-715 fasteners, 34 miscellaneous types, 687
floor, setting, use of replacing broken reflective, 687
expansion joint, 715 hammer handle, rigid, structural and
laying concrete, 715 34-35 nonstructural, 687
local building regula- ripping, 34 thermal properties, 687
tions, and fire upholsterer’s, 32 miscellaneous, 690-691
codes, 714 using hammer, method of, foamed-in-place insula-
wire reinforcing mesh, 33-35 tions, types of, 690
use of, 715 clinching nails, 33 insulation blankets, 690
selection of type, 713 driving nails, 33 plastic, 690
building regulations, for pulling out nails, 33 polystyrene and ure-
detached, for Hand power tools, opera- thane plastic foams,
basement, 713 tion and mainte- 690
factors, 713 nance
47- {See thermal conductivity
size, 714-715 individual tool.) values, 690
for attached garage, 714 Handsaws, 35-49 precautions in insulating,
of cars, 714 hacksaw,
48-35, 40 696-697
of double garage, compass 36-37 reflective, 689
minimum outside, coping saw, 37-38 effectiveness of, 689
714 crosscut, filing teeth, materials, where used,
of single garage, min- 35, 46-47 689
imum outside, 714 keyhole, 37 properties, 689
Glass cutter, use of, 91 parts of, 35 types of, 689
Glues, 178-194 ripsaw, filing teeth, rigid, 689-690
choosing suitable, 180-182 35, 47 fiberboard material, in
descriptions, 180-182 setting and sharpening sheet, in other
flake animal, 181-182 teeth, 41-49 forms, 689
liquid hide glue, 180-181 angle, in crosscut saws, roof insulation, 690
liquid resin glue, 181 48 sheathing board, 690
powdered casein, 181 equipment needed, 41-42 sheets of tile squares,
powdered resin, 181 filing teeth, 45—46 690
resorcinol, 181 how to bevel teeth, slab of block insulation,
clamping, 186-190 49 690
band clamp, 190 jointing teeth, 42-44 structural insulating
C-clamps, 189 saw set, use of, 45 boards, 689
deep-throat C-clamps, setting teeth, operation where to insulate, 691-693
189 of, 44-45 in attic areas, 693
edge-clamp fixture, 189 shaping teeth, 44 in houses with flat or
hand screw, 187 side-dressing saws, 49 low-pitched roofs,
miter clamp, 190 sizes, 35 693
pipe type or long types, 35 in one an one-half story
clamps, 189 uses, 35-41 houses, 692
quick clamp, 189 Hand tools, basic (lists), in unheated attic space,
special clamps, various, 31-92 (See also 692
186 individual tool.) in walls, 693
spring, 188 How to make woodworking storm windows or insu-
surface or bench, 188 joints, 140—159 lated glass, use of,
conditioning glued Impact wrench, electric, 693
glued joints, 190-194 254-255 to redvice heat loss,
joints, 192 added equipment, 254 691-692
end-grain surfaces, 193 driving anvils, 254 unheated crawl spaces,
end-to-side-grain operating, 255 692
surfaces, 193 uses, 254-255 ventilation of attic and
side-grain surfaces, Insulation, 686-696 roof spaces, 693
190-191 flexible, 687-688 (See Chap. 31,
types of, 190-194 batt, 687-688 (See Ventilation.)
,
wall adjoining unheated

dry-wall finishes, types of, Interior projects, 512-545
garage or porch, 692
when using 607 book and magazine
air- table,
fiberboard, 619 516-517
conditioning
application of, 619 how
systems, 693 to make legs, tub-
as acoustic tile, 619
Interior doors, frames and ing, painting, 516
casing or finishing materials needed, 517
trim, 656-669 nails, 619
base moldings, 667-668 parts required (list),
in tongue-and-grooved
base shoe, 668 517
plank, sheet form, plan for, 516
coped joint, 668 thickness, 619
installation of, 668 procedure, 516-517
suspended ceiling, 619 built-in bar cabinet,
nailing, 668 uses, 619
types of, 667-668 533-536
for ceilings, 606
casings, 658, 661 materials needed, 536
for walls, 606 parts required (list),
ceiling moldings, 668-669 hardboard, 619
cope-jointed, 668 535-536
application of, 619 plan for, 533-535
crown molding, 668 finishing nails, 619
cutback edge, 668 procedure, 534-535
lath and plaster, 607
659-
finish nails, use of, 668 built-in magazine and book
gypsuni lath, 607 rack, 519-520
use of, 668 insulating fiberboard
decorative treatment for, finishing, 520
lath, 607 materials needed, 520
660-
656-669 metal lath, 607
door frame and trim, parts required (list), 520
plaster base, 607 plan for, 519
662 plaster base, 607-608
casings, 661 procedure, 519-520
application of, 607-608 dark-room cabinet, 537-539
installation of, 659-662 gypsum lath, 607-608
nails and wedges, use of materials needed, 539
insulating lath, 608 parts required (list), 539
661 metal lath, 608
stops, 661-662 plan for, 537-538
nailing, 607-608
door hardware, 662-665 procedure, 537-538
plaster grounds, 610-611
door sets, 662-663 fruit-vegetable storage,
around interior door 544-545
finishes, 662 openings, removal
installation of, 662-665 drawer parts, 545
of, 610
door locks, 664 materials needed, 545
at base of walls, 610
installing, 664
metal bins, 544
at door openings, 610
lock sets, instructions, plan for, 544
at window openings, 610
664 procedure, 544-545
procedures, 610-611
doors, 658-659 plaster materials, 611-612
wooden door, 545
flush, 658 application, method of,
hi-fidelity and TV room
hinged, 659 divider,
525-530
611-612
design for needs, 525-526
louvered, 658-659 double-up work, 612 materials needed, 530
panel, 658 final or finish coat,
doorstop, installing, 664 parts required (list)
types of, sand-float, 528-530
hinges, 663 putty, 612 plan for, 525-527
installing, 663 ingredients, 611 procedure, 527-528
loose-pin butt, 663 insulating plaster, 612 mixing center cabinet,
number of, used, 663 plastering operations, 539-541
strike plate, installing, 664 612 materials and hardware
trim parts for doors and uses of, 611-612 needed, 541
frames, 657-662 plaster reinforcing,
door frames, types of plan for, 540
609-610
jambs, stop procedure, 539-541
corner beads, of ex-
moldings, 657-658 photography equipment
panded metal, lath, and projector
wood trim, 655-667 of perforated metal,
enclosed with casing, cabinet, 530-533
use of, 609
665-667 materials needed, 533
cornerites, 609
for double-hung window parts required (list),
metal lath, where used,
frames, 665-667 533
609
nailing, 666-667
plans for, 530-531, 532
to minimize cracking,
sash stops, stool, apron, procedure, 532
609-610
record player and radio
use of, 665-667 plywood, 618-619
cabinet, 523-524
weatherstripping, adhesives, use of,
materials needed, 524
channel-type, 667 procedure, 619
l)arts required (list),
Interior finishes, 606-621 application of, 618-619
defined, 606 nailing, 619
524
dry-wall finish, 612-618
plan for, 523, 524
prefinished, use of,
procedure, 523-524
adhesives, use of, 616 species, 618
defined, 612
room divider with storage
types of, 606 space, 520-522
for repair and re- fiberboard, 606 cabinets, 521
modeling work, 616 gypsum walljboard, 606 constructing procedures,
gypsum board, de- lath and plaster, 606 521-522
scription of, appli- plywood, 606 individual units, multi-
cation of, 614-616 wood paneling, 606 ples of, 520-521
horizontal application, wood paneling, 620-621 materials needed, 522
616 in small plywood painting cabinets, 521
nails and screws used, sciuares, use of, 621 parts required (list),
615-616 matched, ai>plication of 522
nails or special screws (list), 620-621 r)lan form, 521
used, 616 nails used, 621 sink cabinet, 543-544
taping, procedure for seasoned to moisture color, choice of, 543
(list), 617-618 content, 620 materials and hardware
thin materials, use of, types and patterns of needed, 544
612 wood, for informal plan for, 543
vertical application, 616 treatment, 620 plywood, 543
)
procedure, 543-544 mortise-and-tenon, blind, Wood Products.)

