Hasan Arslan

An Introduction to Education

Edited by Hasan Arslan

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2018 by Hasan Arslan and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-0932-X

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0932-0
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword ................................................................................................... vii

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Fundamental Concepts of Education
Hasan Arslan

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 11

Theories in Language Learning and Teaching
Alina Andreea Dragoescu

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 23

Sociology of Education: Theoretical Context and Current Issues
Mehmet Ali İçbay

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 37

Philosophy of Education: Theoretical and Practical Considerations
Tomas Butvilas, Eva Králová and Kęstutis Trakšelys

Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 63

Psychology and Educational Psychology
Mirela Samfira

Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 93

Education Policy
Osman Ferda Beytekin

Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 103

Comparative Educational Systems
Sari Hosoya
vi Table of Contents

Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 129

Sociocultural Perspectives: An Opportunity to Understand Science
Education in a Different Dimension.
S. L. Ramos-de Robles and A. J. Gallard Martínez

Contributors ............................................................................................. 143

FOREWORD
viii Foreword

framework. Starting with the classical works by Durkheim and Weber in

the sociology of education, the chapter continues with the three turning
points after the Second World War.
The fourth chapter is dedicated to Philosophy and Educational
Philosophy: Theoretical-Practical Considerations. Tomas BUTVILAS,
Eva KRÁLOVÁ and Kęstutis TRAKŠELYS present theoretical and
application. In the theoretical part, the authors mainly focus on existing
philosophical schools of education while presenting six approaches that
are still in use all over the world in classrooms in schools and auditoriums at
higher education institutions. On the other hand, the presented educational
philosophies give some basis for describing real educational activities with
children and adults in both country cases.
Another chapter on Psychology and Educational Psychology by
Mirela SAMFIRA argues why is psychology important in the field of
education? While the question is a simple one, the answer is much more
complex. Information in the field of psychology is extremely important in
almost all human fields where humans exist. The goal of this chapter is not
to debate the role and importance of psychology in humans’ life, but to
emphasise its applications in the field of education.
The sixth chapter draws attention on Foundation of Educational
Politics. Ferda BEYTEKİN provides a historical, philosophical, political,
and sociological reflection on the relationship connecting education with
sociology, culture, anthropology, politics, and economics. Education
policy refers to the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation
of education systems.
The seventh chapter focuses on Comparative Educational Systems.
Sari HOSOYA states that an educational system is political to some
extent. When the objectives of education behind the educational system
are suitable for the social environment and the needs of the people, the
system functions quite well. On the other hand, if it does not match the
needs, it does not work effectively. The government is required to balance
the aims of the educational system and the needs of the people thoughtfully.
The last chapter is written by S. L. Ramos-de ROBLES and A. J. Gallard
MARTİNEZ. The authors draw attention on Sociocultural Perspectives: An
Opportunity To Understand Science Education In A Different
Dimension. The authors suggest that in the science education community
in terms of ranking of importance, research into the social and cultural
aspects of teaching and learning is second to the cognitivist who seems to
mainly use positivism as a way make sense of data.

Hasan ARSLAN
 CHAPTER ONE

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF EDUCATION

HASAN ARSLAN

Education is a process that begins at birth and continues until the end
of life. The early stage of life is very crucial since this period affects the
following process. However, we are not able to totally control the early
stage because children remain under the care of their families until they
begin attending school. Even if children study in schools, many factors
such as friends in and out of the school affect their educational process.
The educational system focuses on children from pre-school until
graduate education. Educational gains mainly shift from public to
individual gains as they attend a higher level of school each year. That is
why education is compulsory in the first 10 or 12 years for children.
Otherwise, greater and more costly social problems would occur if we
could not educate them to be good citizens.
Durkheim (1956) states that "education is the influence exercised by
adult generations on those that are not yet ready for social life" (p.71). In
other words, the primary objective of education is to help children develop
intellectual skills and improve their physical capabilities. Additionally,
they should be motivated at school to acquire the moral values that are
demanded by political society, because society may suffer some social
problems and pay more to fix them if we do not help children achieve
these objectives.
Dewey (1897) believes that education functions properly when there is
a relationship between the individual and the environment, and that the
purpose of education is to live for today, not to prepare students for future
living. Thus, firstly moral training should be offered and schools should
serve "as a form of community". Additionally, education is not a part of
life and it should be regarded as "a continuing reconstruction of
experience". If children gain experiences at school, then they may be able
to learn about real life and become prepared for the future. Therefore,
"what kind of experiences will they gain?" and "how should we help them
2 Chapter One

acquire these experiences?" are the questions that should be answered.

