Assignment: 2

Course Title: Human Development and Learning

Course Code: 8610
Course Tutor: Hafiza Samina Kausar
Name: Soha Bibi
Roll no: 0000095742
Registration No: 0000095742
Semester: Autumn 3rd 2022
Level: B. Ed (1.5 Year)
Session:2021-2023
Allama Iqbal Open University

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Question No: 1. What is emotional development? Why is it important?
Answer
Emotional Development:
Emotional development, emergence of the experience, expression, understanding, and
regulation of emotions from birth and the growth and change in these capacities
throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The development of emotions occurs in
conjunction with neural, cognitive, and behavioral development and emerges within a particular
social and cultural context.
Infancy:

The expression of emotions during infancy promotes the transition from complete dependency
to autonomy. The expression of interest promotes exploration and cognitive development. Social
(intentional) smiles and other expressions of joy promote social interaction and healthy
attachment relationships with primary caregivers. The expression of sadness
encourages empathy and helping behavior, and the expression of anger signals protest and
discomfort. Infants’ unique tendency to experience and express particular emotions and
the threshold for expressing those emotions is usually referred to as their temperament or
characteristic emotionality.

Researchers generally agree that neonatal (nonintentional) smiles are present at birth and that
social smiling and emotional expressions of interest appear as early as six weeks of age. By four
to five months of age, infants selectively smile at familiar faces and at other infants, and their
caregivers begin to share positive emotional exchanges with them.

Researchers disagree in their explanations of the development and time of emergence of discrete
negative emotional expressions. Consistently with the view that infant’s express negative
emotions in early infancy, scientists have shown that infants perceive and respond differentially
to the negative emotional expressions (e.g., sadness, anger) of others by the age of four months.

During the second six months of life, as infants gain rudimentary cognitive
and memory capacities, they begin to express particular emotions based on context. Emotions
begin to emerge dynamically as the infant begins to take a more direct role in emotional

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exchanges with caregivers. The emotional bond with the caregiver is increasingly important, as
infants seek support for exploration and look for signals of danger.

Toddlerhood and early childhood:

During the toddler period, in conjunction with rapid maturation of the frontal lobes and the
limbic circuit in the brain, recognition of the self emerges. As a result, the toddler strives to
become more independent, and the expression of anger and defiance increases in that struggle for
autonomy. The ability to differentiate the self from others also promotes basic empathetic
behavior and moral understanding. By the end of the second year of life, toddlers respond to
negative signals from others, and they have specific emotional responses to their own negative
actions. The emotions that emerge with a rudimentary conception of the self are often called self-
conscious emotions and include shame, embarrassment, guilt, and pride. Some self-conscious
emotions, such as pride and guilt, do not emerge until toddlers and young children have learned
to conceptualize internalized standards of behavior.

As children enter preschool, they begin to label their own emotions and rely on discourse about
emotions within the family to facilitate their understanding of basic emotions. Young children
first distinguish happiness from negative emotions and then begin to distinguish negative
emotions such as sadness, anger, and fear from each other. They begin to recognize these
emotions in facial expressions, and then, as they enter middle childhood, they begin to
understand situational determinants of emotions. An understanding of emotional subjectivity also
develops as children learn that what makes one child happy may not make another child feel the
same way.

The emergence of emotional self-regulation is particularly important during early childhood and
occurs in the context of family and peer relationships. Open expression of positive emotions and
warm, supportive relationships between parents and children promote effective emotional self-
regulation. On the other hand, frequent expression of negative emotions in the family and
harsh, punitive disciplinary responses increase the experience of distressing and dysregulated
emotions that may lead to psychopathology. Appropriate peer relationships characterized by
shared play activities are also important for the development of emotional regulation during early

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childhood. Children gain emotional understanding and the capacity for empathetic and helping
behavior from well-regulated emotional exchanges with peers.
Middle and late childhood:

During middle and late childhood, stable self-concepts based on the child’s typical emotional
experiences emerge. With the increased capacity for self-reflection, children gain an
understanding of their self-conscious emotions. As a result, the consistent experience of patterns
of self-conscious emotions has an impact on the child’s self-concept. For example, the tendency
to experience shame rather than guilt in response to negative transgressions affects the child’s
emergent self-esteem and may encourage a tendency to respond with aggression or violence.