sliding spice rack, 541-542 150-153 basic characteristics of,
materials needed, 542 bevel, 153-154 93-108
plan for, 541-542 mortise, 152-153 bending strength, 104-105
procedure, 541-542 multiple, 156-157 defined, 104
telephone bench, 517-518 single, 155-156 hardwoods, classes, 105
finishing, 518 templates, 153-154 softwoods, classes,
legs,517-518 tenon section, 150-152 104-105
materials needed, 518 rabbet, 145-146, 147 boards and dimensions,
parts required (list), rabbet plane, use of, standard sizes, 93-94
518 145 (See Chap. 2, decay, 102
plan for, 517-518 for tool.) preventing, 102
workbench and tool rack, tongue-and-groove, 159 protecting wood from
513-516 types of, 140-159 (list), 102
construction of, 513-516 uses, 140-159 decay resistance factor,
finishing, suggestions various lap, 140-144, 146 112-113
for, 516 cross lap, 140-144 distinctive and principal
procedure used, for cut end or corner lap, 140, uses, 108
lumber, for uncut 143-144, 145 properties of wood, 108
lumber, 515 (See half lap, 140-144, 146 requirements, 108
Chap. 3.) middle half-lap, 140-143 figure, 103
tools and materials Kitchen cabinets, 670-672 causes, 103
needed, 514-515 Lathe, wood-turning, color of wood, 103
(See Chap. 2, section 319-320, 349-369 in different woods, 103
on Tools: Drilling; maintenance and finishing and appearance
Countersinking. lubrication, 369 factor. 111
workshop, planning, adjusting tool rest, 356 painted surfaces. 111
512-513 bead cutting, 363-364 surface features. 111
Jig saw, 381-389 concave cuts, making, grades of lumber, 107-108
adjustment of, 382 362-363 appearance, 107
advantage, 381 faceplate turning, surface characteristics
blades, 384-389 364-367 of common, 107-108
mounting, 384—386 locating center points, hardness, defined, 94-95
selecting, 384 354-355 hardwood, 94, 109-110
controls, 382-384 mounting stock, 355-356 factory grades, 110
functions, 381 roughing, 356 for construction, classes,
installation of, 382 sandpapering and 110
operating, 386-389 finishing turnings, how graded, 109-110
correct speeds, 387 368-369 heartwood content, 102-103
lubrication and shaping square stock to available decay-resistant
maintenance, 389 cylindrical form, lumber, 102-103
lubricating drive 356-360 how graded, 108—113
mechanism, 386-387 sizing cuts, making, 360 nail holding, 100-102
multiple cutting, 388 taper cuts, making, 361 in interior carpentry,
pattern or outline, woodturning, methods nails used, 101
cutting to, 387-388 used, 355 moisture content of
parts, 381 parts, 349-351 wood, 101
uses, 381 setting up, 352-353 nails, type of, number
Jointer, 408-415 tools (lists) 351-352
,
of, 100-102
adjustments, 411 cleaning-up, 352 placement of nails, 100
controls, 410-411 roughing-off, 352 splitting of woods,
functions, 408 scraping, 352 prevention of,
installation of, 409-410 smoothing, 352 101-102
on radial-arm machine turning speeds, 353-354 odor and taste of wood,
(See Chap. 7, adjustment of, 353-354 103-104
section on Shaper- for various operations, cedars, 104
Jointer Operation.) 353-354 in food containers,
operation, 411-415 Levels, 90 103-104
cutting chamfers or description of, 90 suitable classes of woods,
bevels, 413 use of, 90 103-104
lubrication, 414 Linoleum, 486-492 when green, 103-104
moldings, making, 413 asphalt or cork floor tiles, paint holding, factors,
planing, 411-413 492 99-100
rabbeting, 413 blocks, laying, 491 posts, 106
sharpening cutter bulges, eliminating, 487 compressive strength,
blades, 414-415 cleaning, 486 106
parts, 408-409 filling holes in, 488 in small houses, 106
Joints, 140-159 laying, 488-491 or compression members,
butt, 144 cement used, 491 106
dado, 146-150 cutting, 490 stiffness, 106
stopped dado, 149 metal edgings and strength, 106
how to make common bindings, 491 price factor, 113
woodworking, 140- on flooi’s, 488-490 shrinkage or swelling,
159 to sink counters and 95-97
miter, 157-159 walls, 491 causes, 96-97
clamp vise, use of, 158 tools used, 491 of plywood, 97
dowels, tongues, slip painting, 486 softwood, 94, 108-109
feathers, use of, patching, procedure used, common boards, 108—109
158-159 487-488 dimension lumber, 109
in picture frames and types of, 486 finish or select grades,
screens, 157-158 inlaid, 486 108-109
miter box, sawed in, printed, 486 for interior and exterior
158 (See Chap. 2, waxing, 486-487 finishing, 108
for tool.) Lumber, 93-113 (See also how graded, 109
reinforcing, 159 Chap. 1, Wood and trade pi’actices, 109
) )
105-106
stiffness, grades, 123 types, 432-438
breaking strength, 105 roof sheathing, 123 duster, 435
defined, 105 rough-textured or Dutch calcimine, 435
differences in, 105-106 patterned exterior, flat artist’s, 436
importance of, 105 123 flat calcimine, 434-435
softwoods, 105-106 standard interior grade, flat color, 437-438
strength factor, 110-111 123 flat sash, 434
boards, purposes of, 110 term, defined, 122 {See flat wall, 433
grades, selecting, uses, Chap. 1, Fig. 1.) flat woodwork or
110 uses, 123 varnish, 433
softw'ood dimension retail, 113-124 flowing, 438
lumber, use of, general-purpose items, oval sash, 434
example, 110-111 113 oval varnish, 434
tightness factor, 111-112 special-purpose items, radiator, 436
toughness, 107 113 roof-painting, 437
defined, 107 wood-based products, 113 stencil, 438
hardwoods used, 107 shingles, wood, 121-122 stippling, 437
w'arping, reducing, 97-98 bundled, widths of, 122 waxing, 438
wear-resistance factor, 113 grades, 121 whitewash, 435
weights, 95 lengths, 122 Painting, 461—471
working with w'ood, No. 1 Blue Label, No. 2 application, 464-465
ease of, 98-99 Red Label, No. 3 label on paint can,
Lumberyards, 113-124 Black Label, 121 instructions for,
boards or sheathing, 117 Red Cedar Shingle 464-465
description of, 117 Bureau rules, 121 cleanup, 469
grades, 117 undercoursing, 121-122 color, 463, 464
patterns, 117 siding, 118—120 contractors, 471
uses, 117 bevel, 119 for ceilings, 464
door and window frames, boards and battens, 119 how to check con-
122 drop, 119 tractor’s work, 471
sizes, 122 for exterior coverages, insurance, 471
water-repellent 118 Property Damage
treatment, 122 grades, 119 Insurance, 471
woods used, 122 other siding materials, Public Liability, 471
dressed thicknesses, 119-120 ready mixed, 463
114-116 patterns, 118-119 selection of, points
American standards, 114 Measuring and laying-out (list ) 463
,
and widths of lumber, 83-90