Specialists study curricula in terms of grades and subjects in order to help
children develop the expected behaviours to have a better society.
Moore (2010) explains education in relation to the commitment by
society to have a desirable type of individual and the expected values.
Thus, children may have some expected characteristics, attitudes,
knowledge and skills that society would like to see. The author states that
an educated man should have the desired intellectual abilities and at the
same time should be very sensitive about moral matters, mathematical
efficiencies and have a scientific vision and a historical and geographical
perspective. When we look at society, it seems that the educational system
has not been successful in training the expected educated man.
Russel (1926) explains that education should provide children with a
guide to allow them to develop their capabilities and skills. An education
system should offer children, be they boys or girls, the opportunity to
receive the highest level of education. Furthermore, Durkheim (1956)
underlines that the focus and primary function of education is to prepare
children for their roles as workers and members of a larger society and
identifies the purpose of education as the shaping of the social being.

Formal and Non-Formal Education

Education can be divided into two categories: formal education and
non-formal education. There is no certain line to distinguish one from the
other because formal education to some extent consists of non-formal
education. Children learn not only at the classroom but also from each
other at the school environment.

Formal Education
Formal education (Ngaka, Openjuru and Mazur 2012) denotes a
"hierarchically structured and chronologically graded educational system",
which starts at pre-school and continues through university and includes
"academic studies, a variety of specialized programs and institutions for
full-time technical and professional training" (p. 110).
Children, families, and adults voluntarily participate in formal
education because they believe that formal education will provide a
certificate or diploma for their children, and these official documents will
help them receive a higher level of education and to build a better
professional career. If unemployment is high and there is high competition
for employment, then there will be a higher demand for formal education.
 Fundamental Concepts of Education 3

It might be speculated that governments are pleased to see that people

demand more formal education and people to see that they get better
employment opportunities at the end of formal education. Contrarily, if
people cannot get better opportunities and positions when they graduate,
they may lose their desire to continue with and participate in formal
education. This may cause crucial problems in society.

Non-Formal Education
Non-formal education (Ngaka, Openjuru and Mazur 2012) refers to
that type of education which does not take place in formally structured
schools "such as adult literacy and continuing education programs for
adults and out of school youth which does not necessarily emphasize
certification" (p. 111).
Non-formal education may cause children to develop desirable or
undesirable behaviours. The environment plays a crucial part in this point.
Even if it is impossible to monitor students out of school, parents should
know where their children play and with whom they spend time. On the
other hand, children may develop some unexpected behaviours even in a
formally organized school while playing with friends at breaks (MoNE of
Turkey 2016).
Non-Formal Education: Non-formal education is intended for citizens
who have never entered the formal educational system to develop their
skills, e.g. in order to have a better professional career. Additionally, non-
formal education may accompany formal education and may appear in
many different forms. For example, improving reading and writing skills
of citizens, professional development in a specific field, learning about a
healthy life style, teaching socialization processes to immigrants and
acquiring the habit of spending time productively is non-formal education.

The differences between formal and non-formal education can be seen

in terms of the purpose, timing, content, delivery system and level of
control (p.111).
4 Chapter One

Table 1. Ideal Type/Models of Formal and Non-formal Education

Differences Formal Education Non-formal Education

Purpose - Long-term and general - Short-term and specific
– Certified - Certificate not
necessarily the main
purpose
Timing - Long - Short
cycle/preparatory/full- cycle/recurrent/part-time
time
Content - Standardized/input - Individualized/output
centred- Academic centred
- Entry requirements - Practical
determine clientele - Clientele determine the
entry requirements
Delivery system -Institution-based, -Environment-based and
isolated from embedded in the
environment community
-Rigidly structured, -Flexible, learner-centred
teacher-centred and and resource efficient
resource intensive
Control External/hierarchical -Self-
governing/democratic
Source: Adapted from Simkins (1977: 12–15, cited in Fordham 1993)

Learning, Teaching and the Teacher

What is a "learning experience"? Nyagah (2010) expresses that learning
refers to the encountering interaction between the external conditions and
the learner in the environment. Students have various interactions and are
involved in some activities where learning takes place (UNESCO-IBE
2013).
Learning: What is learning? How do we learn? Learning is not only a
complex process, but also some kind of a long-term psychosocial process.
Learning includes individual acquisition of competencies, behaviours,
skills, values, and knowledge. Children acquire these attributes though
instruction or experience. The learning process is explained with
psychological and physiological approaches. The learning process can be
described with three important models. These models are behaviourism,
cognitivism, and constructivism. Briefly, behaviourism underlines a
 Fundamental Concepts of Education 5

measurable change of behaviours in the learning process. Environmental

factors are very important for children and affect their behaviours.
Cognitive theories focus on the internal mental structure of the knowledge
that shapes children’s behaviours. Acquisition of knowledge and the
processing of information happen through internal mental organization.
The last model is constructivism which views the learning process as the
addition of concepts and new ideas to existing knowledge and experiences
(Kridel 2010).
These learning theories highlight the changes in knowledge, understanding,
skills, competencies and behaviours through environmental factors,
internal mental actions or construction of new ideas. Learning is to feel
different and to motivate individuals to explore new knowledge and ideas.
Teaching: "There are diverse approaches to teaching which also
implicitly reflect the approach to learning. The didactic approach mainly
entails lecturing and is typically teacher-centred and content-oriented, i.e.
teaching as transmission where the learners are considered to be passive
recipients of information transmitted. Teaching can also be seen as supporting
the process of learners’ knowledge construction and understanding, building
on what is already known by the learner and involving a learner-centred
approach (i.e. teaching as facilitation). Another approach emphasizes the
development of learners’ cognitive processes and awareness and control of
thinking and learning" (UNESCO-UNICEF 2014: 222).

