Enrichment Manual for

Selected Species
in Indian Zoos
Enrichment Manual for Selected
Species in Indian Zoos

Project Advisor
Sh. P.R. Sinha,
Former Director,
Wildlife Institute of India

Sh. B.S. Bonal,

Former Member Secretary,
Central Zoo Authority

Project Investigator
Sh. P.C. Tyagi

Dr. Parag Nigam

Researcher
Dr. Anupam Srivastav,
Research Associate

Sh. Sitendu Goswami

Research Fellow

Ms. Malemleima Ningombi

Research Fellow
© Wildlife Institute of India
& Central Zoo Authority

Published by

Wildlife Institute of India

P.O. Box # 18, Chandrabani
Dehradun – 248 001 (Uttarakhand)
p. (0135) 2640111-115; f: 0135-2640117
w. www.wii.gov.in

The enrichment devices suggested are

prototypes made from easily available material.
It is advisable that natural and sturdy material
is used for construction of such devices.

Design and Realisation:

Wildlife Institute of India

Photo Credits:
Sh. P.C. Tyagi, Sh. Sitendu Goswami & Ms.
Malemleima Ningombi

Citation: Tyagi, P.C., Nigam, P., Srivastav, A.,

Goswami, S. Ningombi, M. (2015). Enrichment
Manual for Selected Species in Indian Zoos TR
No. 020 pp 161
 Enrichment Manual for
Selected Species in Indian Zoos; Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and Central Zoo Authority, New
Delhi; TR No. 020 pp 161.

Modern zoos in India have evolved over a period of time from menageries to centers of conservation
and education. The Government of India in order to provide the desired direction and thrust to the zoos,
amended the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and created the Central Zoo Authority in 1992 and notified the
revised recognition of zoo rules in 2009. These rules lay down the standards and norms for housing, upkeep and
healthcare of animals. The National Zoo Policy, 1998 advocates that the purpose of zoos is to support the
conservation of endangered species through coordinated breeding and its rehabilitation in the wild, garnering
empathy for wild animals by creating awareness, opportunity for scientific studies and to act as rescue centers
for wild animals.

The Central Zoo Authority conducts regular evaluation and monitoring of zoos for granting recognition
and facilitate improvement of zoos in consonance with the norms and guidelines. The animals housed in the
zoos should be able to display behavioural repertoires as found in their wild con-specifics. The welfare of the
animals is dependent on the presence of adequate space and enrichment in the enclosures. In order to evaluate
the present housing and enrichment conditions in the zoos, the Central Zoo Authority (CZA) awarded a research
project titled “Studies on Housing & Enclosure Enrichment of Some Species in Selected Indian Zoos” to the
Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun. The primary goal of the study is to develop protocols on housing and
enclosure enrichment for improving the welfare of captive animals.

The WII commenced the evaluations in January 2011 and carried out an extensive study in 24 zoos
across the country addressing issues of animal housing and enclosure enrichment and prepared a detailed
report on the prevailing housing and enclosure enrichment practices in zoos. The enclosure enrichment manual
was developed based on empirical studies to improve the welfare of captive animals.

I congratulate the CZA and WII team for conceptualizing and executing this essential study and
developing this manual in a short span of time. I exhort the zoos across the country to use the manual for
improving their existing housing and enclosure enrichment practices thereby fulfilling their conservation
mandates.
The Central Zoo Authority since its inception in 1992 by an amendment in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 has
been facilitating the improvement and management of the zoos in the country. The welfare of animals is of
primordial importance to the ex-situ captive facilities and can be achieved by constructing naturalistic enclosures
and safeguards self-sustaining, genetically and behaviourally viable populations of species threatened with
extinction in the wild. The maintenance of such populations is dependent on the ability of zoos to provide animals
in their care with environment that fulfill their critical requirements. These vary between species, as well as
between individuals of the species, and encompass the social structure of the animals, their physical
environment, and even their vegetation.

Fulfilling these critical requirements has been a challenging task in the limited space available for housing wild
animals in zoos.

The Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun has initiated a study for captive animal welfare and conducted a rigorous
review of literature on the natural history, biology, behaviour and ecology of these species to assess their critical
requirements in captivity. It has further promulgated housing and enrichment protocols for the welfare
improvement of the captive species.

Based on the findings of the study, a manual was developed for providing various enrichment options available
for different groups of species. I am sure that this manual will be an important reference source for the zoo
managers for execution of welfare measures suggested by the Institute. I appreciate the hard work done by the
researchers in developing innovative techniques and enrichment methods for improving the welfare of animals in
Indian zoos.
 Acknowledgement
The “Enrichment Manual for Selected Species in Indian Zoos” is an outcome of the Central Zoo Authority, New
Delhi, assignment to the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, for the project titled “Studies on Housing and
Enclosure Enrichment of Some Species in Selected Indian Zoos”. The authors wish to thank the Central Zoo
Authority for financial support and the opportunity to develop this manual.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and advice received from Shri. Vinod Ranjan, Additional Director
General, (Wildlife), MoEF & CC, Shri. B.S. Bonal, Former Member Secretary, Shri. Inder Dhamija, DIG
Headquarters, Central Zoo Authority, all the staff members of the Central Zoo Authority, especially Dr. B.K.
Gupta, Evaluation and Monitoring Officer, Dr. D. Thakur, Scientific Officer, and members of the ‘Expert
Committee for Zoo Design’ and ‘Technical Committee’ of the CZA.

We are thankful to Shri. P.R. Sinha, Former Director WII, Dr. V.B. Mathur, Director, WII for their guidance and
support. We would also like to express our appreciation for the advice and support extended by Dr. P.K. Mathur,
Former Dean Faculty of Wildlife Sciences, WII. We also express our gratitude to all the faculty members and
research personnel of the institute for their help and advice in carrying out the task assigned.

We express our heartfelt gratitude to all the Directors/Curators, Veterinary Officers, Biologists, and personnel of
all the zoos for facilitating the completion of this work.

We also express our appreciation of the efforts put in by Ms. Nilofer Begum, and Mr. T. Ajay Kumar for their
contribution in the initial phase of the project. We also thank Mr. Attar Singh, Mr. Mukesh Arora, Mr. Neeraj
Gupta for the secretarial assistance provided.

Authors
 Contents
Page No.
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-21
Chapter 2 Pheasants: Essential 22-31
Environmental Enrichments for
Himalayan Monal
Chapter 3 Primates: Essential Environmental 32-57
Enrichments for Lion-tailed
Macaques
Chapter 4 Canids: Essential Environmental 58-77
Enrichments for Indian Wild Dog,
Dhole
Chapter 5 Felids: Essential Environmental 78-93
Enrichments for Leopard
Chapter 6 Ursids: Essential Environmental 94-111
Enrichments for Asiatic Black Bear
Chapter 7 Small Mammals: Essential 112-130
Environmental Enrichments for
Red Panda
Chapter 8 Mega-Herbivores: Essential 131-147
Environmental Enrichments for
Asian Elephant
Chapter 9 Ungulates: Essential 148-161
Environmental Enrichments for
Brow-antlered Deer
 List of Plates
Plate Title Page
1. Bonnet macaque in restrictive cage enclosure 4
2. Processed food given in zoos 5
3. Social group of lion-tailed macaque at Arignar Anna Zoological Park 6
4. Singly housed Stump-tailed macaque at Assam state zoo 6
5. Barren retiring cells 7
6. Olfactory Enrichment by brushing honey on rotten logs 13
7. Binturong scatter fed at Sepahijala conservation breeding facility 13
8. Asiatic Black bear with honey dispenser at Mahendra Chaudhury Zoological Park, 14
Chatbir
9. Ball feeder suspended 14
10. Hidden Food items in the enclosure, Asiatic black bear digging out food items 15
11. LTM utilizing enclosure vegetation 16
12. Asiatic black bear thermo-regulating at water-pool 17
13. Asiatic black bear using scent trail 18
14. Male Himalayan Monal 22
15. Display enclosure for Himalayan Monal 25
16. Off-display enclosure for Himalayan Monal 26
17. Artificial feeder 27
18. Gourd feeder 28
19. Provision of feed and water inside the off-display enclosure. Same kind of water 30
feeder and feed were provided however there was no separate cell to keep them
20. Furniture and enrichments inside the Off-display enclosure 31
21. Adult male Lion tailed macaque at Mysore Zoo 32
22. Open wet moated enclosure for Lion tailed macaque at Arignar Anna Zoological Park 39
23. Continuous viewing gallery at AAZP 40
24. LTM foraging and drinking impure moat water 40
25. Zookeeper preparing food at retiring cells 41
26. Mohan sitting away from the group 41
27. LTMs at AAZP grooming 42
28. Foraging boards 46
29. Puzzle feeder 46
30. Ball feeder 51
31. Cane baskets required to make ball feeder 51
32. Attach cane baskets from inside 52
33. Bamboo feeders 52
34. Bamboo stump, hand saw, electric drill, and hammer 53
35. Cut the bamboo stump in sizeable pieces, and then make a rounded hole at the top, 53
Plate Title Page
file it before attaching to the tree
36. Hanging coconuts used as enrichment devices 54
37. Vantage point with hanging coconuts 55
38. Swings used as enrichment devices 55
39. Indian Wild Dog (Dhole) at Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Vishakhapatnam 58
40. Wild dog enclosure at Chennai Zoo (AAZP) 63
41. Public utility area of Dhole enclosure 63
42. Water pool the most used feature of the enclosure 65
43. Dholes resting under vegetation 66
44. Retiring cells and day kraal for dholes 67
45. Wild dogs interacting 68
46. Enrichment device setup 70
47. Earth mounds 70
48. Pitfall feeder with dressed chicken 71
49. Water pool for Dholes 71
50. Scratching posts 72
51. Blockades 72
52. Visual barriers 73
53. Arignar Anna Zoological Park (AAZP).Top covered enclosure with a continuous 81
viewing area at three sides. Holding area and kraal was visible to the public.
54. High visitor pressure and overcrowding all along the viewing area which was 81
continuous and open almost up to 2/3 of the enclosure
55. Enclosure enriched with vegetation and furniture of which the animals were 82
habituated. Regular cleaning and trimming of vegetation was required since there
was over growth of thorny herbs such as Mimosa pudica, etc.
56. Feed provided on the floor of the retiring cell at the end of the day. Retiring cells 83
received sufficient sunlight and were cleaned each day in the morning
57. Meat being hung on a tree inside the enclosure 84
58. Leopard showing new activity such as climbing up on trees and perching after 85
enrichments were introduced inside the enclosure
59. Log perches being constituted 85
60. New tree log perches introduced inside the enclosure located at different zones 86
61. Setting up of platform 86
62. Interaction with platform where the leopard showed various activities. The leopard 87
jumped on it, sat and rubbed itself on its surface.
63. Leopard interaction with log perches located at different zones of the enclosure. It 87
often sat atop and rubbed its head on the log
64. Interaction with various enrichments. The leopard used the log perch and platform to 88
reach out for a meat piece hanging on the tree
65. Logs at different zones of the enclosure 88
66. Releasing carps inside the pool 89
67. Setting up pebble rattler 90
Plate Title Page
68. Manipulable enrichment pebble rattler hanging from a tree 91
69. Leopard interaction with pebble rattler 91
70. Agro-net on the top of the wire mesh leopard enclosure 91
71. Visual barrier made of palm leaves at one side of the enclosure 92
72. Asiatic black bear resting on an artificial kumadana (platform) at Mysore Zoo 94
73. Asiatic black bear exhibit at MCZP 98
74. Existing enclosure schematic plan 98
75. Proposed enrichment plan at MCZP exhibit 100
76. Pitfall feeders at Asiatic black bear enclosure Chatbir 103
77. Installation of wobble tree at Asiatic black bear enclosure 104
78. Bamboo feeder setup and use by Asiatic black bear 105
79. Closed type hanging fruit 106
80. Open type hanging fruit 106
81. Asiatic black bear foraging on hanging fruits 106
82. Sensory enrichment being utilized by Asiatic black bear 107
83. Ice blocks and shelter provide opportunity for thermoregulation to Asiatic black 108
bears
84. Hanging food items on manipulable enrichments being utilized by Asiatic black bear 109
85. Asiatic black bear using a manipulable hessian bag with hidden treats 110
86. Red Panda at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park 112
87. Enclosure at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park, Darjeeling 117
88. Red Panda using water feature at an enclosure at Chester Zoo 120
89. Arboreal nest boxes for red pandas 120
90. Zookeeper setting up enrichments at a red panda enclosure 121
91. Arboreal net feeders 122
92. Arboreal foraging boxes for red pandas 122
93. Vertically placed bamboo shoots being foraged by red pandas at dusk 123
94. Using arboreal pathways 124
95. Visual barriers reduce threat displays and aggression 125
96. Arboreal perches 125
97. Complex understory 126
98. Mahendra Chaudhary Zoological Park elephant enclosure 135
99. Viewing area/ viewing gallery 136
100. Paddock area 136
101. Retiring area/shed 137
102. Animals were found concentrated near the retiring area most of the time 137
103. Feed were provided twice daily inside the shed 138
104. Browse feeder setup 139
105. Elephants interacting and feeding from the browse feeder 139
106. Setting up of pot feeder 140
107. Interaction with the pot feeder held up on a tree log 141
Plate Title Page
108. Log pile on one side of the enclosure 141
109. Elephants interacting with the log and feeding on its bark 142
110. Step by step procedure of making grass bales 142
111. Elephants interacting with grass bales 143
112. Interaction with grass and fruits filled Hessian bag 143
113. Coir ropes worn around log 144
114. Interaction with log tied with coir rope 144
115. Step wise set up procedure for temporary shed 145
116. Temporary shed 146
117. Elephants interacting with various enrichments provided inside the enclosure 146
118. Brow-antlered Deer enclosure at National Zoological Park. The enclosure was 151
large however it was barren except for thorny acacia tree species. Few logs and
twigs were the only source of enrichment and the animals remained at the distal
part of the enclosure most of the time.
119. Brow-antlered deer resting most of the day at the distal part of the enclosure 152
especially near the holding area
120. Retiring cum kraal area where the feed were fed on the floor. Except for the fawns, 153
all at once often the deer were observed getting inside this small area to feed
121. Setting up of hanging green fodder 154
122. Preparation of green fodder for the basket 154
123. Deer browsing from the hanging feed basket 154
124. Deer interacting with hanging tree branches hung at different points across the 155
enclosure
125. Deer grazing on green fodder left on the concrete slab present inside the enclosure 156
126. Water Trough behind a tree 156
127. (a) Feeding trough 157
(b) Filling trough with concentrate feed
128. Refurnishing the wallowing area 158
129. Deer at the wallowing area 158
130. Deer using one of the straw mat points 159
131. Deer feeding on twigs & branches 159
132. (a) Construction of the shelter 160
(b) The shelter
133. Interaction with shelter. It was used as a shelter and withdrawal area as well as 160
foraging area
134. Levelled ground at ruin area 160
 List of Tables
Table Title Page
1. Life history traits of Himalayan Monal 23
2. Morphometry of Lion-tailed macaque 32
3. Group composition of Lion-tailed macaque in the wild 34
4. Life history traits of Lion-tailed macaque 36
5. Evaluation of existing enrichment at LTM enclosure 43
6. Enrichment options for Lion-tailed macaque 50
7. Efficacy of enrichment intervention at Lion-tailed macaque enclosure 56
8. Life history traits of Dhole 59
9. Enrichment options for Dhole 69
10. Efficacy of enrichment intervention at Dhole enclosures 75
11. Life history traits of Leopard 79
12. Enrichment options for Leopard 83
13. Life history traits of Asiatic black bear 95
14. Diet of Asiatic black bear at MCZP 99
15. Enrichment options for Asiatic black bear 100
16. Efficacy of enrichment intervention at Asiatic black bear enclosure 110
17. Morphometry of Red panda 113
18. Life history traits of Red panda 113
19. CZA guidelines for housing Red Panda/Barriers 116
20. Enrichment options for Red panda 127
21. Efficacy of enrichment intervention at Red Panda enclosure 129
22. Life history traits of Asian elephant 132
23. Enrichments options for Asian elephant 138
24. Life history traits of Sangai 148
25. Enrichments options for Sangai 153

List of Figures
Figure Title Page
1 Categories, sub-categories and types of enrichment for captive animals 12
2 Activity budget post enrichment 74
3 Enrichment device usage 74
 Chapter 1
Introduction
Zoos receive almost 600 million people annually across the world and continue to be
one of the most popular venues for recreation. This large mass provides an opportunity
to the conservation community to reach out and effectively convey the need for human
society to develop a harmonious relationship with its environment.

Zoos of today serve as public institutions but they trace their origins as private
collections of the royalty and the rich across the globe, and India is no exception. In
India the earliest record of zoos can be found during the Gupta era (320 AD – 467 AD)
with enactment of laws for the management and welfare of captive and wild animals.
However, the first public zoo in India was established by the then Governor General
Lord Wellesley at Barrackpore in 1800 AD. This zoo continued till 1878, when the
collection was handed over to Alipore Zoological Garden, Kolkata. Later, Zoos were
established at several locations across the Indian subcontinent. The animals in these
zoos were housed in cramped barred cages with little space for movement and little
consideration for their behavioural or nutritional needs. During this period hunting was
extensively practiced both for sport and sustenance and animals were easily available
for zoo collections. Expanding anthropogenic activities resulted in habitat degradation
of wild fauna, thereby causing large scale population declines. The non-availability of
wild animals forced zoos to try breeding programmes for animals in their custody..

In 1952, the Indian Board of Wildlife (IBWL) (now the National Board of Wildlife) was
constituted with a view to preserve the country’s rich natural heritage. The
establishment of a modern zoo at Delhi with large natural looking enclosures was one
of the important decisions taken in its first meeting. The zoo at Delhi was planned with
view to provide animals with semi-natural conditions and a better viewing perception
for the visitors by doing away with visible barriers as far as possible. IBWL also
recommended the establishment of modern zoos at major cities as a means of
educating the public about wildlife and wildlife conservation. The Delhi zoo was opened
to public in 1959 and it was followed by several zoos across the country. The zoos of
the erstwhile royalty were also taken over and opened to the public with a gradual shift
from the menagerie concept to the large naturalistic enclosures.

1
 In 1972 the zoo wing of the National Board of Wildlife was re-constituted as the Expert
group on zoos with the mandate to carry out a detailed study for setting up and
establishment of zoos in the country. This led to the establishment of several well-
planned zoos with spacious enclosures across the country; however, the zoo
movement also witnessed the proliferation of several ill-planned zoos with poor
infrastructure. Central Zoo Authority was constituted in 1992 to oversee the functioning
of zoos and control mushrooming of poorly conceived and ill-planned zoos. The
framing of the Recognition of Zoo rules 1992 under section 63 of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 paved the way for introduction of standards and norms for
management of zoos in the country. The Government of India in 1998 adopted the
National Zoo Policy to provide the necessary direction and thrust to the management
of zoos in the country.

Central Zoo Authority defines zoos as:

‘Zoo means an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive

animals are kept for exhibition to the public and includes a circus and
rescue centres but does not include an establishment of a licensed dealer
in captive animals’.

A zoo comprises of four integral components – the animals, the visitors, the personnel
looking after both the animals and the visitors, and the infrastructure required to
support the earlier three.

The CZA over the years has continued to exhort zoos to improve the existing housing
and husbandry conditions for captive wild fauna with respect to its mandate. As part of
this endeavour the CZA has prescribed minimum areas for paddocks (outdoor areas)
and retiring cells for select species. The continued evaluation and monitoring process
of the CZA revealed that while the zoos were adhering to the minimum area
prescriptions, the zoos were not going beyond these to improve the housing conditions
of the animals in their care.

Role of Zoos in Conservation

Zoos can further their conservation mission by maintaining demographically stable and
genetically viable populations of species threatened with extinction. Animals housed in
enclosures that provide opportunity to express their natural behavioural repertoire can
assist in fulfilling this objective of zoos. Exhibiting healthy (behaviourally and
physically) animals in near natural surroundings is also an effective way of creating
empathy in the mind of the large number of visitors entering zoos. It also ensures that

2
the population so developed will successfully reproduce and adapt to in-situ conditions
as and when suitable habitats become available for reintroduction.

Conditions in Captivity
An animal’s environment includes all internal (e.g. parasites) external (e.g. social
interactions) and non-hereditary conditions under which an animal lives. Species have
evolved to occupy niches in the habitats in which they occur with the level of
adaptations varying in each species. Some have evolved specializations which are
unique to particular habitats while others are more adaptable and survive in a broad
range of habitat types. Free ranging animals thrive by achieving control over their
environment via regulatory behavioural adjustments. In captive conditions an animal
loses this control over its environment as it is impossible to include the infinite variables
that exist in free ranging situation. Conditions in captivity are therefore often stressful,
especially for species about which little is known about their environmental
requirements and behavioural ecology from studies in free ranging condition.

Effects of Captive Environments

Animals are equipped with psychological and physiological adaptive mechanisms to
cope with various environmental stimuli encountered. These mechanisms have
evolved over generations and enable animals to adapt to their habitat and exploit it to
ensure their wellbeing. Michelson and others in 1995 proposed that the balance
between an animal and its environment could be termed as homeostasis and any
change in the environmental condition that disturbs this homeostasis, as a stressor.
Dantzer in 1991 defined stress as ‘the experience of having intrinsic or extrinsic
demands that exceed an individual’s resources for responding to those demands’.

In their natural habitats, animals are free to express species-typical behaviour patterns
that form a unique part of their life cycles. In wilderness, when faced with adverse
environmental conditions, animals can move from their present location to a more
suitable environment. However, in captive conditions, animals cannot move away from
stressful situations compromised welfare.

Animals housed in environments that poorly address its biological and behavioural
requirements are subjected to stress by the altered environmental conditions.
Additional stressors in the form of visitors and various other aversive stimuli such as
noise, altered photoperiods etc. are present in captive environments. Response to
these stressors varies between species and individuals history. Some species and
individuals may adapt well to the captive environments while others may undergo
chronic or acute stress depending on the stressor and the individual. Animals born in
captive environments are less susceptible to these stressors than wild origin animals.

3
 These stressors which can cause acute stress in wild origin individuals may hardly
elicit any response from the captive born individuals.

Effect of Stressors on Captive Wildlife

Commonly observed stressors and the responses elicited are summarized below.

1. Restrictions of space/ movement: Most animal species traverse large daily

distances to fulfil critical needs of finding food, water, cover and mates. While
moving around their home ranges/ territories, animals exhibit a diverse pattern
of behaviours in response to the wide variety of stimuli that they encounter.
Captive environments constrain the space available to the animals and
provide monotonous environment with limited stimuli. A consequence of the
limitations of space and stimuli in animals’ results in a variety of abnormal
behavioural patterns that may often become repetitive leading to stereotypies.

Plate 1: Bonnet macaque in restrictive cage enclosure

4
2. Uniformity and fixed schedule of zoo diets: Wild animals show seasonal
variation in food choices depending on resource availability. Further most of
the extant animals have evolved to exploit specific niches and seasonal
variations in resource availability in their ecosystems and have developed
specific adaptations that ensure their effective utilization. They have also
developed unique feeding strategies that ensure effective predator avoidance
for prey species and prey availability for predator species. The strategies used
also ensure the avoidance of diurnal weather extremes, such as avoidance of
high noon time ambient temperatures. Most captive feeding regimes are
however constrained by fixed feeding schedule and provision of resource rich
processed feeds that can be consumed in a short while. This is contrary to that
experienced in free ranging condition where resources are often spread over a
large area and animals have to seek these resources thereby spending a large
part of their daily activity budget in locating and consuming food. The altered
feeding regime leaves the animal with a large amount of inactive time and can
lead to animals developing feeding related behavioural disorders such as
regurgitation and re-ingestion of food, coprophagy and feeding related
stereotypies besides physiological disorders like obesity.

Plate 2: Processed food given in zoos

5
 3. Improper Social Grouping of Animals:
Sociality is a complex behaviour that has variably evolved across the diverse
animal types. Social structures facilitate communication with conspecifics,
reduce aggression and aid in mate selection. This is ensured by a complex
social structure observed for most species in the wild. The group structure of
all species varies dynamically throughout the year as sub-adults turn into
adults and disperse into neighbouring territories. Even solitary species exhibit
a range of social behaviours that have their cues in olfactory, auditory and
visual cues that are used to reinforce territoriality and announce their
reproductive status.

In captivity, animals are often housed contrary to their normal social structure
in free ranging condition. Consequently the presence/ absence of con-
specifics place the animals under continuous stress with varied behavioural
and physiological and behavioural responses.

Plate 3: Social group of lion-tailed macaque at Arignar Anna Zoological Park

4. Constant exposure to visitors: The zoo

environment places animals in close proximity to
human beings, in the form of keepers and
visitors. Animals housed in enclosures that have
small distance between the visitors and the
animals can place animals under undue stress.
This chronic stress can lead animals to express
a variety of behavioural abnormalities such as
lethargy; using only the elevated portions of the
Plate 4: Singly housed Stump-tailed enclosures that place them above the visitors;
macaque at Assam state zoo
stereotypic pacing at portions of their enclosures
furthest from visitors often resembling efforts to
escape.

6
5. Barren enclosures: Free ranging animals inhabit dynamic environments that
provide varied stimuli and exhibit a diversity of behavioural patterns in response
to these stimuli. Captive environments due to limitations of space are unable to
provide these diverse stimuli; however, enclosures that lack the minimum
environmental requirements of the
species in captivity can cause severe
irreversible behavioural changes in the
animals housed. An example of this is
primates housed in an enclosure without
trees and elevated perches will exhibit
locomotory disorders and develop
morphological abnormalities as a
consequence of walking on hard ground. Plate 5: Barren retiring cells

Compensating for Stress

Providing captive animals with living spaces that counter the stressful effects of their
environments is an enormous challenge requiring intensive rethinking in the way
enclosures are designed, retrofitting existing enclosures as control, choice and
decision making are critical biological needs of any animal. Providing animals with
these options in captive environments is indeed challenging and can be done by
providing naturalistic environments and enrichment that caters to the unique
requirements of the species and the individuals. This will enable captive animals to
display behavioural patterns that are in close approximation to their natural behaviours.

Naturalistic Enclosures
The meaning and scope of animal welfare in broader views, can be leading a natural
life through the development of natural capabilities. To achieve this end the perfect zoo
enclosure would have to be an exact replica of the territory the species occupies in the
wild. This would be possible only for a few select species for most of the others the
space requirements and the costs of such enclosures would be prohibitive limiting the
range of species that can be maintained in captivity. The aim of captive management
of wild animals is therefore to create an illusion of naturalness in captive environments.
For this purpose the terms ‘Natural, Naturalistic and Naturalistic exhibit’ are used by
the zoo community. Zoolex defines these terms as:

Natural: Existing in or produced by nature; not artificial or imitation.

Naturalistic: Representing what is real, aiming at replicating a natural environment.
Naturalistic exhibit: The exhibit represents a natural animal habitat in a convincing
way.

7
 Zoo exhibitory has accordingly evolved from the menagerie concept of living natural
history museum exhibits to creative exhibits that strive to educate visitors about
biology, ecology, threats to biodiversity and other environmental issues. The requisite
message of the interdependence of animals and their ecosystems can be best
explained by naturalistic enclosures that aim to recreate the relationship of the animal
with its environment. Exhibits housing animals in improper social groups and poor
ecological context can lead to the creation of a distorted view of the environment. The
educational objectives of the exhibits can be achieved by incorporating the species
natural history, ecology and behaviour into the design process. However, enclosures
need to be serviced and the visitors need to see active animals. Zoos without visitors
will not be able to operate for long and without being serviced, the enclosure sanitary
conditions would rapidly degenerate. The perfect zoo enclosure should therefore cater
to the occupants needs and cater to the needs of the staff that are to service it and the
visitors who will view it.

Animal welfare should be the first priority of zoo management. Animal enclosures
should provide enough space so that the animals within do not feel threatened (the
flight distance is considered). This need not necessarily translate as enclosure with
very large areas as even extremely large barren enclosures would not address the
basic biological needs of the species. The enclosures should be large enough to
incorporate features that provide animals a flight distance i.e. to feel safe when
threatened; an area to rest undisturbed in addition to features that address the basic
biological and ecological requirements of the species. From the keepers perspective
the enclosure should be easily serviced; they should be safe from the animals; there
should be an area for restraining the animals for daily servicing and maintenance.

The visitors pay to see active and healthy animals in what they perceive as the natural
environment of the species. The visitor needs can be met by incorporating enrichment
programmes in the husbandry protocols to ensure that animals remain active for a
large part of the day. A variety of behavioural choices should be made available and
the greatest challenge is to encourage species-typical behaviours without reverting to
the use of objects from the human world or to symbols of human dominance and
control.

Exhibits cannot say everything by themselves, but they must be designed with
conservation messages in mind supported by appropriate signage that conveys the
message the enclosure is expected to impart. This is important as most visitors
construct their own meanings from what they see. The physical context being offered is
just one of many factors involved in the construction of these meanings. By doing so
we may strive to achieve the one of the most important mission of zoos i.e. to create

8
empathy in the minds of the visitors towards conservation of nature and its diverse
resources.

Enclosure Enrichment
Attempts to address abnormal behaviours led to the concept of keeping the animals
busy with activities leading to positive outcomes using enclosure enrichment.
Enrichment of captive animals is essential for avoiding abnormal behaviour, it may not
make it stop completely, but will help stimulate the animal. Markowitz and LaForse in
1987 suggested that “Behavioural enrichment is the art of designing and offering
behavioural opportunities for captive animals to exercise species-typical
behaviours and, where possible, to mirror opportunities found in nature”. It is
through the careful analysis of an animal’s enclosure and behavioural enrichment that
we may begin to avoid abnormal behaviour.

