Questions for the practical exam 1 (dentistry): Head, neck and central nerve system

Bones:
1. Frontal bone (parts, anatomical structures)

The frontal bone is a bone of the skull located at the front of the head. It forms the forehead and
the upper portion of the orbits (eye sockets). Here are some details about the parts and anatomical
structures of the frontal bone:

1. Squamous part: The squamous part of the frontal bone is the flat, horizontal portion that
forms the forehead. It extends from the superciliary arches (eyebrows) to the coronal suture,
which is the joint between the frontal bone and the parietal bones.
2. Orbital part: The orbital part of the frontal bone is the portion that forms the upper part of
the orbits (eye sockets). It contains several structures, including the supraorbital foramen (a
small hole above the eye), the frontal sinus (an air-filled cavity in the bone), and the
trochlear notch (a groove for the trochlear nerve, which controls eye movement).
3. Nasal part: The nasal part of the frontal bone is a small, triangular-shaped portion located at
the lower part of the forehead. It forms the bridge of the nose and articulates with the nasal
bones.
4. Foramen cecum: The foramen cecum is a small, depression or indentation located at the top
of the nasal part of the frontal bone. It is the remnant of a fetal structure called the frontal
nasal suture.
5. Supraorbital margin: The supraorbital margin is a thick, bony ridge that forms the upper
border of the orbits. It contains the supraorbital foramen, through which the supraorbital
nerve and artery pass.
6. Glabella: The glabella is a smooth, flat area of the frontal bone located between the
eyebrows. It is an important landmark for certain medical procedures and measurements of
the skull.

In summary, the frontal bone is a complex structure composed of several parts and anatomical
structures. Understanding the anatomy of the frontal bone is important for diagnosing and
treating conditions that affect the skull and facial structures.
2. Parietal bone (borders, angles, anatomical structures)

The parietal bone is a paired bone located at the top and sides of the skull, forming the roof and
upper sides of the cranial cavity. Here are some details about the borders, angles, and anatomical
structures of the parietal bone:

1. Borders: The parietal bone has four borders: the sagittal, lambdoid, coronal, and squamous.
The sagittal suture is a joint between the two parietal bones that runs along the midline of
the skull. The lambdoid suture is a joint between the parietal bones and the occipital bone
at the back of the skull. The coronal suture is a joint between the parietal bones and the
frontal bone at the front of the skull. The squamous suture is a joint between the parietal
bone and the temporal bone at the sides of the skull.
2. Angles: The parietal bone has four angles: the frontal, sphenoidal, occipital, and mastoid.
The frontal angle is the point where the parietal bone meets the frontal bone. The
sphenoidal angle is the point where the parietal bone meets the sphenoid bone. The
occipital angle is the point where the parietal bone meets the occipital bone. The mastoid
angle is the point where the parietal bone meets the temporal bone.
3. Anatomical structures: The parietal bone has several important anatomical structures,
including the following:
 The parietal eminence is a convex bulge on the outer surface of the bone.
 The parietal foramen is a small hole that occasionally occurs near the sagittal suture in some
people.
 The parietal tuber is a rounded elevation on the bone, located posterior to the parietal
eminence.
 The superior and inferior temporal lines are ridges on the outer surface of the bone that
mark the attachment sites of the temporalis muscle.

In summary, the parietal bone is a complex structure with several borders, angles, and anatomical
structures. Understanding the anatomy of the parietal bone is important for diagnosing and
treating conditions that affect the skull and brain.

3. Occipital bone (parts, anatomical structures)

The occipital bone is a single bone that forms the posterior part of the skull and surrounds the
foramen magnum, the opening through which the spinal cord passes. Here are some details about
the parts and anatomical structures of the occipital bone:

1. Squamous part: The squamous part of the occipital bone is the flat, plate-like portion
located at the back of the skull. It forms the base of the skull and connects with the parietal
bones.
2. Basilar part: The basilar part of the occipital bone is the thick, bony ridge that forms the
floor of the skull and supports the brain. It extends from the foramen magnum to the
sphenoid bone.
3. Foramen magnum: The foramen magnum is a large, oval-shaped opening in the occipital
bone that allows the spinal cord to pass through and connect with the brainstem.
4. Occipital condyles: The occipital condyles are two rounded protuberances on the lateral
sides of the foramen magnum that articulate with the first cervical vertebra (the atlas) to
allow for head movement.
 5. External occipital protuberance: The external occipital protuberance is a small bump located
at the midline of the squamous part of the occipital bone. It serves as a site of attachment
for the ligamentum nuchae, which connects the skull to the cervical vertebrae.
6. Superior and inferior nuchal lines: The superior and inferior nuchal lines are two curved
ridges located on the posterior aspect of the squamous part of the occipital bone. They
mark the attachment sites for muscles that control head and neck movements.
7. Occipital sinus: The occipital sinus is a small, venous channel that runs along the midline of
the internal surface of the occipital bone. It drains blood from the brain and spinal cord.