tools, signed agreement, con-
114-116 gauges, 89-90 tents ( list 471) ,
oversizes, 114 marking, using, 89 to be mixed, 463

substandard, 114 mortise, using, 90 types of jobs, premium,
exterior molding and rules, 83—84 standard, minimum,
finish, 121 squares, 85-88 471
exterior finish material, carpenter’s or framing, Workmen’s Compen-
grades, 121 85 sation and
sizes, 121 miter, 86 Employer’s Liability
types of, 121 try, 85-86 Insurance, 471
use of, 121 use of, 87-88 equipment, 465-466 (See
woods used, 121 steel straightedges, 84—85 also section on
flooring, 120-121 testing board for square- Painting tools and
block or parquet, 120 ness, 88-89 equipment.
edge-grained, flooring, types of, 83-90 brushes, use of, 465-466
120 Nails, screws, other drop cloths, 466
hardwood unfinished fasteners, and pressurized cans of
flooring, 120-121 hardware, 131-140 paint, use of, 465
softwood flooring, 120 bolts and nuts, 135-136 rollers, use of, 465-466
framing or dimension dowels, 135 special-shaped rollers,
lumber, 116-117 hasps, 139 466
grades, 117 hinges, 136-137 sprays, 465 (See Chap.
woods, 117 butt, 136 15.)
other sheet materials, rule-joint, 136 step-ladder, 466
124-127 spring, 136 wiping rags, 466
for sheathing walls, strap, 136-137 interior, 461-471
124-127 tee, 136-137 doors, 461
high-density hardboard, types of, 136-137 plaster walls and
125 hooks and eyes, 135 ceilings, 461
interior finish and latches, 138-139 wallboards 461
millwork, 126-127 locks, types of, 137-138 wood windows, 461
medium hardboard, 125 mending plates, 139 woodwork, 461
particle board, 124 screw fasteners, 135 plywood, 469-470
structural insulating screws, 133 j-135 fir, 469
board, 124—125 bolts and nuts, 135-136 paints, for opaque
corrugated, 134-135 finish, clear or
plywood, 122-124
hooks and eyes, 135 natural finish, blond
advantages, 123
wood, 133-134 effects, colored
as subflooring, 123-124
for resilient finish washers, 136 grain effect,
Operating portable hand 469-470
floor, 123
tools (See individual procedures, 469
for wood-block finish
floor, 123 tool. preparing surface for, 461
Paint brushes, 432-441 (See procedure, 467-469
grades and sizes, of
face veneers, 123 also section on for ceiling, 467
Painting tools and for flush doors, 468
hardwood, types, grades,
equipment.) for paneled df)ors, 468
uses, 124
care of, 438-440 for parts of window,
interior and exterior, in
storing, 440-441 order, 468
variety of sizes and
)
when painting walls grinding, 61 removable doors, 170