Environment Enrichment in Captivity

Animals in captive conditions do not have the freedom to perform instinctive
behaviours that they usually display in the wild, this leads to stress. In order to remove
the stress, environmental enrichment can be placed in enclosures, which allow animals
to display a higher proportion of their behaviour repertoire. Enclosure enrichment is
defined as “Provision of stimuli which promotes the expression of species-appropriate
behavioural and mental activities in an under stimulating environment.”

Enclosure enrichments are management interventions that are made to help captive
animals display natural behaviour patterns. Animal housed in natural enclosures that
allow species-typical behaviours live longer and are less susceptible to diseases.
Therefore, zoos need to implement enrichment plans for each animal species housed
in the zoo. Scientists obtain information about basic ecological and psychological
requirements of species from field studies and use that information to simulate
conditions in captivity that creates opportunities for species-appropriate behaviour in
enclosure environments.

Rationale for Enrichment

Major philosophies behind enrichment are summarized below:

Mimicking Nature
Animals have evolved to thrive in a specific set of natural environments; thus, by
definition, in nature the animals’ needs are met satisfactorily. An extension of this is, if
an animal that behaves in captivity the same way as it would in the wild, it is assumed
to be in a good state of well- being. This philosophy is beset with the difficulty of
defining “natural behaviour” in a species with diverse habitats and the problem of

9
 deciding which behaviours and environmental stimuli are “good” and which are “bad”
and the fact that most animals are capable of learning to adapt to novel environments.

Behavioural Needs
The philosophy is that animals have evolved complex patterns of behaviours, and that
they have a “need” to perform these behaviours. The absence of either the ability to
perform those behaviours or the stimuli needed to elicit them can result in frustration
and ultimately stress. Several studies in captivity support this concept.

Control/ Behavioural Contingency

Control can be defined as the probability that a certain outcome will occur in response
to a given behavioural interaction. This control is important for animals to maintain
homeostasis with its environment such as the acts of regulating body temperature,
avoiding stress inducing stimuli both physical and psychological.

Reducing Abnormal Behaviour

Most abnormal behaviours seen in captivity are associated with reduced well-being of
captive animals and the most commonly reported abnormal behaviour is stereotypy.
The stated goal of most enrichment programmes is thus a reduction in expression of
abnormal behaviours.

Increasing Behaviour Diversity

The behaviour diversity exhibited by captive animals is usually less than that of
animals in the wild, and is also an indication of behavioural opportunities and degree of
control. Increasing behavioural diversity is thus another mechanism for evaluating the
effectiveness of enrichment. In studies where behavioural diversity has been
assessed, enrichment has been shown to be effective at increasing it.

Increasing Duration of Specific Target Behaviours

Certain behaviour patterns associated with improved welfare conditions are targeted
for enrichment. These can include exploratory and foraging behaviours, locomotion
and play. The behaviours being targeted may vary for different species.

Increasing Enclosure Space Utilization

Several behavioural problems associated with captivity are believed to be a
consequence of confinement or reduced space and the static nature of captive
environments. The perceived space in captivity can be increased by creating a more
complex environment thereby creating more usable space that actually change the
physical space.

10
Reducing Physiological Correlates of Stress
Limited literature exists on the physiological aspects of stress with only a few studies
evaluating physiological measures of stress are reported from captive wild animal
facilities; however, the technology is becoming more practical and capable of providing
quantitative results on physiological measures of stress.

Objectives of Enrichment
Enclosure enrichment is implemented for providing a more complex environment that
gives animals’ greater choice and control over their environment. Following are the
stated objectives of most enrichment programmes.
1. Reduce aberrant behaviours
2. Alleviate stress related to captivity
3. Provision of opportunities to display species-typical behaviour patterns
4. House animals in near-natural conditions in ideal social group
5. Reducing the factors in the immediate environment that stresses animals
6. Increasing the activity level of animals

Enrichment Types
Enrichment of captive environments can be of numerous types depending on the
natural behavioural traits of the species and the personality of the animal occupants.
The major enrichment categories are summarized in fig. 1. However, these should not
be treated as watertight boxes while implementation, indeed effective enrichment is
most often a combination of multiple enrichment categories (e.g. Puzzle feeders are a
combination of cognitive, sensory and food enrichments). Enrichment planning and
implementation should involve preliminary assessment of the personality of the
animals and species specific behavioural traits of the animals. Based on this
assessment an enrichment plan for the individual animal enclosures should be
prepared. The major considerations while implementing enrichments are that they
should promote species specific behaviour patterns and the animals should continue to
use them. These conditions can be met:
a. Enrichment planning based on knowledge of species critical requirements.
b. Enrichment plan includes a rotation of the artefacts and devices and an
element of novelty is maintained.
Enrichments can be of many types viz., sensory, manipulable, nutritional etc. These
broad categories of enrichments are designed to provide certain species-typical needs
of every captive animal that is otherwise overlooked in captivity. Animal enclosures
should be designed with three parties in mind
1. Animal
2. Visitor
3. Zoo staff

11
 With this in mind, a zoo enclosure needs to be designed while keeping the ecological,
biological and behavioural requirements of the species in mind.

Here we will discuss briefly about different types of enrichment and how these can
improve welfare in captive animals.

Different Types of Enrichment Devices and Practices

a. Social Enrichment
It involves either direct or indirect (visual, olfactory, auditory) contact with
conspecifics or other species or humans. It can include maintaining animals in
appropriate social groups’ e.g. Primates in troops comprising of multi-male –
multi-female with young, similar social groupings can also be maintained for
ungulates. Even for solitary animals like felids in the wild males defend
territories which overlap with territories of one or more female and they remain
in communication with each other through olfactory and auditory signals. The
presence of human caregivers can in some cases also provide positive
stimulus to animals such as elephants which share a strong bond with their
mahouts.

12
 a. Presence of conspecifics (belonging to same species): Animals
housed in social groups are less likely to display abnormal behaviour
patterns than those housed singly. Pair or group-housed animals
spend a large chunk of time playing and socialising with each other.

b. Appropriate social grouping: Some group living animals have

different types of social structures. For example, lion-tailed macaques
usually have a very low number of males for all the females in each
group. Therefore, it is advised not to house lion-tailed macaques in
male-male iso-sexual groups or a high number of males per female,
as this will lead to increased incidences of conflict in the enclosure.

c. Presence of other species: Several species in the free ranging

condition have close interactions with other species that are mutually
beneficial such as the association between herbivores and primates;
mega herbivores with deer etc. Predator and prey species should
never be housed together nor should carnivores that are likely to have
mutually aggressive interactions

2. Cognitive Enrichment
It encompasses both psychological enrichment
(e.g., devices that provide animals with control
or challenges) and enrichment that encourages
exercise. The continuous changes in an
animal’s environment require it develop
behavioural mechanisms that allow it to cope
with these changes and maintain control over
its environment. Captive environments on the
other hand provide unvarying monotonous Plate 6: Olfactory Enrichment by
environments that thwart this need of the brushing honey on rotten logs
animal. Providing devices that stimulate the
animals to perform activities that provide it with
a greater control over its environment and
perform natural exploratory behaviours e.g.
concealed food, puzzle feeders, mazes etc.

Food Based Cognitive Enrichment

a. Scatter Feeding:
Usually captive animals are fed in retiring cells
with bulk feed that does not require much
searching or processing. In the wild, animals
Plate 7: Binturong scatter fed at
have to run, track, hunt animals, climb trees
Sepahijala conservation breeding facility
Plate 1 Binturong scatter fed at
Sepahijala Conservation
breeding facility
13
 and swim in order to obtain food. In captivity animals have limited scope to
express foraging behaviours. By scattering the feed in enclosures we can
address following issues.
i. Increase foraging behaviour
ii. Enhance activity budget and improve cognitive abilities
iii. Reduces conflict at feeding site where one animal might dominate others
iv. Encourages a more homogenous enclosure space utilization pattern

However care should be taken on the following points

a. Leftover food items might attract rats, mongoose and other rodents that
spread disease. It should therefore be ensured that leftover food items
should be cleaned every day.
b. Care should be taken so that the animals do not see the keeper during
scatter feeding. Keepers should scatter the feed before releasing animals.
Keepers may also scatter the feed while hiding behind a screen.
c. Scattering of feed should never be done during visitor hours as this may
encourage food provisioning by visitors that may lead to incidences of
begging behaviour.

b. Food Dispensers: Food dispensers can be small devices

that are loaded with delicious low-nutrient food items that
provide a small quantity of feed at intervals. The devices can
be simple or complex and can enhance the cognitive skills of
animals and increase social cohesion in group-living animals.
i. Increase foraging time
ii. Decrease boredom
iii. Reduce abnormal behaviours or site-specific behaviour
before feeding time
Plate
Plate8: Asiatic Black bear
1 Asiatic with bear
Black honey
dispenser at Mahendra
with honey dispenser at Chaudhury iv. Increases social interactions in species.
Zoological Park, Chatbir
Mahendra Chaudhury
c. Insect Feeders: For some animals such as sloth bears and
Zoological Park, Chhatbir
pangolin, insects constitute a huge portion of daily diet
requirement. In captivity, it is very difficult to replicate natural
behaviours. Insect dispensers can be fashioned from rotten
logs and impart a functional naturalism to the enclosure.

d. Suspended Puzzle Feeders: Suspended puzzle feeders in

zoos increase the cognitive skills and mental acuity of captive
Plate 9: Ball feeder suspended

14
animals. These puzzle feeders can be fashioned from various materials. The one
shown in the picture was made from two baskets that were sealed at their opening.
Holes were cut at the sides of this basket so that the keepers could load food and then
the ball would be hung from a tree branch.

e. Concealed feeding
Concealed food items
can be subterranean
(hidden under the
ground) or can be
hidden in enclosure
features (like tied to
tree branches etc.).
These are occasional
Plate
Plate 110: Hidden
Hidden Foodfood
itemsitems in the enclosure,
in the enclosure, Asiatic
Asiatic black bear black
diggingbear
out
food rewards that can
digging out food items food items.
be given to an animal
for exploring the
enclosure environment

i. Food rewards should be placed at different locations

ii. The nutritive value of such treats should not be high
iii. The processing time for such treat should be low to minimize chances of
conflict between enclosure mates.

3. Enrichment of Physical Habitat

It involves altering the size or complexity of the animals’ enclosure or adding
accessories to the enclosure such as objects, substrate, or permanent
structures (e.g., nestboxes). Free ranging animals are exposed to extensive
variation in the habitat they occupy enclosure for captive wildlife on the other
hand offer limited variation in the microhabitat types. Providing variations in
microhabitat types in the enclosures and by varying the location of different
microhabitats periodically can stimulate exploratory behaviour in the animals.
Additionally incorporating as many as possible features of the natural habitat
of the species in the enclosure can provide animal with greater control over
their environment. The features provided need not be the replicas of that
occurring in the wild rather they should be able to cater to needs of the
animals that features of their natural habitat provide.

15
 a. Trees and Enclosure Vegetation
Trees and enclosure vegetation have a cascading
effect on the aesthetics and naturalism of the
enclosure. By having species-specific vegetation in
enclosures, we promote natural foraging and social
behaviours in the species.

Applicable: These type of enrichments are ideal for

all type of animals, provided the vegetation is non-
toxic, does not have thorns and thistles and do not
Plate 11: LTM utilizing enclosure
vegetation impede the natural behaviour pattern of the animals
in any manner.

b. Trunks and Logs

Trunks and logs in enclosures enhance aesthetics of the enclosure and
increase functionality of the paddock area, bringing variety to the simple terrain
of the enclosure paddock area. These simple devices can be used to attract
insects that increase foraging. Such trunks and logs can be manipulated by
animals to forage on insects or play with enclosure mates. They can be used
to hide food items and increase the complexity of the paddock area.

Applicable: Such enrichment devices are effective for ungulates,

megaherbivores, small mammals, ursids, canids and primates.

c. Substrates
Substrate of the paddock area should be made from soil and keep the usage
of concrete and cement to a bare minimum. A natural substrate is good for
maintaining the claws of carnivores and ursids and helps animals perform
natural behaviours. Natural substrate in the paddock area promotes vegetation
growth and increases aesthetic appeal of the enclosure area. Natural
substrate should constitute more than 75% of an enclosure area. Presence of
natural substrates in enclosures can promote denning behaviour among
canids during whelping.

d. Earthen Mounds (Undulating Terrain)

Apart from a few grassland species, most wild animals prefer mild undulations
in the paddock area. Undulations need not be abrupt and should provide
enough topographical variation so that animals have adequate withdrawal
areas.

16
e. Water Pools
All animals need water to maintain
homeostasis via hydration and
thermoregulation. Water bodies are
essential in every enclosure. Water bodies
should be designed to meet species-specific
requirements.
Plate 12:
Plate 11Asiatic black bear
Asiatic blackthermo-
bear
regulating at water-pool
f. Visual Barriers thermo-regulating at water-pool

Individuals in adjacent enclosures may exhibit overtly aggressive behaviour.

The reason could be evolutionary (sambar and tiger) or social/territorial
(between two male tigers, red pandas, macaques). Visual barriers are
suggested for enclosures where the sight of animals in adjacent enclosure
places the residents of the other enclosure in stress. Visual barriers can be
made of artificial (if the animals are not in contact with the barrier) or natural (if
the animals can interact with the substrate) and should not affect the visual
aesthetics of the enclosure.

g. Artificial Rain
For species living in tropical rainforest, temperate and alpine species held in
zoos in sub-tropical and dry-deciduous areas artificial rain can cool ambient
temperatures and moisten their arid environments thus making the enclosures
more hospitable.

h. Enclosure Rotation
Enclosure rotation is a concept where in animals belonging to same group are
housed in interconnected enclosures. After a certain time-period animals are
shifted from one enclosure to the next interchangeably (Shuffling). Animals at
the new enclosure are exposed to the smells and odours of other animals, get
curious and explore their new habitat with species-typical behaviour patterns.
This also allows vegetation to regenerate in herbivore enclosures.

4. Sensory Enrichment
Providing enrichment that stimulates the visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile and
gustatory senses of animals housed in captive environments. In their natural
habitat wild animals are exposed to a variety of conditions that stimulate their
sense organs and elicit species typical responses. Conditions in captivity are
often monotonous with little variation in the stimuli received by the animal.
Providing animals with sensory cues in captivity can stimulate species typical

17
 responses in animals and can cause a reduction in the aberrant behaviours
exhibited by them.

Exposing prey species occasionally to the visual, olfactory or auditory cues of

predator species can elicit predator avoidance behaviour in them. Exposing
cold blooded animals to a range of thermal gradients can induce activity in
them with the animals preferring to opt for the zones with optimum
temperature range. Similarly scent from conspecifics can induce greater
marking behaviour in territorial species.

a. Scent Trails
Several species use olfactory cues for communication
and understanding their environment. The cues thus
obtained stimulate appropriate behavioural responses
in the animals. Scent trails are based on eliciting
responses to olfactory stimuli. Scent trails using
appropriate smells can be used to elicit activities such
as foraging or exploratory behaviour in animals. eg.
Scent trails using blood acts as a cue to stimulate
Plate 13: Asiatic black bear using exploratory behaviour in carnivores.
scent trail

b. Conspecific Vocalizations
Vocalization of conspecifics can increase species-typical behaviours in
captivity. This can be particularly enriching for animals born in captivity as this
promotes territorial behaviours. These enrichments are not recommended for
animals brought from wilderness. The vocalization of conspecifics can
increase the curiosity of the animals but implementing such enrichment may
cause chronic stress to the animals and can be counter-productive to animal
welfare.

c. Predator Vocalizations
Predator vocalization playbacks in prey enclosures can be a novelty in
relatively enriched enclosures; however, if the animals display begging
behaviour at certain parts of the enclosure and seek food from visitors.
Predator scent (urine) and predator vocalization playback can be used to ward
off the animals and keep them alert; however, such enrichments can remain
effective if used occasionally and fail on long-term sustained use. These
enrichments can increase stress on animals to a great degree.

18
d. Thermal Gradients
Every species requires a certain variation in temperature to maintain its
homeostasis. Cold blooded animals can have their environments enriched
using varied thermal gradients that the animals can utilize for
thermoregulation.

5. Feeding Enrichment
It involves either presenting varied or novel food types or changing the method
of food delivery.Free ranging animals spend maximum part of their daily active
times either feeding or searching for food; in captivity this urge is severely
thwarted by the fixed feeding schedule and altered diets. Natural
feeding/foraging behaviour can be elicited by a variety of means like scatter
feeding, concealed feeding, providing multiple feeds, providing diets similar to
that of free ranging conspecifics, etc.

a. Feeding Frequency:
The frequency of feeding at the enclosure often affects the welfare of animals
in myriad ways. Feed frequency can be modulated by providing various feed
enrichments such as concealed and scatter feeding across the paddock area
to promote natural foraging patterns. Such enrichments can be beneficial for
all taxa and can increase the daily time spent in foraging.

b. Feeding Locations:
Captive animals are almost always fed in the same area of the enclosure,
which creates a high level of cognitive association of the animal with a
particular location. When the animal is not allowed to access the feeding
location, displacement behaviours are more likely to occur. Therefore by
feeding the animals at different locations of the paddock area, a positive
relationship with the entire enclosure environment is created

c. Rotation of Food Items:

In captivity, animals are often fed with the same diet, which creates a sense of
monotony. Food choices for free-ranging animals are seasonally dependent
and therefore bring in a diversity that is essential for the maintenance of
species-specific traits. Rotating major food items in the diet of captive animals
creates a novelty that can improve health and enhance cognitive skills through
the effort required for processing complex food items. The rotation in food
items is mostly relevant for herbivores, primates, Ursids, and small mammals.

d. Frozen Treats:
Frozen treats can be a special novelty for all type of animals, especially,
Primates, Ursids, and Carnivores. These frozen treats incorporate the concept

19
 of contrafreeloading where animals are motivated to expend more time on
getting food rewards with low nutritional value and promote species-typical
behaviours.

e. Whole Food Items:

Free-ranging animals have evolved to forage on specific type of natural food
materials. A significant portion of natural feeding behaviour consists of food
processing and food handling. In captive conditions, animals are fed with pre-
processed food items that do not require the expression of natural feeding
behaviours. Providing natural food items will also increase the natural food
processing behaviours and increase the time budget for foraging behaviours in
captivity.

f. Feeding Log:
Hollow feeding logs can be placed at different locations of the enclosure to
conceal food items and other enrichments. Most animals such as primates,
ursids have a good repertoire of exploratory behaviours that they can utilize to
extract food from the complex enrichment devices.

g. Honey Dispensers:
Honey is a natural and highly-sought after food resource for most wild animals
such as ursids, however in the wild acquiring honey has a significant cost of
bee-sting attached to it. In captive conditions we can increase species-typical
behaviours by providing honey filled bamboo stumps on trees and other less-
utilized areas of the enclosure and promote species-typical behaviour budget
and space utilization patterns. The dispensers need to be strong, made of
natural / natural looking materials and have a very small amount of honey
inside so that the enrichments do not exceed the nutritional requirements of
the animals. Such enrichments can be beneficial for primates, ursids, and
small mammals.

h. Underground Food Pipes:

Animals like sloth bear need to meet behavioural requirements for foraging.
The underground feeding pipes can be used to increase exploratory
behaviours in animals.

i. Provision for Browse:

For ungulates browsing and grazing are primary requirements, by providing
browse feeding opportunities in the enclosure, animals can be motivated to
exercise species-typical behaviours that can improve welfare and competition
for food resources in otherwise impoverished enclosure conditions. These
enrichments can be used for herbivores and langurs.

20
Studies on Housing and Enclosure Enrichment of Some Species in
Selected Indian Zoos- Wildlife Institute of India
Methodology for study of housing and & enclosure enrichment
1. Zoos were identified for the study based on the number of animals in
enclosures and whether the animals were housed in appropriate social groups.
Example: Solitary species, housed singly without any iso-sexual pairs and
social species housed in groups.
2. A scoring sheet was developed based on existing guidelines and norms of
animal husbandry and management. The scoring sheet was based on the
principle of animal welfare and naturalism in enclosure design.
3. Essential aspects of enclosure were identified and scored.
4. Behavioural studies were conducted to measure the activity budget and
enclosure space utilization pattern of captive animals.
5. Data gathered from behavioural evaluations was analysed to find how the
animal welfare concerns were met in the paddock area.
a. Whether they were active
b. Whether they performed species-typical behaviours
c. Whether all areas of an enclosure was equally utilized
d. Whether there was conflict between group housed animals/ whether a
solitary housed animal’s welfare was compromised.
6. Based on the findings of the evaluation and behaviour study we identified
shortcoming of each enclosure and designed an enrichment plan that could
alleviate stressful situations for the animals housed in such impoverished
enclosures.
7. The following document is a summary of our findings. In order to simplify and
help disseminate the knowledge gained from the study, most scientific
terminology has been rewritten in a simpler format.
8. The enrichment plan was designed to address the following concerns
a. Species requirements in captivity
b. Individual requirements based on behaviour patterns
c. Time when enrichment is most needed based on activity budget
d. Enclosure area that is least utilized based on space utilization pattern
e. Areas of conflict with conspecifics
9. After implementing enrichment plans the behaviour of animals were recorded
and modifications as required were integrated.

21
 Pheasant: Essential
Environmental Enrichments

Chapter 2
for Himalayan Monal

Animal Biology and Behavioural Ecology

Pheasant are birds that belong to several genera under the family Phasianidae in the
order Galliformes. They are characterized by strong sexual dimorphism, males are
highly ornate with bright colours and adornments.

Himalayan Monal is one of the three species

under the genus Lophophorus, the other two
being Sclater’s Monal and Chinese Monal
(Lophophorus lhuysii Hilaire 1866) which is
distributed in northeastern hills of India and
southeast China respectively. There is, so
far, no confirmed record of subspecies in the
Himalayan Monal. It is a relatively large-sized
bird with reference to family Phasianidae. An
adult male possess a long crest, are
feathered with multi-coloured plumage
throughout its body, while the females, like in
Plate 14: Male Himalayan Monal other pheasants, are dull in colour with the
upper parts covered with dark-brownish feathers. The Himalayan Monal secures a
distinct position among pheasants due to its prominent built, brilliant plumage and
strong association with local folklore. It occupies upper temperate oak-conifer forests
interspersed with open grassy slopes, cliffs and alpine meadows between 2400-
4500m, mostly concentrating in a narrow belt of 2700-3800m. They, however show
tolerance to snow and have been observed to dig through snow for roots, tubers and
other plant parts, and also invertebrates. Seen in pairs during the breeding season
(April to August), they form large coveys and involve in communal roosting during the
winter. Population of this species in most of its range is threatened due to poaching
and other anthropogenic factors.

22
The birds have been observed singly or in parties of 3 or 4 consisting of a cock and
two or three hens, or all of the same sex, which dig for food vigorously with their
powerful bills on the edge of alpine pastures often in deep snow. A highly
communicative bird, the Himalayan monal uses several different call types. Slightly
less wary than other species and when flushed, rises with a loud flutter of wings,
planing steeply downhill with wild ringing cries. When suddenly come upon in forest,
especially if accompanied by chicks, it flies up with much cackling into the thickly
foliaged branches of a deodar or pine tree and freezes. The birds are somewhat
gregarious, but the ties between flock members seem to be quite loose, and probably
only during the winter, when the birds are forced into restricted habitats, are real flocks
formed.

Monals feed on grass and flower seeds, roots, tubers, shoots, berries (e.g.
Cotoneaster microphylla), and insects and their larvae, dug up often from under deep
snow. They appear to forage throughout the day, using stout bill to search for insects
and their larvae and tubers, as well as smaller quantities of seeds, shoots and berries,
leaving characteristic patches of dug over soil up to 25cm deep. In autumn it is
particularly seen to forage largely on insect larvae that it finds under decaying leaves.
In summer feeds on alpine pastures and, in exceptional circumstances, within
cultivated fields. The foraging behaviour of the monal is very distinctive, as they do
very little digging with their feet, instead pick at the earth with their shovel like beaks.
When a large tuft of grass or bamboo is encountered the birds will dig around it until it
is left supported only by its bare roots, or it may actually be toppled over. The birds
typically forage in small groups, but do not usually fight over foods that are excavated
in this manner.
Table 1 Life history traits of Himalayan Monal
Call kur-lieu, or kleeh-wick
Breeding Season April- mid July
Nest Site/ Type A scrape in the ground under shelter of a rock or a fallen tree-trunk in
undergrowth on a steep hillside, hidden by grass or ferns.
Clutch Size 4-6
Eggs Pale yellowish or reddish buff, freckled and spotted with reddish
brown, Average size of 74 eggs 63.5×44.9 mm, and the esteemed
fresh weight is 70.7g.
Incubation Period Unknown; but seems to last some 26-29 days, usually 28 days
Attended by Although there are a few suggestions in the literature that the male
helps in caring for the young, but most authorities contend that he
takes no part in the rearing phase.
Growth & Not much information is available on this phase. Wayre in 1969 stated
Development of that in captivity the chicks are not difficult to rear on starter crumbs, to
the Young which has been added live food (maggots and mealworms) for the first
few weeks.
Age of Maturity Sexual maturity is attained at the second year of life. The immature

23
 males are reported to attain their adult plumage in the second year,
before which they appear similar to adult females except for some
small differences.
Mating System & This species is reported to be polygynous, a condition facilitated by the
Territoriality tendency of females to be gregarious. The pair bond lasts from mating
to incubation. The high degree of sexual dimorphism suggests a
polygynous mating system. Locations of individual males are
apparently advertised by loud daily calling. The calling period in
Himachal Pradesh seems to last from March through June. Gaston,
Lelliott, and Ridley in 1982 suggested that although dispersion of
males in spring gives some suggestion of territoriality, 14.5% of the
males seen then were in groups of two, and 13% were parts of larger
groups of birds (both sexes). Although aggressive behaviour between
males was observed in May, these authors believed that strictly
observed territorial boundaries did not seem to be present, and that
loosely defined home ranges seemed to be a better description of
dispersion characteristics. The highest densities occurred in areas
close to precipitous crags, which probably provide both safe roosting
sites and favourable launching sites for display flights.

Minimum Welfare Requirements of the Species in Captivity

Management in captivity requires the know-how of the species to be kept. As in case of
Himalayan Monal, they are high altitude birds that dwell in area with good under-
storey. Hence, they should preferably be kept in high altitude zoos/pheasantry and
should be provided with enough understory vegetation and perches in its enclosure.

There are 37 individuals in 8 zoos/ pheasantries across the country at present. In the
zoos studied for this evaluation the birds were kept in pair or small group. The general
observation made was that they were often treated like the poultry birds.

Findings from Enclosure Evaluation

The evaluation of Himalayan Monal enclosure was carried out in Sarahan Pheasantry,
Sarahan, Himalayan Nature Park, Kufri and Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological
Park, Darjeeling. The following are the some of the findings -
1. Barren or monotonous exhibit area: Almost all the enclosure was barren with
minimal enrichment items. Ground was compacted soil and often needed
cleaning.
2. Ill-managed social groups: None of the enclosure had an ideal social grouping.
Sarahan Pheasantry had only one male.
3. Predictable and routine way of food presentation: Feed is always given at the
same location and at the same time in almost all the enclosure.

24
4. Limited activity: Pheasants were observed showing limited activity and were
seen resting most of the time. Pacing was observed in almost all the birds.

Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park Himalayan Monal Enclosure – Display

and Off-display
The enclosures studied were situated in Darjeeling which has a somewhat similar
geographical condition to monal’s natural condition. Darjeeling has an average
temperature that varies between 11°C to 19°C in summers and between 2.5°C to
10°C during winters. It lies at an elevation of 2050 m above sea level and receives an
average rainfall of 3200 mm annually.

The display enclosure was 32.26 m2 in area with a roof at a height of about 10 m and
was a part of a bigger aviary. It housed two individuals 1:1 and was situated at the
extreme end of the PHNZP zoo.

Plate 15: Display enclosure for Himalayan Monal

25
 The Off-display enclosure
was much larger in size
measuring an area of
about 95 m2 with a roof
height ranging from 3-5
m. It housed two
individuals 1:1 and was
the only aviary around.
Enrichment devices and
furniture were present in a
larger number in this
enclosure compared to
Plate 16: Off-display enclosure for Himalayan Monal display enclosure.

Enrichment Options
Before getting to the enrichment part of the paddock, a few pointers that need to be
considered for the viewing area are:

 The approach to the enclosure should have enough vegetation to camouflage

or hide the aviary.

 Taller and proper vegetation need to be encouraged between enclosure and

visitors' barrier.

 Measures such as increasing the height of the stand-off barrier to a level that
limits visitors from leaning or climbing over it.

 The wire mesh roof of the enclosure could be covered with plastic after
appropriate camouflaging.

i) Habitat Enrichment:
Since the pheasants have to stay enclosed their entire life some variation in
their habitat environment is essential to bring novelty in their daily life.
Himalayan monals live among coniferous and mixed forests with well-
developed bamboo, rhododendron and other under-storey scrub. They are
also usually found in the meadows and forest clearings on steep Himalayan
slopes. Mimicking the natural condition of this species is not easy however not
impossible and presence of species specific vegetation is the most important
step towards achieving it.