Teaching as a Profession
Teaching is a professional job. Individuals spend most of their time in
teaching activities either at school or at home. Teaching is a full-time job
even if they spend 4-6 hours at school because teachers make preparations
before going in class, evaluate students’ performances, assess exam papers
and so on. Teaching covers all educational activities and teachers are
responsible for children’s education. Teachers manage the teaching
process and provide students information, knowledge and skills, and they
teach students how to attain information, knowledge, and skills (Kadı,
Beytekin and Arslan, 2015). They direct students’ activities over class
time (Nyagah 2010). All educational systems focus on the importance of
teaching. The question is how we can offer good teaching in class. This
question reminds us of teacher education programs and the quality of
education. Who can be a teacher? What kind of skills should be taught to
them?
According to Nyagah (2010), the following qualities make a good
teacher:
6 Chapter One

- spending most of his/her time with students,

- increasing their skills by learning new ideas continuously
increasing their knowledge,
- being a good model for students and conducting their personal life
with good character,
- having appropriate and adequate knowledge of his/her specialization,
- adapting to new circumstances and managing crises successfully at
school.

Durkheim (1956) describes a teacher as "the interpreter of the great

moral ideas of his time and of his country" (p. 89). Teachers should have
willpower and demonstrate confidence in their authority to transmit
information. A teacher should be able to establish his authority without an
external influence.
In relation to the quality of teachers and teacher programs, Motivans,
Smith and Bruneforth (2006) state that specific training is very important
in teacher education if we desire to offer a good quality of education to
students. Teacher quality requires "a range of motivation, competencies,
and skills" (p. 49).
In consideration of teaching as a profession, a teacher training program
should include at least three aspects: general studies, subject-specific
knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. Additionally, holding a knowledge
of psychology, sociology, educational psychology, educational administration,
curriculum knowledge, the education system, educational history,
motivation theories, class management and school administration helps
preservice teachers be "good" teachers. Preservice teachers need these
various skills to develop themselves in order to answer students’ different
questions because students ask questions not only in a teacher’s field but
also in different subjects. That is why teacher training programs are very
important to train individuals to be "good" teachers.

Curriculum
The term ‘curriculum’ comes from the Latin word ‘curere’ that means
"to run a course". Therefore, the word denotes a subject which should have
some special goals and produce outputs for learners. There are various
kinds of courses in varying scopes. If there is a formal course, there should
be a curriculum, too. Formal education cannot be established without a
structured curriculum. There are different types of curricula and different
types of descriptions in a curriculum (Nyagah 2010). The definitions of
curriculum can be grouped into two: narrow definition and broad
 Fundamental Concepts of Education 7

definition. The narrow definition of curriculum is a plan and program.

Learners follow a course and by the end of the course they have learned
what the course is supposed to teach. The other definition is a broad one
which sees curriculum as an educational process. This is a more
comprehensive and longer process. The course reflects learners' social
needs. The broader concepts consist of behaviours, values, attitudes, and
experiences of students both in and out of school. Pratt (1994) states that
the broad definition looks like a blueprint for instruction and incorporates
teaching and learning processes.
Curriculum describes each detail of teaching and learning process and
attempts to answer what, why, and how questions. A good curriculum
fosters quality of learning in schools. This is a systematic and intentional
way to have expected results at the educational system (UNESCO, IBE
2011). A school tries to help students gain all learning experiences through
the curriculum. Experiences are planned for children through their
educational curriculum (Scottish Government 2009). Learning outcomes
and some learning experiences are designed in order to teach children at
school.
Educational systems are intended to improve children’s knowledge and
skills. To do so, they need a plan of action and curriculum, and the plan
consists of teaching methods, learning objectives, assessments, learning
content and educational materials. The system implements formal and
non-formal education programs.
Learning content consists of subject areas. These subject areas have no
limitation. There might be on any subject.
Learning objectives are targets for curriculum process. At the end of
the process, students are supposed to develop attitudes and behaviours and
to acquire skills and knowledge. Emotional, social, and cognitive
development is promoted by educational activities.
Teaching methods are tools to improve knowledge and skills. There
are various teaching methods and techniques and teachers prefer these
methods and techniques in terms of their teaching abilities and course
targets and contents.
Instructional materials help learners better understand courses. There
are various teaching and learning materials such as books, maps, teacher’s
guides, toys and supplementary resources.
Assessment refers to a measurement tool in order to understand what
has been learned from the course (knowledge, skills, attitudes…).
Assessment helps teachers and learners understand how much course goal
has been reached at the end of educational program (UNESCO
International Bureau of Education 2016).
8 Chapter One