with roller, 467-468 whetting, 62-63 working with, 160—177
window glass, protect- types of, 55-57 Porches, 707-711
ing, with masking circular, 55-56 balustrade, 711, 712
tape, liquid mask- fore, 55 assembly, 711, 712
ing, wet newspaper, jack, 55 closed, with screens or
468-469 jointer, 55 combination
quantity, 463-464 modelmaker’s, 57 windows, 711, 712
determining gallons rabbet, 56-57 designs, 711, 712
needed (list), 464 roughing or scrub, 55 exposed members, wood
for ceilings, 464 smoothing, 55 used for, 711
for large jobs, 463-464 spokeshave, 57 for open porch, 711
for unpainted plaster, uses, 55-63 rail-to-rail connection,
464 using, method of, 58-61 methods used, 711,
for wallboard, 464 Plywood, 160-177 712
one-coat coverage, 464 cabinet backs, 170-172 with decorative railings,
safety tips (list), 467 applying, methods of, 711, 712
selecting paints, 461-463 170-171 columns or built-up posts,
dripless, 461 bevel, 171 710-711
enamels, 461, 463 materials needed, 170, factory made, ready for
gloss, semigloss, flat 172 installation, 710
finish, 461 other storage units, finished or cased column,
solvent-thinned paint backs of, 170-172 710
(oil-bases) 461, 463 without rabbets or for enclosed porches, 710
water-thinned paint moldings, 171 in open or partially open
(latex paint) , 461, door hardware, 175-177 porches, 710
463 concealed pin hinges, 176 open railing, 710
Painting tools and equip- semi-concealed loose-pin solid posts, use of, 710
ment, 441-443 (See hinges, 176 designs of, 707
also section on surface hinges, styles, flat-roofed porch, 708-709
Paint brushes.) for overlapping construction of, 708-709
extension brush holders, (lipped) doors, with concrete slab floor,
443 175-176 insulated or
ladders, long, extension, T guides, 177 uninsulated, 708
stepladders, 441-442 drawer construction, with wood floor framing,
putty knife, 443 166-168 708-709
roof ladder hooks, 443 bottom of, lip, edges, floor framing, 709
scaffold, 441 extended, 167-168 crawl space, open,
scraping knife, 443 hand tools, use of, 166 enclosed, 709
steel ladder shoes, 443 power tools, use of, 166 for wood floor construc-
Paints, 457—461 procedures, 166-168 tion, 709 (See Chap.
application of, 457-461 drawer pulls, door handles, 21, Floor framing.)
finish coats, pro- and catches, 174 floors, construction of, 709
cedure (list), 458 types of, 174 posts or columns, base of,
primer, 457-458 edges, 173-174 711
water-repellent pre- finishing, methods used, cased post, flashed, 711
servative treatment, 173-174 in open porches, 711
457 materials needed, 174 in single posts, pin
fasteners, 164-166 anchor and spaces
blistering and peeling, 459
cause, 459
corrugated, 166 used, 711
flat-head wood screws, moisture penetration
of outside paint, how to
minimize water 165 treatment, 711
nails, 164 post caps, use of, 711
damage, 459
discoloration by extrac- hand-sawing, 160 wood species used, 711
459-460 joints, 162-164 types of, 707
tives,
butt, frame construc- wood species used, 709
breather or low-luster oil
tion, gluing, 163 Portable electric saws,
paints, 460
causes, 459-460
(See Chap. 5, Glues 195-201
dark-colored paints, use and Gluing accessories, 199
of, 460
Methods. protractor, 199
emulsion paints, 460 dado, 163 rip fence, 199-200
procedures, 162-164 bevel angle adjustments,
oil primer, use of, 460
rabbet, 164
for exterior wood, 199
457-461 uses of, 162-164 blades, 200-201
repainting, 458 laying out, 160 abrasive discs, 201
cleaning wood, to avoid for cutting, 160 carbide-tipped, 201
intercoat peeling, mating or matching changing, 200
458 parts, 160 crosscut, 200
reason for, 458 metal brackets, 177 combination, 200
type of paint used, 458 planing plywood edges, 162 flooring, 201
tips (list), 466-467 portable power saw, friction, 201
water-soluble preservatives, 161-162 non-ferrous metal-
460-461 power sawing, 160-161 cutting, 201
effect of, 460-461 rollers, 177 planer, 200
painting wood treated sanding, 162 cable, 195
with, 460-461 shelf, 169 current, 195
woodwork, 464 power tools required, 169 cutting depths adjust-
glossy finish, 464 hanging, 169 ments, 197-198
preparing surface, 464 supports, 169 for various size saws,
Planes, 55-63 sliding doors, 169-170 198-199
adjustment of, 57-63 construction of, 169-170 grounding, 195-196
bench or block, 55 fiber track, use of, 170 motor, 195
reassembling, 63 hand tools, use of, 170 operation, 197
sharpening operations, materials needed, 170 sizes, 195
61-63 painting, 169 Preparing pieces of lumber
for use, 127-130 279 mounting procedures,
cutting lumber out in dado cutting, 299-300 blades, 317-318
rough, 127 angle, 299 operation of, 318-319
procedures, 127-130 blind, 299-300 safety features, 258
removing surface defects, parallel, 299 saw cuts, basic, 262,
130
_
plain, 299 278-286
with cabinet scraper, dado heads, 296-298 shaper-jointer
130 (See Chap. 2, mounting, 297-298 operations, 305-313
for tool.) settings, 298 shaper operations, 305-311
squaring stock, to required types of, 296-297 classifications, 310-311
length, to required dado operations, 300-305 shaper accessories,
thickness, 129-130 combining saw blade 305-311
wood filler, use of, 130 and dado head, shaper attachments, 305
working end, 128 results, 305 shaper ârd, 308-309
working face, 127-128 cutting lap joints, shaper-jointer fence,
Quantity of paint needed 302-303 305-307
(See Painting.) grooving, blind mortis- shaper ring, 309-310
Radial-arm machine, 256-331 ing, or blind special cutting
abrasives, 320-322 grooving, 301 operations, 287-296
aluminum oxide, 321 mortising and tenoning, bevel-spline joint,
backing, 321-322 302 295-296
coating, type of, 322 ploughing, 300 chamfer cutting, 291
flint, 321 rabbeting, 300-301 contour cutting, 292
forms of, 322 radius cutting, 303 grooving, 292
garnet, 321 tongue-and-groove, 304 kerfing, 287-288
grit size, 321 direct-drive motor, 258 lap-joint cutting,
silicon carbide, 321 disc, belt, and drum-sander types of, 294
aligning operations, attachments, 321 lock-joint cutting,
269-278 disc Sander, 322-325 294-295
adjusting arm clamp bevel sanding, 324 saucer cutting, 292
handle, 274 butt sanding, 324 sawcut moldings,
adjusting base, 273 miter sanding, 324 288-289
adjusting bevel clamp mounting, 322 taper ripping, 289-291
handle, 276 operating, 322-325 tenon and mortise
adjusting crosscut travel rounding corners, 324 cutting, 295
parallel to arm, sanding on, 322 Removing rust from tools, 92
275-276 straightedge sanding, Resilient flooring, 652-653
adjusting roller head 324 base for, 652-653
bearing to arm surface sanding, 323-324 concrete for, 653
track, 274 drum Sander, 327-331 plywood combination
adjusting yoke clamp curved sanding, 329 subfloor and under-
handle, 277-278 horizontal operation on, layment, installing,
aligning work top to 330 653 (See Chap. 21,
arm travel, 270 mounting, 327-329 section on Subfloor-
checking guide fence, sanding rabbets and Plywood. )
270 similar cuts, 331 tile in kitchen area, in-
squaring crosscut travel straight sanding, 329 stallation of,
with guide fence, vertical operation on, example, 653
273 329 underlayment, thickness
squaring saw blade with floorspace required, of, 653
table top, 270 259-260 Roof coverings, 717-727
belt Sander, 325-327 functions of, 256 asphalt shingles, 721-723
adjustments, 326-327 jointing, 311-313 (See also added protection for