In order to provide a natural environment in an enclosure the following steps

could be taken –

26
a. Substrate – Natural substrates are encouraged with proper vegetation growth.
The ground of the enclosure need to be loosened periodically and a portion of
the ground could be used for keeping sandy soil for dust bathing and digging
since monals are strong diggers and sandy soil provides a good medium.
However, care need to be taken to provide proper airing and sunlight required
to keep the soil dry.
b. Terrain – Flat terrain in any enclosure could be modified by introducing
earthen mound or big boulder to give some undulation and steep cliff like feel.
c. Vegetation - Small size bamboo species and other plant species that give
proper under-storey need to be introduced. Grasses can also be introduced if
they could be grown on the ground. Since the size of the enclosure is limited
there cannot be much planting inside.
d. Perches – Monal likes to roost or rest on elevated places such as on trees or
shrubs. Therefore, there should be perches at different heights and sizes
inside the enclosure. Wooden logs/tree branches can be used to create
elevated platforms and pathways. Bamboos can also be used as perch.
Perches should be free of sharp edges and size that can be readily gripped by
the claws but large enough that the bird’s toenails do not damage its footpad.
Material of the perch should provide a firm grip to the birds and be cleaned
easily.
e. Visual Barrier – Ideally vegetation could be used to create barriers between
adjacent enclosures and along one of the viewers’ areas however, growing
vegetation takes time. Use of bamboo/straw/grass mat could be effective
immediately. Care needs to be taken to make sure that barrier is only half the
height of the wall so that the sunlight still reaches inside the enclosure.
f. Nesting/Roosting - Monal scrapes a nest in the ground in the wild. Therefore,
provision should be made to allow the female to scrape a nest by providing
area secluded from the public and leaving enough material (grasses, straw,
husk, twigs, etc.) to build a nest. Ideally brush and bushes are required to be
used as hideouts/withdrawal area and also to build nests on the ground.
However, till the time new vegetation grows, grass or straw
could be used to build a secluded place for the pheasants.
g. Enrichment Devices - Feeders could be designed in such a
way that it looks more naturalistic than the plastic and tin
feeders used inside the enclosure. Custom made wooden
feeders could be used such as in plate 17. Heavy earthen pot or
hole on an elevated ground could be used for water.
Plate 17: Artificial feeder

27
 - Straw bales can be used to provide elevated surface, and since they are a
substrate suitable for foraging, provide a surface to peck at scattered feed.

ii) Feeding & Foraging Enrichment

The monals were fed once a day in the morning which consists of grains
mixed with green leafy vegetables. The feed was enough to last for the day.
The female started feeding immediately whereas the male remained perch on
his spot on top. Some enrichment methods that could be adopted are as
follows -

a. Feed
- Feeding enrichment such as feed scattering
could break monotony and increase the activity
of the pheasant.
- Live insects like termites, crickets and
earthworms can be introduced since monals are
naturally omnivorous and this diet would meet
Plate 18: Gourd feeder
the protein requirement of the birds.
- Introduction of dried paddy would stimulate pecking and foraging
behaviour of the pheasants.
- Changes in the feeding regime and providing novel food such as ear of
maize, whole cabbage, freshwater snails, slugs, etc. once every week
or so.

b. Feeding Device
- Log feeders: Food stuffed into drilled holes in the side of logs. These
logs could be hung across the corner/ edge of the enclosure or on
slightly elevated structures.
- Gourd feeder: Holes drilled in gourd filled with crickets or such other
palatable insects.
- Leafy vegetables could be planted on trays/wooden boxes to feed the
pheasants.
- Seeds and tubers, etc. can be buried inside the loosened soil for the
birds to dig and feed. This would encourage the pheasants to spend
more time foraging.

With the help of the techniques mentioned above, it might be possible to give a
more natural foraging experience to the animals despite being held in captivity.

28
iii) Sensory Enrichment:
The enrichment activities involving scents, sights and sound are all sensory
type enrichment which is also essential to add variety to the animals enclosed
in an unchanging captive environment. Enriching dominant sense of the
species using harmless, non-stressful stimuli could benefit animal welfare
(Wells 2009). Pheasants have excellent vision, acute hearing and keen
sensitivity to vibration. Therefore, in this case, enrichment involving auditory
and tactile stimulation should be focused to encourage sensory responses.
The followings are few more ways of how sensory enrichment could be
incorporated inside the enclosure.
- Play sounds replicating those of the animals’ natural habitat or its
several different calls.
- Presence of a place for dust bath. Sandy soil should be provided in
some area of the enclosure.

iv) Social Enrichment:

Wellbeing of the birds in captivity also depends on the social grouping and
association with their conspecifics. Himalayan monals have been observed
singly or in parties of 3-4 consisting of a cock and two-three hens. In the
studied enclosure there were only two individuals that hardly interacted during
the observation period. However, late in the afternoon the male flew down and
showed courtship behaviour for a brief period.
- Since monals are more likely to be in a group than alone especially
females, number of individuals in the enclosure could be increased.
This might help reduce pacing behaviour of the female inside the
enclosure.
- Monals are highly vocal so if possible conspecies enclosure could be
made nearby where they could communicate.
- Feeding enrichment could encourage the individuals to forage together
on the ground.

29
 Summary
Duration of the study, difference in season and enclosure limited the study result.
However, certain positive changes could be observed in the more enriched off-display
enclosure. The following points briefly sum up our observations during the study:
1. Provision of enough space and enrichments could reduce aberrant behaviour
to some extent.
2. Proper study duration and planning is required to bring forth a conclusive
result for enrichments.
3. Enrichment devices and strategies need to be presented on a varied schedule
and in a variety of contexts to make sure the pheasants do not become
desensitized or habituated to them.
4. Presence of enough enthusiastic animal care staff is essential for a successful
enrichment plan since they are the one who has to look after the enclosure
and continue taking care of the animals.
5. No enrichment plan or design is perfect or fixed for specific species and there
should always be a scope of improving or improvising it. There has to be a
constant change and innovation.

Some Enrichment Introduced inside the Off-display Enclosure

Plate 19: Provision of feed and water inside the off-display enclosure. Same kind of water
feeder and feed were provided however there was no separate cell to keep them

30
Plate 20: Furniture and enrichments inside the off-display enclosure

31
 Primates: Essential
Environmental Enrichments

Chapter 3
for Lion-Tailed Macaques
Animal Biology and Behavioural Ecology

Plate 21: Adult male Lion-tailed macaque at Mysore Zoo

Description
Lion-tailed Macaques are completely black in colour; a distinct grey/Silver white ‘mane’
frames the face of the monkey. The mane surrounds the head and goes down the chin.
The Lion-tailed Macaques have a long tail with a distinct black tuft at the end, hence
the name. It is a group-living arboreal non-human primate endemic to the Western
Ghats of India.

Table 2 Morphometry of Lion-tailed macaque

Crown-rump length 54.4cm (Males), 46.5cm (Females)
Rump-heel length 41.9cm (Males), 34.1cm (Females)
Weight 5.6-12.8 Kg (Males), 3.9-8.3 Kg (Females)
Tail Length Average 35cm (Males), average 27 cm (Females)
(as reported by Harvey and others in 1991)

32
Habitat
Vegetation and Cover: The Lion-tailed macaque prefers to live in broad-leafed
evergreen forests found in the Western Ghats of India. The LTMs are well adapted to
the rain forest ecosystem and are known to raid coffee plantations in the region.

Terrain: Despite being a predominantly arboreal species, they frequently come down
to the ground to drink water or forage. The LTMs roost in the trees at night.

Special Niche: The Lion-tailed macaque is considered one of the most important
habitat specialist primates of India. These primates are exclusively restricted to the
evergreen forests of the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Home Range and Territory: Daily movement varies from 650m-2km. There is high
seasonal variation in the movement patterns of the LTM throughout their range.

Movement Pattern: the lion tailed macaque is an arboreal animal moving from one
tree to the other by jumping. Although the animal can show quadrupedal locomotion, it
is a last resort when the forest cover is sparse.

Spatio-Temporal Activity Patterns: The LTMs are diurnal in nature. Behaviour peaks
are observed early in the morning 0530-0630hrs with interspersed travelling involved.
After the major bout of feeding is over the group disperses. The group takes rest from
1200-1400 hrs. This was the time when social interactions are at the highest.
Afterwards the LTMs searched for food (mostly invertebrates). There is another major
feeding bout at 1600-1700 hours, when the group gathers at a large food tree. The
activity dies down by 1800-1830 hours, when the group settles in a clump of trees
close to the major feeding tree.

Area of Choice for Nest/Den: The LTMs like to roost on trees at night.

Vegetation Utilization: The LTMs forage for fruits, flowers and insects on trees.

Feeding Ecology
Foraging Strategy: The Lion-tailed macaques are omnivores but fruits constitute a
significant portion of their diet; it can also survive on leaves, seeds, insects etc. The
free-ranging Lion-tailed macaques spend significant portion of the daytime foraging
(23.7%) and ranging (34%). In wilderness they are known to forage for algae and fungi
as well. Flower, buds, young leaves etc. form a significant portion of the diet. The Lion-
tailed macaques have cheek pouches the size of their stomach which makes it easier
for them to gather the food and then eat it at leisure.

33
 Water: A typical LTM troop does not stray far away from the nearest water source

Feeding Regime: As mentioned earlier, the Lion-tailed macaque spends about

44.25% of their daily activity budget on foraging. The food primarily consists of floral
(77.78%) as well as faunal (22.22%). It has been seen that the group members keep
their distances while foraging and come together only during resting periods. The diet
composition of the Lion-tailed macaque vastly depends on the season. For example
fruits are the food of choice during monsoon, while flowers are consumed more
frequently after monsoon is over.

Daily Time Budget/ Activity Pattern of LTM

In-situ studies done on a feral group of LTM living in a disturbed fragment of habitat of
0.65 km2 show that the LTM group members spent most of their time ranging (34%),
followed by foraging (23.7%), feeding (17.9%), resting (16.0%) and social interactions
were at the lowest (8.4%). The monthly variations of all the other activities are
significantly higher than that of ranging. Resting and foraging activities are negatively
correlated. When key food species like Cullenia is absent (September-November)
there was a marked increase in foraging activity. The animals spent 40.4% of time at
canopy levels between 21-30m. Groups in disturbed habitats spend more time in
quadrupedal locomotion than those living in protected forests.

Social Structure
Group Size: The Lion-tailed macaques show typical philopatry in case of females. The
average group size in the wild is 13.17 individuals. The group size of the Lion-tailed
macaque depends on the resource richness in the area. The number of animals in a
LTM group living in a resource-rich area will be higher than those living in an area
lacking quality food resources.

Table 3 Group composition of Lion-tailed macaque in the wild

Age/sex Mean No Median no Range %comp
Adult males 1.5 1.0 1-3 9
Sub-adult males 1.4 1.0 0-5 8
Adult females 7.3 6.3 3-14 41.5
Immature 8.0 8.0 1-21 41.5

Group Composition: It has been found that the adult male to female ratio in Lion-
tailed macaque groups is 1:2.11 while that for the adult to young ratio is 1:0.84.

Social System: The females in the Lion-tailed macaque community stay with their
natal groups upon reaching maturity while the males move out. So there is a constant

34
immigration and emigration of adult males in a typical Lion-tailed macaque group. It
has been seen that the females prefer to mate with immigrant males than the resident
ones. So it goes without saying that the arrival of a new male within a group is likely to
result in a lot of aggression among males.

Social Hierarchy: The lion-tailed macaques have a multi-male multi-female social

system and the entire group is built upon a very intricate social fabric. The LTM society
follows a typical matrilineal hierarchy. The animals often live in forest areas with home
ranges overlapping with other Lion-tailed macaque groups.

Communication: The Lion-tailed macaques are known to have as many as 17

different vocalizations, which are coupled with body movements to communicate with
other group members. The Lion-tailed macaques also use visual communication via
facial expressions to communicate with the group members. The fear grimace
expression is shown when the lips are retracted and the animal shows its clenched
teeth to the animal towards which the behaviour is directed, this behaviour is usually
used to reduce aggression.

The Lion-tailed macaques have a prominent threat expression with which the animal
stares right at the recipient individual with an open mouth.

Grooming: The grooming behaviour is a way to strengthen social bonds among

primates. In LTMs grooming behaviour is predominantly observed among the females
and the infants. The females also groom other females and dominant males.

Agonistic Behaviour: LTMs often live in forest fragment with home ranges
overlapping with other groups. If a LTM group invades the territory of another the
males of each group start showing agonistic behaviour.

Sun Basking: Like all other primates LTMs also need to be in the sun during some
parts of the day. Sun basking is important because it aids Calcium absorption in bones
among the primates. Regular exposure to sunlight synchronizes the biological clock
and helps maintain physiological homeostasis.

Reproduction
Mating System: Polygynous

Age at First Birth: The females become sexually active by the age of 5 years and the
males mature at eight there is no specific breeding season for the M. silenus, the
females’ show perineal swelling when they are in estrus. Females might reproduce at

35
 the age of 48 months in captivity according to the females reach sexual maturity at
65.2 months.

Mate Selection: There is serious competition among females for breeding rights so
mate selection is female biased. In a matrilineal hierarchy, there is a serious risk of
inbreeding if there is no mate selection.

Table 4 Life history traits of Lion-tailed macaque

Breeding Season Infants are born nearly throughout the year, a marked birth peak
occurs in January–April.
Litter Size 1
Life Span 20 years(wild), 38 years (Captivity),

Estrous Cycle 40.55 days

Gestation Period 24 weeks
Rearing of Young Mother and other females of the group rear the young one.
Growth & The infants are effectively weaned only during the second year
Development of the during the period of resource abundance. The average survivorship
Young rate of an infant in the wild is about 0.87.
Inter-birth Interval The mean inter-birth interval is estimated to be 34.3 months.
Age at first females 65 months
reproduction
Mating System Polygynous

Role of Dominance Hierarchy: The dominant male gets to breed with the females in
the group.

Mating Behaviour: Female at the follicular phase of the estrus cycle shows a perineal
swelling that signals her sexual status. The female also vocalizes to attract potential
mates. There are two types of mating calls. Once the mating pair is formed they
separate from the rest of the group to copulate. The group members (especially the
females) often harass the pair.

Staccato call: The females made this call 83.6% of time before mounting during the
swelling period.

Proceptive Call: The female made this call throughout the swelling period irrespective
of swelling.

36
Parental Care: The mother is heavily invested in parental care. The other female
group members might help in raising the infant. The males never take part in rearing
the infant.

Minimum Welfare Requirements of the Species in Captivity

Findings from Literature Review
Findings from Enclosure Evaluation
During the course of our study we visited zoos from all over the country and evaluated
primate enclosures housing different species. We identified the challenges common to
most primate housing facilities, these are summarized below.
1. Social Grouping: In most zoos, we found that some animals were singly-
housed and this is contraindicated for every primate species. While some
primates live in single male multiple female groups, others live in multi-male,
multi-female groups. Some other primates like Gibbons live in pairs. Therefore,
a careful understanding of the social requirements of a certain primate species
is important to provide adequate welfare in captivity.

2. Vegetation: Most often than not primate enclosures lack species-typical

vegetation that is required for the expression of natural behaviour repertoire.
The common problems with vegetation in primate enclosures are as follows
a. Vegetation does not have the appropriate stratification for the animals
b. Vegetation (trees) does not have appropriate branching for animals to
move.
c. Although some enclosures do have a good number of trees but the
arboreal perches are not interconnected and therefore do not provide
the same amount of mobility. The perches at all primate enclosures
should be interconnected at more than two points so that animals may
lead a primarily arboreal lifestyle.

3. Food Presentation: Primates are very intelligent and spend a significant

amount of time acquiring food from nature. In captivity animals are provided
with pre-processed food that takes little or no effort to acquire, this impedes
the animal’s ability to use its mental faculties to the fullest. Usually zoos
provide food to animals at fixed time and inside the retiring cell. The animals
consume the food within a short amount of time and have no other activity left
to do for the rest of the day.

4. Enclosure Space Utilization: Due to the lack of enclosure complexity, we

often find that primates stay localized at certain areas of the enclosure and
avoid rest of the areas. Optimal enclosure space utilization means that the

37
 animals are exploring their captive environment and are not afraid of any
areas. Homogenous enclosure space utilization pattern is an indicator of better
welfare and should be one of the simplest ways to assess the
psychopathological condition of the captive animals.

5. Activity Budget: Every species has a set pattern of behaviours they show in
the wild. These behaviours help the animals find food, socialize and procreate.
An animal that cannot display its species-typical behaviours in captivity is not a
good representative of its wild counterparts. Therefore such animals are unfit
for reintroduction in the wild and cannot help disseminate appropriate
knowledge about the species to people. Therefore we need to create a captive
environment that encourages animals to display these species-typical
behaviours and help them lead a more fulfilling life.

6. Positive Relationship with the Paddock Area: Usually animals are provided
with food inside the retiring cells and that creates a positive relationship with
the night shelters. On the other hand, animals are usually highly stressed at
the paddock area due to continuous visitor disturbance. We found that animals
preferred to stay near the retiring cell area or the back-section of the paddock
area most of the time because they expect food and shelter from that place. If
we want the animals to feel good about their captive environment, we should
provide food and shelter in the paddock area and create a positive relationship
with the area.

7. Retiring Cells/Night Shelters: Most of the night shelters are not designed to
house social animals. The night shelters for primates in most Indian zoos lack
the required facilities to house a social animal in appropriate welfare.
Following features should be included in resting cells
a. The resting cells should be big enough to house the entire primate
group. There should be a provision to separate a few individuals of the
group for treatment/transportation when required.
b. The resting cells should have interconnected arboreal perches for the
animals. The perches should be big enough to accommodate 3-5
individuals so that they may roost together.
c. The retiring cell should have manipulable enrichments at multiple
locations that the animals can use to play and socialize. Providing
food enrichments can lead to increased chances of conflict in close
quarters and should be avoided at all costs. If feed has to be provided
in the retiring cell, dominant individuals should be lured into a separate
cell with food and then the subordinate individuals should be fed.
d. The retiring cell should have secured skylights that allow sunlight.

38
 e. The retiring cell should be well ventilated to keep the area dry and free
of germs. Conclusions from enclosure assessments

Plate 22: Open wet moated enclosure for Lion tailed macaque at Arignar Anna Zoological
Park

Summary of Enclosure Evaluation for LTM island wet-moated

enclosure at Arignar
Anna Zoological Park
Visitor Viewing Area
The visitor viewing area for the LTM enclosure is continuous and covers more than
80% of the enclosure area. Therefore visitors have access to the animals from almost
all sides apart from the retiring cell area. The enclosure design also lends itself to cross
viewing and therefore the viewing area needs to be modified as it fails to provide the
animals with adequate visual barriers.

39
 Plate 23: Continuous viewing gallery at AAZP

Paddock Area Characteristics

The enclosure has a wet-moated
barrier, which is hard to maintain
and wastes water. The wet-
moated design also poses
certain health risks to the
primates, as animals were often
found drinking moat water. The
enclosure is small for a group of
eight lion-tailed macaques and
the area should be increased so
Plate 24: LTM foraging and drinking impure moat that subordinate animals may
water have the optimum flight distance
from dominant individuals.
Enrichment Devices
The enrichment devices inside the enclosure included natural vegetation and some
rope bridges that were not functional anymore. The enrichments were mostly
manipulable and did not provide any food rewards to the animals.

Vegetation Features
The enclosure at AAZP is mostly covered by vegetation that allows Lion-tailed
macaques the chance to lead an arboreal lifestyle. The vegetation is moderately

40
stratified and provides a decent amount of cover. The canopy is interconnected that
creates arboreal pathways and promotes an arboreal lifestyle.

Retiring Area
The enclosure has a very
small retiring cubicle that is
used to provide food to the
animals. Since there is only
one entrance to the retiring
cell, the stronger animal
Ravi monopolizes food
resources. Older animals
such as Rani and Mohan
are the last ones to feed.
Plate 25: Zookeeper preparing food at retiring cells

Socio-Ecology and Behaviour

The LTM enclosure at AAZP housed eight macaques in a single enclosure. Over the
years, this group had turned into a coherent unit where all animals were living
harmoniously.

Plate 26: Mohan sitting away from the group

41
 Behaviour Response to Existing Enclosure Regime
Behaviour studies were conducted at The LTM enclosure of Arignar Anna Zoological
Park, to understand the daily activity patterns of the housed animals. The animals at
the island moated enclosure were studied using focal animal sampling method and ad-
libitum sampling as established by Altmann in 1974. Enclosure Space Utilization study
was also done by dividing the enclosure into different zones and noting the proportion
of time spent in that area by the LTM group. Finally, the amount of time spent on
different substrates of the enclosure was also measured.

Plate 27: LTMs at AAZP grooming

We found that the animals spent a large proportion of the daily activity budget on the
ground, which is unusual since LTMs are primarily known as an arboreal primate
species. This goes on to show that LTMs housed in the AAZP enclosure do not have
equal opportunities to display an arboreal lifestyle like their wild counterparts.

Inferences
1. In captivity, the animals spend more time resting than in the wild.
2. The captive LTMs showed less foraging and ranging behaviour than their wild
counterparts did. Thus there should be some feeding enrichments in the
enclosure

42
3. In wild, the LTMs spend most of their time on the canopy but in captivity LTMs
mostly move around in the ground.
4. The enclosure space utilization study showed that the animals were not using
the proximal zone of the enclosure as much as the median and distal zone.
5. Utilization of the proximal zone significantly diminished as the number of
visitors increased.
Table 5 Evaluation of existing enrichment at Lion-tailed macaque enclosure
Animal Existing Observation Enrichment
Requirements enrichment required
Arboreal Interconnected The animals do not Upright logs with
pathways canopy is vital for have the smaller logs
LTMs to maintain a opportunity to creating
arboreal lifestyle perform distinct interconnection with
instinctive each should be
behaviours under constructed.
captive conditions.
Promotion of Animals are Enrichments that
natural activity habituated to most promote foraging
budget of the enrichments behaviours should
inside the enclosure be implemented to
and therefore fail to increase the amount
elicit natural activity of time spent by
budgets animals on species-
typical behaviours.
Promotion of Enrichment items The LTMs show a All under-utilized
enclosure are localized at the highly biased enclosure zones
space utilization distal end of the enclosure space should be provided
enclosure. Animals utilization pattern. with enrichment
have no incentive to items that enhance
explore other zones usage
of paddock area

Enrichment options for lion-Tailed Macaque

Enrichment plan can be divided into two broad categories
A. Social Enrichment: The LTMs will be enriched if they are kept in social
groups.
B. Inanimate Enrichment: Enrichment devices that require physical activity from
the animal (active enrichment) and enrichments that provide passive
stimulation only. This distinction is arbitrary as the passive enrichment can be

43
 converted to active forms and vice versa depending on the usage patterns of
the animal.

A. Social Enrichment: LTMs live socially in the wild. Although group sizes may
vary depending on the resource availability, LTMs are rarely seen alone
therefore, it is essential to keep the captive LTMs in constants social contact
with conspecifics. Primates spend a significant portion of their daily time-
budget interacting with other members of the social group. The communication
between group members can vary from brief “location calls” to prolonged
communication with extensive physical contact. Interactions might include
both affiliative as well as aggressive behaviour. It is important for the primates
to have positive relationships with their conspecifics as well as the zoo
keepers as this might reduce the stress associated with husbandry and
management tasks (Reinhardt, 1997). Social enrichment also includes training
the primates to cooperate with husbandry, veterinary and research
procedures, thereby reducing stress caused by sedatives and anesthesia.
Primates should never be singly-housed.
 In some cases social stimulation is the most effective type of enrichment
as it stimulates all the sensory systems of the animal.
 Social stimulation is the only form of enrichment which does not run the
risk of producing habituation among the animals.
 Housing primates like LTM in social groups facilitates the expression of
species-specific behaviour. Some of the most common social
behaviours include grooming, play, copulation and nursing.
 Social interaction is the most dynamic and complex form of enrichment.
 Reinhardt has performed a number of experiments on the iso-sexual
pairing in macaque species.
 Contrary to popular belief it has been discovered that incompatible
behaviour usually results from unequal food sharing rather than
aggressive behaviour.
 The unidirectional dominance system can be used to assess
compatibility between the macaques.
 Some studies have also found that the adult iso-sexual pairing and
adult-infant pairing in primates can lead to reduced self-aggression
among previously singly-housed animals. The groupings were between
adult male-infant, adult female-infant and adult female and male pairs.

44
1. Management of Introduction: Certain protocols need to be followed when
new animals are being introduced into an existing social group of captive
LTMs. The procedures have been outlined by McNary in 1992.
a. Allowing the new animals, time to explore and become familiar with any
new area in the absence of unfamiliar conspecifics.
b. Allowing the LTMs to have visual access to each other (e.g., through
plexi-glass barriers, adjacent holding areas).
c. Allowing the LTMs tactile access to each other.
d. Allowing the LTMs Physical access to each other.

2. Group Formation: The final objective of introducing a new animal is to

assimilate it with the existing social group. Group formation can be achieved in
the following ways.
a. The objective is to assimilate the singly housed individuals into a group
without an increase in aggression levels.
b. Absence of aggression related problems has been reported in both mixed-
sex group formation in both juveniles and sub-adult rhesus macaques.
c. The introduction of two adult males in a rhesus macaque group was
aggression free and also reduced the amount of stereotypy displayed by
both the animals.

B. Inanimate Enrichment
1. Food Enrichment
a. Contrafreeloading: The term contrafreeloading was coined by the animal
psychologist Glen Jensen. Contrafreeloading food resources means to make the
animals work for their food. Providing the animals with half coconut shell filled
with mashed fruits (like banana). There should be enough coconut shells for all
the animals (Stephanie Tomoser, Pueblo Zoological Gardens, Brown Lemurs,
Zoo Zen Volume 2). The animals should be presented with foods that have high
processing time (e.g., corn on the cob and sugarcane, they will increase the
foraging time of the animals by good -measure.
b. Arboreal foraging: Creation of arboreal pathways throughout the enclosure,
with extensive branching promotes locomotion. A portion of the daily food ration
can be placed at variable heights in different trees. The fruits can be cut into
small pieces, packed in nylon net bags and suspended from multiple points. The
holes in the net should not allow the animals to take out the food with relative
ease (Samantha Stephens, Auckland Zoo, Siamangs, Zoo Zen).

45
 c. Food Distribution: Instead of giving the food ration at a pre-defined place each
day, it can be distributed at different points of the enclosure. This will increase
foraging time and increase the rate of food acquisition among all age/sex
classes.
d. Unpredictable feeding regime: Studies on captive Chimpanzees revealed that
stereotypy and inactive behaviours can be reduced significantly if the non-
human primates are fed according to a dynamic feeding schedule.
e. Foraging Boards: These devices are attached to the side of
the cage and consist of a tray or board on which a substrate
(e.g. artificial fleece or artificial turf) is fixed. The animal must
search through the substrate to find the concealed and
desirable food items. These foraging boards have been
successfully tested on singly-housed baboons, singly-housed
rhesus macaques and they have significantly reduced self-
directed and cage-directed stereotypic behaviour among the
animals.

Plate 28: Foraging boards

f. Puzzle feeders: The puzzle feeders present a cognitive and
manipulative challenge to animals generally involving the
manipulative challenge to animals. The puzzle feeders for non-
human primates vary in design and complexity. The primary
objective of a puzzle feeder is to increase the foraging time by
increasing the processing time for feed. The puzzle feeders have
been tested on chimpanzees, long-tailed macaques, rhesus
macaques, Stump-tailed macaques, Pig-tailed macaques,
Baboons etc. Although the increase in foraging time is not
consistent across all Primate groups but it is quite obvious that
the increase in foraging time leads to less aggressive behaviour
Plate 29: Puzzle feeder
and stereotypic behaviour. Other benefits include reduction in
inactivity and the provision for cognitive stimulation. However,
one should keep in mind that having a single puzzle feeder might
increase aggression among inmates, so there should be multiple
devices positioned at different areas of the enclosure.

46
Salient features for Enrichment of LTM Enclosure

 There should be a number of sources of variation in the type of enrichment

devices used by the animals.

 Intragroup aggression, species-identity, sex, age, experience, motivation,

behaviour disorder, dominance status etc. are important considerations that
should be made before implementing enrichment devices.

 Feeding enrichment if rightly applied is a valuable tool for adjusting

behavioural abnormalities in primates.

 Optimal effects can be received by increasing the variety of enrichment

devices in a rotational program.

2. Physical Enrichment: Not all enrichment devices are associated with feeding.
Primates are naturally curious animals; they explore and manipulate different
type of objects in the natural environment. Having some toys and portable
objects can be provided to the captive primates to give them certain
opportunities for manipulation and exploration. However studies indicate that
simple toys do not alter the behaviours of aged rhesus macaques. This goes
on to show that the enrichment devices need to be targeted towards the
animal’s needs. “Toy preference” is an important concern, on an average
females manipulate and handle objects more than male primates. The usage
patterns may vary depending on the type of manipulable object and the sex
differences in toy preference. According to Young (2003; p.143), ‘the
enrichment devices should be both species-specific as well as goal-specific’.

It was found that adding novel objects to those already present in the cage
increased the manipulation time by the chimpanzees from 8% (0 novel
objects) to 54% of time (10 novel objects). It has been observed that the
number of days to decline to a usage level below 15% took longer for 10 novel
objects (7days) than that for a single object (3days).

It has been observed that captive chimpanzees manipulated destructible toys

27% of the available time compared to non-destructible toys (10% of the time).
The amount of toy use is very low in singly housed primates but increases
considerably for socially housed subjects. The interest in manipulanda is at its
highest on the first day and dies down gradually. Toy usage is highest when
the toys are rotated and when there are a large number of toys within the
enclosure.

47
  Swings: Swings can be made from ropes and light-weight logs with holes
drilled on the sides.

 Perches: Perches help the animals get a good view of the surroundings
and acts as stimuli in itself. Perches add a vertical component to the
enclosure and stimulate arboreal behaviour among primates. The
presence of perches at different strategic locations of the enclosure
enhances the spatial memory. For the captive arboreal primates like LTM
perches that replicate some of the key functional features of a forest
habitat can encourage locomotor, perceptual and cognitive behaviour.

 Ropes: Hanging ropes from the trees can create arboreal pathways for
the LTM. However the ropes should be made of natural fibres and should
not pose a choking risk for the animals. The ropes should be tied at both
ends so that no free ends pose the risk of trapping or strangulating
animals. Ideally vines, and creepers should be allowed to grow inside the
enclosure

 Visual Barriers: Visual barriers can help reduce agonistic behaviour by

providing an opportunity for a threatened animal to hide from the
aggressor. Visual barriers have been found to reduce aggression and
increase affiliation in rhesus macaques and pig-tailed macaques. Levels of
aggression can be lowered with visual barriers at the preliminary stages of
group formation in captivity.