In summary, the occipital bone is a complex structure composed of several parts and anatomical
structures. Understanding the anatomy of the occipital bone is important for diagnosing and
treating conditions that affect the skull and brain.

4. Sphenoidal bone (parts, anatomical structures)

The sphenoid bone is a single bone located at the base of the skull, anterior to the temporal bones
and basilar part of the occipital bone, and posterior to the ethmoid bone. It is a complex structure
with several parts and anatomical structures, including the following:

1. Body: The body of the sphenoid bone is a cuboidal structure that forms the central part of
the bone. It contains the sphenoidal sinuses, which are paired cavities that drain into the
nasal cavity.
2. Greater wings: The greater wings of the sphenoid bone are large, flat extensions that project
laterally from the body of the bone. They help form the middle cranial fossa and provide
attachment sites for several muscles.
3. Lesser wings: The lesser wings of the sphenoid bone are thin, triangular extensions that
project anteriorly from the body of the bone. They help form the anterior cranial fossa and
provide attachment sites for several muscles.
4. Pterygoid processes: The pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone are two slender
projections that extend inferiorly from the body of the bone. They are divided into lateral
and medial plates and provide attachment sites for the pterygoid muscles.
5. Sella turcica: The sella turcica is a saddle-shaped depression located on the superior surface
of the body of the sphenoid bone. It contains the pituitary gland, which is an important
endocrine gland.
6. Optic canals: The optic canals are two openings located on the anterior surface of the body
of the sphenoid bone. They transmit the optic nerves and ophthalmic arteries.
7. Foramen rotundum and foramen ovale: The foramen rotundum and foramen ovale are two
openings located on the lateral surface of the body of the sphenoid bone. They transmit the
maxillary nerve and mandibular nerve, respectively.
8. Sphenoidal crest: The sphenoidal crest is a ridge located on the superior surface of the body
of the sphenoid bone. It divides the sella turcica into two halves and provides attachment
sites for several muscles.

In summary, the sphenoid bone is a complex structure composed of several parts and anatomical
structures. Understanding the anatomy of the sphenoid bone is important for diagnosing and
treating conditions that affect the skull and brain.
5. Temporal bone (parts, anatomical structures)

The temporal bone is a paired bone located on the lateral aspect of the skull, and it contains
several parts and anatomical structures, including the following:

1. Squamous part: The squamous part of the temporal bone is a flat, scale-like structure that
forms the lateral and upper portions of the skull. It also houses the mandibular fossa, which
is an indentation that forms the socket for the mandibular condyle of the lower jaw bone.
2. Tympanic part: The tympanic part of the temporal bone is a small, roughly triangular-
shaped structure that contains the external ear canal and the ear drum (tympanic
membrane).
3. Mastoid process: The mastoid process is a bony protuberance that is located behind the ear
and provides an attachment site for the sternocleidomastoid muscle.
4. Petrous part: The petrous part of the temporal bone is a dense, pyramid-shaped structure
that forms the medial wall of the middle ear and contains the inner ear structures, including
the cochlea and semicircular canals.
5. Internal auditory meatus: The internal auditory meatus is a narrow canal located on the
petrous part of the temporal bone, through which the facial nerve and vestibulocochlear
nerve (cranial nerves VII and VIII) pass.
6. Styloid process: The styloid process is a long, slender bony projection that extends inferiorly
from the temporal bone and provides an attachment site for several muscles and ligaments.
7. Jugular foramen: The jugular foramen is a large opening located at the junction of the
temporal and occipital bones, through which several important blood vessels and nerves
pass.
8. Carotid canal: The carotid canal is a short, bony canal located in the petrous part of the
temporal bone, through which the internal carotid artery passes.

In summary, the temporal bone is a complex structure composed of several parts and anatomical
structures. Understanding the anatomy of the temporal bone is important for diagnosing and
treating conditions that affect the skull, ear, and surrounding structures.