mounting, 325 Chap. 13.) roof, from ice dams,
operating, 327 edges, 311 initial layer of roll
bevel crosscutting, 281-282 face jointing, 312 roofing, 722
bevel mitering, 282 rotary surfaces, 312-313 application of, 723
bevel ripping, 286 sizing and jointing, 312 description 721-722
of,
blades, 267-268 lathe. 319—320 I See also laying, method of, use of
carbide-tipped, 267-268 Chap. 9.) metal edging,
combination, 267 headstock, 319 722-723
cutoff wheels and special parts of, 319-320 nails, sealed tab, asphalt
blades, 268 setting up, into wood- sealer, use of, 723
hollow-ground, 267 turning lathe, recommended weight
ripping, 268 procedure, 320 for, 721
“safety,” 268 tailstock, 320 square butt strip, 721
types of, 267-268 tool rest, 320 strip, 721
use of, 267-268 machine sizes, 255 underlayment, determin-
connecting machine to mitering, 282 ing need for, method
power supply, 258 left-hand miter, 282 of applying, 722
controls, 263—266 right-hand miter, 282 with seal-type tabs, 721
arm clamp handle, 265 mounting sa?w blade, built-up roofs, 724
column, 265 procedure, 269 coverings, 724
elevating handle, 263-264 National Electric Code, flashing at eave line, 724
miter latch, 265 ruling, 261 installation of, 724
rip-lock clamp, 266 operation, principle of, metal gavel strip, 724
safety guard, 264 256-262 referral to, example, 724
saw-blade kerfs, 263 ripping, 283-286 materials, 717-718, 719
yoke and motor, 265—266 horizontal ripping, choice of, factors, 717
crosscutting, 278-281 285-286 for flat or low-pitched
crosscutting wide boards in-ripping, 283-284 roofs, 717-718, 719
and panels, 280 out-ripping, 285 for metal roofs, uses,
horizontal crosscutting, resawing, 285 procedure, 718
280-281 straight, 283 in shingle application,
right- or left-hand feed. saber or band saw, 315-319 717
roof underlay, use of, functions, 415 in newer types of stair
attic ventilation, installing, 418 construction, 493
ceiling insulation, lubrication, 426 procedure used, 492-493
importance of, 718, on radial-arm machine stair steps, construction
719 (See Chap. 31, (See Chap. 7, of, 492
Ventilation.) section on Shaper- riser, 492
other roof coverings, 724, Jointer Opera- tread, 492
727 419-
tions.) treads or risers, replacing
ridge and hip finish, 726, operating spindle shaper, worn, procedure
727 426 used, 494
application, 727 cutters used, types of, 419 Stairs, 569-581
asphalt roofing cement, dado cuts, making, 423 attic folding, 581
use of, 727 drum420-
sanding, 424-425 available at lumber
Boston ridge, with fluting, 423-424 dealers, ready to
asphalt shingles with irregular shaping, install, 581
ridge and wood 422 operation, 581
shingles, 726, 727 matched shaping or rough opening, size of,
metal flashing, use of, coped joints, 422 681
727 planing, 424-425 use of, 581
metal ridge roll, use of, reeding, 423 basement, 577-580
727 straight shaping, assembly. 579-580
nailing, 727 419-420 construction of, 577—580
preassembled hip and tongue-and-groove enclosed stairway, fully,
ridge units, avail- 703-
joints, 422 578
able, 727 parts, 415-417 firestops, 577
wood shingles, 709—721 sharpening cutters, 426 main stairway, 578-579
installation, rules (list), 704-
Sound insulation, 699-706 open main stairways,
720-721 for quiet home, 699 578
laying, to weather, floor-ceiling construction, railing and balusters,
amount, recom- 705 580
mended exposures, combination of stair carriages, 577
719 703-
materials, 704 construction of, 569-581
No. 1 grade, 719 use of,
floor joists, stringers, use of, 579
second-grade, 719 705 exterior, 581
wood shakes, description Impact Insulation Class approaches to terraces,
of, laying, proce- (IIC) ratings, new 581
dure, use of solid system utilized in laying out, 581
sheathing, 721 Federal
704- Housing need for, 581
Saber saw, 253-254 Administration, porch steps, 581
blades, 253 704 riser-to-tread ratios,
operating, 253-254 impact noise, causes, use of, 581
use of, 253 method of measur- support or foundation,
Sanders, 427-431 ing, 703 581
disc-and-belt, 427-429 Impact Noise Ratings types of, 581
functions, 427 (INR), 703-704 framing for stairs, 575—576
maintenance, 430 improving STC and INR (See Chap. 21,
operation, 429-430 values, means of, Figs. 9 and 11.)
belt section, use of, 429 705 for basement stairways,
procedures, 429-430 isolating, value of,with 575
parts, 428-429 spring clips, 704 framing for L-shaped
portable belt, 427 (See also from outdoor sounds, 699 stairway, 576
Chap. 6, section on how sound travels, 700-701 in second floor, for
Portable Sanders.) factors, 700 main stair, 575
Sanders, portable, 248-251 sound transmission load-bearing wall, 576
belt, 248-249 class (STC), 700 long doubled header, 576
disc, 248 importance of, 699 nailing, 575, 576
orbital, 250-251 sound absorption, 706 opening parallel to
types of, 248 acoustic tile, where used, length of. 575
joists,
uses, 248-251 description of, opening perpendicular to
Scrapers, 80-83 application of, joists, length of, 575
blade, sharpening, 82-83 finishing, 706 parts, 569-581
cabinet, 80-81 materials used, 706 ratio of riser to tread,
hand, 81-82 sound-resistant walls, 570, 573
types of, 80, 81 700-703 riser heights, example,
use of, 80-82 system used, 700—701 573-574
Screwdrivers, 49-55 wall construction, 701-703 rule of thumb, 573
blades, dressing of, 54-55 combination of mate- stair layout, 570
common, 49 rials, use of, in wood headroomj 570
offset, 49—51 frame wall, 701—702 landing, 670
Phillips, 51 double wall, use of, projection, 570
ratchet and spiral ratchet, 702-703 riser height, 570
49 resilient channels, use tread width, 570
sizes of, 49-51 of, nailed hori- winders or pie-shaped
types of, 49-51 zontally, spaced treads, where used,
using, 51-53 vertically, 702 570
driving screws in single wall, use of, 703 stair widths, 574
hardware, in hinges, STC rating. 701 and handrails, 574
in handles, 53 with gypsum wallboard, of main stairs, 574
701 split-level entrance
removing tight screws,
64 with plastered wall, 701 stairs, 574
wooden plugs, use of, 63 Stair and door repairs, stairways, 570
Shapers, 415—426 492-505 long “L”, 570
assembling, 417-418 Stair repairs, 492-493 narow “U”, 570
eliminating creaking, straight run, 670
controls and adjustments,
418 causes, 493-494 types of, 570
Stairs, 569-581 types, 736, 737 kinds of, 505
basement or service, moisture vapor, method of sash cords, 507-508
or to garage area, removing, 728-729 procedure, 507
569 openings, 729 replacing broken, 507
finished main, 569 air movement, 729 sash chains, 508
wood species, 569 at gable ends or ridge, stationary, 675-680
for main stairways, 729 in combinations with
components, 569 in soffit areas of roof,
treads and risers, for
double-hung or
729 casement windows,
basement or service outlet ventilators, 733, 680
stairways, 569 734-736
Thermal insulation {See size, 680
factors, 733 types of, 680
Insulation.) nailing block, use of,
flat
Tool storage and rust with or without sash, 680
736 types of, 675-682
prevention, 91-92 gable-end ventilators, weatherstripping, 509-510
(See Chap. 18, for available, 733 509-
Building Tool
advantage of, 509
ladder frame extension, applying, procedure
Rack.) use of, 736
Underlayment, thickness used, 509-510
of, location of, 733 available, types of,
653 system of attic
Vapor barriers, 697-699 510
ventilation, 736 flexible or rigid, for steel