 Water Baths: Shallow water troughs placed within the enclosure are
known to encourage tool-use and food-processing in captive primates.
Water troughs play an important role in inducing species-specific play
behaviour among the primates.

 Manipulable Objects: The manipulable objects may help in reducing

inactivity and abnormal behaviour among LTMs and replace them with
desirable species-specific behaviours. Branches and sticks are good
examples of natural manipulable objects. If space is not a limiting factor,
an uprooted tree can be placed in the enclosure. Use of branches and
sticks has been known to reduce self-directed behaviour in singly-housed
primates.

Important Considerations:

 Providing structures that enable complete utilization of the enclosure’s

vertical component is highly desirable in a LTM enclosure.

 Climbable furniture could be fixed/ moveable or rigid/flexible.

48
  Dominant individual tend to occupy higher vantage points, so there should
be distinct stratification for all individuals in the social order.

 Perches can significantly reduce intragroup aggression among primates.

 Manipulable objects should be such that they cannot be incorporated into

routines of self-harm and as targets of threat and aggression.

 Practical and safety issues should take first priority while the manipulable
objects are incorporated into the enclosure.

 The manipulable objects might block the drainage system of the

enclosure.

 If ingested the manipulable objects might pose a health risk to the animal.

 The animals might become possessive about their enrichment items and
get stressed at their removal. So care should be taken while rotating
enrichment devices.

C. Sensory Enrichment: Sensory enrichment focuses on stimulating animals’

senses. Primates like LTM rely heavily on their senses to survive in wild.
Audio-visual stimulation is a very important part of enrichment.

 Visual Enrichment: Visual enrichment can be accomplished by placing

a Television or a mirror next to the enclosure.

 Music: White noise played in the enclosure can enhance the cognitive
abilities of the housed primates

49
 Table 6 Enrichment options for Lion-tailed macaque
Enrichment Enrichment Materials required Location Species-typical
Device type behaviour
targeted
Separate Permanent Height 2m and width 1.5m. The separate Easier to
entry point to fixture, The door will be placed entry point will implement
the sensory above the moat near help zoo keepers enrichments
enclosure enrichment retiring cell and entry into enter and exit the with a separate
the enclosure will be enclosure with entry point.
through a retractable enrichment items
ladder, which will reduce and food for the
wear and tear on the door animals
Perches Manipulable Four logs will be placed The animals can
and feeding adjacent to each other, and scratch against
enrichment tied so that the primates the logs, climb
can climb on it. Holes can on them to
be drilled on to the logs and search for food,
filled with small treats like The exploratory
raisins. The logs should be nature of
more than 4m tall above the primates can be
ground and an additional encouraged
1.5m under the ground. through these
upright logs
coconuts Manipulable Small coconuts (green and Promotes
and feeding ripe) will be hung from exploratory
enrichment branches so that the behaviour, play
animals have to manipulate behaviour etc.
the items to get to the tasty
endosperm.
Feeding Management We have observed that the Food can be Promotes
Schedule Practices animals do not use the provided at the enclosure
and Area paddock area after feed medial portion of utilization. Helps
was given at 1530 hours. the enclosure animals display
We strongly recommend more species-
that the food be provided at typical
the paddock area and not in behaviours.
the retiring cells. The food
should consist of natural
unprocessed food products
found in the natural habitat
of the target specie (lion-
tailed macaque)
Bamboo Feeding and 3-4 upright bamboo stumps The bamboo Promotes
stumps sensory with fruits inside them can stumps can be enclosure
enrichment be used to provide small placed at the utilization. Helps
food treats (like grapes). proximal and animals display
Holes in the stumps will be median zone more species-
used to load the treats and typical
the animals need to use behaviours
their fingers to get them. foraging
Ball feeders Feeding Whole fruits increasing the These food boxes Promotes
enrichment processing time. can be placed on species-typical
Furthermore, keeping these top of trees, foraging
food items inside nets and hanging from behaviours
small boxes necessitates branches etc.
that the primates interact
with the devices and use
their dexterity to get to the
food reward

50
Testing Efficacy of Enrichment Devices
Enrichment devices setup and findings

Plate 30: Ball feeder

Ball Feeders
Construction
The ball feeders were made from two cane baskets,
placed one on top of the other and stitched with jute ropes.
Holes were made at the bottom basket on all four sides. A
strong jute rope was attached to the top basket so that the
entire contraption could hang from a tree branch. A stick
was positioned through the contraption to provide a
foothold for the primates to get to the food. The ball Plate 31: Cane baskets required
feeders would be filled with food items such as Bengal to make ball feeder
grams, grapes, and seasonal fruits.

Materials Required
1. Two baskets made from cane
2. Ropes made from strong jute fibre
3. PVC pipes of diameter 7-8 inches

51
 Method
1. Take two baskets and a pass a strong rope
through the base of each basket so that
you get some loose rope between the
baskets.
2. Attach the loose ropes so that the baskets
Plate 32: Attach cane baskets are very close to each other
from inside
Six such hanging ball feeders were constructed and placed inside the enclosure. While
some ball feeders were placed at a height of 1.5m from the ground, some other were
placed barely 0.75m from the ground. The ball feeders were spaced far from each
other to ensure that no animal monopolized all the food resources at any given point of
time.

Every morning, the keeper would come in and fill up each of the six hanging balls with
fruits. All the ball feeders were filled up in the first few days with the same mix of food.
We found that some of the animals had distinct food preferences. By providing small
amounts of all food types at each ball, we increased the food processing time of each
individual.

We found that the ball feeder was the most frequently used enrichment device among
the lion-tailed macaques. Previously all food was provided inside the retiring cell on the
ground, which did not require the animals to process the food in any way. These ball
feeders also increased the amount of cooperation as LTMs started utilizing these
devices in pairs, with one animal taking out food and throwing it on the ground and the
other animal (sitting on the ground)reserving a share for the first one.

Plate 33: Bamboo feeders

52
Bamboo Feeders
The bamboo feeders were fashioned from hollow bamboo stumps. Holes were made
inside these stumps so that food could be placed inside these stumps. These bamboo
feeders were tied close to the main trunk of the tree so the macaques had to spend a
lot of time getting the small grapes and Bengal grams out of the crevices. These
feeders were replaced with preloaded bamboo feeders by the keeper every alternate
day. By replacing the bamboo feeders, keepers could clean them and prepare the next
batch of feeders without spending too much time inside the enclosure. We found that
the keeper required an average of 15±5 minutes to load all enrichment devices with
food when assisted by two labourers.

Construction
In order to make a complex bamboo feeder for primates, we need a bamboo stump,
saw, drill, hammer, and ropes. The steps involved in making this device are described
below.

Plate 34: Bamboo stump, hand saw, electric drill, and hammer

Plate 35: Cut the bamboo stump in sizeable

pieces, and then make a rounded hole at the
top, file it before attaching to the tree

The first step involves cutting the bamboo shoot at the nodes, in a manner so that we
get a hollow tube closed on both sides. Then we can use the saw to cut along the
dotted lines to create grooves on the sides of the bamboo stump. These grooves will
help attach the stump tightly against the tree.

53
 In the following step, the bamboo needs to be cut in manner so that there is a rounded
hole in the upper section. The hole needs to be big enough so that animals may put
their hands inside the bamboo feeder, but should not fit the entire arm. The edges of
the hole should be smoothened to reduce chances of skin lacerations while using
enrichment devices.

Hanging Coconuts
The hanging coconuts were of two types: the first type was ripe coconuts with holes
drilled in them and hung from a small branch. The Second type was simply a complete
green coconut that was hung from the tree. These novel enrichment devices were
made by passing a needle with a string through a coconut. The loose end of the string
was hung from a small branch. The LTMs were found to enjoy these treats quite a lot
and frequently visited the sites containing these enrichment devices. The presence of
these enrichment devices above the ground also helped the macaques lead an
arboreal lifestyle.

Plate 36: Hanging coconuts used as enrichment devices

Findings
We found that the hanging coconuts were very successful in encouraging cognitive
skills of the primates. The dominant male used his strength to open the green coconut
and was engrossed with it for a long time, which afforded more time to other macaques
to forage on enrichment devices without being harassed. After fulfilling their nutritional
needs, the coconuts became toys for the sub adults and elicited a number of social
behaviours that were previously unseen at the enclosure.

Manipulable Enrichments with Hanging Coconuts

Manipulable enrichments or ‘Manipulanda’ form an important part of enclosure
enrichment programs. There were four poles of steel present inside the enclosure that
were not used by the macaques. We placed branches on top of these four posts to
make a platform that could serve as a perch from where the animals could have a

54
vantage point and survey the surrounding area. We also added small fruits and
coconuts dangling from these branches

Plate 37: Vantage point with hanging coconuts

Findings
It was found that the combination of manipulable enrichment structures with feeding
and sensory enrichments was important to create a positive association with the
artificial structures. Once the animals received food rewards by using manipulable
devices, they started using them more. The playful behaviour exhibited by animals
around manipulable devices increased to such a degree that the animals later started
using manipulable devices even in the absence of food rewards.

Swings and Bridges

We also provided certain swings to the animals that could be used to move from one
branch to the next. These swings were made from upside down baskets hung from
trees. The swings were very effective in eliciting species appropriate behaviour
responses from the macaque. These enrichment items were designed with the safety
of animals in mind, we placed knots at fixed length of all rope so that the individual
strands stayed together for a longer amount of time. Adequate precautions were taken.

Plate 38: Swings used as enrichment devices

55
 Findings
The swings and bridges provided LTMs with a chance to lead an arboreal lifestyle. The
bridges and swings allowed animals to move through the canopy without having to
come down on the ground. The animals preferred to stay on arboreal perches and
were found, socializing, grooming and playing on these arboreal pathways. Although
the enclosure had some trees, it lacked interconnectivity, which was established
through the implementation of swings and bridges. The amount of change in social
behaviour of the LTMs and the performance of these social behaviours at the site of
enrichment interventions indicate an increase in animal welfare conditions for the
animals.
Table 7 Efficacy of enrichment intervention in Lion-tailed macaque enclosure
Pre – enrichment Modified enclosure Needs addressed Efficacy of enrichment
feature feature post enrichment study
Lack of novelty in New enrichment Boredom and lack of The animals started
the enclosure devices implemented. opportunity to perform showing diverse
environment. instinctive behaviour behaviour repertoire.
mitigated.
Proximal and All enclosure zones The animals could now The daily movement of
medial zones were provided with forage and move the animals increased. All
underutilized. feeding and sensory through the enclosure in enclosure zones equally
enrichments. search for treats. utilized.
Animals show a Enrichments were Animals had to move These enrichment
high preference placed at distal, median through all parts of the devices reduced food
for distal areas. and the proximal zone. enclosure to use monopolizations by
enrichment devices. dominant male LTMs.
Increased cooperative
foraging behaviours,
where two individuals
used the enrichment
devices to get maximum
rewards.
Arboreal LTMs Feeding and sensory Although the enclosure The LTMs spent more
were spending enrichments were had a good amount of time on perches than on
more time on the placed on perches. stratification. The ground.
ground than on Furthermore, the trees ground strata was more
perches. were connected via enriched than the
rope bridges and arboreal areas. Post-
swings, which the enrichment, complexity
animals used to travel of all enclosure zones
through the canopy. increased, therefore
animals could exercise
their choice and they
shifted to a arboreal
lifestyle.

56
Recommendations
The recommendations based on the findings of the enrichment intervention are
summarized below.
1. Enrichments and scientific management practices effectively reduce aberrant
behaviours and promote social behaviours such as play and grooming.
Animals performing these socially appetitive behaviours are naturally in a
better state of welfare.
2. Food is the biggest motivation for the study subjects and therefore all
enrichments were designed based on a reward-based positive reinforcement
approach to make the animals spend more energy to get miniscule food
rewards. The complexity of each enrichment item was increased to make the
task of acquiring food rewards more challenging and time consuming, which
maintained the novelty of enrichment devices.
3. It is recommended to change the locations of certain preferred food items
across the enclosure. This would ensure that the animals had to visit all the
possible foraging sites in order to get their choice of food items. By placing
foraging boxes, feeding balls, bamboo feeders etc. far apart from each other,
we ensured that the dominant individuals never had the opportunity to
monopolize food resources.
4. At each of the foraging boxes, it is desirable to place a mix of foods with high
processing time and low processing time. This will ensure that the animals
could not move through all the enrichment items very fast. The complexity of
the food items forced animals to spend significant amount of time on each
enrichment artefact.
5. It was realized that enrichments need to be individual-centric and should also
look at the status quo between conspecifics. Enrichment interventions should
not lead to undue stress and aggression between conspecifics. For example,
while a dominant LTM male was feeding from a ball feeder, a subordinate
individual could scavenge food that was accidentally dropped by the animals
6. The enrichment interventions in Lion tailed macaque enclosure at Arignar
Anna Zoological Park is proof that any enclosure enrichment intervention has
to be at the individual level, since social animals are more likely to get stressed
when they cannot derive benefits from enrichment devices. The personality of
the animal concerned and the location of the enclosure should be taken into
consideration before drawing up enrichment plans.
7. Problem identification is a very important step that should precede every
enrichment intervention.

57
 Canids- Essential
Environmental Enrichments

Chapter 4
for Indian Wild Dog, Dhole

Plate 39: Indian Wild Dog (Dhole) at Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Vishakhapatnam

Animal Biology and Behavioural Ecology

Habitat & Ecology:
The Dhole is found in a variety of habitat types like primary, secondary and degraded
forms of tropical dry and moist deciduous forests, evergreen and semi-evergreen
forests, dry-thorn forests, scrublands etc. In India, as these habitats support a larger
prey base.

58
Table 8 Life history traits of Dhole

Age at First 1-1.5 years

Reproduction
Estrous Cycle 14-39 days
Litter Size 4-6 pups. Pups are born blind, eyes open between the 13th and 15th
day
Gestation period 60-63 days
Weaning Age 31 days
Inter-birth Interval NA
Lifespan 15-16 years
Mating Season In India mating occurs between September and January. Captive
dholes in Moscow Zoo breed in February.

Behaviour and Social Organization:

Dholes are group living animals with a bi-level social organization. The “pack” acts as
the hunting and the feeding unit and the pack members stay together all the time.
Sometimes two or more packs might come together to form “clans”. The clan assembly
primarily revolves around social interactions during rest and play periods. Not much is
known about the degree of genetic relatedness in clan or pack members. Loners are a
rare occurrence in the Dhole communities. The size of the pack varies between 3-28
adult members.

Dhole packs hunt separately but all of them might assemble after the hunts to share
the kill. Clans can contain as many as 40 adults at any point of time. During the end of
the monsoon or at the beginning of the denning season, the dholes are most frequently
seen in small groups. Although there is no clear evidence of dominance hierarchies in
the Dhole pack, in the free-ranging pack an adult male is often clearly dominant over
the other pack members. Aggression among pack members is virtually non-existent
and there is little or no competition at kills.

Captive dholes are known to urine-mark one another. Dholes practice site-specific
defecation so certain areas within their territory acts as communal latrines (Cohen,
Fox, Johnsingh, & Barnett, 1978). The play behaviour involves soliciting play with lower
forequarters, wagging tail and engaging in chase and ambush games. All members of
the pack play with each other during certain times of the day, which helps cement the
bond between pack members.

Vocal Communication:
Vocal communication plays a huge role in Dhole social behaviour. Dholes show a high
amount of social activity in both wild and captivity. Dholes are known to yap, whistle,

59
 bark, howl, squeal, scream, whine, squeak and yap-squeak to the members of the
pack as well as to intruders. It is believed that in the absence of visual or olfactory
stimuli, long-distance biphonation calls may provide cues of individuality to pack
members.

Food and Feeding Behaviour

Dholes like to feed on Chital (Axis axis) and it forms the primary prey base. Large
packs of Dholes have also been observed killing Sambar, wild pigs, Muntjacs, and
mouse deer. In Tibet and Ladakh the Dholes are known to hunt wild sheep, antelope,
Markhor, musk deer and Ghorals. Livestock comprises a very small proportion of
Dhole diet. Dholes have been seen killing Panthers, Bears and tigers. Dholes also
hunt rodents, hares, palm squirrels, field rats during the dry season. Some other
dietary items include birds, lizards, insects and vegetation like grass, leaves, fruits etc.
In South India an analysis of 150 Dhole scats revealed that the most commonly
represented prey species was the common hare (Lepus nigricollis), which was closely
followed by Chital, Sambar, field rat and wild pig. The average weight of prey killed by
Dhole packs in Panna Tiger Reserve was 55.3 kg.

Dholes are carnivores and they are among the most ferocious hunters in the wild.
Dholes hunt in packs and a pack of Dholes can bring down prey 10 times their size
with their extraordinary hunting skills. Dholes chase down and exhaust their prey and
then attack them from all sides. The prey usually dies of shock and blood loss.

The Dholes primarily like to hunt during dawn or right before twilight. The pack remains
inactive during midday (especially during summer). The Dhole packs might hunt on a
moonlit night there is no aggression at the kill and all members of the pack eat
harmoniously. Juveniles are given preference at the kill.

Reproductive Behaviour
Unlike most other canid species, mating is not confined to any season and can occur
any time of the year. There is no dominant breeding pair and all the pack members can
mate however, in some packs there are dominant breeding pairs who produce
offspring although several females come into heat. At the Schwerin Zoo in Germany,
the highest ranking female hindered the subordinate female from mating with the
dominant male. In a wild dog pack at the Dresden Zoo, the dominant male tried to
hinder subordinate males from copulating with the dominant female. In captivity pups
stand a high chance of being eaten by other adult pack members. Births usually occur
late at night or during the early hours of morning.

60
Pup-rearing is a social activity and all the members of the pack take part in it. Dholes
can mate any time from September to January. The gestation period lasts between 60-
63 days. In India the pups are most often born during the months of January and
February. The average litter size is around 4-5; the maximum number is 9-10.
Offspring of two or more females may live in the same den. Female dholes are known
to den and rear their offspring together. A number of females select a den site and
together form a breeding colony.

Certain members of the pack act as “guards” and stay back with the pups, while the
rest of the pack is out hunting. At about 70-80 days age the pups leave the denning
area and at the age of 7-8 months they actively participate in prey killing. The Dhole
pups reared in captivity show agonistic behaviour towards each other till 7-8 months of
age, after that the dominance hierarchy is established. The pack members are highly
tolerant of each other at kills and there is very low level of competition for access to
kills. Both adults and pups indulge in playful behaviour.

Minimum welfare requirements of the species in captivity

Findings from literature review
Minimum AZA Guidelines for Keeping Medium and Large Canids in Captivity
Canids are mostly cursorial animals that have strong social bonds, including exclusive
male/female pairing during the breeding season. The bonding between canids can
often extend through the pup-rearing period. In captivity the animals are often singly-
housed which often results in the onset of aberrant behaviours.

Some aspects of captive management for all Canids have been discussed below:

Temperature: Dholes are not tolerant to extreme variations of temperature. Animals

kept outside should have access to shade, especially during warmer parts of the year.
Zoos located in cold areas should provide wooden pallets and space heaters for the
animals.

Lighting: Natural lighting is optimal for dholes. When needed, fluorescent lighting can
be used for full-spectrum illumination.

Water: Fresh clean water for drinking should be available at all times. Watering
devices should consist of either built-in devices or sturdy portable container.
Regardless of size, water containers should be cleaned and disinfected daily. Some
canids enjoy bathing and swimming, and pools should be incorporated into outdoor
enclosures.

61
 Sanitation: Hard-surface, pallets, and food containers (if used) should be cleaned
daily with detergents. Dirt substrates in outdoor exhibits should be raked and spot
cleaned daily. Foot baths should be used prior to entering and exiting all canid
enclosures or area containing enclosures. Each should be filled with a disinfectant and
its use strictly adhered to by all personnel.

Enclosure Dimensions: Enclosure sizes vary according to species and social group.
As a general rule, a single large canid should have enclosure measuring at least
3.1mx4.6m or 14m2. For each additional animal, the enclosure size should be
increased by 50%. A medium canid should be housed in a 2.5m x 4.7m enclosure

Barriers: Perimeter barriers should be at least 2.5m high and include an inward facing
overhang, the top protected by electric cable or a 45 degree overhang. In addition to
vertical barriers, all perimeters should also have either a concrete footing or a
horizontal protective mat around the entire enclosure. Most median and large sized
canids are prolific diggers and can easily tunnel under a chain-link fence. Where
feasible, enclosures should be designed without square corners.

Food: Medium and large canids are easily maintained when fed commercially or
custom-made diets. Commercial preparations containing all necessary vitamin and
mineral are readily available, or may also be custom-made by the holding institution.
On a daily basis, canids require 1-3kg of high quality, low-fat diet per 25kg of body
weight. Whole animals used as feed should be limited to freshly killed carcasses, and
should be removed at regular intervals. Diets containing high percentages of fowl,
especially ones containing chicken or turkey necks, should be avoided due to
inadequate levels of calcium and phosphorus.

The quantity of rations fed will also depend on individual condition and whether or not
feeding is communal or done on an individual basis. Where communal feeding is
practiced, weights of subordinate animals and juveniles must be closely monitored.
Obesity also occurs where communal feeding is practiced, and fasting all members
once a day in a week may be used for weight control. Milk substitutes used to hand
rear infants should be specifically formulated for canids. Milk replacers should contain
low levels of lactose to prevent eye problems.

Veterinary Care: Services of an experienced veterinarian should be available to all

holders of non-domestic canids. When circumstances permit, an overall examination
should be performed annually, blood samples collected, serum blanked as a baseline
control, and the results recorded. Faecal examinations should be made twice a year to
check for parasite infection and should be screened monthly during their first six

62
 months. Routine deworming with a broad spectrum anti-helminthic at six and eight
months of age is highly recommended. Preventative heartworm medication should be
given to all canids housed in areas where this parasite is prevalent, and an occult
heartworm test performed annually.

Findings from Enclosure Evaluation

Arignar Anna Zoological Park:
The wild dog enclosure at Chennai zoo housed 3 females. The enclosure was dry
moated open-air with wall and chain link mesh acting as the standoff barrier. The
enclosure was previously constructed for housing jackals and it is presently being used
to house wild dogs. The enclosure had open access to the animals from all sides, the
visitors could also access the retiring cells of the enclosure.

Plate 40: Wild dog enclosure at AAZP, Chennai

Enclosure Evaluation
1. Public Utility Area
Public utility area is one of the
most important aspects of
enclosure design as it creates the
platform for interaction between the
animal and visitors.

a. Visitor Viewing Area: Visitor

viewing area is an important part of Plate 41: Public utility area of Dhole Enclosure
any enclosure as it determines the
level of access the visitors have to
the enclosure and the animals housed in them.
b. Visitor Access: The standoff barrier at the AAZP, Chennai is not very
effective. The visitors have unrestricted access to the distal zone at the zoo.
c. Enclosure Barrier: The enclosure barrier was safe, did not have rusty parts
and posed no risk of injury to the animals housed.

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 d. Visitor Barrier: At the AAZP dhole enclosure, a wall with a wire mesh barrier
was the only standoff barrier.
e. Enclosure Visibility: The visibility at the enclosure in all three zoos was very
high. Cross-viewing should be minimized while designing a carnivore
enclosure and this aspect was ignored at all the zoos.

2. Enclosure Characteristics
a. Enclosure Barrier: The enclosure was open-air dry moated type and provided
freedom of movement to the animals.
b. Enclosure Topography: Every enclosure should have an undulating terrain in
order to provide the animal’s sufficient areas for withdrawal from visitors and
conspecifics. The enclosure was mostly plain and provided very few
withdrawal areas.
c. Substrate type: Natural substrate was present throughout the entire
enclosure.
d. Shelter: Every enclosure should have shelters so that the animals can stay
safe from the inclement of weather and thermoregulate. The enclosure had
provision for natural shelters like bamboo clumps.
e. Withdrawal Areas: Withdrawal areas are vital to the welfare of captive
animals as they allow animals get away from the stress imposed by enclosure
mates and zoo visitors. The enclosure had a lot of vegetation but unrestricted
visitor access reduced the number of effective withdrawal areas.
f. Enclosure Space Utilization: The level of enclosure space utilization is highly
emphasized in literature; however, how the space is utilized is also important.
The space utilization was minimal and the animals are stressed by visitors.
g. Enclosure Aspect: The enclosure had dense vegetation cover and provided a
lot of shade to the animals; however, the high vegetation density restricted
airflow.
h. Irrigation: Every enclosure should be well irrigated to encourage growth of
vegetation inside the enclosure and be well drained to prevent water logging.
The studied enclosure was well irrigated.
i. Area of Activity: Wild dogs are cursorial animals that walk and run long
distances to hunt, the enclosure should accordingly have adequate space to
support such activities. The enclosure; however, allowed visitors access from
all sides to the enclosure, thereby restricting the area available for animal
activity.

64
3. Furniture and Enrichment Devices
Enclosures should have furniture and
enrichments that encourages
species-appropriate behaviour and
create a naturalistic environment for
the captive animals. All furniture and
enrichment devices in an enclosure
should be made of substrate the
animal might encounter in the wild.
a. Species Appropriate Furnishing:
The enclosure had minimal
Plate 42: Water pool: the most used feature of
furnishing; however, a water pool
the enclosure
was provided where the animals
could drink and bathe.
b. Species Appropriate Enrichment: Species appropriate vegetation was
provided and the animals showed a certain degree of natural behaviour.
c. Types of Enrichment: Only manipulable enrichment was provided to the
animals.
d. Safety of Enrichment: Enrichment devices provided at the enclosures did not
pose any risk to the animals.
e. Enrichment Device Usage: Enrichment devices that are not utilized by the
animals serve no practical purpose. All the enrichment devices provided were
used and natural features within the enclosure were also utilized.
f. Enrichment Device Material: All enrichment devices were made of artificial
substances and need to be modified to introduce more natural elements within
the enclosure.
g. Enrichment device location and effectiveness: Enrichment devices need
to be placed at appropriate positions of the enclosure to increase their
utilization.

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 4. Vegetation
Vegetation features of an enclosure helps create an immersive effect and
provide a natural ambience for the animal. Every enclosure should have a
good mix of trees, and shrubs as they create a novelty in the captive
environment. However care must be taken before introducing any vegetation
inside an existing enclosure as it might affect the animal adversely.

Plate: Dholes resting under vegetation

Plate 43: Dholes resting under vegetation

a. Species Appropriate Vegetation: The vegetation in the enclosure was

species-specific and offered adequate amount of sun and shade to the
animals.

b. Vegetation Density: Vegetation cover determines the extent of shade

available in an enclosure. Vegetation density was very high restricting airflow
in the enclosure, that lead to high humidity and chances of disease outbreak.

c. Vegetation Usage: The vegetation at Dhole enclosure was mostly used for
shade and thermoregulation during the hot afternoons.

b. Stratification: Vegetation density and stratification are closely linked.

The vegetation stratification of an enclosure is vital to the well-being of an
animal. The enclosure had well stratified vegetation that was effectively
utilized by the animals.

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5. Retiring Area
Captive animals in zoos spend most of their time inside retiring cells. The retiring cells
therefore should be developed to meet the needs of each captive species. Dholes are
social animals and need to be socially housed. The retiring areas need to be big along
with ample vertical space as Dholes are good jumpers. The substrate of the retiring
cells should be natural and soft to protect the animals from foot injuries.

Plate 44: Retiring cells and day kraal for dholes

a. Grouping: Being social animals dholes need to be housed together in a

retiring area with access to off-display outdoor kraals. The enclosure had
individual retiring cells and animals were separated inside the retiring cells.
b. Ventilation: The retiring cells should have a good air circulation so that there
is no residual humidity and air flow is maintained. A constant draft of air
reduces chances of moisture accumulating in different areas of the retiring
cells and inhibits growth of pathogens. The retiring area was well ventilated
and had unhindered air-flow.
c. Sanitation: Sanitation conditions were sub-par in the retiring cells.
d. Illumination: No natural or artificial lighting was available in the retiring cells
for dholes.
e. Furniture: The furniture at the retiring cells was minimal and should be
changed to suit the species-specific requirements. The retiring cells had
cemented flooring which is not advised for dholes as they like to jump and
might break their legs while landing on a hard floor
f. Enrichment: Enrichments were non-existent and should be increased in the
retiring cells to increase the living conditions of the animals.
g. Day Kraal: A kraal having soft soil as substrate was present, however it had a
low wire mesh ceiling that limits vertical animal movement.

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 6. Socio-Ecology and Behaviour
The behavioural response of
the animals to their captive
environment was assessed and
the observation for the same
are presented here.
a. Social Grouping: Proper social
grouping of captive animals
ensures natural behaviour
among captive animals. The
enclosure housed a pack with
Plate 45: Wild dogs interacting
inappropriate sex ratio.

7. Nutrition
Nutrition is a vital component that determines captive animal welfare. The diet
mostly consisted of chicken meat and the animals wasted a lot of food every
day.

Behaviour Response to Existing Housing and Enrichment Program

Activity Budget
In the initial part of the study, we found that the dholes in the AAZP dry-moated
enclosure spent most of the daily activity budget in stereotypic behaviour (45%). The
animals spent a greater part of the forenoon and afternoon, resting in the retiring cell
area (32%) and occasionally they would visit the small water pool on the distal right
hand side of the enclosure, take a dip and come back to the original position to rest
again. The other behaviours such as walking feeding (chewing left over bones) formed
an insignificant part in the daily time budget.

Space Utilization Pattern

We found that under the existing enclosure housing and enrichment practice regime
the animals spend all of their time in the distal portion of the enclosure (near the
retiring cell). From 1100-1500 hours the animals mostly rested in the area by lying
down and sitting. During the rest of the day the animals performed movement
stereotypies such as pacing. The animals never approached the proximal area of the
enclosure and rarely came close to the median zone.