6. Ethmoid bone (parts, anatomical structures)

The ethmoid bone is a complex, cuboid-shaped bone located in the anterior part of the skull,
between the eyes. It contains several parts and anatomical structures, including the following:

1. Cribriform plate: The cribriform plate is a horizontal, sieve-like structure that forms the roof
of the nasal cavity and contains numerous small openings for the olfactory nerves.
2. Crista galli: The crista galli is a small, triangular-shaped bony projection located on the
superior surface of the ethmoid bone, to which the falx cerebri (a fold of the dura mater
that separates the two hemispheres of the brain) attaches.
3. Perpendicular plate: The perpendicular plate is a thin, vertical plate that extends inferiorly
from the cribriform plate and forms part of the nasal septum.
4. Labyrinth: The labyrinth is a complex network of thin bony plates and air cells that make up
the lateral mass of the ethmoid bone. It contains several important structures, including the
superior and middle nasal conchae (which help to increase the surface area of the nasal
cavity) and the ethmoidal sinuses.
5. Ethmoidal sinuses: The ethmoidal sinuses are a group of small, air-filled spaces located
within the lateral mass of the ethmoid bone. They communicate with the nasal cavity and
 play a role in warming and humidifying inhaled air, as well as providing resonance to the
voice.

In summary, the ethmoid bone is an important bone of the skull that contains several complex
structures that contribute to the anatomy and function of the nasal cavity and the brain.
Understanding the anatomy of the ethmoid bone is important for diagnosing and treating
conditions that affect these areas.

7. Maxilla (parts, anatomical structures)

The maxilla is a paired bone located in the upper jaw of the skull, and it contains several parts and
anatomical structures, including the following:

1. Maxillary body: The maxillary body is the main, horizontally oriented portion of the bone
that forms the bulk of the upper jaw.
2. Maxillary alveolar process: The maxillary alveolar process is a thickened ridge of bone that
extends inferiorly from the maxillary body and contains the sockets (alveoli) for the teeth of
the upper jaw.
3. Infraorbital foramen: The infraorbital foramen is a small opening located on the maxillary
body, just below the orbit (eye socket). It allows the passage of the infraorbital nerve and
blood vessels, which supply sensation to the skin of the cheek, upper lip, and side of the
nose.
4. Maxillary sinus: The maxillary sinus is a large, air-filled cavity located within the maxillary
body. It communicates with the nasal cavity and plays a role in warming and humidifying
inhaled air, as well as providing resonance to the voice.
5. Palatine process: The palatine process is a horizontal bony projection that extends medially
from the maxillary body and forms the anterior portion of the hard palate (the bony roof of
the mouth).
6. Zygomatic process: The zygomatic process is a thin, bony projection that extends laterally
from the maxillary body and forms part of the zygomatic arch (the bony arch that extends
from the cheekbone to the temple).
7. Infraorbital margin: The infraorbital margin is the inferior border of the orbit, which is
formed in part by the maxillary bone.

In summary, the maxilla is an important bone of the skull that forms the upper jaw and contains
several important structures, including the alveolar process, infraorbital foramen, maxillary sinus,
palatine process, zygomatic process, and infraorbital margin. Understanding the anatomy of the
maxilla is important for diagnosing and treating conditions that affect the upper jaw, teeth,
sinuses, and surrounding structures.

8. Mandible (anatomical structures)

The mandible, or the lower jaw bone, is an important bone of the skull that contains several
important anatomical structures, including the following:

1. Body: The body of the mandible is the main, horizontally oriented portion of the bone that
forms the bulk of the lower jaw.
 2. Ramus: The ramus is a vertical, flattened portion of the mandible that extends superiorly
from the posterior aspect of the body. It consists of two main processes: the coronoid
process and the condylar process.
3. Coronoid process: The coronoid process is a thin, triangular-shaped projection located on
the anterior aspect of the ramus. It serves as the attachment site for the temporalis muscle,
which is involved in chewing.
4. Condylar process: The condylar process is a rounded projection located on the posterior
aspect of the ramus. It articulates with the temporal bone to form the temporomandibular
joint (TMJ), which allows for movements of the lower jaw.
5. Mandibular foramen: The mandibular foramen is a small opening located on the medial
aspect of the ramus, near the inferior border. It allows the passage of the inferior alveolar
nerve and blood vessels, which supply sensation to the lower teeth and gums.
6. Mental foramen: The mental foramen is a small opening located on the anterior aspect of
the body, near the mandibular symphysis (midline of the chin). It allows the passage of the
mental nerve and blood vessels, which supply sensation to the skin of the lower lip and
chin.

In summary, the mandible is an important bone of the skull that forms the lower jaw and contains
several important structures, including the body, ramus, coronoid process, condylar process,
mandibular foramen, and mental foramen. Understanding the anatomy of the mandible is
important for diagnosing and treating conditions that affect the lower jaw, teeth, and surrounding
structures.

9. Zygomatic and palatine bone

The zygomatic and palatine bones are two important bones of the skull that are involved in
forming the lateral and inferior aspects of the orbital and nasal cavities, respectively.