at joist ends in two-story types of, 733, 734-736
houses, 697
_ casement windows,
tight construction, use of 510-
510
effective materials for, 698 humidifiers, 729
in basement rooms, 698
for metal-framed case-
potential moisture ment windows, 510
in batt insulation, 698 problems of, 729 rigid, 510
in blanket insulation, 698 resolving, example, 729
in concrete-slab floor, 698
use of, 509
ventilators, area of, window-frame
near windows, 698 leaks,
729-731 511
paint coatings, 698-699 for attic- or roof-space, 1- 510-511
cause,
why needed, 697-698 729-730 cracks, 510-511
Ventilation, 728-739 _
ratio of ventilator
crawl space under house eliminating, 510-511
openings, 729-730 material needed, 511
or porch, 729 screen area, 729-731, procedure, 511
moisture vapor, 732, 734 strips or moldings, re-
removal of, 729 to obtain extra area of
permanent vapor moval or replacing,
screen, require- 511
barrier, on soil of, ments, 729, 731 windowpanes, 508-509
729 warm attic, 728 replacing broken, pro-
crawl-space ventilation, adequate ventilation, 728 cedure used, 508-509
736, 737-739 during cold weather, 728 tools and materials
and soil cover, in hot weather, 728 2-
needed, 508-509
importance of, 736, snow and ice dams, wood or metal, 675
737-739 formation of, at
crawl spaces with no
wood sash, 676
cornice, 728 (See Wood and wood products,
basement area, use Fig. 1, Chap. 30.) 30
of foundation wall well-insulated ceiling, barns, 24
vents, 738 728 grades, 24
No. 8 mesh corrosion- Windows, 505-511, 675-682
resistant screen,
wood and wood-based
awning, 675 materials used, 24
use of, 739 awning window unit, 681 cabinet doors, 22-23 (See
of basementless house, hopper type, 681 Chap. 26, section
736, 737-739 jambs, 681 on Cabinets and
partial basement, open sash type, 681
to crawl-space area,
Other Millwork.)
screens, 681 usual requirements, 22
738 storm sash, 681
total net area of, 738
woods combining usual
weatherstripping, 681 requirements, in
vapor-barrier ground basement, 505 high degree, in good
cover, use of, 739 casement, 675, 678-679 degree, 22
flat roofs, 733-734 description of, 678 classification of woods, 2-5
inlet and outlet vents, metal sash, 678 characteristics, 4
or series of outlet style variations, 678 classes, 4
stack vents, location weatherstripping, 678
733-734
for principal home uses,
of, advantage of, 678 5
ventilating area, door and window frames, grades, 4-5
ratio of, 733 676
wall-inlet ventilators
suitability of wood-based
double-hung, 505-507, 675, products, 2-4
combined with 676-678 suitability of woods, 2, 4
center stack outlet arrangement of, 678 decking and outdoor
vents, use of, 733 assembled frames, stepping, 17-18
gable roofs, 731 676-678 grades used, 18
air movement, 731 description of, 676 usual requirements, 17
louvered openings, net details of, 505 woods combining usual
area, example, 731 hardware, 678 requirements, in
openings in soffit area, jambs, 676 high degree, in good
731 sash, 676 degree, 17
hip roofs, 731-732 tight sashes, fi.xing, doors, 22
air-inlet openings, 731 causes, procedures, other attributes, 22 (See
in hip roof houses, 729 505-507 Chaps. 26 and 27.)
inlet ventilators, 736, 737 glass blocks, 675 types of, 22
location of, 736 horizontal sliding usual requirements, 22
louvered and screened windows, 675, 682 woods combining usual
vents, available at factory-assembled units, requirements, in
local dealers, 736, fully, 682 high degree, in good
737 insulated glass, 675-676 degree, 22
)
exterior trim, 14 interior trim with paint grades used, 13-14 (See
grades used, 14 18-19 (See
finish,
usual requirements, 14
Chaps. 24 and 30,
sections on Paints: sections on Wood
woods combining usual Painting; Finishing Shingles and
requirements, in procedures.) Shakes.)
high degree, in good grades used, 18-19 usual requirements, 13
degree, 14 usual requirements, 18
fence posts, 24-25 woods combining usual
woods combining usual requirements, in
grades used, 26 requirements, in
usual requirements, 24 good degree, in
high degree, in good high degree, 13
woods combining usual degree, 18 siding. 15-16 (See Chap.
requirements, in miscellaneous millwork, 24, sections on
high degree, in good 22-25
degree, in fair Sidings.)
moisture content of wood, combined sheathing
degree, 25 28-29
floor underlayment, 19-20 siding, 16
electric moisture meter, grades used, 16-17
combined subfloor use of, 28
underlayment, 20 other siding materials,
means of measurement, 16
for finish floors, 19-20 determining, 28-29
functions of (list), 19-20 usual requirements.
ovendrying specimens, 15-16
(See Chap. 21, sec- standard method, 28
tion on Subfloor.) woods combining usual
rough approximation, requirements, in
hardboard, 20 procedure for, 28-29
particle board, 20 high degree, in good
plank roof decking, 12-13 degree, fair degree,
plywood, 20 grades used, 13
flooring, 20-22 15-16
materials combining stairways, 23
grades used, 21 usual requirements,
resilient, 21-22 (See usual requirements for
in high degree, in treads, risers, stair
Chap. 25, section on good degree, 12-13
Base for Resilient parts, 23
types used, 13 woods combining usual
Floors.) usual requirements, 12
strip, 20-21 (See Chap. requirements, in
porches and platforms, high degree, in good
25, section on Wood- 26-27
Strip Flooring.) degree, 23
exposed, 26-27 subfloors, 9-10
usual requirements, 20 grades used, 27
wood block, 20-21 grades used, 9-10
usual requirements, 26 usual requirements, 9
woods combining usual woods combining usual
requirements, in woods combining usual
requirements, in requirements in
high degree, in good high degree, in good
degree, 20-21 high degree, in good
degree. 26 degree, 9
foundations, 5-7 protection of wood from
grades used, 5, 6-7 suitability of, 5
moisture. 29-30 for various house uses, 5
plates and sleepers, 6 construction details,
sills and beams, 5-6 wall paneling, 23-24
29-30 grades used, 24
usual requirements, 5-6 factors, 29-30
(See Chap. 21, sec- other materials, 24
importance of, 29 types used. 24
tion on Wood Sill material, selection of,
Construction.) usual requirements, for
29-30
frames and sash, 14-15 natural finish or
requirements, 29 light staining, 23
grades, 15 roof sheathing, 12
usual requirements, 14 woods combining usual
grades used. 12 requirements, in
woods combining usual types used, 12
requirements, in high degree, in good
usual requirements, 12
high degree, in good degree, 23-24
woods combining usual wall sheathing, 10-11
degree, 14-15 (See requirements, in
Chap. 27, Exterior materials combining
high degree, in good usual requirements,
Frames, Windows degree, 12
and Doors.) in high degree, in
scaffolding, 26
framing, 7-10 good degree, 10-11
building codes, 26 usual requirements, 10
grades used, 8-9 grades used. 26
headers, 7-8 wood-based panel mate-
usual requirements, 26 rials, 1-2 (See Chap.
joists, 7-8
woods combining usual 3, Working with
plates, 8-9
requirements, in Wood.)
rafters, 7-8
high degree, in good building fiberboards, 2
studs, 8-9
degree, in fair particle boards. 2
usual requirements, 7-8
degree, 26 plywood, 1-2 (See Chap.
gates and fences, 25-26 sheathing papers and
grades used, 26 3, sections on
vapor barriers, Plywood.
usual requirements, 25 27-28
woods combining usual wood products, 1
paper or deadening felt, available,
requirements, in 27
1
high degree, in good roll roofing. 27