A curriculum is a blueprint of learning and teaching and consists of

many elements such as goals and objectives, content, teaching methods
and techniques, learning activities and organization of learning
experiences. The quality of teaching depends to the greatest extent on
implementing curriculum elements which are strongly connected to each
other. For instance, if you do not implement the right teaching method or
technique in the classroom, it is not possible to reach the goals and
objectives of a course.
The educational curriculum has various dimensions. There might be
formal or informal (hidden) structures. Learners should be helped to attain
knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and some other desirable skills through an
effective curriculum. The question is what knowledge, what beliefs and
what attitudes should be taught to learners. Policy makers decide on the
above questions on systemic scale and subject teachers decide on the
above questions in terms of course goals.

References
Dewey, J. (1897). My Pedagogic Creed. The School Journal, LIV(3), 77-
80.
Durkheim, É. (1956). Education and Sociology. New York: The Free
Press.
Fordham, M. (1993). On Not Knowing Beforehand. Journal of Analytical
Pschology, 38, 127-136.
Kadı, A., Beytekin, O.F. and Arslan, H. (2015). A Research on the
Burnout and the Teaching Profession Attitudes of Teacher Candidates,
Journal of Education, and Training Studies, 3(2), 107-113.
Kridel, C. (2010). Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies. California: Sage
Publications.
MoNE (2016). National Ministry of Education. Ankara: Ministry
Publication.
Moore, T. W. (2010). Philosophy of Education: An Introduction. London
and New York: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group.
https://doi.org/10.1108/eb016334
Motivans, A., Smith, T., & Bruneforth, M. (2006). Teachers and
educational quality: monitoring global needs for 2015. UNESCO
Institute for Statistics. Montreal. Retrieved from
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:TEA
CHERS+AND+EDUCATIONAL+QUALITY+.
Ngaka, W., Openjuru, G., & Mazur, R. E. (2012). Exploring formal and
non-formal education practices for integrated and diverse learning
 Fundamental Concepts of Education 9

environments in Uganda. International Journal of Diversity in

Organisations, Communities and Nations, 11(6), 109–122.
Nyagah, G. (2010). Curriculum Studies. African Virtual University.
Retrieved from http://oer.avu.org/handle/123456789/73
Pratt, D. (1994). Curriculum Planning: A Handbook for Professionals.
London: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Russell, B. (1926). On Education. Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group.
UNESCO-IBE. (2013). Glossary of curriculum terminology. UNESCO.
Retrieved from http://unescochair.blogs.uoc.edu/wp-content/uploads
/2016/03/Glossário-UNESCO-inglês-1.pdf
UNESCO International Bureau of Education. (2016). What Makes a
Quality Curriculum? Retrieved from
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002439/243975E.pdf.
 CHAPTER TWO

THEORIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

AND TEACHING

ALINA ANDREEA DRAGOESCU

This chapter pursues all aspects related to learning and puts forward a
critical enquiry regarding what confers value upon the educational
experience. The discussion emphasises language learning, as well as the
basic factors which affect learning in general – learner motivation,
language acquisition, and other processes related to cognition – from the
standpoint of cognitive learning theories. Aspects of cognitive theory
which will be discussed range from Constructivism, Holistic and Gestalt
theory to Piaget’s model and other important research conducted in the
field of learning and teaching. The cognitive approach and its proposed
methods of language teaching and learning represent the main focus of the
discussion proposed in this chapter.
Upon pondering on the real meaning of ‘learning’, two basic trends
may be noted in the literature on education. The humanistic tradition puts
forth a discourse inspired by the idea of learning as a goal in itself and
highlights the self-transformational capability of the learner by means of
education. On the other hand, the vocational tradition focuses more on
practical outcomes than on condition validity, on the achievement of very
specific and measurable competences which are to be acquired. Based on
these two distinct standpoints, numerous systems of thought have been
proposed with respect to possible modalities of teaching/learning, among
which the holistic model is analysed in greater depth.

What is Learning?
‘Learning’ may mean different things, depending on whether deep or
surface connotations are given to the concept. It may be seen as a
quantitative increase in knowledge as a result of acquiring information, as
12 Chapter Two