1. Zygomatic bone: The zygomatic bone, also known as the cheekbone, is a paired bone that
forms the prominence of the cheek. It consists of three processes: the temporal process, the
zygomatic process, and the maxillary process. The temporal process of the zygomatic bone
articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to form the zygomatic arch.
The zygomatic process of the zygomatic bone articulates with the maxilla to form the
zygomaticomaxillary suture. The maxillary process of the zygomatic bone articulates with
the maxilla and the inferior orbital fissure to form the infraorbital margin.
2. Palatine bone: The palatine bone is a paired bone that forms the posterior portion of the
hard palate, as well as the lateral walls and floor of the nasal cavity. It consists of two parts:
the horizontal plate and the vertical plate. The horizontal plate forms the posterior portion
of the hard palate and articulates with the maxilla and the opposite palatine bone to form
the midline palatine suture. The vertical plate forms the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and
articulates with the sphenoid, ethmoid, maxilla, and inferior nasal concha.

In summary, the zygomatic and palatine bones are important bones of the skull that contribute to
the formation of the cheek, zygomatic arch, infraorbital margin, hard palate, and lateral walls and
floor of the nasal cavity. Understanding the anatomy of these bones is important for diagnosing
and treating conditions that affect the facial and nasal regions.

10. Lacrimal bone, nasal bone, vomer, inferior nasal concha

The lacrimal bone, nasal bone, vomer, and inferior nasal concha are four important bones of the
skull that are involved in forming the nasal cavity and orbit.

1. Lacrimal bone: The lacrimal bone is a paired bone that is located in the anterior part of the
medial wall of the orbit. It consists of two main parts: the orbital and the facial. The orbital
part forms a small portion of the medial wall of the orbit, while the facial part is located in
the nasal cavity and forms a groove for the nasolacrimal duct.
2. Nasal bone: The nasal bone is a paired bone that forms the bridge of the nose. It is located
at the midline of the face and articulates with the frontal bone superiorly, the maxilla
laterally, and the opposite nasal bone medially.
3. Vomer: The vomer is a single bone that forms the inferior and posterior portion of the nasal
septum. It is located at the midline of the skull and articulates with the perpendicular plate
of the ethmoid bone superiorly, the sphenoid bone posteriorly, and the maxilla and palatine
bones inferiorly.
4. Inferior nasal concha: The inferior nasal concha is a paired bone that is located in the lateral
wall of the nasal cavity. It is the largest of the three nasal conchae and is shaped like a scroll.
The inferior nasal concha forms a groove for the passage of the nasolacrimal duct and
articulates with the maxilla anteriorly and the ethmoid bone posteriorly.

In summary, the lacrimal bone, nasal bone, vomer, and inferior nasal concha are four important
bones of the skull that contribute to the formation of the nasal cavity and orbit. Understanding the
anatomy of these bones is important for diagnosing and treating conditions that affect the nasal
and orbital regions.

11. Calvaria

The calvaria, also known as the skullcap or cranial vault, is the superior part of the skull that
encloses and protects the brain. It is formed by the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones, which are
joined together by sutures.

The calvaria is divided into two main regions: the superior aspect, which forms the rounded top of
the skull, and the lateral aspects, which form the sides of the skull. The superior aspect of the
calvaria is convex and is made up of the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones. The lateral aspects of
the calvaria are flat and are made up of the temporal and parietal bones.

The calvaria also has several important features, including the following:

 The coronal suture, which joins the frontal and parietal bones.
 The sagittal suture, which joins the two parietal bones.
 The lambdoid suture, which joins the parietal and occipital bones.
 The squamous suture, which joins the temporal and parietal bones.
 The fontanelles, which are soft spots located at the junctions between the sutures in the
skull of an infant. They allow for the growth and expansion of the skull during development.

In summary, the calvaria is the superior part of the skull that encloses and protects the brain. It is
formed by the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones, which are joined together by sutures.
Understanding the anatomy of the calvaria is important for diagnosing and treating conditions
that affect the skull and brain.
12. Anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossa (borders, anatomical structures, communications)

The cranial fossae are three depressions or concavities in the internal surface of the base of the
skull that house the brain and its associated structures. They are named the anterior, middle, and
posterior cranial fossae based on their location from anterior to posterior.