Wood properties, 451-452
degree, 25 effect of, 451
types of, 27 flat-grained surfaces, 451
interior trim with natural use, example, 27-28
finish, 18 (See low-density species, 451
vapor barriers, 27-28 medium-density fiberboard
Chap. 21, Interior (See Chap. 28, sec-
Doors, Frames, and products, 451
tion on Vapor
Trim.) resinous species, 452
Barriers.) species for exterior siding,
grades used, 18 shelving. 23
knotty surface, 18 451-452
usual requirements, 23 vertical- or edge-grained
usual requirements, 18 woods combining usual surfaces, 451
woods combining usual requirements, in Woodworking projects (See
requirements, in high degree, in good Chaps. 18 and 19.)
high degree, in good degree. 23 Woodworking repairs,
degree, 18 shingles and shakes, 13-14 479-611
*
4*?
Hifd
684
Adams , J
Arco*s new complete
woodworking handbook
Rev. edm
Stats of Vermont
Department of Libraries
Northeast Regional Library
V.- 0 , 188
'
- . :ury , Vt .
5 3
arcosnewcompleteOOadam
arcosnewcompleteOOadam
{ Continued from front flap )
The revision of this handbook presents

principles for wood-frame house construc-
tion,and suggestions for selecting suitable
materials that will assist the worker or home-
owner in the construction of and in making
improvements on a house. It shows you how
to make your home more beautiful, more
comfortable, and worth more money.
This handbook can also he used as a
training aid for apprentices or as a standard
by which to judge the quality of house con-
struction.
While details of construction may vary
in different locales, the fundamental prin-
ciples are the same. Thishandbook deals
essentially with established methods of
construction. Construction details are pro-
fusely illustrated with accompanying text,
which explains the methods used in assem-
bling the various parts.
The final chapters of new complete
WOODWORKING HANDBOOK add information
on paints, painting, and finishing proce-
dures; construction of stairs; floor framing;
basement rooms; interior wall and ceiling
finish; exterior wood coverings; floor cov-
erings; interior doors, frames, trim, cabi-
nets, and other millwork; exterior frames,
windows, and doors; thermal insulation,
vapor barriers, and sound insulation;
porches and garages; roof coverings; and
ventilation.
The many tables throughout the book
should be of value even after the text be-
comes familiar.
Printed in U.S.A. Library Binding