Also during middle and late childhood, children begin to understand that a single situation or
event can lead to the experience of multiple, mixed emotions. For example, older children
understand that a goodbye party for a sibling who will leave for college is likely to be both a
happy and a sad event for the child and his sibling. This capacity likely emerges with the
cognitive capacity to understand multiple aspects of a situation, called decentration.

Children also learn emotional display rules as they progress through middle and late childhood.
For example, a child learns to look happy even though she feels upset when a friend or family
member gives her an undesirable gift. The use of display rules tends to increase as children begin
to consider what consequences their actions may have for others. Display rules are used
judiciously, and the likelihood of suppressing negative emotion depends on a number of factors,
including the child’s gender, the likely recipients of the expression, the specific context, and the
child’s cultural

Question No:2. Discuss the factors which may affect moral development
Answer
Influences on Moral Development:

Like most aspects of development, influencing factors are multifaceted. Moral development is
strongly influenced by interpersonal factors, such as family, peers, and culture. Intrapersonal

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factors also impact moral development, such as cognitive changes, emotions, and even
neurodevelopment.

Interpersonal Influences:

Children’s interactions with caregivers and peers have been shown to influence their
development of moral understanding and behavior. Researchers have addressed the influence of
interpersonal interactions on children’s moral development from two primary perspectives:
socialization/internalization (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Kochanska & Askan, 1995; Kochanska,
Askan, & Koenig, 1995) and social domain theory (Turiel, 1983; Smetana 2006). Research from
the social domain theory perspective focuses on how children actively distinguish moral from
conventional behavior based in part based on the responses of parents, teachers, and peers
(Smetana, 1997). Adults tend to respond to children’s moral transgressions (e.g., hitting or
stealing) by drawing the child’s attention to the effect of his or her action on others and doing so
consistently across various contexts.

In contrast, adults are more likely to respond to children’s conventional misdeeds (e.g., wearing a
hat in the classroom, eating spaghetti with fingers) by reminding children about specific rules
and doing so only in certain contexts (e.g., at school but not at home) (Smetana, 1984; 1985).
Peers respond mainly to moral but not conventional transgressions and demonstrate emotional
distress (e.g., crying or yelling) when they are the victim of moral but not conventional
transgressions (Smetana, 1984). Children then use these different cues to help determine whether
behaviors are morally or conventionally wrong.

Research from a socialization/internalization perspective focuses on how adults pass down

standards of behavior to children through parenting techniques and why children do or do not
internalize those values (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Kochanska & Askan, 1995). From this
perspective, moral development involves children’s increasing compliance with and
internalization of adult rules, requests, and standards of behavior. Using these definitions,
researchers find that parenting behaviors vary in the extent to which they encourage children’s
internalization of values and that these effects depend partially on child attributes, such as age
and temperament (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994). For instance, Kochanska (1997) showed that

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gentle parental discipline best promotes conscience development in temperamentally fearful
children. However, the same parental responsiveness and a mutually responsive parent-child
orientation best promote conscience development in temperamentally fearless children. These
parental influences exert their effects through multiple pathways, including increasing children’s
experience of moral emotions (e.g., guilt, empathy) and their self-identification as moral
individuals (Kochanska, 2010).

Moral Development in the Family:

In the formation of children’s morals, no outside influence is greater than that of the family.
Through punishment, reinforcement, and both direct and indirect teaching, families instill morals
in children and help them to develop beliefs that reflect the values of their culture. Although
families’ contributions to children’s moral development are broad, there are particular ways in
which morals are most effectively conveyed and learned.

Justice:

Families establish rules for right and wrong behavior, which are maintained through positive
reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement is the reward for good behavior and helps
children learn that certain actions are encouraged above others. Punishment, by contrast, helps to
deter children from engaging in bad behaviors, and from an early age helps children to
understand that actions have consequences. This system additionally helps children to make
decisions about how to act, as they begin to consider the outcomes of their behavior.

Fairness:

The notion of what is fair is one of the central moral lessons that children learn in the family
context. Families set boundaries on the distribution of resources, such as food and living spaces,
and allow members different privileges based on age, gender, and employment. The way in
which a family determines what is fair affects children’s development of ideas about rights and
entitlements, and also influences their notions of sharing, reciprocity, and respect.

Personal Balance:

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Through understanding principles of fairness, justice, and social responsibilities, children learn to
find a balance between their own needs and wants and the interests of the greater social
environment. By placing limits on their desires, children benefit from a greater sense of love,
security, and shared identity. At the same time, this connectedness helps children to refine their
own moral system by providing them with a reference for understanding right and wrong.