Summary of Enclosure Assessments

To surmise the findings from enclosure evaluations,
1. The public utility area was continuous and created stress.
2. The animals were released in the paddock area in pairs, which was one of the
primary causes of stress and stereotypic behaviour.

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3. The animals were given food in the retiring cells.
4. The water-pool provided enrichment in the paddock area and promoted some
species typical behaviours.
5. Social grouping in the enclosure was not appropriate.
6. The dholes performed more stereotypy near the distal area and the retiring
cells.
7. Food was presented in an unappealing manner in the retiring cells and was
often wasted by the animals.
8. Vegetation was dense in some parts of the enclosure, restricting airflow and
enhancing humidity that led to further discomfort for the animals.

Enrichment Planning based on Existing Review of Literature

Table 9 Enrichment options for Dholes
Enrichment Enrichment Materials Required Location Species-typical
Device Type behaviour
targeted
Visitor Permanent The visitor viewing area at Chennai Visitor Reducing visitor
gallery fixture, zoo dhole enclosure should be access access will
sensory reduced so that the animals have should be provide animals
enrichment some space for withdrawal from restricted to with more
visitor disturbance proximal withdrawal
zone space
Pitfall Feeding 1ft pvc pipe of diameter of 10 At the Foraging and
feeder enrichment, inches placed at different zones of proximal and exploratory
manipulable the exhibit and loaded with median zone behaviour
enrichment enrichment items like small chunks of the exhibit
of meat
Group Social Right now only two adult dholes Social
formation Enrichment (1:1) are released in the enclosure. behaviour,
We believe that dholes should be species-typical
maintained in social groups. behaviour
Therefore, pups should also be patterns
released with the adults to create a
more cohesive group
Branch Manipulable Small logs 20-30 of them of length Median and Promotes
piles and feeding 3ft and diameter 8 inches can be proximal exploratory
enrichment used to make piles at different behaviour, play
locations and loaded with small behaviour etc.
pieces of meat and bones
Scratching Manipulable Single upright logs with rough bark Median zone Promotes
posts and sensory will help the animals autogroom autogrooming and
enrichment themselves by rubbing their back other behaviours
on the logs such as
scratching etc.
Feeding Management We recommend that the food be Food can be Promotes
Schedule Practices provided in the paddock area and provided at enclosure
and Area not in the retiring cells. The food the median utilization. Helps
should consist of natural portion of animals display
unprocessed food products found more species-

69
 Enrichment Enrichment Materials Required Location Species-typical
Device Type behaviour
targeted
in the natural habitat of the target the exhibit typical
animals. behaviours.

Enrichment Devices Setup and Findings

The AAZP dhole enclosure was modified with some naturalistic enrichment
interventions that were designed to promote species-typical behaviours. A summary of
the enrichment devices, their construction, and effects on animals is discussed below.

Plate 46: Enrichment device setup

Testing Efficacy of
Enrichment Devices

Earthen Mounds
Earth mounds perform various
functions for dholes. In a humid
environment such as Chennai
the animals can remove
ectoparasites by rolling in the
dirt. The dirt mound also serves Plate 47: Earth mounds
as visual barrier and animals can

70
hide from visitors. Moreover, these dirt mounds also provide the animals an opportunity
to burrow during whelping and rearing pups.

Findings
We found that the animals frequently dipped themselves in the water pool and rolled
over in the dirt mounds. This was probably a mechanism for thermoregulation, this was
a novel behaviour that was not previously seen in the unenriched enclosure. Dirt
mounds therefore are effective enrichment devices.

Pitfall Feeders
Pitfall feeders were made from PVC pipes dug underground with only one end
emerging out, the bottom of each was filled with coarse gravel and pebbles. We placed
dressed chicken
breasts inside
each of the six
pitfall feeders
placed inside the
enclosure. The
pitfall feeders were
distributed across
Plate 48: Pitfall feeder with dressed chicken
the proximal and
median zones of the enclosure.

Findings
Although the animals showed some curiosity towards the feeders, they stayed away
from the food for the major part of the post-enrichment study. This pitfall feeder is an
inefficient design as exposing the raw meat to humid conditions, draws maggots and
the meat putrefied within a span of few hours. This enrichment device did not yield
success and was discontinued from the first day onwards.

Water Pool
A water pool was already
present inside the enclosure
and was working. We found
that the animals preferred
using the water pool for
drinking as well as
thermoregulation.
Plate 49: Water pool for Dholes

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 Findings
We recommend such water pools for all dhole enclosures. The water pool served as a
place for socialization and play behaviour amongst the pups and adults.

Scratching Posts
The scratching posts were created to enable the animals to groom themselves. Coir
ropes were bound tightly to form an abrasive and irregular surface on the otherwise
smooth bark of the trees. The dholes had a lot of ticks on their faces and other
inaccessible areas of the body. These scratching posts were designed to provide
animals with an opportunity to remove ticks by rubbing themselves against the tree.

Plate 50: Scratching posts

Findings
We found that the dholes were curious about the coir ropes and tried to take them
apart with their teeth a number of times. On the first day of study, the animals had not
made the association between the ropes and autogrooming. From the next day
onwards the usage of scratch posts increased by a large margin as the animals started
to rub against them.

Blockades
We found that the animals at the AAZP
dhole enclosure were performing
stereotypic behaviours like repetitive
pacing near the retiring cell along a fixed
path. In order to mitigate these aberrant
behaviours we placed thorny branch
piles on the trails created by the animals.
The motive behind this action was to
Plate
Plate 51: Blockades
Blockades
coax animals to utilize other enclosure
zones that were under-utilized due to the stereotypic behaviours.

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Findings
This roadblock for dholes worked very well and reduced the occurrence of stereotypy
by a large extent; however, this was a negative reinforcement technique and should be
coupled with positive associations with other underutilized portions of the enclosure.
When used in conjunction with positive enrichment interventions like social enrichment
and feeding enrichment, the animals may stop performing stereotypy. However, if only
roadblocks are made and the animals are not provided with any other avenue to vent
their stress, it can lead to further welfare concerns. Such road blocks should be used
only as a last resort.

Visual Barrier
We placed visual barriers in an attempt to stop the adult dholes from communicating
with the pups.

Plate Visual Barriers

Plate 52: Visual barriers
Findings
We found that the barrier did not stop communication as the animals switched to
vocalizations. Moreover, the presence of visual barriers agitated the animals and they
started tearing down the agro net with their teeth. Therefore, we removed all visual
barriers from the enclosure and released all pups inside the enclosure with the adults.

Post Enrichment Behaviour Evaluation

The post enrichment behaviour evaluation was done in two parts
1. With visual barriers + blockades + enrichment items- pups kept inside retiring
cells
2. No visual barriers and blockade + enrichment items+ pups released with
adults

In the first scenario we found that although the animals did not perform any stereotypic
behaviour due to the presence of blockades, they were upset due to the visual barriers.

73
 The animals vocalized and rested near the retiring cells and showed no interest in
other enrichment items.

In the second scenario, we removed all visual barriers and blockades, we also
released all the pups inside the enclosure with the adults (parents). This led to a
remarkable change in the behaviour pattern. The animals started socializing and play
behaviours and with display of stereotypic behaviour ending completely. However the
animals never used the proximal and median zones of the enclosure and enrichments
placed in those zones remained grossly under-utilized.

Activity Budget
3%
5% We found that after releasing the pups
along with adults in the paddock area,
the level of stereotypic behaviour
35%
dropped significantly. The amount of
play behaviour significantly increased
(55%). The resting times however
55%
remained almost unchanged (35%).
Other behaviours such as bathing and
2% chewing bones were also largely
Stereotypy Resting Feeding Play Bath unaffected. We concluded that the
animals spent most of their time
Figure 2: Activity budget post-enrichment
socializing with conspecifics and this
therefore is the most important enrichment.

Space Utilization Pattern

We found that despite enrichment interventions, the animals chose to stay near the
distal zone of the enclosure and never ventured into the proximal end during the study
period. Therefore, we feel that the visitor gallery should be redesigned to provide a
windowed viewing 0%
opportunity for visitors to 8%

ensure that animals are not 12%

unduly stressed by visitor
presence.

Enrichment Device
Usage 80%
We found that the most
frequently used enrichment
item was the water pool. Dirt mound Pitfall feeder Scratch post Water pool

The study was done in the Figure 3: Enrichment device usage

74
period during October-November 2013 and the animals still preferred to use the water
pool for thermoregulation due to the high ongoing temperatures in Chennai. The pitfall
feeder was the least used enrichment item. The second most frequently used
enrichment item was the scratch posts and it was closely followed by the dirt mounds
(8%).
Table 10 Efficacy of enrichment intervention in dhole enclosure
Enrichment Species-typical Observation Remarks
Types behaviour targeted
1. Feeding
Enrichment
Pitfall We expected the animals The animals were not Alternate feeding methods
feeders with to forage on the chicken very enthusiastic should be explored.
chicken pieces readily about the pitfall feeder
with chicken meat
2. Sensory
Enrichment
Water pool The water pool was The animals spent There should be one water
supposed to be used by most of their time near pool in the medial portion of
the animals occasionally the water pool, every enclosure
to quench thirst or to bathing, drinking and
thermoregulate playing with one
another
Scratching The animals were The animals The scratching posts were
post supposed to autogroom at occasionally used the mostly used for grooming.
the scratching posts to scratching posts Two such posts are sufficient
take care of ectoparasites for each enclosure
Earth Earth mounds were The animals used this Fresh earthen mounds
mounds provided to promote sensory enrichment should be created in an
allogrooming and digging extensively. After each enclosure every month.
opportunities for the bath the dholes would These mounds should be
animals. roll around in the dirt created in unique locations
3. Social We released the pups The pups started For a group living Canid like
enrichment with their parents to see playing and running dholes, social enrichment is
whether there were any around the enclosure vital to ensuring wellbeing in
agonistic interactions or as soon as they were captivity.
not and the affiliative released. The parents As shown in our study, the
behaviours displayed by stopped the amount of aberrant
the animals stereotypic behaviour behaviour decreased when
and started playing the group was reunited.
with the pups as well. We recommend that dholes
should be maintained in
social groups

Summary
The primary problem faced in the dhole enclosure pertained to the two adult dholes
that used to constantly perform stereotypical pacing behaviour in front of the retiring
cells. We hypothesized that the stereotypical behaviour can be due to the separation
from pups by a barrier and the absence of enclosure complexity in other parts of the
enclosure.

75
 In the first part of the experiment, we increased the complexity of the enclosure
environment by the following methods;
1. Scratching posts
2. Dirt mounds
3. Water pools
4. Pitfall feeders with dressed chicken

We also used certain mitigating measures such as

1. Blocking the path of pacing by providing branches
2. Creating visual barriers between adjacent enclosures and retiring cells

We found that although the mitigating measures such as the blockade significantly
reduced stereotypic behaviours, the visual barriers were ineffective as the dholes could
still vocally communicate with the pups. Furthermore, the animals instead of
performing stereotypical motions started to sit and rest near the retiring cell all day.
The increase in enclosure complexity neither ameliorated stereotypic behaviour nor
increased species-appropriate behaviour.

Therefore, we decided to release all the pups inside the enclosure along with the
adults. This action resulted in a desired change in the enclosure utilization and
behaviour pattern of the animals. Immediately we found that the animals were playing
and socially interacting with each other. All the animals started using enclosure
enrichment devices such as water pools, dirt mounds and scent posts. The animals
however remained shy of visitors and chose to perform all activities in the distal zone.
The animals tried to pick up the chicken from pitfall feeders a couple of times but were
unsuccessful. Due to logistical constraints, we could not perform follow-up studies and
in this case, we can only say that probably social enrichment was the solution to the
stereotypic behaviour of the dholes.

Therefore, we see that enclosure enrichment cannot be a surrogate for conspecific

interaction and animals most often only require a social enrichment to perform species-
typical behaviours. Most animal welfare concerns in Indian zoos can be mitigated if we
can maintain every species in naturally immersive enclosure with adequate conspecific
contact.

Recommendations
Based on the findings of our short-term study, we recommend the following enrichment
options for housing dholes.

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1. Social animals like dholes should always be housed together, even in the
retiring cell (if it is a family group of parents and pups)
2. Dholes are cursorial animals and are likely to perform movement stereotypy
when stressed or welfare is compromised. The topography of the paddock
area should be undulating and have vegetation barriers at strategically placed
locations so that the animals have to run through various hurdles if they start
showing stereotypic behaviour.
3. The vegetation should be dense in dhole enclosures but also provide
ventilation to the animals, therefore regular thinning of vegetation should be
practiced.
4. Dholes should never be housed in retiring cells with concrete floors, we
recommend the type of day kraal used for dholes at AAZP that has a soft
substrate of sand and other mixed soil with a low ceiling of wire mesh.
5. Food should be provided in more innovative ways to promote group feeding
behaviours that increase social cohesion and promote bonding between
related individuals.
6. The enclosure complexity should be regularly changed in order to keep the
animals interested.
7. Earth mounds should be placed at least 10m away from fresh water pools.
These dirt mounds, encourage denning behaviour as well as autogrooming
that allows animals to get rid of ticks and mites.
8. There should be adequate sun basking and shade spots in the enclosure.
9. Water pools are essential for dholes.
10. All natural devices should be used to enrich dhole enclosures as they are very
strong teeth and can chew apart any enrichment device. Enrichment devices
should pose no choking or poisoning hazard to the housed animals.

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 Felids- Essential
Environmental Enrichments

Chapter 5
for Leopard
Animal Biology and Behavioural Ecology
Felids are considered as an extreme among carnivores for their unanimous adherence
to eating flesh, generally of vertebrate prey. They are expert stalkers and killers, with
specialized claws for holding and handling struggling prey before delivering a killing
bite. The family Felidae has 36 extant species distributed worldwide.

The leopard (Panthera pardus) is the smallest of the ‘big cats’ and Indian leopard
(Panthera pardus fusca) is one of the nine extant subspecies distributed globally;
inhabiting the Indian sub-continent. Leopards are agile and stealthy predators which
are usually nocturnal, resting by day on the branch of a tree, in dense vegetation, or
among rocks. They move in a slow and silent walk but can briefly run at a speed of
more than 60 km/hr. They are reported to leap more than 6 m horizontally and 3 m
vertically. Leopards are good swimmers but are not as fond of water as the tiger. They
have excellent vision, hearing and sense of smell.

They are the most widely distributed of the wild cats, and are found in almost every
kind of habitat, ranging from rainforest to desert temperate regions. In India and
Southeast Asia leopards are found in all forest types, from tropical rainforest to the
temperate deciduous and alpine coniferous as well as dry scrub and grassland, and
range up to 5200 m in the Himalaya. It has been reported that 80% of the Indian forest
cover are leopard habitat.

Leopards are normally solitary and territorial species. Adults associate only long
enough to mate and the young become independent as sub-adults. They are almost
always found at least 1 km apart, with spacing facilitated by vocalizing and scent
marking with ground scrapes and urine. Fighting in leopards has almost never been
recorded.

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Table 11 Life history traits of leopard
Spatio-temporal Mostly crepuscular. They are mostly found resting during the heat of
activity pattern the day. However, they are opportunistic hunters who hunt any time
of the day.
Foraging strategy Hunt prey which could give minimum risk of injury. Stash their kill on
tree to feed or store
Home range and Territorial animals with home range of males is 16.5-96.1 km2 and
territoriality that of female is 5.6-29.9 km2.
Locomotion Quadrupedal
Activity location Either on the ground or on trees
Resting/roosting They are generally found resting on mounds, trees and other such
elevated spot which provide them a vantage point
Communication Communicate through visual signals, scent-marking and
vocalizations. Both the sexes of leopard patrol their ranges and
scent-mark trees, bushes and rocks with urine mixed with anal
gland secretions. Scraping, urine-spraying and tree-clawing are
most commonly used by Leopards. Peak calling bouts tend to
occur early in the evening and shortly before dawn often while the
leopard is moving
Social interactions Social interaction observed at the time of breeding season and
between mother and her cups till their dispersal.
Play Observed in young, sub-adults and mothers with cubs
Aggression Fights between leopards are hardly recorded. They growl, snarl or
hiss in fear/rage
Parental Care Mother heavily invests in parental care. Cubs stay with their
mother up to 2 years
Minimum Welfare requirements of the species in captivity
Impoverished conditions in captivity effect the animals’ natural behavioural reactions
and alter species typical patterns. Enclosure type, feeding regime, and the presence of
visitors influence the behaviour of captive leopards. The aim of a well-managed ex-situ
centre is to look after these necessary requirements to maintain both the physiological
and psychological welfare of animals. The species is housed in 68 zoos all across
India; there are 400 leopards held in captivity. It has been observed that leopards
exhibited higher proportion of activity and lower level of inactive periods in enriched
enclosures.

Findings from Literature Review

Each cat species has unique basic requirements which need to be considered for
ensuring optimum welfare in captivity. For the big cats as a group the following points
are to be considered:
1. Geographical and climatic condition of the zoo location; according to which the
temperature as well as the settings of the cat enclosures be maintained.

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 2. Exhibit and retiring area should be large enough for the animal to move
around freely.
3. Solitary cats like leopard, in a zoo scenario, are advised to be kept in pairs;
however, after checking their compatibility.
4. Feed should always be certified as safe before feeding and should be fed
according to individual needs (age, sex, health condition, etc. of the
individual).
5. Health and hygiene of the animals should not be compromised. The
enclosures should be cleaned regularly and care need to be taken that they
are vermin proof. Health of the animals should also be checked regularly.

Findings from Enclosure Evaluation

The enclosure assessment of Common Leopard was done at Malsi Deer Park,
Dehradun, Vanvihar National Park, Bhopal and Indira Gandhi Zoological Park,
Vishakhapatnam. The following are some of the findings of the assessment:
1. Barren or monotonous exhibit area: Lack of vegetation and enrichment
devices. Where vegetation was present, it had improper stratification and
failed to address the species needs. Enrichment devices used were old
without novelty value and static. They were therefore often not used by the
animals and posed an eyesore in the exhibit area.
2. Incompatible pairings/social groups: Most often solitary animals were found
in pairs however, incompatibility between the animals could be observed most
of the time.
3. Predictable and routine way of food presentation: Feed is always given at
the same location and at the same time in almost all the zoos. Pacing and
other abnormal behaviours in the animals often increase as the feeding time
approaches.
4. Unequal space utilization of the exhibit area: Animals were often found
using only some parts of enclosure usually those that were close to water
source, shed and less disturbed by the visitors.
5. Limited activity: Most of the animals were found resting during the day with
almost predictable activity pattern day in and out. Lack of stimuli and novelty in
the environment promote such kind of activity pattern.
6. Ill-planned retiring area: Most often the retiring areas were small with hard
concrete floor where animals feed and rest. Most of the zoos lack day-kraals
hence, animals that were not released in the exhibit area were locked inside
such retiring areas for long periods.

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Evaluation of Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Leopard
Enclosure

Plate 53: AAZP, Chennai. Top covered enclosure with a continuous viewing area at three
sides. Holding area and kraal was visible to the public.

1. Visitor Viewing Area

The viewing area was continuous and 2/3 of the enclosure could be used as viewing
gallery. During peak hour crowding occurs around the enclosure. The visibility level
was as high as 90%.

Plate 54: High visitor pressure and overcrowding all along the viewing area which was
continuous and open almost up to 2/3 of the enclosure

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 2. Paddock Area Characteristics
The paddock was levelled ground with no shade during the day; the only shade in the
enclosure was present in the retiring area. The pool present was too deep and had
vertical sides limiting use by leopards.

3. Enclosure Enrichments
Some enrichments and furniture were provided however, were hardly used by the
animal. A climbing structure made of wooden logs was in a poor state of maintenance.

Plate 55: Enclosure enriched with vegetation and furniture of which the animals were
habituated. Regular cleaning and trimming of vegetation was required since there was over
growth of thorny herbs such as Mimosa pudica, etc.

4. Vegetation Features
Vegetation was present inside the enclosure; however, it did not provide perching sites
or shade for the animal. Thorny herbs were present inside the enclosure because of
which the animal used only certain areas to walk around. Trees present were not big
enough to become a perching site for a leopard.

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4. Retiring Area
Retiring area was cleaned every day; however, the space lacked any form of
enrichment. The animals that were not released to the paddock area were
locked inside. There was one small kraal area for this enclosure.

Plate 56: Feed provided on the floor of the retiring cell at the end of the day. Retiring cells
received sufficient sunlight and were cleaned each day in the morning

5. Socio-ecology and Behaviour

A pair of animal was released every day during the display time. The male was more
active and appeared better adjusted to the captive environment than the female. The
male was dominant over the female.

6. Nutrition and Feeding

Food was presented in the same manner in the retiring area six days a week in the
afternoon. There was no variation in the diet.
Table 12 Enrichments options for leopard
Enrichment Types Species-typical behaviour
targeted
1. Feeding Hanging meat Increase activity & foraging time
Enrichment
2. Sensory Scent trails – peppermint, Elicit exploratory behaviour
Enrichment lavender and blood
Introduction of live fish inside Keep the animals active and busy
the pool

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 3. Manipulable Pebble rattler Increase play behaviour and keep
Enrichment the animals occupied
Log perches Perch and to use for marking
Platform Alternate place to perch and feed
Logs Increase play behaviour
4. Environment Overhead shade Equitable usage of space due to
Enrichment presence of proper shade area
Visual Barrier Increase equitable usage of
enclosure space provided. Create
window from where animals could
be viewed
5. Social Letting the animal stay singly Changes in the activity pattern of
Enrichment inside the enclosure the animal

Testing the Efficacy of Enrichments Introduced

Hanging meat: To hang small chunks of

meat at different elevated points inside the
enclosure.

For our study a kilogram of mutton with bone

was brought everyday as feeding enrichment.
At least three pieces were cut from the meat
and hung from tree branches and upright logs
using coir or jute rope.

Findings:
a. Activity increased for the male and
Plate 57: Meat being hung on a tree inside
prompted him to climb trees and logs
the enclosure
where the meat pieces were hung.
b. Care need to be taken that the bones/left-over are cleaned before the animals
are release again for exhibit.

Log Perches & Platform: Furniture to perch, feed and rest on.

a. Log perches

Wooden logs big enough for the animals to rest were put up as perches at different
locations inside the enclosure. Cut logs were laid horizontally on two bifurcated logs at
each end, erected from the ground at a height of about 1.5 m and 1.2 m. 1/3 of the
erected logs length was buried into the ground to make sure they stay firmly erect. Iron
nails were avoided to reduce chances of injury, ropes were used to fasten the logs
together.

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Plate 58: Leopard showing new activity such as climbing up on trees and perching after
enrichments were introduced inside the enclosure

Plate 59: Log perches being constructed

The perches were made in such a way that the animal could easily jump up and rest
comfortably on it. Both the perches also had connectivity to the neighbouring tree such
that if the animals chose to, they could jump or lean on the branches of the tree.

85
 Plate 60: New tree log perches introduced inside the enclosure located at different zones
b. Platform
A platform of approximately 1.2 m height was constructed out of logs beside the pool
and under a tree to provide an elevated space where the animals could lay down to
rest, sit or feed. It was also made with the idea of providing an alternative withdrawal
area, especially for the female since it was close to the corner where she sat.

Bifurcated logs smaller than those used for perches, were erected at four corners at
about 1m x 1.2 m dimension. Smaller logs were laid horizontally on the forked erected
logs on two sides as a frame. Then Logs were laid across these one after the other
with the help of coir ropes to create an elevated resting place.

Plate 61: Setting up of platform

Findings:
a. The male leopard was observed to use all the furniture put up. He was
constantly seen resting, rubbing his neck and head on them.
b. The platform and log perch next to it was especially used as a means of
reaching up for the meat suspended from the nearby tree.
c. Care need to be taken that metal wires or the iron nails do not get exposed
and that the perch/platform does not get wobbly. A routine maintenance check
is required.

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 d. Furniture should preferably be put up in such area where the visitors can view
the animal while at the same time the animal gets some distance and
seclusion.

Plate 62: Interaction with platform where the leopard performed various activities. The
leopard jumped on it, sat and rubbed itself on its surface.

Plate 63: Leopard interaction with log perches located at different zones of the enclosure. It
often sat atop and rubbed its head on the log

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 Plate 64: Interaction with various enrichments. The leopard used the log perch and platform to
reach out for a meat piece hanging on the tree

Logs: As toys/substrate to play,

scratch or rub on.
a. Tree logs were randomly placed or
leaned along vertical surfaces
throughout the enclosure. They
were especially used to spray
scents inside the enclosure and
short stump logs were laced as
Plate 65: Logs at different zones of the enclosure toys for the animals to play with.

Findings:
a. Logs were used as a means to show many natural behaviour of the animal
such as scent marking, scratching, etc.

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 b. Smaller logs such as stump or cut block were observed used as toys to play
with.
c. Care need to be taken that the logs provided especially those used as toys
are free from splinters to avoid injury.

Scent Trail: Sensory enrichment

Scent marked on trees and logs as well as scent trail across the enclosure during the
enrichment study. Lavender and peppermint oil were used for two days while blood
trail was used for a day for the experiment.

Findings:
a. Not much change in behaviour could be observed while the lavender and
peppermint oil were used.
b. The male leopard was observed to follow blood trail across the enclosure and
was seen sniffing on those areas scented with blood.

Live Fish: Sensory enrichment

The pool present inside the enclosure was cleaned and water was changed. Then ten
Golden Carps were introduced a day before the post-enrichment study started. These
carps were chosen since they are surface dwellers and have striking colour. The carps
were caught and brought from the zoo aquarium pool and it took them time to adjust
with their new environment.

Plate 66: Releasing carps inside the pool

Findings:
a. This enrichment did not elicit a positive response from the animals. The possible
explanations are:

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 1. We released only 10 carps in the pool and the number was small when
compared to the size of the pool.
2. The depth of the pool was more than 1.5 m and it had vertical sides
making it difficult for the animal to use the pool.
3. Study was conducted before the fishes could acclimatize with the new
environment since they were mostly found together in one corner.
b. The above given points should be considered for any future enrichment of this
type.
c. Care should be taken while considering the type of fish species to be used.

Pebble Rattler: Toy to keep the animal occupied

A wooden box of about 30x30x30 cm3 was taken which had few pebbles to make
noise as a rattler. The box was then wrapped with layers of Hessian cloths to minimize
the impact of the getting hit by the box especially its edges. It was then attached to coir
rope and hung from a tree. This prototype was planned to elicit play behaviour of the
animal and to increase their activity.

Plate 67: Setting up pebble rattler

Findings:

a. Interest of the animal waned quickly since its claws get stuck to the Hessian
cloth used to wrap the box.
b. However, presence of food reward ignited the interest again. This means the
enrichment device is most effective only with the presence of something to
feed on.
c. Change of enrichment device material could increase the interest level of the
animal.

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 Plate 68: Manipulable enrichment Plate 69: Leopard interaction with pebble
pebble rattler hanging from a tree rattler

Overhead Shade: To balance out the unequal use of space inside the enclosure due
to absence of adequate shaded areas.

Green agro-net was used to provide shade over a select portion of the enclosure which
otherwise was too sunny for the animals during the day. An area of about 30x20 m 2
was covered on the wire mesh overhead.

Plate 70: Agro-net on the top of the wire mesh leopard enclosure

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 Findings:
a. The area where the agro-net was put up was decided based on the direction
of the sun and the area that lacked shade.
b. This provided an option for the animals to use the enclosure though no much
change could be observed during the study period.

Visual Barrier:
Visual barriers of at least two meter high was created using mats made of dried palm
tree leaves at some of the viewing sides of the enclosure. The view to the kraal area
was also closed using these mats. Only the proximal side of the enclosure was left
open for the visitors.

Plate 71: Visual barrier made of palm leaves at one side of the enclosure

Findings:
a. Viewing area of the enclosure was reduced and visitor crowding at almost the
entire periphery of the enclosure was controlled.
b. No major behaviour change could be observed during the study period
however, it helped in providing some seclusion and withdrawal area for the
animal.
c. More permanent and naturalistic barriers could be planned.

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Summary
Enrichment of leopard enclosure at Arignar Anna Zoological Park showed the
possibilities and difficulties of planning, executing and assessing various ideas of
enrichment on ground. Response to enrichments items by the individual animal was
totally different though they were kept in same captive environmental conditions.
Besides knowing the biology of the animal, getting to know its history and personality is
important especial for solitary or individuals bin a small group of animals for successful
enrichment interventions.

Enrichment plan and action should be based on the structural design of the enclosure
and need of the animal present. Material required should also be locally and readily
available. The enrichment planned for our study was in an experimental mode;
however, other enrichments can also be tested and an enrichment plan based on the
response received by the animals developed for use at the zoo.

1. Problem identification is a very important step that should precede every

enrichment intervention.
2. Enrichments and scientific management practices reduced the level of
aberrant behaviour to some extent.
3. Any enrichment that promises food reward at the end is the biggest motivation
for the study subjects. Therefore, more reward based enrichment approach
could be incorporated in future plans.
4. Manipulable enrichments which are not food reward based work well only for
short durations and therefore these kinds of enrichment should be constantly
changed or incorporated a least with food scent on them.
5. The sensory enrichment provided received poor response from the animals;
however, since it was tested only on two individuals with very diverse
background history it would be too early to assume that it failed.
6. Food based enrichments caused positive changes in the activity and
behaviour patterns of the animals studied.
7. Enrichments should be planned according to individual needs of the animals
especially that of solitary species or different individuals in a group living
species and the status-quo between con-specifics should be maintained.
8. Since individual personalities differ, responses to enrichment could also be
completely different as in case of our study subjects.
9. Enrichment interventions should not lead to undue stress and aggression
between conspecifics.
10. No enrichment plan or design is perfect or fixed for specific species and there
should always be a scope of improving or improvising it. There has to be a
constant change and innovation.