MORE BOOKS FOR
THE WOODWORKING CRAFTSMAN
HOW TO 8U!LD AND SUY CABINETS FOR THE CARPENTRY
MODERN KITCHEN R. J. de Cristoforo
Robert P. Stevenson Professional methods, tips on built-ins, paneling
rooms, outdoor projects, constructing joints, proper
Famous book gives step-by-step directions, material
use of tools. Fully illustrated in two colors throughout
lists, building pointers, hundreds of “show-how” illus-
trations for making every type of cabinet for the mod-

— diagrams, photos, plans to scale.
“This comprehensive handbook simplifies the wood-
ern kitchen. Includes detailed plans for over 70 types
working process so that even beginning carpenters
of cabinets —
open shelves and wall racks, sink cabi-
can do Jobs like house framing, deck building or win-
nets, corner cupboards, peninsula cabinets, more.
Fully illustrated, 256 pages, $10.00
—
dow construction successfully.” Family Handyman.
illustrated, 128 pages, $4.95
WORK SHOP IDEAS THE TECHNIQUE OF WOOD SCULPTURE

John Capotosto, et ai. Chaim Gross
Even a beginner can follow these complete step-by- Beginners and professionals will find here all the in-
step directions for building a cordless clock, cam- formation for developing this interesting hobby into
paign chest, mini phone secretary, convertible
bar, a fine art. The famous author gives complete details
room divider, hideaway hamper, swivel stool, Swedish on equipment, describes the different kinds and uses
lamp, coffee table and over fifteen other projects. In- of tools, and step-by-step shows how to sculpt a block
valuable tips on tool safety and use are included of wood, transforming it into a work of art.
along with advice from ten experts on how the home 50 photographs, 136 pages, $4.95
craftsman can get truly professional results.
Fully illustrated, 112 pages, $3.95 FASHIONING FURNITURE
John Trigg and David Field
^
HOW TO USE TOOLS This range of superbly designed furniture for you to
Alfred Morgan make includes items to compliment every part of your
home. Although the projects vary from the very sim-
Introduces the reader to hand tools, names parts,
ple to the more complicated, they have been clearly
enumerates functions, and shows the right way to em-
conceived to provide a comprehensive introduction
ploy basic instruments. Easy-to-understand text, and
to basic woodworking techniques, while providing so-
step-by-step photographs.
phisticated solutions to domestic furniture problems.
231 illustrations, 144 pages, $3.50 Fully illustrated in color, 96 pages, $5.95
... and for the man who works with metal

REFINISHING FURNITURE
W. H. Kuhn
COMPLETE METAL WORKING MANUAL
R. H. Cooley, B.S. Eng.
Everything you need to know in order to finish and
refinish all types of furniture. Chapters cover repair Hundreds of excellent drawings, photographs, and
of old finishes, basic remodeling methods, removing charts illustrate thorough instructions on how to con-
old finishes, preparing the surface, coloring wood, and struct attachments to the lathe, on gear cutting, on
using different types of finishes. They deal with such how to make large or special drills, spinning, ream-
problems as loose joints; surface flaws; damaged ing, milling, grinding, planning, patterns, and on
veneers; sprucing up old furniture; selecting and using dozens of other specific problems. The author, a pro-
paint removers; using lacquer, varnish, and paint; and fessional engineer describes in detail the materials,
creating trick finishes. Also included is advice on re- methods and machines used in shops of all types and
moving burns, stains, and other scars from furniture. sizes: he tells why certain materials are better than
“One of the very best books we have ever read on others, as well as what kind of equipment is most
the subject of refinishing... We highly recommend it.” necessary for building a complete and practical work-
—The Workbench. shop.
301 illustrations, 112 pages, $3.95 Fully illustrated, 284 pages, $10.00


Complete: Handbook

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Complete: Handbook

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Complete: Handbook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

F*"'-

Woodworking Hand Tools Selection and Care of Floor Covenngs

Working with Wood Painting Tools and Ifjtetrter Doors, Frame:,

Working with Plywood Equipmwf i WT, ARC

Glues and Glueing Methods Paints, Painting, and Other Millwork

Hand-Power Tools Finishing Procedures Exterior Frames, Windows,

Radial-Arm Machine Woodworking Repairs and Doors

Bench or Circular Saws Interior Woodworking Projects Thermal Insulati^jf* Vapor

Wood-Turning Lathe Exterior Woodworking Projects Barriers, and

Band Saw Construction of Stairs Insulation

Jig Saw Floor Framing Porches and Garages

Drill Press Basement Rooms Roof Coveiings

Jointers and Shapers Interior Wall and Ceiling Finish Ventilation

Plus Hundreds of New Interior and Exterior Projects and improvements

more than 900 illustrations

{ Continued on back flap )

ARCO PUBLISHING COMPANY, Inc.

Arco Publishing Company, Inc.

Published by Arco Publishing Company, Inc.

Copyright © 1960, 1975 by Arco Publishing Company, Inc.

All rights reserved. No

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 74-25024

Printed in the United States of America

This book has been produced to satisfy a demand for a complete

Every been made by the author to give the worker

All projects and procedures described are well within the

This book comprises descriptions of different kinds of wood

.<u\ ; -•!;; .;}.> • ’.• '*

»h* I-'' f- . -t* "v

^ t> jini •• , : I iii: “'f. » i*1 % imr

•wsaod-' Uiiai ,Ai* •

€-18::' ii^ k ^ 1 •> .5-*^

a'w.^’ ’'*«’»•: io «1 fi;*:? f^VrJ

The Author acknowledge with thanks the assistance

American Steel & Wire Co., American Brush Co., Armstrong

4h*i T* »£5’' i-' br- '{''O'. ^*^i{ iGf^ ii^ttiu! . ^v;*

f^ec. V /i’l i^^rk>C! o'J •.' o'i y. • ct^ "*.->1

<^ -> st5f3 <jir*'fi.^^ ./ .(» • it -i li* iS-<F. 1

VI* ;*>• 'T>{i

-->^ f>:?B ioi^vinV :^'iv;^*sM^v.XiA

. i:f *>i'.^jfji*V- illMfliBsA; '

i.'? ^#Nj aa7!iHli*'#V*®v>r^*:jdE /k??. >V j ^

fA *liiT btJsi iKH? M •

tJSliTf. r ,,0^ .'tVfTf^'iiluQiiJ/r

t,ii»-*t *u »afe>i^*Llf£tfi i</ »/!’.' .*?* I

and you can also protect your interests,

you know^ something about lumber as well as the principles of

1 Wood and Wood Products 1

Classification ofwoods for principal home uses, 2; suit-

2 Woodworking Hand Tools

3 Working with Wood 93

4 Working with Plywood 160

5 Glues and Gluing Methods 178

hand power plane, 211; electric heavy duty hand router,

7 Radial-Arm Machine 256

8 Bench or Circular Saws 332

9 The Wood-Turning Lathe 349

a'w.^’ ’'«’»•: io «1 fi;:? f^VrJ

4hi T »£5’' i-' br- '{''O'. ^^i{ iGf^ ii^ttiu! . ^v;

<^ -> st5f3 <jir'fi.^^ ./ .(» • it -i li iS-<F. 1

. i:f >i'.^jfjiV- illMfliBsA; '

i.'? ^#Nj aa7!iHli'#V®v>r^*:jdE /k??. >V j ^

t,ii»-t u »afe>i^Llf£tfi i</ »/!’.' .?* I