well as an increased understanding of reality. Alternatively, it may be

limited to the meaning of memorising or storing information that can be
reproduced. It can also be seen as the acquisition of skills and methods that
can be grasped and then used when necessary in practical contexts. On the
other hand, learning may also mean simply making sense of abstract
meaning, relating parts of the subject matter to each other and to the real
world of experience.
From an overall educational point of view, what is considered
‘learning’ is certainly contingent on cultural, social, and various other
constellations. One may wonder whether learning always serves a good
purpose, for instance in cases such as learning for learning’s sake or
learning unlawful skills. However, that domain which is deemed
‘desirable’ knowledge by society at large generally enjoys an affirmative
attitude to learning – as the driving force which encourages the evolution
of human civilisation.
The philosophy of education further inspires reflection on many critical
issues – e.g.: Should learning have a teleological or pragmatic end or is it
desirable and ought to be pursued in and for itself? What may be accepted
or even cherished as worthwhile knowledge? Which faculties can/should
be trained and valued? How much and what exactly can one individual set
forth to learn? Is any type of knowledge accessible to all kinds of learners?
Thus, as framed by conceptual schools of thought, the subject matter lies
mainly within the issue of human consciousness and the enduring quest for
further enhancing the faculties of the human mind.
However, if the educational system is to be scrutinised under the
magnifying glass, then one may certainly notice the limits of modern
learning institutions (Becker in Burgess 1998). Matters of cost-benefit
pragmatics, the assessment and accreditation procedures of educational
institutions, overly restrictive curricula, as well as many other limitations
are often imposed on the content of learning, as much as they are on the
methods of teaching. It is possible that such factors, and above all the
teacher in the very classroom, may obstruct or distort, but could also
inspire quite diverse styles of learning and, hopefully, kindle the will to
learn. Not least important, the learner comes into play with his/her own
propensities and predilections, as well as the decisions s/he makes about
what is worth learning.
Therefore, teaching must be considered from a larger perspective and
several points of view, taking into account the interaction between the
teacher, learner and content that is being taught. The question has been
asked which of this triad ought to come first, but any one pick and the very
concept of instating a hierarchy would be arguable and hardly the least
 Theories in Language Learning and Teaching 13

unbiased point of view. Regarding the learner, s/he has his/her personal
values, skills, motivation, and is always different, though also part of a
larger group of learners. On the other hand, any teacher would certainly
have his/her level of skill, favoured approach to learning, personal style
and experience.
Another important factor in the learning process is the context,
especially the reasons for learning, whether compulsory education or
personal choice. The context with all its variables may have considerable
impact upon the desired outcome of the learning experience. The learner’s
motivation may also be regarded as part of the context; for instance, if the
learning is pursued in an instrumental manner because qualifications are
needed for practical purposes, such aspects may lead to very different
approaches and outcomes of the educational process. Thus, an alternative
systemic approach highlights the interconnection between the components
of the system, pointing out that any change in one component will affect
the others in their turn. The mental shift underpinning the new systems
paradigm switches from the fragmentary mechanistic view, from objects,
to processes and relationships set within the social context (Capra 1997).

Cognitive Approaches to Learning and Teaching

Several ways of conceptualising the teaching/learning process have
been proposed, depending on the influencing factors each model focuses
on. The most recurrent model generally focuses on the three main
components of the teaching/learning process: the Learner, the Subject, and
the Teacher – formally capitalised and impartially presented in alphabetical
order. The more common Subject-Teacher-Learner (STL) models are
different from those focusing on the Learner or Subject in that they
propose different curricula, different procedures, roles and power relations,
different views on the relevance of the content being taught, which all
trigger highly different implications which affect the teaching/learning
process.
Different approaches to the educational process have favoured one or
another order of this overall triad, as will be discussed below. One of the
foremost schools of thought in language acquisition is the cognitive
approach, which was officially initiated by Ulric Neisser’s Cognitive
Psychology (1967). Cognitive psychology had already become of great
importance in the mid 1950’s, when the emphasis shifted away from the
study of conditioned behaviour and the psychoanalytical study of the
mind, towards an understanding of human information processing,
deploying the most rigorous laboratory investigation for this purpose. By
14 Chapter Two

the late 1970s, this approach had become the dominant perspective, as the
work of Piaget (1957) and others drew attention on mental processes and
internal representation of reality.
Later, the computer would provide cognitive theorists with the proper
terminology and with the precise metaphor they needed to investigate the
human mind. The analogy with the artificial use of computers allowed an
enhanced understanding of the complexities of human cognition as
compared with a simulated system like a computer. As it became a tool for
decoding how the human mind handles information, this representation
became known as the computer analogy. The paradigm of information
processing was adopted by cognitive theory to explain the functioning of
human mind, just as a computer codes, stores, and then processes
information to produce an output by retrieving stored data. This approach
was based on a series of assumptions, such as: information from the
environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention,
perception, short-term memory); the latter transform information in
systematic ways; information processing in humans resembles computer
processing.
As opposed to this approach, behaviourism only studies observable
external behaviour that can be objectively quantified. From the behaviourists’
point of view, internal behaviour cannot be an object of study due to the
fact that what happens in our minds cannot be seen and objectively
measured. Behaviourism endorses the physical sciences and it is mainly
associated with conditioning and stimulus-response processes, which
entails certain limitations. Regarding the conditions of learning, it is
largely the teacher that dominates the educational setting from the
standpoint of behaviourism. The organization of instruction is thus
essentially profiled according to the guidance of the teacher and the
learning process is perceived as an imposition upon learners.
Conversely, the cognitive approach assumes that internal mental
behaviour can be scientifically studied by means of laboratory or
classroom experiments. Cognitive psychology also suggests that
mediational processes occur between stimulus and response or between
input and output of learning. Such mental events like memory, perception,
problem solving, etc., are considered meditational processes given that
they mediate between the stimulus and the response. Although
behaviourist theory declined during the cognitive revolution of the last
decades, it remains appreciated as the first psychological account of
learning.
Furthermore, Constructivism includes a set of theories closely
connected to the cognitive approach due to its humanistic perspective on
 Theories in Language Learning and Teaching 15