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 Ursids: Essential
Environmental Enrichments

Chapter 6
for Asiatic Black Bear
The family Ursidae is represented by eight species of bears found all over the
world inhabiting diverse habitats apart from Australia, Antarctica, and Africa.
India is home to four of these, which includes the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos),
Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus), Malayan Sun Bear (Ursus malayanus)
and the Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus). Ursids make for attractive exhibits in
zoos and attract visitors by their activity patterns. Enclosure assessments for
studying the existing housing and enclosure enrichment practices in Indian
zoos were carried out for two identified ursids i.e. Sloth bear and Asiatic black
bear. Based on this study an enrichment plan for ursids in Indian zoos was
developed using Asiatic black bear enclosure at M.C. Zoological Park Chatbir
as a study site.

Animal Biology and Behavioural Ecology

Asiatic Black Bears prefer to dwell in heavily forested
mountainous areas. These bears are also seen in moist
tropical forests. Sometimes these bears might be found
residing at elevations above 4,300m. However, U.
thibetanus will climb down to lower altitudes as the
weather gets colder. The Black bears are often found
foraging in open alpine meadows. Primary diet of Asiatic
black bear includes, vegetation, insects, and fruits in
summer. In autumn, they like to feed on nuts. In some
areas meat from mammalian ungulates also forms a large
portion of their diet, whereas in other areas the species
feeds on livestock like goat, sheep and cattle. Black bears
like to den on flat surface. During a study done on the Min
Mountains of China it was found that the Home ranges of
Asiatic Black Bears varied widely from 3.9-96km2 for
Plate 72: Asiatic black bear resting on an females and 3.2-123km2 for males.
artificial kumadana(platform) at Mysore
Zoo

94
In some of the temperate forests, the black bears tend to consume hard mast in order
to accumulate sufficient fat reserves for the winter months. Sometimes the males might
even exclude females from rich stands of hard mast. Asiatic Black Bears also use
regenerating forest that have a high production of berries. The black bears raid
cultivated areas like corn plantations, fruit orchards. The bears are known to den in
rock crevices, hollow tree and tree stumps, while dug-out earthen dens are preferred
for hibernation.

Table 13 Life history traits of Asiatic black bear

Age at first reproduction 4 years
Estrous cycle NA
Weaning age Infants stay with mother until 2 years of age
Inter-birth interval 2 years
lifespan 30 years
Mating season June-July
Mating system Promiscuous

The sows generally have their first litter at the age of 3 years and the average litter size
1-2 cubs. The cubs are born blind after a gestation period of 200-240 days. The sows
give birth in caves or hollows of trees. The cubs can see properly from the 3 rd day and
they start walking from the 4th day.

Behaviour and Social Organization

Very little is known about the behaviour of the Asiatic Black Bears in wild. It has been
seen that Asiatic Black Bears are usually solitary. Only mothers with off-springs till they
are sub-adults are known to move around in groups. Although Asiatic Black Bears are
usually diurnal, in some areas they have become nocturnal to avoid interaction with
humans.

Studies on activity patterns of Asiatic Black Bears suggest that like all other tropical
bears, they remain active throughout the year. However, in temperate zones they may
hibernate during winters. They start collecting nest material from mid-October and go
to hibernate from November until March. It has been seen that barren female black
bears come out of hibernation earlier than those with offspring.

Black bears have a rhythmic motion and they move in a sure-footed way. While
running, they can reach top speeds of 40-50kmph; however, they can maintain their
top speed only for short sprints. They are excellent climbers and sometimes they make
rudimentary nests on the trees to rest and feed. In addition to that, they are known to
be highly dexterous, they can open screw-top jars with their forelegs. These animals

95
 have immense strength in their forelegs. They have a keen sense of sight and they can
easily distinguish between differently shaped objects.

Food and Feeding Behaviour

Before considering the diet of Asiatic black bear, we must understand the dentition and
cranial morphology of ursids. Sun bears, Andean Bears, Asiatic and American Black
bears are omnivorous in nature compared to Brown and Polar Bear (carnivores), Giant
Panda (herbivore), and Sloth Bear (insectivore). As evident from the size of lower
molars (which is used to masticate vegetation); is smallest for the Polar bear, brown
bear and sloth bears because of the lack of vegetation in their diet. Giant panda has
the biggest lower molars followed by the Asiatic Black bear, suggesting that vegetation
forms a large part of its diet. The distinguishing cranio-dental feature of the omnivorous
bears include blade like canines (weak against lateral forces exerted by a struggling
prey) and powerful jaw muscles. The blade-like canines is similar to canids, which take
short shallow bites of the prey. The powerful Masseter muscles are similar to felids
with huge bite forces that hold their prey down for a longer time, so ideally the
omnivorous bears should have more rounded canines to be efficient hunters ( i.e. to
hunt prey larger than their body size). Furthermore, the killing behaviour of Black bears
does not consist of deep bite wounds on preys, therefore the large masseter muscles
are probably used to process the large amount of vegetation consumed by these
omnivores on a daily basis.

Studies on the feeding ecology of Asiatic Black Bear in the Dachigam National Park in
Jammu and Kashmir, India and Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttaranchal, India
suggest that they are omnivores; however, the food of choice consists of acorns, fruits,
nuts, honey, and roots. The diet also includes of termites, beetles and larvae. The diet
depends on the season as well as the availability of food. During autumn they feed on
acorns, chestnuts, walnuts etc. spring is the time to feed on bamboo, raspberry,
hydrangea etc. During summer, they feed on raspberries, cherries, grasses etc. They
are also known to attack and feed on livestock and cattle.

In Thailand the Asiatic Black Bear is known to feed on more than 160 species of tree-
borne fruits. In China, they shift from leafy material in the summer diet, to fleshy fruits
and then to fat-rich fruits before hibernation. In the Dachigam National Park of India,
they show a similar shift in diet preferences. Similarly in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary
they consume fruits with high sugar-content in summer and autumn. They play an
important role in germination of seeds of (S. theifolia), it appears that feeding by the
mean length of dormancy of the seeds is reduced and germination rate is increased.

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Reproductive Behaviour
The Asiatic Black Bears usually breed during the months of June-July and they give
birth between November–March. The adult male black bears show the greatest
movement during the breeding season. The lifespan in captivity can be around 30
years but survival is lower in the wild. The offspring remains with the mother until they
are 2 years old and after that, they start out on their own. Pregnant Asiatic Black Bears
often reject food.

Minimum Welfare Requirements of the Species in Captivity

Housing Features
Findings from Literature Review
1. Social Grouping: In captivity, bears are often housed in groups, which might
induce conflicts. Housing same sex individuals in a confined enclosure often
leads to a higher amount of stress in the subordinate individuals.
2. Space Constraints: Captive environment limits their movement, and fails to
give them necessary stimulation to stoke their curiosity.
3. Climbing and Other Activities: Captive environment restrict natural
behavioural traits such as climbing, digging, burrowing, swimming and various
other activities. Even if an enclosure provides climbing opportunities to
animals, the provision of processed food in retiring cells inhibits the motivation
for performing such tasks.
4. Food: In the wild bears forage on wild berries, insects, carrion, birds, eggs,
tubers and various other food items spending a significant portion of their daily
activity budget on finding preferred food items to meet their energetic
requirements. In a captive environment, bears are fed cooked food items with
high carbohydrate content. The animals eat most of the food items within a
short time and stay inactive for rest of the day. This leads to a higher incidence
of obesity-related diseases in zoo animals.
5. Inappropriate Retiring Cells: Asiatic black bears are large animals that
require night shelters/retiring cubicles bigger than that provided in most zoos.
Lack of ventilation and lighting may lead to pathogen build-up. The design of
most retiring cubicles limits vertical and movement and has limited space for
movement.

FINDINGS FROM ENCLOSURE EVALUATION

The assessment of the housing and enclosure enrichment practices practiced at
Mahendra Chaudhary Zoological Park Chatbir (MCZP) are summarized below:

97
 Housing and Enrichment Conditions at MCZP
The MCZP exhibit for Asiatic Black Bear is around 1782m2 in area and covered grassy
vegetation. The enclosure houses a heterosexual pair of Asiatic black bears and has
the following attributes.

Plate 73: Asiatic black bear exhibit at MCZP

Visitor Viewing Area

The viewing area at MCZP is continuous and provides unhindered view to the visitors.
Therefore, the animals have very little withdrawal space and have to utilize the moat to
stay away from the visitors.

Plate 74: Existing enclosure schematic plan

98
Enclosure Design
Asiatic black bears are known to climb trees in the wild and forage on fruits and
stingless beehives. The enclosure at MCZP has an open-air dry moat design that
promotes animal movement and space use.

Vegetation
The vegetation at the Asiatic black bear enclosure provides refuge to insects and
therefore they might be helping the animals acquire supplementary protein which is
absent from the zoo-diet; however, the lack of stratification due to absence of trees and
shrubs hinders the animals from displaying their full scope of natural behaviour
repertoire.

Furniture and Enrichment

Enriching ursid exhibits has often led to a large (upto 80%) decrease in stereotypies.
Furniture present in the enclosure included a ramp, a sprinkler and a pool. The lack of
species-specific furnishing and enrichment devices imparts an unnatural look to the
exhibit and is reflected in the level of stereotypy displayed by the animals. Four ice-
blocks are provided at the retiring cells for each animal every day; however, the retiring
cells are small (present dimensions 3mLX2mBX3mH).

Nutrition
The food provided to the black bears at MCZP has some resemblance to the natural
diet of the species; however, the diet also included a large proportion of processed
food. These processed food products are a high source of gluten and can be harmful
to the animals. The diet provided at MCZP is compared to the natural diet in the table
below.
Table 14 Diet of Asiatic black bear at MCZP
Zoo Diet Quantity Wild Diet Comments
Maize roti 250gms Berries 250gms
Milk 500gms Nuts 500gms substitute for
hard mast
Bread 200gms Corns 500gms
Apple 300gms Apple Increase quantity may
substitute soft mast
Banana or 3/1 Banana is a tropical fruit which is
Papaya not usually found in Black bear
habitats the zoo might consider
replacing it with some other fruit
from the range of black bears
Sweet 100gms
Carrot (Nov-March)
Khichdi 1kg Needs to be changed
(Rice:
mungi=1:1)
Honey 100gm (Only Novel delivery methods should
during winter) be devised

99
 Conclusions from Enclosure Assessments
Based on the enclosure evaluation studies conducted at MCZP we found that the
median and proximal zones of the exhibit were least utilized by the animals throughout
the day and we can encourage more species-typical behaviours by enriching the
underutilized portions of the exhibit. The enrichment plan will try to provide the animals
with stimuli that promote species typical behaviours.

Plate 75: Proposed enrichment plan at MCZP exhibit

1. The male shows more stereotypy than the female throughout the day (even
after feeding) therefore it requires special attention.
2. The female shows more foraging behaviour than the male and the behaviour
peaks at early morning. The foraging peaks of the two animals never coincide.
3. The female shows more activity at the beginning of the day while the male
shows a heightened activity at the latter part of the day.

Table 15 Enrichment options for Asiatic black bear

Enrichment Enrichment Materials required Location Species-typical
Device type behaviour
Targeted
Artificial Den Permanent Concrete tube (diameter 2m Area 9a, Resting,
fixture and length 4m) the concrete withdrawal area,
provides tube will be covered on top shelter from
shelter with soil and logs to give it a inclement
natural look and the den will weather
be oriented with both ends
facing the visitor area so that
the visitors may be able to
see the animals when they
are resting.
Boulder Permanent Big boulder dome shaped A boulder Resting,
placed next fixture with an irregular surface at placed next to thermoregulatio
to the least 2m in height and 3m the sprinkler will n and foraging
sprinkler base diameter provide micro-

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Enrichment Enrichment Materials required Location Species-typical
Device type behaviour
Targeted
climatic
variations in the
enclosure
providing
alternate areas
to rest for the
animals. The
boulder will also
encourage
growth of insect
colonies and
enhance
foraging
opportunities in
the exhibit
Separate Permanent Height 2m and width 1.5m. The separate Easier to
entry to the fixture, The door will be placed entry point will implement
enclosure sensory above the moat near area 7a help zoo enrichments
enrichment and entry into the enclosure keepers enter with a separate
will be through a retractable and exit the entry point.
ladder, which will reduce enclosure with
wear and tear on the door enrichment
items and food
for the animals
Pitfall feeder Feeding 2ft pvc pipe of diameter of 10 2a, 3a, 8a Foraging and
enrichment, inches placed at different exploratory
manipulable zones of the exhibit and behaviour
enrichment loaded with enrichment
items like eggs, raisins, nuts
etc.
Wobble tree Feeding and 20ft tall log with 6 ft 6a Foraging
Manipulable underground and 14ft on the
enrichment surface. The log should have
bark on it and a basket of
diameter 1ft with holes on all
four sides big enough to let
nuts and raisins fall to the
ground when the log shakes.
Will need to be loaded at the
beginning of the day
Hessian Feeding and Six hessian bags with hay 7a , 3a These upright
bags manipulable and food hidden inside will logs will help the
enrichment be provided each day to the bears scratch
animals. Extra hessian bags with their claws,
will be provided with hay and rub their backs
no food inside. While some against the log
of the hessian bags will be and get rid of
placed on the ground, some ectoparasites.
will be placed on top of
upright logs so that animals
have to climb up to access
these enrichment devices.
Some of the hessian bags
will be buried underground to
promote digging and
foraging behaviour.
Upright logs Manipulable Four logs will be placed The animals can

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 Enrichment Enrichment Materials required Location Species-typical
Device type behaviour
Targeted
and feeding adjacent to each other and scratch against
enrichment tied so that the bears can the logs, climb
climb on it. Holes can be on them to
drilled on to the logs and search for food,
small treats like raisins. The The exploratory
logs should be more than nature of bears
12ft tall above the ground can be
and an additional 6ft under encouraged
the ground, with concrete on through these
the sides of the holes to upright logs
ensure stability.
Branch piles Manipulable Small logs 20-30 of them of Promotes
and feeding length 3ft and diameter 8 exploratory
enrichment inches can be used to make behaviour, play
piles at different locations behaviour etc.
and loaded with small treats
like nuts and raisins
Scratching Manipulable Single upright logs with 1a, 3a Promotes
posts and sensory rough bark will help the autogrooming
enrichment bears autogroom themselves and other
by rubbing their back on the behaviours such
logs as scratching
etc.
Feeding Managemen We have observed that the Food can be Promotes
Schedule t Practices animals do not use the provided at the enclosure
and Area paddock area after feed was medial portion of utilization. Helps
given at 1530 hours. We the exhibit animals display
strongly recommend that the more species-
food be provided at the typical
paddock area and not in the behaviours.
retiring cells. The food
should consist of natural
unprocessed food products
found in the natural habitat
of the target specie (Asiatic
black bear).
Ice blocks Sensory Ice blocks are already 6a, 9a These
and frozen enrichment, provided to the animals at enrichments will
treats contrafreelo the retiring cells, we propose help the animals
ading increasing the number of ice thermoregulate
blocks and providing them at and increase
the shelter in the paddock their foraging
area. Fruits with high time (frozen
moisture content such as treats). These
grapes and apples can be enrichments
frozen in a bucket of water should not be
and provided to the animals implemented
during Winters if
the temperature
is below 17
degree Celsius.

102
Testing the Efficacy of Enrichment Devices and their Combinations
Enrichment Devices Implemented

Plate 76: Pitfall feeders at Asiatic black bear enclosure Chatbir

1. Pitfall Feeders:
Pitfall feeders were made from steel pipes of diameter 260mm and height 920mm. The
pipe edges were smoothened so that there was minimal chance of injury for the
animals as they reached out to get the food. We placed nine pits across the proximal
and median zone of the enclosure. Each day a random set of six pits were filled up and
three were left without any food rewards. Later, as the animals started showing
preference for certain type of food items, we started a mixture of high and low
preference food items, so that the animals had to spend a longer amount of time
processing the food.

Findings:
a. Pitfall feeders were highly successful for both the individuals
b. Since the pitfall feeders were loaded at random, the animals did not know
which pit is likely to have a highly preferred food resource and therefore they
had to forage around the entire enclosure to check out all the pits.
c. The animals on an average spent at least 30 minutes of foraging time on each
of the pit feeders
d. The large distance between pits allowed animals to forage without having any
aggressive interactions between conspecifics
e. The distance between enrichment devices reduced competition for food
resources. Therefore, the older female could retreat to a different part of the
enclosure and forage on food after being displaced by the stronger male. The
spatial heterogeneity of enrichments allowed us to reduce aggression between
animals to a high degree.

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 2. Wobble Tree
The MCZP enclosure lacked vertical structures and the animals had no scope of
showing climbing behaviour. Therefore, we set up wobble trees inside the enclosure so
that the animals may get the opportunity to climb these structures. As an incentive we
attached fruits and other treats at a height of 2.5 meters from the ground. The wobble
trees had scooter tyres at the base, therefore when a bear attempted to climb the
structure it would sway a little but would never get uprooted. To facilitate climbing
behaviour we tied coir ropes to the base of the tree so that the animals could get a
good grip on the tree, even under rainy conditions.

Plate 77: Installation of wobble tree at Asiatic black bear enclosure

Findings
a. We found that the animals were using the wobble tree (manipulanda) regularly
to get food rewards.
b. Although the animals preferred to eat fruits from the pits at the beginning of the
day. However when that resource was exhausted and feeding time arrived,
instead of pacing and circling around the retiring cell, the animals started using
the wobble tree to gain access to honey feeders and other high resource value
food items.

3. Bamboo Feeder/ Honey Feeder

The bamboo feeder was constructed out of bamboo stumps and had a very
simple construction. With the help of a drilling machine and a saw we were
able to fabricate more than 20 such devices on a single day. These devices
had a stopper placed on the top that made it very difficult for animals to get
access to all the food at one go and on the other hand the bamboo feeder
could be hung from a top branch of a wobble tree to promote the climbing
behaviour of the subjects. Holes were made at the bottom of the bamboo

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 feeder so that the honey would trickle down slowly and entice the animals to
climb the structures. Sometimes we also placed bamboo feeders inside the
pits and forced the animals to use their dexterity to gain access to these food
resources. The bamboo feeders were sometimes filled with a mixture of bread,
milk, apple etc. and the animals would spend a large amount of time to get rid
of the wood stopper, which increased the food processing time.

Plate 78: Bamboo feeder setup and use by Asiatic black bear
Findings
a. The bamboo feeder successfully increased the food processing time of the
male black bear.
b. The male was agile and under normal circumstances finished food resources
faster than the female. Therefore the female might suffer due to her slow

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 speed. In order to slow the male black bear down and stop him from
consuming all the enrichment items, we placed these bamboo feeders. Once
the male started using the bamboo feeder, it was stuck at one location while
the female could forage around the enclosure.
c. Usually we found that the bamboo feeder acted as a toy for the Asiatic black
bear male as it was frequently found playing with empty feeders for long
intervals.

4. Hanging Fruit

We used covered and uncovered fruits and vegetables to create a treat for the
animals. Since fruits are usually found on trees, we promoted natural behaviours like
climbing by providing feeding enrichments on a log.

Plate 79: Closed type hanging fruit Plate 80: Open type hanging fruit

Open type: The open type of hanging fruit enrichments were used during the first part
of the study to sensitize animals to the presence of enrichment devices. Later on we
found that the open type of hanging fruit enrichment reduced the foraging time.

Plate Asiatic black bear foraging on hanging fruits

Plate 81: Asiatic black bear foraging on hanging fruits

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Closed type: The closed type of feeding enrichment included small sections of gunny
bags with compartmentalized sections with fruits in them. These compartments were
independent of each other. Therefore even though animals gained access to one
compartment they could not access the others right away. It took multiple attempts by
both the animals to finish the closed type hanging fruit enrichments.

Findings
a. The two Asiatic black bears at MCZP were very different from one another.
One was a young male that was very agile and curious about its surroundings
and it also showed a lot of displacement behaviour. The other animal was a
partially blind older female that did not display any aberrant behaviour and
rested for most of the time. The hanging fruits enrichment was designed to lure
the young male so that it can vent off some of its energy in performing
exercises.
b. Since both the animals had distinct food preferences, we loaded only food
items highly-preferred by the male so that only he will find it frugal to spend
such a high amount of energy for small food rewards.
c. By making it very difficult for the male to get at enrichments we ensured that
the slow-moving female had enough time to get to the easily obtainable food
resources.

5. Honey Lick
The honey licks were used as olfactory stimuli to incite the senses of the
animals. We used 100ml of honey mixed with 200ml of water and a paint
brush to make scent trails leading to enrichments and coat less-preferred food
items in order to make them more enticing to the animals. The purpose of the
honey lick was two-fold.

Plate 82: Sensory enrichment being utilized by Asiatic black bear

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 a. It acted as a sensory enrichment, which allowed the animals to track down
food using their acute olfactory capabilities.
b. The honey lick also helped us trick the animals so that they would spend a lot
of time looking for food at certain locations, where there was none and thereby
increase their foraging time.
Findings
a. The honey licks proved highly effective in luring the animals to novel
enrichment devices.
b. The smell of these enrichment interventions were highly effective in attracting
animals toward other enrichment devices.

6. Ice Blocks and Shelter

Asiatic black bears are found in temperate habitats and therefore require a cool climate
to maintain homeostasis. The MCZP zoo is outside the distribution range of the
species; however, the zoo provided ice blocks to help animals to thermoregulate. The
enclosure lacked vertical features and apart from the moat the animals had limited

Plate 83: Ice blocks and shelter provide opportunity for thermoregulation to Asiatic black bears

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access to shade. Therefore we setup up an impromptu shelter using agronet sheets
sewn together and attached to the retiring house on one side and logs on the other
side of the enclosure. Although these shades looked unnatural, they provided a
shaded cooler area for the animals. Additionally; we wrapped two ice blocks in gunny
bags and placed them under the shed. The gunny bags helped reduce the rate at
which the ice was melting and provided the animals with a cool place to rest.

7. Manipulanda
Manipulable enrichment devices are an integral part of an enrichment plan. These
devices provide the structure and complexity to increase the activity levels of the
animals. These manipulable enrichment devices or manipulanda can be used in
harmony with other feeding and sensory enrichments and provide a nice platform for
complexity design. The manipulable devices inside the enclosure included the
following
1. Upright logs:
2. Moving branch with food items
3. Wobble tree
We have already discussed the wobble tree in detail. The upright logs provided vertical
features inside the enclosure and therefore afforded the bears with the opportunity to
show climbing and foraging behaviour. Apart from their obvious functional features,
these logs also improved the aesthetics of the enclosure. We knew that the fresh
upright logs would be debarked soon; therefore three layers of coir ropes were wound
from the base upwards, to provide a better grip for the animals.

Plate 84: Hanging food items on manipulable enrichments being utilized by Asiatic black bear
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 8. Hessian Bags
The Hessian bags were filled with grass and some tasty treats such as whole apples,
cucumbers and corn cobs. The animals had to tear apart the bag to get through to the
food inside. This was our
experiment in using
contrafreeloading techniques to
make animals work for their food.
The gunny bags were filled with
fresh grass every day and kept at
different locations of the
enclosure.

Findings
We discovered that the hessian
bags were not very successful as
the animals often ignored the
Plate 85: Asiatic black bear using a manipulable hessian enrichment item. Other problems
bag with hidden treats
encountered include the following:
a. There was a remote possibility that the animals would ingest the jute fibres.
We soaked the bags in water overnight get rid of chemical residues but the
concern remains. However we never found the animals consuming the jute
fibres.
b. The grass was gathered from outside the enclosure and therefore could carry
pathogens that might lead to diseases.
c. Most of the food items in the hessian bags were left undiscovered and there
was a lot of wastage as well.

Due to the safety concerns associated with hessian bags, we discontinued the
enrichment device after two implementation attempts.

Table 16 Efficacy of enrichment intervention at Asiatic black bear enclosure

Pre – enrichment Modified enclosure Needs addressed Efficacy of
feature feature enrichment post
enrichment study
Lack of novelty in New enrichment Boredom and lack of The animals started
the enclosure devices opportunity to perform showing diverse
environment implemented instinctive behaviour behaviour repertoire
mitigated
Enclosure space All enclosure zones The animals could now The daily movement
unevenly utilized were provided with forage and move of the animals
feeding and sensory through the enclosure increased. All
enrichments in search for treats enclosure zones
equally utilized

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 Pre – enrichment Modified enclosure Needs addressed Efficacy of
feature feature enrichment post
enrichment study
Animals show a Enrichments were Animals had to move
high preference placed at distal, through all parts of the
for distal areas median and the enclosure to use
proximal zone enrichment devices
Animals display Most of the aberrant The complexity of the The level of
aberrant behaviours were a paddock area was stereotypical
behaviour part of the increased to provide aberrant behaviour
patterns displacement activity equal opportunities for significantly
shown by the the animals to display decreased
animals as they species-typical
wanted to move into behaviour patterns
the retiring cell from
the paddock area

Summary
To summarize we can draw the following conclusions from our observations
1. Enrichments and scientific management practices effectively reduced the
level of aberrant/repetitive behaviours in the study subjects
2. Food is the biggest motivation for the study subjects and therefore all
enrichments were designed based on a reward-based positive reinforcement
approach to make the animals spend more energy to get miniscule food
rewards.
3. The enrichment plan worked perfectly for the first few days, but ursids being
intelligent at problem solving started to notice the pattern. So we constantly
changed the location of certain preferred food items across the enclosure.
Therefore ensuring that the animals had to visit all the possible foraging sites
in order to get their choice of food items.
4. At each of the pits, we put a mix of foods with high processing time and low
processing time. This ensured that the animals could not move through all the
enrichment items very fast. The complexity of the food items forced the
animals to spend significant amount of time on each enrichment.
5. Therefore, we realized that enrichments need to be individual-centric and
should also look at the status-quo between enclosure mates. Enrichment
interventions should not lead to undue stress and aggression between them.
6. The enrichment intervention performed at MCZP Asiatic black bear enclosure
supports the theory that enclosure enrichment interventions have to be made
at the individual level. The personality of the animal concerned and the
location of the enclosure should be taken into consideration before drawing up
enrichment plans.
7. Problem identification is a very important step that should precede every
enrichment intervention.

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 Small Mammals: Essential
Environmental Enrichment

Chapter 7
for Red Panda

Animal Biology and Behavioural Ecology

Plate 86: Red Panda at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park

Red pandas were the first animals to be called Pandas and considered a part of the
bear family. However, now they are the only members of the Ailuridae family, which
makes them a group of special interest to zoologists. The Red panda is a small
arboreal mammal that is native to the eastern Himalayas and parts of South-western
China. There are two known subspecies of red panda, viz. Ailurus fulgen fulgens and
Ailurus fulgens styani, while the first subspecies is found in the Himalayas the latter is
distributed in South and Central China. They lead an arboreal lifestyle and they prefer

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to live in broad-leaf deciduous and subalpine forests. Although red panda is included
under the order Carnivora, its diet primarily consists of bamboo shoots and leaves.

Red pandas have striking red coats and usually reddish brown tear marks are present
from the eyes to the corner of the mouth. The colour of the coat becomes more
prominent during the winters when it takes a reddish tinge and thickens. They grow up
to a length of around 55-63 cm and their tail is about 47 cm long. On an average the
males weigh 6.2 kg and the females weigh somewhere around 6 kg. They have long
and soft reddish-brown fur on the upper parts of their body and the fur is dark black on
the lower side. The face is light with tear markings, upright pointed ears, black nose
and pitch black eyes. The legs are black with thick fur on the soles of the paws that
allows movement over thick snow. The red panda is a bamboo feeder and it has
strong, curved semi-retractile claws. The head is rounded, rostrum shortened, ears are
pointy large and erect. The tail is not prehensile and has 12 alternate red and buff
coloured rings on it. The body is covered with long, coarse guard hairs with a woolly
undercoat.

Table 17 Morphometry of Red panda

Body mass 3.7-6.2 kg (Male), 4.2-6.0 kg (Female)
Head-body length 560-625mm
Tail length 370-472mm

Life Cycle
The Red panda become sexually mature at the age of 18 months. The mating season
is in winter, this is the time when solitary individuals seek out mates and copulate. The
mating takes place on the ground and after a gestation period of about 134 days the
neonates are born. The new-borns are blind for the first 18 days and for the first year of
their life they remain with their mothers.

Table 18 Life history traits of Red panda

Life span 8-10 years wild
Mating Season January-February
Estrus cycle 26-44 days , estrus duration 1-14 days
Age at First Birth NA
Litter Size 1-4
Inter-birth interval 365 days
Weaning period 90 days
Weight at birth 110-130 gm

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 Behaviour and Social Organization
They are solitary creatures and show a crepuscular activity pattern. The animal moves
with a slow cross extension gait. It usually trots when moving faster. The long tail is
used for balance while moving from one tree to the other. The animals descend from
the trees headfirst. They exhibit auto-grooming behaviours like licking the body, limbs
and wash their face with the paw. The even rub and scratch their bodies against rocks
and tree stumps.

The activity pattern of the animal in captivity changes drastically as a response to

temperature, feeding regimes and in the presence of young. The animals primarily
forage on the ground but are scansorial in nature. The animals can sleep on trees by
straddling the branches or by curling up with the head tucked between the hind legs.
The sleeping posture is determined by the ambient temperature. Mother and infants
are frequently seen sleeping in close proximity to one another.

Some of the most commonly seen comfort behaviours seen in the animal includes face
washing by one paw, self-licking, stretching and rubbing the back or the abdomen.
Scent-marking is done by the deposition of urine, faeces and secretions of the anal
and circum-anal glands; males are known to mark with more frequency than females.
They use visual displays to interact with conspecifics. The intraspecific interactions
include arching of the tail and the back and emitting huffing and puffing noises from a
lowered head. Sometime the animal might take a bipedal posture to intimidate the
opponent. Staring is one of the most commonly used aggressive behaviour that occurs
in case the distances between individuals is more. Other than the aggressive
behaviours the red pandas also display olfactory examination behaviour towards
conspecific, which include naso-naso, naso-face, naso-torso, naso-flank, as well as
naso-anal contact.