1. Anterior cranial fossa: The anterior cranial fossa is located at the anterior part of the skull
and is formed by the frontal bone and part of the sphenoid bone. It houses the frontal lobes
of the brain, olfactory bulbs, and the optic nerves. The borders of the anterior cranial fossa
include the frontal crest of the frontal bone, the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone, and the
anterior clinoid processes of the sphenoid bone.
2. Middle cranial fossa: The middle cranial fossa is located in the middle part of the skull and is
formed by the sphenoid, temporal, and parietal bones. It houses the temporal lobes of the
brain, the pituitary gland, and several cranial nerves. The borders of the middle cranial fossa
include the superior border of the petrous part of the temporal bone, the greater wings of
the sphenoid bone, and the crest of the ridge of the sphenoid bone.
3. Posterior cranial fossa: The posterior cranial fossa is located at the posterior part of the skull
and is formed by the occipital bone and part of the temporal and sphenoid bones. It houses
the cerebellum, brainstem, and the spinal cord. The borders of the posterior cranial fossa
include the petrous part of the temporal bone, the clivus of the occipital bone, and the
posterior edge of the foramen magnum.

The cranial fossae have several important anatomical structures and communications, including:

 Foramen magnum: A large opening at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord
exits the skull and enters the vertebral canal.
 Optic canal: A small opening in the anterior cranial fossa through which the optic nerve and
ophthalmic artery pass.
 Superior orbital fissure: A slit-like opening in the middle cranial fossa through which several
cranial nerves and blood vessels pass.
 Foramen ovale: A large opening in the middle cranial fossa through which several cranial
nerves and blood vessels pass.
 Internal acoustic meatus: A canal in the posterior cranial fossa through which several cranial
nerves, including the vestibulocochlear nerve, pass.

In summary, the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae are three depressions in the internal
surface of the base of the skull that house the brain and its associated structures. Understanding
the borders, anatomical structures, and communications of each cranial fossa is important for
diagnosing and treating conditions that affect the brain and cranial nerves.

13. External cranial base

The external cranial base refers to the inferior aspect or base of the skull, which is formed by the
bones of the skull and their articulations with the facial bones. The external cranial base is
important because it provides support and protection to the brain, houses the organs of hearing
and balance, and serves as a passage for the cranial nerves and blood vessels that supply the face
and scalp.
The bones that form the external cranial base include the frontal bone, ethmoid bone, sphenoid
bone, occipital bone, temporal bones, maxillary bones, and palatine bones. These bones are
arranged in a complex pattern of sutures, which allow for some flexibility and movement during
growth and development.

Some of the key anatomical structures and features of the external cranial base include:

1. Foramen magnum: A large opening at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord
exits the skull and enters the vertebral canal.
2. Occipital condyles: Two oval processes on either side of the foramen magnum that
articulate with the atlas (C1 vertebra) to form the atlanto-occipital joint.
3. Sella turcica: A saddle-shaped depression in the sphenoid bone that houses the pituitary
gland.
4. Jugular foramen: A large opening on either side of the occipital bone through which the
internal jugular vein and several cranial nerves pass.
5. External auditory meatus: A canal in the temporal bone that leads to the tympanic
membrane (eardrum) and middle ear.
6. Mastoid process: A bony projection on the temporal bone that serves as an attachment site
for several neck muscles.
7. Zygomatic arch: A bony arch formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and
the zygomatic bone that serves as a support for the cheek and temple.

Understanding the anatomy and features of the external cranial base is important for diagnosing
and treating conditions that affect the brain, cranial nerves, and blood vessels that supply the face
and scalp.

14. Orbital fossa (borders, anatomical structures, communications)

The orbital fossa, also known as the orbit or eye socket, is a bony cavity in the skull that houses
and protects the eyeball and its associated structures. The orbital fossa is located on the anterior
aspect of the skull, below the forehead and above the cheekbones.

The borders of the orbital fossa are formed by seven bones of the skull: the frontal bone, sphenoid
bone, ethmoid bone, maxilla, lacrimal bone, zygomatic bone, and palatine bone. The floor of the
orbit is formed by the maxilla and the zygomatic bone.

Anatomical structures within the orbital fossa include:

1. Eyeball: The globe-shaped structure that contains the visual receptors of the eye.
2. Extraocular muscles: The six muscles that control the movement of the eyeball.
3. Optic nerve: The nerve that carries visual information from the retina to the brain.
4. Lacrimal gland: The gland that produces tears to lubricate the surface of the eye.
5. Lacrimal sac and nasolacrimal duct: Structures that drain tears from the eye into the nasal
cavity.
6. Superior and inferior orbital fissures: Narrow openings in the orbital fossa that allow for the
passage of nerves and blood vessels.
7. Ethmoidal air cells: Small air-filled spaces within the ethmoid bone that communicate with
the nasal cavity.
8. Orbital fat: A layer of fatty tissue that surrounds and cushions the eyeball.
Understanding the borders, anatomical structures, and communications within the orbital fossa is
important for diagnosing and treating conditions that affect the eye and its associated structures,
such as orbital fractures, tumors, and infections.