Social Roles

In the family environment, children come to consider their actions not only in terms of justice
but also in terms of emotional needs. Children learn the value of social support from their
families and develop motivations based on kindness, generosity, and empathy, rather than on
only personal needs and desires. By learning to care for the interests and well-being of their
family, children develop concern for society as a whole.

Morality and Culture:

The role of culture on moral development is an important topic that raises fundamental questions
about what is universal and what is culturally specific regarding morality and moral
development. Many research traditions have examined this question, with social-cognitive and
structural-developmental positions theorizing that morality has a universal requirement to it,
drawing from moral philosophy. The expectation is that if morality exists, it has to do with those
values that are generalizable across groups and cultures. Alternatively, relativistic cultural
positions have been put forth mostly by socialization theories that focus on how cultures transmit
values rather than what values are applied across groups and individuals.

Question No:3. Discuss language development at preschool and kindergarten

level.
Answer

Language development in children:

What you need to know?

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Language development is an important part of child development.

It supports your child’s ability to communicate. It also supports your child’s ability to:

 express and understand feelings

 think and learn
 solve problems
 develop and maintain relationships.

Learning to understand, use and enjoy language is the first step in literacy, and the basis for
learning to read and write.

How to encourage early language development in children:

The best way to encourage your child’s language development is to do a lot of talking
together about things that interest your child. It’s all about following your child’s lead as they
show you what they’re interested in by waving, babbling or using words.

Talking with your child:

From birth, talk with your child and treat them as a talker. The key is to use many different
words in different contexts. For example, you can talk to your child about an orange ball and
about cutting up an orange for lunch. This helps your child learn what words mean and how
words work.

When you finish talking, pause and give your child a turn to respond.

As your child starts coo, gurgle, wave and point, you can respond to your child’s attempts to
communicate. For example, if your baby coos and gurgles, you can coo back to them. Or if your
toddler points to a toy, respond as if your child is saying, ‘Can I have that?’ For example, you
could say ‘Do you want the block?’

When your child starts using words, you can repeat and build on what your child says. For
example, if your child says, ‘Apple,’ you can say, ‘You want a red apple?’

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And it’s the same when your child starts making sentences. You can respond and encourage your
child to expand their sentences. For example, your toddler might say ‘I go shop’. You might
respond, ‘And what did you do at the shop?’

When you pay attention and respond to your child in these ways, it encourages them to keep
communicating and developing their language skills.

Reading with your child:

Reading and sharing books about plenty of different topics lets your child hear words used in
many different ways.

Linking what’s in the book to what’s happening in your child’s life is a good way to get your
child talking. For example, you could say, ‘We went to the playground today, just like the boy in
this book. What do you like to do at the playground?’ You can also encourage talking by chatting
about interesting pictures in the books you read with your child.

When you read aloud with your child, you can point to words as you say them. This shows your
child the link between spoken and written words, and helps your child learn that words are
distinct parts of language. These are important concepts for developing literacy.

Language development: the first eight years:

Here are just a few of the important things your child might achieve in language development
between three months and eight years.

 3-12 months:
At three months, your baby will most likely coo, smile and laugh. As they grow, your
baby will begin to play with sounds and communicate with gestures like waving and
pointing.
At around 4-6 months, your baby will probably start babbling. Baby will make single-
syllable sounds like ‘ba’ first, before repeating them ‘ba ba ba’.

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 Babbling is followed by the ‘jargon phase’ where your child might sound like they’re
telling you something, but their ‘speech’ won’t sound like recognizable words. First
words with meaning often start at around 12 months or so.
If your baby isn’t babbling and isn’t using gestures by 12 months, talk to your GP or
child and family health nurse.
 12-18 months:
At this age, children often say their first words with meaning. For example, when your
child says ‘Dada’, your child is actually calling for dad. In the next few months, your
child’s vocabulary will grow. Your child can understand more than they can say. They
can also follow simple instructions like ‘Sit down’.
 18 months to 2 years:
Most children will start to put two words together into short ‘sentences’. Your child will
understand much of what you say, and you can understand most of what your child says
to you. Unfamiliar people will understand about half of what your child says.If your child
doesn’t have some words by around 18 months, talk to your GP or child and family
health nurse or another health professional.
 2-3 years
Your child most likely speaks in sentences of 3-4 words and is getting better at saying
words correctly. Your child might play and talk at the same time. Strangers can probably
understand about three-quarters of what your child says by the time your child is three.
 3-5 years
You can expect longer, more complex conversations about your child’s thoughts and
feelings. Your child might also ask about things, people and places that aren’t in front of
them. For example, ‘Is it raining at grandma’s house, too?’ Your child will probably also
want to talk about a wide range of topics, and their vocabulary will keep growing. Your
child might show understanding of basic grammar and start using sentences with words
like ‘because’, ‘if’, ‘so’ or ‘when’. And you can look forward to some entertaining stories
too.
 5-8 years
During the early school years, your child will learn more words and start to understand
how the sounds within language work together. Your child will also become a better