education. This theory looks at the ways learners take in the content to be
learned and ‘construct’ it inside their mind, but also deals with the output
learners and teachers construct together through dialogue. However, this
approach is also limited by the assumption that it is the learner’s role
mainly to assimilate what the teacher brings forth. From a social point of
view, Constructivism implies that the learner is more actively involved
together with the teacher in the cooperative enterprise of constructing
knowledge. If the learner actively constructs meanings, it falls on the
teacher to construct a dialogue with the learner, thereby constructing new
ways of understanding (Vygotsky 1962).
In the same line of reasoning, George Kelly (1955) is the proponent of
another related theory, as the very label suggests – Personal Construct
Psychology (PCP). This theory which offers a far-reaching analysis of
cognition sees people as products of learning and memory, based on their
inherent personal construct system. PCP is also a cognitive theory in that it
envisions learning as the way individuals make sense of the world and
construct their personal worlds. Kelly’s Personal Construct model aimed at
replacing previous behaviourist models which limited the learning
experience to stimulus and response.
Moreover, behaviourism was also dismissed for its assumption that
humans are born ‘tabula rasa’ (a blank slate) and lack cognitive functions
such as schemas, memory or perception. On the contrary, Piaget (1969)
suggests that children’s minds are not empty, but actively process the
material with which they are presented by those who help them better
process meaning. As will be expanded upon later, Piaget proposed the
accommodation and assimilation processes to account for this insight.
The most substantial framework of the constructivist theory was put
forth by Lev Vygotsky (1962) in his elucidation of the ‘Zone of Proximal
Development’ (ZPD) which he defined as ‘the distance between the actual
developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and
the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers’
(Vygotsky 1978: 86). In empirical research, the author noted that children
performed tasks better when they engaged in them with an adult rather
than on their own. It was not necessarily always the case that the adult was
guiding the children, but that the cooperation with the adult had a refining
effect upon their thinking. Also, he deemed the development of language
and articulation of ideas pivotal to learning and development in general.
Furthermore, Vygotsky also employed the ‘culture’ concept in social
development theory and pointed out its implications for teaching and
learning (Daniels 1996). The social dimension of learning is also central to
16 Chapter Two

the idea of situated learning and communities of practice. Interaction with

peers is considered the most highly effective way of developing skills in
classroom instruction. The author suggests that teachers use cooperative or
collaborative learning strategies, which would ensure that less competent
children have a chance to develop with help from more skilful peers
(Vygotsky 1978). The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with
the term ‘scaffolding’, which was introduced by Wood et al. (1976). As
soon as students in the zone of proximal development, having the benefit
of scaffolding, have mastered the task, the scaffolding can be removed and
the students will then be able to complete the task on their own (Wood et
al. 1976: 90).
Such theories have had great impact upon the growing current focus on
collaborative learning, which proposes that group members should have
different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced
members activate within their ‘zone of proximal development’. Moreover,
‘reciprocal teaching’ is another contemporary application of Vygotsky’s
ideas, which is used to improve students’ ability to learn from their peers
with the teacher acting as a mere moderator. This method suggests that
teachers and students collaborate in learning and enhance skills such as
questioning and predicting, while the teacher’s role is gradually
diminished, allowing space for peers to interrelate.
Another model of teaching in higher education which is also based on
constructivist theory is David Kolb’s approach, which represents a highly
expedient model of the learning process and offers a descriptive inventory
of learning styles. Much of his work is concerned with the learner’s
internal cognitive processes and involves cognition. The experiential
learning theory (Kolb 1984) functions on two levels: a four stage cycle of
learning and four learning styles. The theory of the cycle of adult learning
includes four stages in learning which follow from each other: Concrete
Experience is followed by Reflection on that experience, which may then
be followed by the derivation of general rules describing the previous
experience, or the application of existing abstract concepts to it (Abstract
Conceptualisation), hence leading to the construction of ways of adapting
or altering the following experience (Active Experimentation). Thus, the
theorist deems learning a coherent ‘process whereby knowledge is created
through the transformation of experience’ (Kolb 1984: 38).
Kolb (1984) also proposes a testing instrument (the Learning Style
Inventory) and an experiential scheme to work with. Concrete Experience
corresponds to ‘knowledge by acquaintance’, direct practical experience,
as opposed to ‘knowledge about’ something, which is theoretical and
represented by the application of Abstract Conceptualisation. The fact that
 Theories in Language Learning and Teaching 17