Food and Feeding Behaviour

The preferred food is young bamboo leaves in Singalila National Park, India. The
leaves of A. maling and A. arisata formed the primary food items for the red panda as
well as fruits of A. strigosa and bamboo shoots in the temperate zone. They are also
reported to feed on fruits, shoots, succulent grasses, acorns, bird eggs, insects and
grubs. On an average, an adult can feed on 200,000 bamboo leaves in a single day.
The Red panda is the only non-primate that can taste artificial sweeteners like
aspartame.

The animal eats by grabbing food items with a single forepaw and bringing it back to
the mouth. The plant matters are inserted on the side of the mouth. The food items are
sheared and chewed extensively before being swallowed.

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Reproductive Behaviour
The frequency of scent-markings increases during the mating season and the female
invites the male to mount. Copulation takes place on the ground. Males and females
mate with multiple partners during the mating season. At the onset of the mating
season, the males and females rest and move in close proximity to one another.
Female pre-copulatory behaviour includes frequent scent marking and tail flicking.
Copulation last 3-39 minutes and the males might lick the necks and shoulders of the
female; there is however no neck biting involved.

Minimum Welfare Requirements of the Species in Captivity

Findings from Literature Review
Eriksson and others in 2010 did a comparative study on the existing husbandry
practices of Red Panda in the zoos all over the world. The findings from these studies
were used to develop recommendations on enclosure characteristics of red panda.

Enclosure Size: Field studies have established that the estimated home range of Red
Panda in wild is 980m2 – 3,300m2. Based on this Glatston in 1989 proposed that the
minimum size of a red panda enclosure should be 80m2 for a single animal. However;
since a small enclosure requires more enrichment features like nest boxes, resting
places and feeding stations and the animals housed have to cope with public
disturbance to a greater degree. It is therefore suggested to have a large enclosure
with optimum opportunities for the animal to cope with captivity.

Social Grouping: Tennessen in 1989, suggested that enclosure space along with
social environment with groups, population size and stocking density is important for
successive management. A study on reproductive success of red pandas in different
constellations like monogamy, polygamy and polyandry revealed that females living in
a polyandrous constellation have the least reproductive success, as females in
polyandrous constellation had higher amount of estradiol metabolites. Similar studies
also found that polygamy reduces reproductive success of captive specimens. It was
also found that home ranges of the species overlap in the wild irrespective of their
genders, which means that the animals are to an extent tolerant of each other.

Enclosure space in absence of appropriate social structure of the animals housed may
therefore be inadequate in ensuring their welfare.

Outside Disturbance: Glatston in 1989 suggested that Red Panda enclosures

should be at least 50m away from that of large carnivores and visitor access should be
restricted to one or two sides of the enclosure. Studies on captive animals have
revealed that feeling the loss of control is one of the major stressors for captive

115
 animals therefore in captivity animals can’t influence the outcome of most situations
and thus develop a learned hopelessness. Studies found that Red Pandas only
selected areas with good canopy cover for resting and activity. A complex environment
with novelty will thus help the animals feel in control.

Vegetation: The vegetation inside the red panda enclosure plays a very important role
in determining animal welfare. A naturalistic environment elicits natural behaviour so
there should be ample trees in the enclosure where the animals can climb forage and
show natural behaviours. In the wild red pandas are often seen utilizing microhabitats
like fallen logs and tress stumps. The animals walk on fallen logs and tree stumps to
gain access to bamboo. In this regard, PNHZP provide ample opportunities for the
animals to show their natural behaviour. However one should remember that proper
placement of the tree stumps and logs is important to maintain the novelty of the
enclosure. At PNHZP the logs positioning is changed every few months to increase the
complexity of the environment.

Water Bodies: Red pandas are good swimmers yet, none of the enclosures have
water bodies for the animals. Pradhan and co-workers (2001) discovered more than
79% of animal sites in close proximity to water. Researchers are of the opinion that
they seldom stay more than 250m away from water. Thus water bodies should be
incorporated in the enclosure design. Heating systems should be installed in the
retiring cells so that the animals are provided with a range of temperature gradients.

Climbing Structures: Red pandas are arboreal mammals and spend most of their
daily activity periods on perches. Therefore it is imperative that the enclosure should
have good amount of interconnected vertical structures for the animal to show its
natural behaviour. Studies of captive animals have revealed that the highest climbing
structure in the enclosure should have a minimum height of 4m.

Table 19 CZA Guidelines for housing Red Panda

Bears/Civets/ U-shaped/V-shaped dry U-shaped/ V-shaped The steel plate
Lesser cats moats on the visitor side dry moats or high should be placed
smooth walls, or at an angle of 600
chain link fence of
4m height with 1m
steel plate inclined
inward

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Findings from Enclosure Evaluation
Existing Enclosure Condition at PNHZP Enclosure

Plate 87: Enclosure at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park, Darjeeling

The Janaki enclosure was one of the most natural enclosures at PNHZP. A male-
female pair was housed in this enclosure of dimensions 8.9mx2.25mx2.18m. The
enclosure had 20-25 full grown trees that add to the natural look of the enclosure. This
enclosure housed two animals (1:1:0:2) Janaki and Siddharth. This enclosure had a
visual barrier running through the middle that provided withdrawal area from public and
enclosure mate and camouflaged the nest boxes. The trees in the enclosure were
taller than 4m and provide adequate opportunities for the animals to show arboreal
behaviour. The arboreal pathways were well designed and connected all the perches
of the enclosure. Feed was usually provided at the proximal left side of the enclosure
and the animals were mostly fed at early morning and late afternoon.

Based on the enclosure assessments and behavioural assessments certain inferences

can be made about the present husbandry practices of Red Panda in Indian Zoos. The
inferences thus drawn have been classified as follows:

Visitor Viewing Area:

The PNHZP enclosures were smaller than HZP but they manage to furnish sufficient
withdrawal areas to the animals. The viewing area at PNHZP looked artificial and the
visitor disturbance levels were also higher but the animals still spent most of their time

117
 on perches as the viewing gallery was restricted to the proximal area. The animal
activity near the viewer’s deck was minimal for both the enclosures. At PNHZP the red
pandas seldom came to the proximal part of the enclosure and choose to stay at the
rear end of the perches.

Paddock Area Characteristics on Red Pandas

1. Enclosure Barrier: The enclosure barrier at PNHZP Pokhraj enclosure did not
ensure adequate distance between the visitors and the animals; as a
consequence the level of activity at the proximal part of the enclosure was
minimal throughout the day and the animal spent almost all of its time behind the
visual barrier.
2. Substrate Type: The enclosure substrate was mostly natural in all three
enclosures.
3. Enclosure Topography: The PNHZP enclosures have undulating topography
offering adequate withdrawal areas to the animals.
4. Shelter: The number of shelters available for use by animals at PNHZP was
more than the number of animals; however, the number of arboreal perches and
nest boxes is inadequate.
5. Withdrawal Areas: The number of withdrawal areas offered at PNHZP is
significantly higher than HZP enclosure. This is primarily because of the visual
barrier present at the middle in each of these enclosures.

Vegetation Features
The enclosures at PNHZP had several trees and appropriate vegetation structure that
ensured availability of arboreal perches for the animals housed. These perches on
trees were connected to each other by arboreal pathways that allowed unrestricted
movement of animals.
Red pandas often use trees to escape from predators. In the captive environment, the
trees can afford the opportunity for the animals to withdraw from visitor disturbance.

Retiring Area
Retiring cells should be designed to meet the specific requirements of each species.
Inadequacies in the retiring house can often manifest itself into behavioural and
physiological abnormalities of the animals. The retiring and feeding areas did not meet
the species specific requirements and most of the aggressive encounters were
encountered at the entrance of the shared retiring cell. Scent-marking events were
also observed near the retiring cells.

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Socio-Ecology and Behaviour of Animals
The enclosures housed heterosexual pairs of animals at PNHZP. There were limited
aggressive encounters between enclosure mates; however, males housed in adjacent
enclosures showed frequent aggressive exchanges.

Findings from Existing Enrichment Program

The red panda exhibit at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park provides a natural
environment to the animals. The physical attributes of the enclosure was evaluated
during May, 2012 and again in December 2013. Some of the revelations from the
enclosure complexity scoring and the behaviour repertoire of the animals indicated that
the animal welfare might be compromised on certain attributes. However, some of the
behavioural patterns showed by the animals were a matter of concern. While the
enclosure provided a near natural captive environment for the animals, it lacked
novelty. Despite having a good stratification, the red pandas did not utilize most of the
perches and chose to move on the ground. Most of the enrichments were old and did
not elicit species-typical behaviour pattern. The animals did not utilize all parts of the
paddock area and showed high preference for distal zones. Following enrichments
were considered for developing an enrichment program to encourage a more species-
typical behaviour repertoire.

Enrichment Options for Red Pandas

Red Pandas are arboreal animals that need a behaviourally and physiologically
stimulating environment to function properly in captivity. Enrichment interventions
should be planned and implemented in a systematic manner following tested protocols.
Some of the essential enrichment devices for red panda have been discussed below.

Arboreal Foraging Box: In wilderness Red pandas come down from their arboreal
perches to consume bamboo leaves; however, other parts of the diet is consumed
from the arboreal perches. Food items with low calorie content can be kept in small
arboreal foraging boxes. The arboreal foraging boxes should be small in dimensions.
They should be made of natural substances like jute or cane and holes should be big
enough to allow the animals to use their paws for reaching food items placed inside.

Arboreal Pathways: They are an arboreal species spending most of their time walking
on horizontal branches of trees. Therefore the enclosures should have multiple
interconnected, arboreal pathways. Interconnection of arboreal pathways increases the
novelty of the enclosure and the animal can spend time exploring its environment.
Complementing the arboreal pathways with feeding enrichment (hiding treats at
different locations of the enclosure) can be beneficial to the animals.

119
 Trees with Canopy Cover: Arboreal animals such as red panda prefer areas with
good canopy cover to perform various activities. Thus providing good canopy cover in
underutilized areas of the enclosure will be a good way to increase activities in the
particular area.

Water Pools: As mentioned earlier red pandas are good swimmers and prefer to stay
close to water bodies. The water should be changed regularly and kept clean from leaf
litter. The slope to the water pool should be gradual and the depth should not be more
than 0.5m at the deepest part. The water pool should have multiple access points so
that there is no point of conflict between enclosure mates.

Plate 88: Red

Plate Panda
1 Red Pandausing
using water featureatatanan
water feature enclosure
enclosure at Chester
at Chester Zoo Zoo

Feeding Enrichment: A specialist like red panda has unique dietary needs. While
dietary content plays a major role in determining the welfare of the animal, food
presentation is of paramount importance. The feed provided to the animals should be
presented as naturally as possible. The feeding devices should not be made of artificial
substances. Bamboo leaves form the major dietary component of the animals,
however one should not ignore its affiliation to the Order Carnivora. Thus animal
protein should also be included in the diet of the animal.

Nest Boxes on Perches: All the studied enclosures had nest boxes in them which
were placed on the ground or at an elevation of less than 2m. Nest boxes provided on

Plate 89: Arboreal nest boxes for red pandas

120
perches can provide vantage point to the animal and impart a sense of security to the
animals. The nest boxes should be strong enough to support the weight of the animal
and secured to branches. The nest box should have two exits so that animals do not
get cornered. The base of the nest box should have wood wool or small branches. The
nest boxes should be top covered to protect the animals from inclement weather.

Testing the Efficacy of Enrichment Devices and their Combinations

Enrichment Devices Implemented

Plate 90: Zookeeper setting up enrichments at a red panda enclosure

Feeding Enrichments

1. Arboreal nets: The nets were made from coir ropes and hung from low lying
branches in the enclosure. The nets had small openings that the animal could
tease apart to extract fruits and forage upon them. After the animals were
sensitized to the feeding enrichment device, leaves were added to increase
the complexity of the enrichment item.

121
 Plate 91: Arboreal net feeders
Findings
a. Arboreal nets were made with coir ropes that are natural and do not pose any risk
to the animals.
b. The nets were made with gaps that were smaller than the paw of the red panda.
This was done to ensure that the animal never had its paws entangled in the nets.
c. The arboreal nets were never placed above 1m from the ground, and always
placed near a platform, to prevent accidents.
d. The food (apple slices) were placed inside the net and leaves were placed around
the nets, so that the animals had to use their dexterity and cognitive abilities to
take out the food items.
e. We found that the arboreal nets were highly successful in increasing the foraging
behaviour.

2. Foraging Boxes:
Foraging boxes consisted of cane baskets placed at perches near the proximal part of
the enclosure that were filled with fruits and bamboo leaves that the animals could

Plate :Arboreal
Plate 92: Arboreal foragingboxes
foraging boxesfor
forred
red pandas
pandas
122
forage upon. The foraging boxes were spread wide apart so that a single animal could
not monopolize all resources and therefore all animals had equal foraging
opportunities.

Findings
a. The foraging boxes ensured that both red pandas received a good amount of
food.
b. The foraging boxes provided a viable alternative to feeding the pandas in the
paddock area with natural food presentation as opposed to feeding them in
trays at the retiring cells.
c. Conflict over food was a common occurrence when the feed was provided at
the retiring cell. This happened because, there was only one entrance to the
retiring cell and only the bigger animal would monopolize food resources,
leaving smaller animals in a state of stress. By providing multiple foraging
boxes we ensured that all animals received equal amount of nutrition.
d. There was less conflict between animals after introducing foraging boxes.
e. The foraging boxes need to be placed far apart from one another, so that no
animal can monopolize all food resources.

3. Vertically Placed Bamboo Shoots: In the wild, red pandas forage on wild
bamboo which occur in vertical clumps and red pandas have to spend a lot of
energy to forage on the bamboo. As a part of the enrichment schedule we
placed the provisioned bamboo shoots vertically rather than horizontally.

Plate 93: Vertically placed bamboo shoots being foraged by red pandas at dusk
Plate : Vertically placed bamboo shoots being foraged by red pandas at dusk

Findings
a. The vertically placed bamboo shoots look natural and promote the natural food
handling behaviour.

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 b. The natural food presentation mechanism required more active effort from the
red panda to get food items.

Plate 94: Using arboreal pathways

Manipulable Enrichments
1. Arboreal Pathways: Until now, the enclosure had a single-tier arboreal pathway.
Therefore, if one animal was walking on the arboreal path, the other animal had to
choose the ground to move around. Multiple interconnected, arboreal pathways
were created using bamboo poles and wooden logs with bark to increases the
novelty of the enclosure so that the animal can spend time exploring its
environment. The arboreal pathways should have a multi-tier design so that one
animal moving along an arboreal path has a chance to escape from other animals
to a lower or higher tier arboreal path. The arboreal paths should have multiple
points of entry, through multiple slanted logs, trees, etc.

Findings
a. Arboreal pathways are very important for creating a complex and naturalistic
habitat for red pandas.
b. The animals explored and used various areas of the enclosure through the
arboreal paths.

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2. Visual Barriers: During the pre-enrichment behaviour study we found that red
pandas were spending a large amount of time staring at conspecifics in adjacent
enclosures (threat-display) and they were also scent marking near the boundaries
of enclosures. We placed two to three visual barriers in the form of bamboo poles
with bamboo shoots around them to act as a visual barrier. We grounded the
bamboo poles deep into the ground and tied them to some nearby structures so
that they never fall off and create an escape opportunity.

Plate 95: 1Visual

Plate Visualbarriers
barriersreduce
reducethreat
threatdisplays
displaysand
andaggression
aggression

Findings
a. Withdrawal areas were very successful and we found that the animals slowly
started using the proximal portion of th eenclosure due to the presence of
visual barriers.
b. The visual barriers were designed to incorporate naturalistic features such as
bamboo poles, used bamboo shoots etc.
c. These visual barriers effectively curtailed the amount of negative interaction
(staring and scent marking) that the animals showed towards other
conspecifics in adjacent enclosures.
d. The amount of movement stereotypy shown by animals was effectively
reduced due to the withdrawal areas.

3. Arboreal Perches: As a part of the enrichment program we created new

arboreal perches for the animals and we also provided nest boxes near the top

Plate
Plate96: Arborealperches
1 Arboreal perches

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 canopy. The nest boxes were placed in a way so that the entrance to the nest
box faced away from the visitors and provided the necessary seclusion to the
animals.

Findings:
a. The arboreal perches were highly successful and we observed that red
pandas preferred the higher most perches.
b. The arboreal perches were placed facing away from the visitors and the
opening of the nest box faced east so that the animals could bask in the sun at
dawn.
c. The arboreal perches provided enough withdrawal space for the animals
d. We placed multiple logs leading to the arboreal perches, so that the animals
had alternative excape routes if attacked by a concepecific or external
predator in the enclosure.

Plate 97:
Plate Complex understory
1 Complex understory

4. Complex Understory:
The floor of the enclosure was barren and free from complexity, which led
animals to show fixed motion pathways through the understory. We envisaged
an enclosure enrichment intervention by creating branch piles at certain
locations that blocked the fixed routes of the animals. These enrichments
increased the novelty of the enclosure as the animals had to move through a
different route and use cognitive skills to reach preferred locations of the
enclosure.

Findings
a. The complex understory was effective in reducing stereotypic movement
patterns in the red panda.

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b. By blocking areas of scent marking we ensured that the cycle of stereotypic
behaviour was blocked.
c. Additionally, we provided alternatives to stereotypic behaviour by scattering
resources (food items) at concealed spots. Therefore the animals had
something to do at the understory rather than pacing.
Table 20 Enrichment options for Red panda
Enrichment Enrichment Materials Location Species- typical Safeguards
Device type required behaviour
targeted
Arboreal Feeding Cane baskets Arboreal Foraging All sharp edges of the
foraging enrichment hung from trees, perches cane baskets were
box filled with fruits filed off to reduce
chance of injury to the
animals. The baskets
were kept at a height
of less than 1.5m from
the ground to ensure
that animals do not get
their limbs caught in
the orifices. The
baskets were tightly
secured on Y-shaped
branches to provide
adequate foothold for
animals to manipulate
the enrichment
devices
Water pool Permanent Natural water body Proximal Drinking, play The water pool could
fixture of small end of the behaviour not be implemented
dimension, enclosure due to logistical
maximum depth constraints
1m
Wobble Feeding and 6m tall log with 2m Medial Foraging and Unused bamboo
bamboo Manipulable underground and zone visual barrier shoots were tied
enrichment 4m on the surface. around a long bamboo
The bamboo pole pole and planted
should have bark upright along the left
on it and a basket side of the enclosure.
of diameter 0.3m Instead of ropes, we
with holes on all used bamboo shoots
four sides big to tie the branches to
enough to let nuts the pole. No artificial
and raisins fall to substances were used
the ground when to construct this
the log shakes. enrichment
Will need to be
loaded at the
beginning of the
day
Upright logs Manipulable Four logs will be The animals can Logs from
and feeding placed adjacent scratch against surrounding oak trees
enrichment to each other and the logs, climb on were procured and
tied so that the them to search for placed on the
animals can climb food, The enclosure
on it. Holes can exploratory nature

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 Enrichment Enrichment Materials Location Species- typical Safeguards
Device type required behaviour
targeted
be drilled on to of animals can be
the logs and small encouraged
treats like raisins. through these
The logs should upright logs
be more than 12ft
tall above the
ground and an
additional 4ft
underground to
maintain stability
of the structure
Branch Manipulable Small logs 20-30 Promotes
piles and feeding of them of length exploratory
enrichment 1m and diameter behaviour, play
0.6m can be used behaviour etc.
to make piles at
different locations
and loaded with
small treats like
nuts and raisins
Scratching Manipulable Single upright Promotes auto- Scratching posts were
posts and sensory bamboo poles grooming and not implemented as
enrichment with coir ropes other behaviours the other logs in the
rubbed with dirt such as enclosure were
from other red scratching etc. capable of serving the
panda enclosures purpose
Feeding Management We propose that Food can Promotes The food was
Schedule Practices the fresh bamboo be enclosure randomly distributed at
and Area shoots should be provided utilization. Helps different areas of the
provided at two at the animals display enclosure. Care was
different locations medial more species- taken so that the
at the enclosure. portion of typical animals do not
the exhibit behaviours. understand the pattern
in which the
distribution occurred.
Therefore the
submissive and
dominant individuals
had equal chances of
finding food.
Hanging Feeding Whole apples This Increases Care was taken so that
treats enrichment hung from a enrichmen foraging the used threads were
thread will t will be behaviour removed from the
increase foraging hung from enclosure. We later
time trees switched to sticking
whole fruits into
exposed branches as
that provided a more
natural food
provisioning strategy.
Arboreal Manipulable Plant some Proximal Increased All logs were tightly
Pathway enrichment bamboo stumps zone locomotion and secured and mosses
on the ground foraging from the top were
and connect them removed to provide
with each other. animals with a secure
Arboreal pathway through the

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Enrichment Enrichment Materials Location Species- typical Safeguards
Device type required behaviour
targeted
pathways should branches.
act as a
connection
between two or
three arboreal
perches so that
the animals
Nest boxes Manipulable Natural nest Proximal, Reduce stress, Nest boxes were
and Sensory boxes placed at median promote natural checked for protruding
different heights and distal resting behaviour nails and wood chips.
of the enclosure zones

Table 21 Efficacy of enrichment intervention at Red panda enclosure

Pre – enrichment Modified enclosure Needs addressed Efficacy of
feature feature enrichment post
enrichment study
Lack of novelty in the New enrichment Boredom and lack of The animals started
enclosure devices implemented opportunity to perform showing diverse
environment instinctive behaviour behaviour repertoire
mitigated
Proximal and medial All enclosure zones The animals could now The daily movement of
zones underutilized were provided with forage and move the animals increased.
feeding and sensory through the enclosure All enclosure zones
enrichments in search for treats equally utilized
Animals show a high Enrichments were Animals had to move
preference for distal placed at distal, through all parts of the
areas median and the enclosure to use
proximal zone enrichment devices
Arboreal red pandas Feeding and sensory Although the enclosure The red pandas depicted
were spending more enrichments were had a good amount of a more species-specific
time on the ground placed on perches stratification. The behaviour repertoire
than on perches ground strata was
more enriched than the
arboreal areas. Post-
enrichment, complexity
of all enclosure zones
increased, therefore
animals could exercise
their choice and they
shifted to a more
natural arboreal
lifestyle

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 Summary of Recommendations
To summarize we can draw the following conclusions from our observations

1. Enrichments and scientific management practices effectively reduced the level of

aberrant repetitive behaviours in red pandas studied.
2. Food was the biggest motivation for the study subjects and therefore all
enrichments were designed based on a reward-based positive reinforcement
approach to make the animals spend more energy to get miniscule food rewards.
3. The enrichment plan worked perfectly for the first few days, but red pandas being
intelligent at problem solving started to notice the pattern. So we constantly
changed the locations of certain preferred food items across the enclosure.
Therefore making sure that the animals had to visit all the possible foraging sites
in order to get their choice of food items. Thereby we ensured that the novelty and
complexity of the enclosure was maintained throughout the study period.
4. At each of the foraging boxes, we put a mix of foods with high processing time
and low processing time. This ensured that the animals could not move through
all the enrichment items very fast. The complexity of the food items forced the
animals to spend significant amount of time on each enrichment.
5. Enrichment interventions should not lead to undue stress and aggression
between conspecifics.

Problem identification is a very important step that should precede every enrichment
intervention.

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Mega-Herbivores: Essential
Environmental Enrichments

Chapter 8
for Asian Elephant

Animal Biology and Behavioural Ecology

The three large-bodied species viz Asian Elephant, Gaur and One-horned Indian
Rhinoceros are grouped as mega-herbivores. Each of the species has its unique
biology and behaviour that determine its habitat requirements. Asian elephant and
Gaur are social animals living in herds led by matriarchs while Rhinoceros are solitary
in nature tolerating the presence of con-specifics at close quarters. The species are
bulk feeders, with rhinoceros and gaur maintaining smaller home ranges while
elephants range over much larger forest tracts. For determining critical housing needs
for mega-herbivores in captivity, Asian elephants were used as the type species due to
the larger overlap in habitat requirements and behavioural ecology that the species has
with both the other species.

The Asian elephant is the largest land mammal found in India, an adult bull weighs up
to 3,000 kg and they can have a shoulder height of 245-275 cm. These animals are
the only living species of the genus Elephas and they are found in India, Bhutan,
Nepal, Srilanka, Myanmar, China, Cambodia and other countries of southeast Asia.
There are 3 known subspecies of the Asian elephant.

1. Elephas maximus maximus: Srilanka

2. Elephas maximus indicus: Mainland Asia
3. Elephas maximus sumatranus: Sumatra

Trunks are the most distinctive feature of Elephants which, gives Order Proboscidea its
name. These highly sensitive prehensile organs are formed with the fusion of the nose
and the upper lip. Elephants use their trunks for feeding, watering, dusting, smelling,
touching, breathing, communication, washing, pinching, grasping, defence and
offense. Male Asian Elephants have long tusks; that are used as tools for debarking,
uprooting trees as well as weapons of offense and defence. The female Asian
elephants however lack tusks. The skin of Asian elephant is a shade of grey and

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 heavily wrinkled with multiple layers. The average body temperature for Asian
elephants is 35.9oC.

Table 22 Life history traits of Asian elephant

Life span 60 years in Wild and 80 in captivity

Breeding season No seasonality, based on food availability
Estrus cycle 12-18 weeks duration
Age at first birth 11-14 years (females),15 (males)
Gestation period 540-660 days
Mating system Polygynous
Litter size 1
Interbirth interval 3-4 years
Parental care Mothers care for their young ones. However all herd members
take equal responsibility for the young ones.

Habitat and Ecology

Asian elephants are generalists and inhabit grasslands of tropical evergreen forests,
semi-evergreen forest, moist deciduous forest, dry deciduous forest and dry thorn
forests as well as cultivated and secondary forests and scrublands. In the eastern
Himalayas (certain parts of north-east India) the animals frequently move above
3000m asl in summers. The large body weight of the elephant requires them to
consume a huge volume of food every day. Being generalists, elephants browse and
graze on a wide variety of plants. The proportion of different plants in the elephant diet
varies with the habitat type and season. During the dry season, browse makes up for
70% of the daily food requirement, while during the wet season grasses constitute 55%
of the daily food intake. Forest type may also play a role in food selection of elephants;
browse formed 15% of the diet in a dry deciduous forest and 47% in a thorn forest
during the dry season. The annual diet was dominated by grass (84%).

Behaviour
Elephants are intelligent and highly social animals, showing a varied range of
behavioural patterns and social gestures. They live in herds led by the matriarch while
the adult males remain solitary or may form bachelor herds. While moving the adult
herd members provide constant protection to the young ones and do not let them stray.
The extensive generation overlap in the elephant community leads to linear dominance
hierarchy among the females. The group leaders always walk at the front or the rear
protecting the herd from predators. Bulls usually travel in the periphery. Sometimes,
lactating cows with attendant young might aggregate together to form nursery units.
The male elephants stay with the family unit till the age of 15 and have strong social
ties with the mother and siblings. The home ranges of herds can vary between 180-

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600 km2. The same area can be used by herds of elephants that are related. The
herds move separately and maintain their kinship via vocal communication.

In the wild when one elephant approaches another, they do so with their trunks
extended. The first few minutes of encounter among two elephants involve mutual
examination of ear, mouth, feet, eyes, temporal glands, anus and genitalia.

Food and Feeding Behaviour

Asian elephants are generalist herbivores consuming a wide variety of plants (100
different plant species). The ratio of grasses to browse eaten by the elephant varies
seasonally and the forest type inhabited. The nutrient value of grass is at its highest in
the wet season and that of browse peaks in the dry season. Although they are
generalists, elephants still display a significant amount of food preference; food eaten
is not necessarily the food most commonly found in the home range. Crops such as
banana, sugarcane and paddy are highly preferred.

The animals usually eat early in the morning, evening and night and rest during
midday. More than 150 kg of vegetation is ingested each day of which only 44% is
digested with the help of gut bacteria. They eat long grasses by plucking them up with
their trunk. Short grasses are picked up along with clods of earth still attached to the
roots and consumed after dusting off the dirt. Elephants drink at least 140 litres of
water every day.

Reproductive Behaviour
Elephants are polygynous mammals and display a high degree of sexual dimorphism,
with full grown males being much larger than females. The ‘estrus walk’ shown by
female elephants is an indicator that the animal is in a sexually receptive state. During
this the, female elephant holds her head on one side and walks away from the group
and returns making a complete arc. They are highly wary of approaching bulls during
this time. Tail-flicking behaviour in which the female dabs the tip of the tail near the
urogenital area and holds it up could be perceived as an advertisement of sexual
receptivity.

The musth gland present in the males elephant start to secrete dark, oily, musky
substance every year for a certain period once they reach sexual maturity (10-15
years). This physiologic change is followed by excitable, dominant and overtly
aggressive behaviour. The musth period can last from a few days to several months
and the bulls can become uncontrollable during this time. There is no seasonal pattern
of musth and different individuals exhibit it at different times of the year.

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 Minimum Welfare Requirements of the Species in Captivity
Ensuring the welfare of elephants in captivity has always posed a challenge for zoo
managers. According to the report on the elephant task force, MoEF 2010, there are
about 3500 elephants in captivity across the country however only 139 elephants have
been reported to CZA as of the latest inventory report of the CZA website. Out of these
139 elephants 67 are owned by 19 circuses and the remaining are in 21 zoos and
rescue centers around the country.