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 storyteller, as they learn to put words together in different ways and build different types
of sentences. These skills also let your child share ideas and opinions. By eight years,
your child will be able to have adult-like conversations.

QuestionNo:4. Elaborate 'learning as modification of behavior'.

Answer
so we have hit that dreaded part of the summer. That part, where instead of just beach days you
can almost see your classes around the corner. Many fellow high school seniors are just
experiencing (if they haven’t already) that universal “oh no I’m actually applying to college” as
the Common App opens. And it can all feel a little overwhelming sometimes.

As students in 2022, we are faced with constant pressure. There’s pressure for academic success,
stemming from your parents… or even yourself. There’s pressure to look a certain way or act a
certain way. There’s pressure from all these apps to have that idyllic lifestyle we all see
constantly promoted to us. Life is not surrounded by perfect moments though that’s not reality.

There are weeks when it feels like every single teacher has given me a test to study for but
somehow, I still have to make time for my part-time job and a million other little things. There
are days I feel like I could cry from all the pressure building up. There are even minutes when I
seriously consider fleeing the country just to avoid all this stress.
There are ways to overcome it though and as we get back into this school year, I wanted to share
what gets me through my anxiety. The first thing I always look towards is my friends. I’m never
going through anything truly alone, and I know it’s a cliche saying, but it’s a cliche for a reason.
They have the same tests as me, they’re applying to colleges right now, and they know what it’s
like to fight with siblings. I know I can always lean back on them, and they can expect the same
from me.

The second thing I do when I’m overwhelmed is procrastinating. Now, I’m NOT recommending
procrastinating but procrastinating taught me that the only way I can overcome these moments is
by working through them. I make lists of what needs to get done and do some serious triage.
Then I go through the list one at a time and tackle these projects.

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My last suggestion is to remove yourself from the situation for a minute and try to just get some
perspective. This is just one hour, one day, or one week in your life; sometimes we need to just
remind ourselves that there will be a next week or that this test is not the “end-all-be-all” we
make

it out to be.

It seems like whoever said “it gets easier” was seriously lying to us. I don’t know if it necessarily
gets easier, it feels like as I get older it just gets infinitely more complicated, but it does get better
in a lot of ways. If you’re someone who feels like they struggle with anxiety also, try to keep
these few tips in mind. Also, remember that there are resources for your mental health beyond
just the ones mentioned above.

Make Change:

Having spent several years in public education, I’ve often wondered what traits, skills, and
strategies help students become successful. I am by no means an expert, but I do believe I can
draw some connections between student practices and “success” as best we can measure it. At
the Tyler Clementi Foundation, success means being an Up stander and encouraging others
to do the same by acting with integrity, kindness, empathy, and compassion; it also means
working tirelessly to create inclusive environments in their school, workplaces, or faith
communities. In essence, their goal is to make positive change in their community.

Our Youth Ambassadors program brings together students from around the country to plan anti-
bullying actions in their communities. My role as the program manager is to educate and coach
students toward planning successful events, campaigns, and projects. Part of that work includes
identifying how bullying is a problem, to whom/where it occurs, and how to best encourage
Upstander behavior. Across various school and community contexts, our Youth Ambassadors are
deeply invested in kindness, empathy, and compassion for others, regardless of their real or
perceived differences. So what does it take to be successful in change-making work? These are
some of the skills and habits that have enabled students to succeed in bringing about positive
change. Skills and habits that, I would guess, also encourage success in their academic,
professional, and personal lives.