different subject areas call for different learning styles also raises the
question as to whether a certain discipline requires a particular learning
style, or whether a preferred learning style leads to choosing an adequate
subject of study.
For that reason, there appear to be certain subjects lending themselves
more easily to Serial learning or to Holistic learning, respectively. For
example, there are quite different ways of learning foreign languages:
Structural or Serialist variants on the one hand and Communicative or
Holistic styles on the other hand. As pertains to learning styles, Holists
seek an overall framework and then explore areas within it in a less
organized, organic and spontaneous way, until they have filled in the
whole. On the contrary, serialists prefer to build up knowledge
sequentially and favour linear subjects, but they may lose sight of the
broader picture as they move from one step to the next in line.

The Piagetian Impact on the Theory of Education

The cognitive school of thought builds on Gestalt theory regarding the
holistic approach it takes to learning. Moreover, it has also been
influenced by Piaget’s study of cognitive development and the perception
patterns used by learners to decode the perceived world. Of great insight is
Piaget’s detailed account of the specific stages of development, rather than
the reduction of learning to a gradual increase in the number and
complexity of behaviours and acquisition of concepts. The theory elucidates
the mechanisms by which the child develops into an adult individual who
can reason based on mental hypotheses and representations. Piaget’s theory
greatly influenced research in education and has helped enhance the
functioning of cognitive development. This process is seen as a gradual
reorganization of cognitive mechanisms occurring in lockstep with
biological growth and environmental experience.
Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory includes three main components which
deserve due analysis: schemas, adaptation processes and the stages of
development. Schemas are seen by Piaget as the building blocks of
intelligent behaviour which facilitate the organization of knowledge. In
other words, they are mental models of the world that are useful in
employing information from past experience or planning future action on
the basis of such cognitive patterns. They each relate to aspects such as
objects, actions and abstract concepts, and allow the formation of mental
representations of the world (Piaget 1957). Adaptation processes (equilibrium,
assimilation and accommodation) enable the transition from one stage to
another in the course of learning. As to the stages of development
18 Chapter Two

(sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal

operational), these bring forth the gradual development of cognitive
processes.
Schemata can also be seen as ‘index cards’ (Wadsworth 2004) filed in
the brain which an individual uses in order to understand and to respond to
incoming stimuli according to a mental script. Piaget (1957) illustrated the
relevance of schemas in cognitive development and how their complexity
developed gradually along the stages. Intellectual growth is seen as a
process of adaptation to the world by means of two mechanisms:
Assimilation and Accommodation (Piaget and Cook 1952). The former
occurs when an existing schema is used to deal with a new situation,
whereas the latter is involved when the existing schemata fail and must be
replaced in order to understand a new situation (Wadsworth 2004).
As an adaptation process, equilibration is the force which triggers
development and disequilibrium takes place when new information cannot
be decoded through existing schemas by means of assimilation.
Equilibration is also the basis of the learning process, as an individual in
disequilibrium will seek to restore equilibrium and avoid frustration by
means of accommodation. Thus, the process of assimilating new schemata
will be pursued until the following necessity to make an adjustment
presents itself.
As regards the theory of stages, Piaget described the four universal
stages of cognitive development a child undergoes in order to build a
mental representation of the world (Piaget and Inhelder 1969). This
biological progression enfolds as the child matures, and the approximate
ages that correspond on average to each stage are based on empirical
observation. In the Sensorimotor Stage (until 2 years of age), children
have already gained the ability to form a mental representation of an
object, for instance they can recognize the fact that an object still exists,
even if it is hidden. Further on, in the Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old),
the ability to think symbolically is developed and children can now make a
word stand for something else, but they still have difficulty assuming the
viewpoint of others. The next step, the Concrete Operational Stage (7-11
years) is considered a major turning point in the child’s cognitive
development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational
thought. At this stage, children start working things out mentally rather
than physically trying them out. Finally, during the Formal Operational
Stage (from approximately age eleven into adulthood), the abilities to use
abstract concepts and logically relate ideas start developing (Piaget and
Inhelder 1969).
 Theories in Language Learning and Teaching 19