Findings from Literature Review

Each species of mega-herbivore has its unique basic requirements which need to be
considered. However, for mega-herbivore as a whole the following points are to be
considered:
1. Proper Social Grouping: A proper social grouping in captivity is considered
the best form of enrichment for social animals. Being highly social animals’
elephants and gaur need to be housed with con-specifics; male with one or
more females being the preferred social structure. Rhinoceros on the other
hand may be maintained solitary.
2. Enclosure Aspect: Temperature and settings of an enclosure are to be
maintained according to the geographical and climatic condition of the zoo
location. They should ensure adequate basking and sheltered areas are
available to all the animals of the enclosure.
3. Space: Space provision should be made such that the animal can move around
freely and exhibit at-least a part of its natural behaviour repertoire. The
minimum space standards for exhibit and retiring areas differ from one country
to another.
4. Food and Nutrition: The species are bulk-feeders they need to be provided
with a large quantity of green fodder/browse of poor quality to keep their
appetites sated. Concentrates should be provided for supplementing nutrient
shortages in the diets provided and should include necessary mineral and
vitamin supplements. Feed should be provided according to individual needs
(age, sex, health condition, etc. of the individual) in a manner that prolongs
feeding time.
5. Sanitation and Hygiene: Health and hygiene of the animals should not be
compromised. The enclosures should be cleaned frequently and care need to
be taken that they are rodent proof. Health of the animals should be checked
regularly.
6. Keeper and Animal Interaction: Multiple animal keepers with genuine interest
for the animal’s wellbeing are to be engaged.

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Findings from Enclosure Evaluation
The enclosure evaluation of Asian Elephant was done at National Zoological Park,
New Delhi, Alipore Zoological Garden, Kolkata and Mahendra Chaudhary Zoological
Park, Chatbir. The following are some of the findings after the evaluation -
1. Barren or Monotonous Exhibit Area: The enclosures showed a lack of
appropriate vegetation and enrichment devices. Vegetation though present, was
often not species specific and had poor stratification. Enrichment devices where
present, were not changed leading to poor use by the animals and reduce the
aesthetics of the exhibit area.
2. Ill-Managed Social Groups: Only females were present in two out of the three
enclosures. Males when present were often found chained inside retiring area.
3. Predictable and Routine way of Food Presentation: Feed is always given at
the same location and time in almost all the zoos. Behavioural abnormalities in
the animals often increase as the feeding time approaches.
4. Small Exhibit and Retiring Area: Space provided for the elephants was limited
in almost all the enclosures. This limits the freedom of movement of animals and
constrains them to small spaces.
5. Unequal Space Utilization of the Exhibit Area: Animals were often found
using only some parts of enclosure usually those; that were close to water
source, shed and least disturbed by the visitors.
6. Limited Activity: As a result of lack of stimuli and novelty in the environment
most of the animals were found resting during the day with predictable activity
patterns.
7. Inappropriate Substrates: Most of the elephants had to spend on standing on
concrete substrate chained for almost 16-17 hours a day in a short chain hooked
in one place. Males during musth were chained inside throughout the period.

Evaluation of Mahendra Chaudhary Zoological Park Elephant

Enclosure
Mahendra Chaudhary
Zoological Park elephant
enclosure spans across 1.5 ha
and is home to four adult
female elephants and a male
calf. The area accommodates
all the animals comfortably
with equal opportunities for all
Plate 98: Mahendra Chaudhary Zoological Park elephant enclosure
animals to utilize most portions
of the exhibit.

135
 1. Visitor Viewing Area
The viewing area was continuous and 2/3 of the enclosure could be used as viewing
gallery. During peak hour crowding occurs around the enclosure. The visibility level
was as high as 100%.

Plate 99: Viewing area/ viewing gallery

2. Paddock Area Characteristics

The paddock was level ground with shade available only in the retiring
area/shed. A large dried pucca water pool was present in the middle of the
enclosure and water was available only at one point at the distal corner.

Plate 100: Paddock area

3. Enclosure Enrichments
Few enrichments in the form of wooden logs either standing upright or lying were
inside the enclosure; they were however, hardly used by the animal.

136
4. Vegetation Features
Vegetation was present inside the enclosure however, not to according to the need of
the animal. The enclosure had just lush green lawn of grasses and a couple of palm
trees. No shade trees were present in the enclosure.

5. Retiring Area
A common retiring area was
attached to the enclosure and
was visible to the public. It was
concrete floored, barren and
open, without any enrichment
except for the loops for the
chains to tie the animals during
the off-display hour. There was
no off-display day kraal for this
enclosure. Plate 101: Retiring area/shed

6. Socio-ecology and Behaviour

No aberrant behaviour could be observed in any of the animals except for short
duration of head swaying or bobbing while inside the retiring area. Extensive social
interactions were observed between the animals however, they were mostly found
concentrated inside or near the retiring area/shed.

Plate 102: Animals were found concentrated near the retiring area most of the time

137
 7. Nutrition and Feeding
The animals were provided feed twice a day inside the retiring area. Concentrate feed
was provided in the morning after the animals were released and green fodder, just
before the animals were taken inside. There was only one drinking point inside the
enclosure which was accessible to the animals only during the display hours.

Plate 103: Feed were provided twice daily inside the shed
Table 23 Enrichment options for Asian elephant
Enrichment Types Species-typical behaviour targeted
Browse feeder Increase activity & foraging time
Scatter feed -do-
Feeding Pot feeder -do-
1.
Enrichment Logs with bark Help in the animal’s agility and fine
motor skills
Grass bales/Hessian bags Increase activity & foraging time
Coir ropes on logs Elicit behaviour such as scratching on
the logs
Dust baths Keep ecto-parasite in check and would
also elicit some natural behaviour
Sensory Water-pool Elicit play behaviour
2.
Enrichment
Spices spray Elicit locomotion
Logs with bark Increase play as well as feeding
behaviour
Shade/Temporary shed Change movement pattern
Log piles Increase play as well as feeding
behaviour
Manipulable Log tree Elicit behaviour such as scratching and
3. leaning on it
Enrichment
Grass bales/Hessian bags Increase play behaviour
Increase feeding time
Temporary shed Increase space use
Environment
4.
Enrichment Water in pool Increase activity such as play, bath,
locomotion, etc.

138
Testing the Efficacy of Enrichments Introduced
Browse Feeder: To provide a place where the animals could feed by browsing.
The browse feeder was made of horizontally rod iron compartment of about 1.5m x
1mx 0.3m in dimension with lid on top and latch at the rear end. It has two small
openings in front from which the animal can reach for feed with some difficulty. It was
placed on the wall at a height of 8 meter at the distal part of the enclosure. Care was
taken that the feeder stay intact on the wall by providing support at the back and
middle using iron poles and cement. Green fodder (Sorghum) and few fruits were put
inside the feeder every day during the study period.

Plate 104: Browse feeder setup

Findings:

Plate 105: Elephants interacting and feeding from the browse feeder

139
 a. The browse feeder was one of the most favoured enrichment devices for the
animals. The animals are often found interacting with it for most part of the display
period.
b. Browse feeder could be made of other more naturalistic looking material as long
as it can withstand the wear and tear cause by elephants.
c. It is not necessary that a wall should be used to hold the feeder. Other means of
elevating the feeder such as constructing platform made of wood or concrete,
etc. could be done.
d. There should be at least more than one such feeder inside the enclosure.

Scatter Feed: To scatter green fodder and fruits

Green fodders were tied together in small bunch and scattered around the enclosures.
Fruits were also used for scatter feeding.

Findings:
a. Help to motivate the animals to move around more and increase their activity level.
b. Increase the foraging time as well.

Pot Feeder: A feeding device to keep the animals occupied

A coloured camouflaged metal pot was used as a feeder where the elephant could
reach in through pot’s mouth with its trunk and suck out few pieces of feed item
provided. It was placed at two elevated points at a height of about 10 meter with the
help of jute and coir ropes. Soaked Bengal gram and fruits mixed with grasses were
used as feed.

Plate 106: Setting up of pot feeder

140
 Findings:
a. Elephants were often found interacting with the pot feeder. They feed on the mix
inside and also tried to pull the pot down during the study hour. Therefore, care
need to be taken to check the pot every day before the animals is released in to
the paddock area.
b. Presence of metal pot acted as yet another type of enrichment during the peak
sunny days. The metal get heated up and therefore, the elephants had to carefully
manoeuvre their trunks to get food from the pot.

Plate 107: Interaction with the pot feeder held up on a tree log

Barked Logs /Log Pile: A means of feed as well as manipulable enrichment. Tree
logs with bark from the surrounding
area inside the zoo were gathered
and placed in a pile as well as
scattered at few places inside the
enclosure. This provided opportunity
to the animal to spend time to
debark the logs with their feet and
trunk or simply play with the logs
around the enclosure.
Plate 108: Log pile on one side of the enclosure

141
 Findings:
a. Instant response was observed with the introduction of log piles. The calf
especially was observed interacting with the logs – feeding, lifting, nudging and
carrying most of the time
b. Providing logs with bark provided a motivation to the animals to deliberately
coordinate their trunk movement requiring dexterity and skill.
c. Easiest and safest means of enrichment for elephant.

Plate 109: Elephants interacting with the log and feeding on its bark
Grass Bale/Hessian Bag: A new way of feed presentation

Plate 110: Step by step procedure of making grass bales

142
 Grasses gathered from the surrounding area were used in this case. There were two
ways of presenting these grasses to the elephants. One was to roll the grasses in
layers into neat bundle by tying it up with ropes/rope nets while inserting some fruits
inside. Another was to compactly fill hessian bag with grasses and few fruits after
which the mouth of the bag was sewed.

Findings:
a. The grass bales were a novel and fun way of providing feed to the animals.
Animals were observed interacting with them for a good period of time.
b. Animals were observed feeding, tossing and turning the bales with trunk and on
some occasion, limbs.
c. Different sizes and shapes of bales could also be introduced.
d. Hiding of fruits inside or scenting the bales with fruity smell entices the animals to
interact more.

Plate 111: Elephants interacting with grass bales

Plate 112: Interaction with grass and fruits filled Hessian bag

143
 Coir Ropes on Logs: To provide a new covering on logs
There were upright logs inside the enclosure which the animals were not using. Coir
ropes were tied around these kinds of logs to increase activity of the animal by using
them as a rubbing post, play things, and so forth.

Plate 113: Coir ropes worn around log

Findings:
a. After the coir ropes were wound around the logs, the animal started interacting
with them.
b. The logs were not observed used as scratching post as expected. The animals
were mostly observed trying the peel the ropes out and play with them.
c. Addition of some new material on the old structure revived the interest of the
animals.

Plate 114: Interaction with log tied with coir rope

144
 Dust Bath: To provide loose soil for the animals
Dug out soil inside the enclosure at different location especially for constructing new
shed was used for this purpose. Compact soils had to be loosened by digging once in
two days.

Findings:
a. The animals were often observed throwing dust on their back.
b. Presence of loosen soil made the animals to perform dust bath more often.

Temporary Shed: To provide an alternate shade and resting area

The temporary shed of 30 x 40 m2 area with a height of about 20 m were put up at the
distal part of the enclosure. Straight and sturdy logs were used as pillars at four
corners and agro-net was used as the roof of the shed. It took heavy machineries and
a lot of man power and about a week’s time to complete the construction.

Plate 115: Step-wise set up procedure for temporary shed

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 Findings:
a. The animal started to use the shed frequently and this allowed an alternate place
and choice of shade and shelter.
b. This shed was constructed in the most easiest and fast manner. More robust and
permanent alternate area of shades and shelter could be constructed.

Plate 116: Temporary shed

Plate 117: Elephants interacting with various enrichments provided inside the enclosure

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Summary
The enrichment of elephant enclosure at Mahendra Chaudhary Zoological Park
showed the possibilities and difficulties of planning, executing and assessing various
ideas of enrichment on ground. Elephant being a massive animal, fabricating
enrichment devices or any other often take considerable amount of time and
manpower. It took around 15-20 men every day for 10 days and heavy machinery such
as crane, JCB and tractors to set up the enrichments inside the enclosure. All the
enrichments for our study were based on the immediate requirements of the animals,
practicality of the plan and logistic availability. As the result indicated there is definitely
a positive change in the behaviour and space use pattern of the elephants in the
enclosure. The extent of changes occurred and robustness of the enrichment items
used has also been discussed.

The individual requirement of each elephant has not been taken into consideration in
this study however, for a holistic planning and study this needs to be addressed. Each
animal has its unique personality and requirements. This said, the social dynamic of
the animals in the herd should not be undermined since social enrichment is
considered the most important enrichment for such highly intelligent and social animal.
The following points sum up our observation made during our study:
1. Enrichment intervention in elephant enclosure can effectively increase activity
level and space utilization pattern.
2. Problem identification is a very important step that should precede every
enrichment intervention.
3. Enrichments that provide food reward work best and are the biggest motivation
for the animals; however, individual preferences need to be considered though
herd requirement is also important.
4. Enrichments provide opportunity to the elephants to strengthen their social
bonding. It was observed that a female that stayed away from the group most
of the time started spending more time with the group after the enrichment
intervention.
5. Elephants being intelligent animal can easily pick up cues and patterns of
enrichment works, in a short time. To keep up with this, enrichment plan need
to be constantly changed and be open to improving or improvising.
6. Enrichment devices and strategies need to be presented on a varied schedule
and in a variety of context to make sure the animals do not become
desensitized or habituated to them.
7. A difficulty while constructing elephant enrichment devices is ensuring that the
devices withstand the elephants at least for some days while using
construction material that is natural and aesthetic looking.
8. Presence of enough enthusiastic animal care staff is essential for a successful
enrichment plan since they are the one who has to look after the enclosure
and continue taking care of the animals.

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 Ungulates: Essential
Environmental Enrichments

Chapter 9
for Brow-antlered Deer
Animal Biology and Behavioural Ecology
Ungulates include terrestrial hoofed herbivore mammals. They are an important
constituent of most terrestrial ecosystems utilizing the primary productivity of plants
and making it available for the carnivorous mammals. Ruervus eldii eldii or the Eld's
deer or the Sangai is a highly endangered species of deer. Commonly R. e. eldii is
referred as the Manipur brow-antlered deer or the Sangai. The population of Sangai is
localised in the marshy wetlands of the Keibul Lamjao around 45km from Imphal. The
biggest population of the Sangai deer is found near the Loktak Lake (largest fresh-
water lake of eastern India). Sangai is the state animal of Manipur.

Table 24 Life history traits of Sangai

Age of Sexual Maturity 4 years for female
Gestation period 245-273 days
Litter Size 1
Age at weaning 70-90 days
Breeding season September-December (Peak in March)
Life span 20 years
Inter-birth Interval 1 year
Weight at birth 4.7 – 6 kg
Mating System Polygynous

Behaviour and Social Organization

The amount of information available on the social organization of Sangai is limited;
however, a close relative the Thamins are usually solitary except during spring when
the animals are seen in large groups comprising of both sexes. A survey conducted in
Myanmar reported a group size of 1-20 with adult male: female ratio of 1.00:1.59 and
that of doe:fawn 1.00:0.54. Unlike Cervids, the brow-antlered deer shows distinct
reproductive seasonality.

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Food and Feeding Behaviour
As many as 233 plant species belonging to more than 58 families are fed upon by the
brow-antlered deer in Keibul Lamjao National Park. Out of the 233 identified plants, 33
are known to be primary food plants and 21 are emergency food plants. The common
plant species include Zizania latifolia, Sachhrum sp., Erianthus and Capillipedim sp.
The foraging condition is perfect during the months of May-June, so the antlers grow
the most during this period. The brow-antlered deer is known to exhibit a bi-modal
activity pattern. They typically start foraging at early morning around 0430 hrs-0800
hrs. During summer they might stop feeding at 07.00hrs. The animals rest under tall
reeds and grasses during most part of the day while at night, some of the animals rest
on hillocks.

Reproductive Behaviour
The Sangai is a seasonal breeder and it has a polygynous mating system. The Sangai
females exhibit a prolonged period of ovarian activity from 225-342 days, during this
period the females average around 10-17 estrus cycles. After the mating season is
over the females become sexually unreceptive or they enter “Anestrus”. During the
mating season aggressive behaviour is exhibited by the males (head up display).
Another common display of aggression is the rubbing of head or preorbital organ on
bushes or thrashing vegetation with antlers or forelegs. The fights for dominance occur
during February and March when young solitary stags challenge the holder stags. The
fights are not restricted to aggressive displays; the animals almost always lock antlers.
After the fight is over the winner raises its head to show its dominance while the
weaker stag literally “bows” out. Mortality rates for a young or weaker stag is unusually
high in captivity. So it is better to separate the males during the rutting season. The
leader male gets the chance to mate with females. It assumes threat postures and
invites the female for mating. When the female is ready to mate she will rub her nose
against the flanks of the stag and spread her hind legs for mounting. During copulation
the male stands on its hind legs and rests its forelegs on the back of the female. The
act of mating takes just a few seconds. The male becomes relatively complacent after
copulation.

Minimum Welfare Requirements of Sangai in Captivity

There are 15 zoos across the country that house about 172 of this critically
endangered subspecies in captivity at present (CZA inventory, 2011). Since Brow-
antlered Deer are endemic at a special habitat type found only in Manipur, creating a
near natural habitat condition in captive environment is challenging. However, so far
they have been breeding and propagating well in the captive conditions provided. The
priority at the present scenario is to let the animals retain their natural behaviour

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 repertoire as in the wild and be in a condition where they could be introduced in wild if
such opportunity arises.

Findings from Literature Review

Each of the deer species has their unique basic requirements which need to be
considered. For the deer as a whole the following points are to be considered:
1. Geographical and climatic condition of the zoo location: according to which
sun and shade areas as well as the settings of the enclosure be maintained.
2. Exhibit and retiring area should be large enough for a herd to move around
freely. It should also ensure that aggressive individuals can be avoided by
other enclosure residents.
3. Proper social grouping appropriate for each species should be provided.
4. Feed should always be certified safe before feeding and should be fed
according to individual needs (age, sex, health condition, etc. of the individual).
Seasonal changes in nutritional needs should be addressed.
5. Health and hygiene of the animals should not be compromised. The
enclosures should be cleaned regularly and care need to be taken that they
are rodent proof. Health of the animals should be checked regularly.
6. There should be close connecting enclosures/kraals to segregate animals
during rutting period. There should also be a deer crush in each enclosure.

Findings from Enclosure Evaluation

Enclosure evaluation for Brow-antlered Deer was carried out at Alipore Zoological
Garden, Kolkata, Manipur Zoological Park, Imphal and National Zoological Park, Delhi.
The following are the some of the findings -
1. Barren or monotonous exhibit area: Lack of vegetation and enrichments is
pronounced in most ungulate enclosures assessed. In enclosures with
vegetation it is often not species specific and had improper stratification.
Enrichment devices were not observed in the enclosures assessed.
2. Inappropriate social groups: The group size usually was too large for the
space available in most of the enclosure or else it on the other extreme of
having only a few animals. Animals could not be individually identified and
lineages were poorly known.
3. Predictable and routine way of food presentation: Feed is always given at the
same location and at the same time in almost all the zoos leading to a brief
burst of activity starting just prior to feeding time and ceasing soon after
feeding is complete.

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4. Unequal space utilization of the exhibit area: Animals were often found using
only some parts of enclosure usually those that were close to water source,
shed and less disturbed by visitors.
5. Limited activity: Most of the animals were found resting during the day with an
almost predictable activity pattern throughout the day. Lack of stimuli and
novelty in the environment promote such kind of activity pattern.
6. Absence/ unusable retiring area: Most of the enclosures for deer do not have
effective place where they could be brought in at times of medical care or
shifting from one enclosure to another.

Evaluation of National Zoological Park Brow-antlered Deer Enclosure

There were two brow-antlered deer enclosures at National Zoological Park however
only one was used as a display with the entire population of deer occupying it. It was
about 4000m2 enclosure with 54 inhabitants (13:31:10:54) at the time of the study.

Plate 118: Brow-antlered Deer enclosure at National Zoological Park. The enclosure was
large however it was barren except for thorny acacia tree species. Few logs and twigs were
the only source of enrichment and the animals remained at the distal part of the enclosure
most of the time.

1. Visitor Viewing Area

There was a long continuous viewing area. Visitor barriers though present;
could be crossed to get inside the enclosure. Enclosure and the viewing area
were at the same ground level. Animals could be seen from the viewing area
however not very clearly since they were generally found resting at the distal
part of the enclosure and were camouflaged by the background colour.

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 2. Paddock Area Characteristics
The paddock area was level ground and almost barren except for few trees.
The barren ground could be quite dangerous since it could serve as source of
various pathogens with continuous deposition of faeces from the animals,
rodents and birds especially from the kites roosting in a large number on the
trees inside the enclosure. Though the paddock was large, it was underutilized
and architectural ruins were present inside.

3. Enclosure Enrichment
There was hardly any enrichment inside the paddock. There was a slightly
raised concrete feeding platform, a drinking point and a dried concrete water-
pool. Straw was found scattered in some areas which were seen used by the
animals.

4. Vegetation Features
Except for some Acacia trees the paddock area was devoid of vegetation.
They provided shade and their pods were fed upon by the animals. However,
possibility of injury is high with thorny species like this to be present inside the
enclosure.

5. Retiring Area
The enclosure has one common stable like retiring area used mainly as
feeding area and a smaller cell used for treating animals. The animals were let
out in the paddock all the time.

Plate 119: Brow-antlered deer resting most of the day at the distal part of the enclosure especially
near the holding area

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6. Socio-Ecology and Behaviour
The number of animals in the enclosure was very high for the size of the
enclosure. Fighting was reported to peak at the time of breeding season.
However, hardly any aggression was observed during the study period. The
animals were mostly found resting together in one place most of the time.

7. Nutrition and Feeding

Feed was given thrice a day which comprised of concentrate feed, tree
branches with leaves as browse and green fodder. All the feed were given
inside the holding area, which could be the reason the animals were mostly
found in and around the holding area i.e. in the distal part of the enclosure,
most part of the day. Not only this, the lone water point was also present just
outside the holding area.

Plate 120: Retiring cum kraal area where the feed were fed on the floor. Except for the fawns,
all at once often the deer were observed getting inside this small area to feed

Table 25 Enrichments options for Sangai

Enrichment Types Species-typical behaviour targeted
1. Feeding Hanging Food Elicit natural behaviour such as browsing and
Enrichment Basket improved space utilization.
Hanging Tree Elicit natural behaviour such as browsing and also
Branches motivate the animals to move around the
enclosure
Green fodder Increase activity such as grazing and moving
around

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 Enrichment Types Species-typical behaviour targeted
Novel food items Increased foraging behaviour
Water trough Increase usage of enclosure space
Feeding trough Increase usage of enclosure space
2. Sensory Wallowing area Elicit natural behaviour such as wallowing
Enrichment Straw mat Increase usage of different zones inside the
enclosure
3. Manipulable Foraging twigs & Increase foraging time and use of space
Enrichment branches
4. Environment Shelter Provide withdrawal area and shelter from the
Enrichment visitors as well as from con-specifics
Levelling of Provide withdrawal area from the visitors as well
ground as from con-specifics

Testing the Efficacy of Enrichments

Introduced
Hanging Feed Basket: To hang green feed as
browse at different locations

Each hanging feed basket comprised of two

baskets joined together to make a casket like
that could open and close, with the help of coir
ropes. The basket could be made of any
natural substance and should be in such a way
that enough gaps are present for the animals
to reach for green fodder. This was then fixed
or tied on tree about a meter high from the
ground using jute ropes. The basket was then
filled with chopped green fodder cut
approximately about six inches long. For our
Plate 121: Setting up of hanging green fodder study, six hanging feed baskets were put up at
different location across the paddock area.

Plate 123: Deer browsing from the hanging

Plate 122: Preparation of green fodder for feed basket
the basket
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 Findings:
a. Instant response from the animals was observed. Activity and space use pattern
were increased.
b. After introducing hanging feed browse, animals were observed in a smaller groups
browsing at different locations.
c. Baskets could be hung at different height since the animals were seen browsing in
the same way at every location.
d. In the absence of trees, wooden pole or logs could be used to hang the baskets.

Hanging Tree Branches: To hang palatable tree branches with leaves on the trees
present inside the enclosure

As a part of daily feed, edible tree leaves with branches were provided for the deer.
These leave branches were made into three bundles and were hung on trees, with the
help of coir ropes, inside the enclosure at three different zones. This could serve as a
browse for the deer and motivate them to walk around the enclosure.

Findings:
a. Activity and space use of the animals increased as well as prolonged the feeding
time.
b. Any kind of green feed that comes in the form of branches should be hung on the
already present trees. It gives a more naturalistic look and at the same time gives
the animal fun to feed on in a most natural way.

Plate 124: Deer interacting with hanging tree branches hung at different points across the
enclosure

Green Fodder: To provide an alternate way of presenting the green fodder

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 Green fodder which was earlier fed inside the holding area was brought outside and
placed at different zones inside the enclosure. Concrete and wooden platforms were
used so that the fodder would not be in direct contact with the ground.

Findings:
a. Green fodder was a good motivator the animals to move around the paddock area.
Wherever feed was present the animals followed and split into several sub-groups,
one at each location.

Plate 125: Deer grazing on green fodder left on the concrete slab present inside the enclosure

Novel Food Items: Adding some novel food items to give variety

Novel feed in the form of carrot, French beans and additional gooseberry (amla) was
brought in addition to the usual feed.
Gooseberry were scattered at different places
during the post-enrichment study period.

Findings:
b. New food items provided were not favoured
by the animals. However, it is too soon to
conclude that the animals would reject any
Plate 126: Water trough behind a tree other new food items in the future.

Water Trough: To provide additional water points

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 Metal trough that could hold around 80 litre of water was used as a means of providing
additional water point inside the enclosure at two different zones. These troughs were
kept behind trees in such a way that they would not be visible to the visitors.

Findings:
a. Water trough were not observed being used often by the animals however, it
maybe because the study period was during winter when animals consume less
water.
b. A more natural looking trough or trough made of natural substance should be used
instead of metal one.

Feeding Trough: To provide a clean place to feed concentrates in the paddock area

Wooden trough of about 80m x 30m with depth of 25 m was made and stationed on
two logs using ropes. The trough was held up about 0.40 m above the ground and was
used as a feed trough for the concentrate feed. Four such troughs were introduced
across the enclosure at different zones.

Plate 127: (a) Feeding trough (b) Filling trough with concentrate feed

Findings:
a. Provision of alternate feeding area provided the animals to choose which and
where to go for feeding. Hence, activity and space use area increased.
b. Feeding trough solved the issue of not able to feed the concentrate feed in the
paddock area due to hygiene concerns.
c. The feeding trough could be made of various heights and designs.

Wallowing Area: Providing wallowing area during the off-season

Enclosure ground was dry and barren with only a water point as a way of respite from
fulfilling natural urges such as wallowing. There was a spot which was used as
wallowing area however was not useable during winters. This spot was dug and made
into a useable one for the enrichment study.

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 Plate 128: Refurnishing the wallowing area

Findings:
a. For animal like brow-antlered deer, presence of wallowing area provides the
necessary natural urges to wallow and display certain species- specific behaviour
such as thrashing antlers on the mud, etc.
b. Wallowing pond should be present throughout the year.

Plate 129: Deer at the wallowing area

Straw Mat: To provide a different substrate for the animals to rest inside the paddock

Deer were observed to prefer to rest in areas where straw was spread as carpet since
the study period was during winter. Therefore, straw was brought in and placed at two
different points across the enclosure

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 Plate 130: Deer using one of the straw mat points

Foraging Twigs & Branches: To increase the choice of feeding

Edible twigs and tree branches with leaves were scattered around the enclosure to
serve as a feed as well as withdrawal for the deer.

Shelter: Provision of a natural looking shelter where animal could rest or withdraw

A shelter was made out of tree branches and shrubs using large living tree branch as a
structural support. Inside the shelter the ground was carpeted with straw layers and
gooseberry were scattered every morning before starting the study. The shelter was
made with the aim that it could provide shelter and withdrawal area for the deer.

Plate 131: Deer feeding on twigs & branches

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 Findings:
a. Animals were often observed foraging the twigs and branches, and exploring the
shelter.
b. Fawns were observed resting inside on the straw carpet.
c. There should be more than one such shelter inside the enclosure.

Plate 132: (a) Construction of the shelter (b) The shelter

Ground Levelling: Tidying up few area inside the paddock area

The ruin area especially was full of brick rubble, where the animals were found resting
since this area provided a bit of withdrawal space. A part of this area was leveled,
cleaned and provided with shrubs and tree branches to increase the withdrawal space.

Plate 133: Interaction with shelter. It was used as a shelter and withdrawal area as well as
foraging area

Plate 134: Levelled ground at ruin area

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Summary
Enrichment of brow-antlered deer enclosure at National Zoological Park showed the
possibilities and difficulties of planning, executing and assessing various ideas of
enclosure enrichment on ground. Response to enrichments items by the individual
animal could differ though they are kept in same captive environmental conditions.
However, for our study this has not been taken into consideration looking at large size
of the herd and difficulty in identifying the individuals. Due emphasis on the social
structure and interaction of the animals with one another was given.

The following points sum up our observations made during our study:
1. Problem identification was a very important step that preceded enrichment
intervention.
2. Enrichments and scientific management practices increased activity and space
use pattern of the animals.
3. Feeding enrichment was the most rewarding and most effective enrichment
especially for ungulates. However, other enrichment types need to be tried as
well. More reward based manipulable enrichment approach could be
incorporated after detailed studies.
4. Providing feed in the paddock area resulted in positive changes in the activity
and behaviour of the animals. It can be tried out in other herbivore enclosures
as well.
5. Provision of feed inside the paddock area and at different areas provided
equal opportunity and access for each and every animal to feed; thereby
ensuring a more even distribution of feed.
6. Enrichment devices and strategies need to be presented on a varied schedule
and in a variety of context to make sure the animals do not become
desensitized or habituated to them.
7. Presence of enough enthusiastic animal care staff is essential for a successful
enrichment plan since they are the one who has to look after the enclosure
and continue taking care of the animals.
8. No enrichment plan or design is perfect or fixed for specific species and there
should always be a scope of improving or improvising it. There has to be a
constant change and innovation.

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