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Lead by Example, Be Community-Minded, and Set Clear Goals:
Our Youth Ambassadors truly exemplify the positive change that they hope to see in their
schools, workplaces, and faith communities. They treat others with respect, kindness,
compassion, and always strive to do the right thing.

They also think locally by working to identify specific problems facing students in their
communities. Not all students experience bullying, but many still see it is a serious problem that
deserves our attention. Our students are most successful when they focus on those most
negatively impacted by bullying and harassment.

Finally, they set clear goals for their anti-bullying work. Importantly, Youth Ambassadors
understand that planning a project will be nearly impossible without a clear goal. As such, they
work backwards from their end-goal to complete detailed action steps while remaining focused
on the big picture.

Stay Curious, Humble, and Positive:

Upstanders are curious and humble about diversity, equity, and inclusion. As our country
becomes more diverse, successful young people understand the need for inclusive spaces that
promote affinity among peers. Students who are successful in this work know that everyone’s
experience is unique and a strong community member seeks to understand the perspectives of
those who are different from them.

They stay focused on a positive message. Our student Up standers understand that positive
change comes from positive messages. Therefore, they work to promote kindness, empathy, and
compassion. Essentially, instead of getting caught up in negative experiences with bullying, they
encourage others to be Up standers.

Education and Effective Communication for Change:

Upstanders understand that change comes through education and prioritize effective
communication strategies. While we certainly need policies and regulations to protect students
from bullying, we believe that when people understand the harmful effects of bullying, they will
be more likely to show kindness for others. Our students who are successful, use this theory of
change to educate their peers about why bullying is a serious issue worthy of their attention.

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When our Youth Ambassadors succeed, they are often thinking deeply about how they are
communicating. Growing up in the digital age, many of our students have an innate
understanding of communicating on social media and through other new forms of digital
communication. Part of our work is to encourage them to think about their audience and how to
best encourage them to be Upstanders.

In outlining these skills and habits, I can’t help but think they would be worth some reflection. I,
for one, have learned a lot and been inspired by our Youth Ambassadors. Whether you have a
young child or work with students, these habits of change-making are worth recognizing.

Question No:5. Explain different areas of individual differences.

Answer
Individual Difference:

Man differs in his physical developments structurally and functionally. These differences are
seen in height, weight size of the body, structure of different parts of the body, color of hair,
skin, physical strength and precision.

Individual Difference in Psychology: Area # 2.

1. Mental Differences:
Mental differences are noticed in the form of perception, concept formation, imagination,
formation of imaging, memory and attention.
2. Difference in Intelligence:
Difference in intelligence level is seen in individuals into different categories such as
genius, gifted, superior, bright, averages, imbeciles and idiots on the basis of their
intelligence level.
3. Difference in Interests:
Interest differs from individual, to individual, man to woman, adolescent to adult, society
to society and culture to culture. Every man has his own interest. Boys and girls greatly
differ in their interests in choosing courses, books, pictures, games and dresses.
4. Difference in Attitudes:

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 As far as attitudes are concerned man differs from other. A person has different attitude
towards people, institution, customers and traditions, religions, and social phenomena. A
man tells/ thinks the laws of society as good and bad depending on his attitude. Attitude
forms in environment. Different persons have different attitudes towards casteism,
religion, regionalism, linguism, political parties and administration.
5. Difference in Aptitude:
An aptitude is any special ability that is possessed by an individual. Men differ their
aptitude related to musical, poetic, mechanical, artistic, games and sports etc.
6. Difference in Achievement:
Individual differs from others due to his achievement in various fields of life related to
academic, social, mental, emotional, moral, spiritual and intellectual. This depends on
previous experiences. Sometimes it is seen that one can achieve much more than what is
expected from them on the basis of their intelligence level.
7. Personality Difference:
Person differs from other person due to his personality traits, temperaments, qualities and
behaviour. It is exhibited that some persons are extroverts and some are introverts which
are manifested by their activities.
8. Emotional Differences:
In case of emotions one differs from other. Some persons lose their emotions and some
persons do not lose their emotions. It is observed that someone controls his emotions and
others get irritate very quickly. On the other hand, one has the ability to control the
emotions with patience and tolerance. In some cases, listening the serious facts one may
start shading tears.
9. Social Differences:
Some social factors like co-operation, sacrifices, leadership, marriage ceremony, any
social function one individual differs from others in performing the social functions.
Someone feel hesitate to mix with others where as some are shy and fail to mix with
strangers.

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