While Piaget proposes a systematic theory based on stages and a step-

by-step progression along ages of the child or learner, Vygotsky deems
cognitive development a continuous process. In contrast to the Piagetian
view, the Russian author believes ‘instruction cannot be identified as
development, but properly organized instruction will result in the child’s
intellectual development, will bring into being an entire series of such
developmental processes, which were not at all possible without
instruction’ (Vygotsky, 1962: 121). Also, in contrast to Piaget’s view of
the universality of stages in learning, Vygotsky focuses more on effects of
culture in shaping cognitive development. Moreover, cognitive development
is purportedly variable across cultures, whereas Piaget views cognitive
development as being largely universal across cultures (Dasen 1994).
Neither does Bruner include a theory of the stages in his theory of
learning, which places more emphasis on the child’s capacity to
understand any meaning and acquire complex information irrespective of
the age. ‘We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught
effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of
development’ (Bruner 1960: 33). Bruner (1960) also explained how this
was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum, which implies
that information be structured so that complex ideas can be first taught at a
simplified level and later engaged again at more complex levels. The spiral
analogy refers to the fact that subjects are to be taught at levels of
gradually increasing difficultly. This method of teaching would ideally
equip children with the ability to complete tasks and eventually solve
problems by themselves.
Furthermore, the purpose of education is to develop symbolic thinking,
to facilitate reasoning and problem solving skills which learners can
transfer to real-life situations (Bruner 1960). Bruner (1961) regards
students as active learners who construct their own knowledge by
employing a coding system which sorts out information. The broadening
of this coding system is best achieved through discovery rather than by
receiving instructions from the teacher. The philosophy of discovery
learning, also acknowledged as a Constructivist approach, relies on the
fact that students construct their own knowledge for themselves. The role
of the teacher is reduced to facilitating the learning process by the students
and not to teaching information by routine memorisation in the traditional
manner. Thus, a good teacher provides learners with the information they
need without organizing it for them, but encouraging them to discover
meanings by themselves.
Both Bruner and Vygotsky place emphasis upon the learner’s environment
and particularly on social factors which contribute to cognitive development.
20 Chapter Two

They both agree on the social nature of learning and contend that others
should assist the child in developing skills through the process of
scaffolding (Wood et al. 1976). As reviewed by Bruner, scaffolding refers
to ‘the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some
task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the
process of acquiring’ (Bruner 1978: 19). This idea parallels Vygotsky’s
‘zone of proximal development’, as both require collaboration between an
adult and a child in order to support the child achieve a learning task.
Given that language is seen as the foundation of cognitive processes,
considerable emphasis is also placed on the role of language. Vygotsky
adds that learning occurs in social contexts in cooperation with more
skilful people, which essentially affords language opportunities. Thus, the
internalization of language is seen as the root of cognitive development
(Daniels 1996). By the same token, Bruner (1961) deems symbolic
representation and language as being fundamental in determining cognitive
development. On the other hand, according to Piaget, language depends on
thought for its development and it is seen as subordinate to action. The
Russian psychologist argues that the development of language and thought
cannot be separated and that cognition is rooted in our interactions with
others rather than in the contact with the material world (Vygotsky 1978).
Although the writings of Vygotsky have yet to be explored, researchers
have expounded the manifold educational implications of Piaget’s theory,
showing how it can be applied to teaching and learning. His work (1952,
etc.) has been extremely influential in developing teaching practice and
policy across the world, having massive educational implications. Some of
his most influential concepts are the relevance of play in learning, the
applicability of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance
of individual learning according to the corresponding stages of cognitive
growth.
In conclusion, the following approach should be encouraged in the
classroom: focusing on the process of learning rather than its end product;
using individual activities as much as collaborative ones so children may
learn from peers; prompting conditions that present valuable problem-
solving situations; and using active methods that require discovering and
reconstructing meanings. Since problem-solving skills cannot be taught
but must be discovered, cognitive growth requires that learners be active,
not passive. In general, teaching should be student-centred and encourage
active discovery learning within the classroom. The role of the teacher is
essentially that of a facilitator of learning.
 Theories in Language Learning and Teaching 21

Summary
The main emphasis in the present chapter is put on language learning –
from the standpoint of cognitive learning theories, as well as the basic
factors which affect learning. The methods of teaching, the diverse
learning styles of the learners, the content as well as the context of
learning, and other such factors are contemplated in detail, as they may
hinder or enforce the educational process. The learner comes into play
with their own skills, motivation, and predilections, and makes his/her
own decisions about what it is worth learning. On the other hand, the
teacher also has his/her personal values and experience, different level of
skill, and prefers a certain approach to learning.
The models of teaching in higher education which have been discussed
are meant to provide readers with the most significant forms of the
learning processes and methods. The chapter also furnishes a descriptive
inventory of learning styles and discusses an extensive array of language
teaching approaches and methods, while surveying research on language
acquisition and its theoretical foundations. Among favoured learning
styles, the experiential scheme highlights direct practical experience which
corresponds to ‘knowledge by acquaintance’. Also, if different subject
areas call for different learning styles, languages present themselves as
subjects which are well suited to a holistic approach as a preferred learning
style. Among the favoured ways of learning foreign languages, for
instance, the communicative (holistic) style is promoted as a variant which
seeks an overall framework and explores it in a less organized but more
natural manner.
As proposed by this chapter, an alternative systemic approach highlights
the relatedness of all system components, pointing out that any change in
one of these will certainly affect the others in their turn. Thus, the
educational process is considered from a larger systemic perspective,
taking into account the interaction between the teacher, the learner and the
context of learning. Such aspects may lead to largely different outcomes of
the learning process, taking into consideration processes and interrelatedness
rather than objects and separate aspects of the educational experience.

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