15. Nasal cavity (borders, anatomical structures, communications)

The nasal cavity is a complex structure located in the upper respiratory tract, extending from the
nostrils (anteriorly) to the choanae (posteriorly). It is divided into two parts, the left and right nasal
cavity, by the nasal septum. Here are some details about the borders, anatomical structures, and
communications of the nasal cavity:

1. Borders: The nasal cavity is surrounded by several bony structures, including the maxilla,
palatine bone, ethmoid bone, frontal bone, and sphenoid bone. The nasal cavity
communicates anteriorly with the external environment through the nostrils (nares) and
posteriorly with the nasopharynx through the choanae.
2. Anatomical structures: The nasal cavity is lined with a mucous membrane that contains
numerous blood vessels and goblet cells. There are several anatomical structures located
within the nasal cavity, including:
 Nasal conchae (turbinates): These are three bony projections on the lateral walls of the nasal
cavity that help to increase the surface area of the mucous membrane and create
turbulence in the airflow, which helps to humidify and warm the air.
 Nasal meatuses: These are narrow passageways located between the nasal conchae that
help to direct the airflow through the nasal cavity.
 Olfactory epithelium: This is a specialized region of the mucous membrane located in the
upper part of the nasal cavity that contains olfactory receptor cells, which are responsible
for detecting odors.
 Paranasal sinuses: These are air-filled cavities located within the bones of the skull that
communicate with the nasal cavity through small openings. The paranasal sinuses include
the frontal sinuses, ethmoid sinuses, sphenoid sinuses, and maxillary sinuses.
3. Communications: The nasal cavity communicates with several other structures within the
head and neck, including:
 Paranasal sinuses: As mentioned, the paranasal sinuses communicate with the nasal cavity
through small openings, allowing air and mucus to flow between the two structures.
 Nasolacrimal ducts: These are small channels that connect the nasal cavity with the lacrimal
sac, which is responsible for draining tears from the eyes.
 Eustachian tubes: These are small tubes that connect the nasal cavity with the middle ear,
helping to equalize pressure on either side of the eardrum.
 Pharynx: The nasal cavity communicates posteriorly with the nasopharynx, which is the
upper part of the throat.

16. Hard palate

The hard palate is a bony structure that forms the roof of the mouth and separates the oral cavity
from the nasal cavity. It is composed of two bones, the maxilla and the palatine bone, and is
covered by a thick, keratinized mucous membrane. Here are some details about the anatomy and
function of the hard palate:

1. Anatomy: The hard palate is a curved, horseshoe-shaped structure that extends from the
teeth in the front to the soft palate in the back. It is composed of two bony plates, the
 horizontal plates of the maxilla and the palatine bones, which are fused together at the
midline. The bony plates are covered by a thick, keratinized mucous membrane that is
continuous with the gingiva (gums) in the front and the soft palate in the back.
2. Function: The hard palate serves several important functions, including:
 Separating the oral cavity from the nasal cavity: The hard palate forms the floor of the nasal
cavity and the roof of the oral cavity, separating the two and preventing food and liquids
from entering the nasal cavity during swallowing.
 Providing a firm surface for the tongue to press against during swallowing: The hard palate
provides a stable surface for the tongue to press against during the oral phase of
swallowing, helping to move food and liquids toward the back of the throat.
 Supporting the teeth: The hard palate provides support for the upper teeth, which are
anchored to the maxilla bone.
 Resonating sound: The hard palate plays a role in speech production by helping to resonate
sound waves produced by the vocal cords in the larynx.

17. Bony nasal cavity

The bony nasal cavity is a complex structure composed of several bones that form the framework
of the nasal passages. Here are some details about the anatomy and function of the bony nasal
cavity:

1. Bones: The bony nasal cavity is composed of several bones, including the ethmoid,
sphenoid, frontal, nasal, and maxillary bones. The ethmoid bone forms the roof of the nasal
cavity, while the maxillary bone forms the floor. The frontal and sphenoid bones form the
anterior and posterior walls, respectively, and the nasal bone forms the bridge of the nose.
2. Anatomy: The bony nasal cavity is divided into two halves by the nasal septum, which is
composed of bone and cartilage. Each half contains three bony projections known as the
turbinates or nasal conchae, which increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and help to
humidify and filter the air that enters the lungs.
3. Function: The bony nasal cavity plays several important functions, including:
 Humidifying and filtering air: The turbinates and nasal mucosa help to humidify and filter
the air that enters the lungs, trapping particles and debris before they can reach the lungs.
 Smell: The bony nasal cavity also plays a role in the sense of smell. Olfactory nerves, which
are responsible for smell, are located in the mucosa lining the roof of the nasal cavity.
 Resonance: The bony nasal cavity contributes to the resonance of the voice by modifying
the sound waves produced by the vocal cords in the larynx.

In summary, the bony nasal cavity is a complex structure composed of several bones that forms
the framework of the nasal passages. Its anatomy and function play critical roles in the respiratory
and olfactory systems, as well as in speech and voice production.

18. Skull at birth

The skull at birth is a complex structure that undergoes significant changes and growth during the
first few years of life. Here are some details about the anatomy and development of the skull at
birth:

1. Fontanelles: The skull at birth has several membranous areas called fontanelles where the
cranial bones have not yet fused. The largest of these is the anterior fontanelle, which is
 located at the top of the head between the frontal and parietal bones. Other fontanelles
include the posterior, sphenoid, and mastoid fontanelles.
2. Bones: The skull at birth is composed of several bones that are not yet fully formed or fused.
These include the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. The
bones are separated by sutures, which allow for growth and flexibility during early
development.
3. Growth and development: During the first few years of life, the skull undergoes significant
growth and development. The bones gradually fuse together, and the fontanelles close as
the cranial bones become more solid. This process is important for the development of the
brain and other structures within the skull.
4. Craniosynostosis: Craniosynostosis is a condition where one or more of the sutures in the
skull fuse prematurely, which can lead to abnormal skull growth and brain development.
Treatment for craniosynostosis typically involves surgery to reshape the skull and relieve
pressure on the brain.

In summary, the skull at birth is a complex structure that undergoes significant changes and
growth during the first few years of life. The presence of fontanelles and sutures allows for growth
and flexibility, while the gradual fusion of the cranial bones is important for proper brain
development. Understanding the anatomy and development of the skull at birth is important for
diagnosing and managing conditions such as craniosynostosis.

Joints, muscles and fascia:

1. Sutures of the skull bones
2. Temporomandibular joint
3. Muscles of the mastication (names, origin, insertion, action, innervation)
4. Muscles of the facial expression (names, origin, insertion, action, innervation)
5. M. platysma, m. sternocleidomastoid (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
6. Suprahyoid muscles (names, origin, insertion, action, innervation)
7. Infrahyoid muscles (names, origin, insertion, action, innervation)
8. Scalene muscles (names, origin, insertion, action, innervation)
9. Prevertebral muscles (names, origin, insertion, action, innervation)
10. Fascia of the head and fascia of the neck
11. Triangles of the neck (names, borders, content)

Blood vessels and nerves:

1. External carotid artery (topography, branches)
The external carotid artery is a major blood vessel in the neck that supplies blood to the face, neck, and scalp. It is one of the two
branches that arise from the common carotid artery in the neck, with the other being the internal carotid artery. The external carotid
artery can be divided into several branches, each of which supplies blood to a different area of the head and neck.
The topography of the external carotid artery is as follows: it begins at the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage and
terminates at the level of the neck of the mandible, where it divides into two terminal branches (the maxillary artery and the superficial
temporal artery).

1 Superior thyroid artery: supplies the thyroid gland and surrounding structures.
 2 Lingual artery: supplies the tongue, sublingual gland, and floor of the mouth.
 3 Facial artery: supplies the face and oral cavity.
 4 Occipital artery: supplies the back of the scalp and muscles of the neck.
 5 Posterior auricular artery: supplies the scalp behind the ear and the auricle.
 6 Maxillary artery: supplies the deep structures of the face, including the teeth, palate, and nasal cavity.
 7 Superficial temporal artery: supplies the temporal region of the scalp.
In summary, the external carotid artery supplies blood to the face, neck, and scalp through its branches, which include the superior thyroid
artery, lingual artery, facial artery, occipital artery, posterior auricular artery, maxillary artery, and superficial temporal artery.

2. Superior thyroid artery (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)

3.
4. Thyrocervical trunk (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)
5. Costocervical trunk (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)
6. Lingual artery (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)
7. Facial artery (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)
8. Superficial temporal artery (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)
9. Maxillary artery (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)
10. Occipital artery and posterior auricular artery (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)
11. Ophthalmic artery (topography, branches, areas of blood supply)
12. Internal jugular vein (topography, tributaries, drainage)
13. External jugular vein (topography, tributaries, drainage)
14. Anterior jugular vein (topography, tributaries, drainage)
15. Vena facialis (topography, tributaries, drainage)
16. Vena retromandibularis (topography, tributaries, drainage)
17. Plexus cervicalis (formation, branches, innervation)
18. Nervus accessorius (course, branches, innervation)
19. Nervus hypoglossus (course, branches, innervation)
20. Nervus trigeminus (course, branches, innervation) – ophthalmic nerve
21. Nervus trigeminus (course, branches, innervation) – maxillary nerve
22. Nervus trigeminus (course, branches, innervation) – mandibular nerve
23. Nervus facialis (course, branches, innervation)

Central nerve system

1. Spinal cord (intumescentia, conus medullaris, cauda equina, segments of the spinal cord, filum
terminale)

The spinal cord is a long, tubular structure that runs from the brainstem to the lower back,
enclosed within the vertebral column. Here are some details about the anatomical features of the
spinal cord:

1. Intumescentia: The spinal cord has two enlargements or intumescentia - one in the cervical
region and the other in the lumbar region. The cervical intumescentia is located between C4
to T1 vertebrae and gives rise to nerves that innervate the upper extremities. The lumbar
intumescentia is located between L1 to S3 vertebrae and gives rise to nerves that innervate
the lower extremities.
2. Conus medullaris: The conus medullaris is the tapered, conical end of the spinal cord,
located at the level of L1 to L2 vertebrae. It marks the end of the spinal cord proper and
gives rise to the cauda equina.
3. Cauda equina: The cauda equina, also known as the "horse's tail," is a bundle of nerve roots
that descend from the conus medullaris and run through the lumbar and sacral spinal canal.
The cauda equina contains nerves that innervate the lower limbs, perineum, and pelvic
organs.
 4. Segments of the spinal cord: The spinal cord is divided into segments, each of which gives
rise to a pair of spinal nerves. There are 31 segments in total, consisting of 8 cervical, 12
thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Each segment is associated with a particular
spinal nerve, which exits the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramen.
5. Filum terminale: The filum terminale is a thin, fibrous extension of the spinal cord that
extends from the conus medullaris to the coccyx. It anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx
and helps to prevent excessive movement of the cord within the vertebral column.

In summary, the spinal cord is a complex structure that plays a critical role in the transmission of
sensory and motor information between the brain and the rest of the body. Its anatomical features,
including the intumescentia, conus medullaris, cauda equina, segments, and filum terminale, all
contribute to its function and overall structure.

2. Spinal cord: gray and white matter

3. Nervus spinalis (formation, course, branches)
4. Spinal cord: blood supply

The spinal cord receives its blood supply from three major arteries: the anterior spinal artery, the
two posterior spinal arteries, and several segmental arteries. Here are some details about the
blood supply of the spinal cord:

1. Anterior spinal artery: The anterior spinal artery is a single midline artery that runs the
length of the spinal cord along its anterior surface. It arises from the vertebral arteries in the
neck and descends along the anterior surface of the spinal cord. The anterior spinal artery
supplies the anterior two-thirds of the spinal cord, including the motor and autonomic
tracts.
2. Posterior spinal arteries: The posterior spinal arteries are two smaller arteries that run along
the posterior surface of the spinal cord. They arise from the vertebral arteries and descend
along the spinal cord. The posterior spinal arteries supply the posterior one-third of the
spinal cord, including the sensory tracts.
3. Segmental arteries: The segmental arteries are small arteries that arise from the aorta and
supply the spinal cord at each level. They enter the vertebral canal through the
intervertebral foramina and supply the spinal cord and its surrounding structures.

The blood supply to the spinal cord is critical for its function and survival. Interruption of blood
flow to the spinal cord, such as through a spinal cord injury or occlusion of the arteries, can result
in significant damage to the spinal cord and neurological deficits. Therefore, preserving the blood
supply to the spinal cord is an important consideration in the management of spinal cord injuries
and other spinal conditions.

5. Circle of Willis (formation, arteries)

6. Meninges of the brain
7. Sinuses of the dura mater
8. Circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid
9. Frontal lobe of the brain (gyri and sulci)
10. Parietal lobe of the brain (gyri and sulci)
11. Occipital lobe of the brain (gyri and sulci)
12. Temporal lobe of the brain (gyri and sulci)
13. Mesencephalon (parts, structures, functions)
14. Pons (parts, structures, functions)
15. Cerebellum (parts, structures, functions)
16. Medulla oblongata (parts, structures, functions)
17. Rhomboid fossa (borders, structures)
18. White matter of the cerebrum (commissural, associative, projection fibers)
19. Corpus callosum, fornix, internal capsule
20. Basal ganglia
21. Diencephalon (parts, structures, functions)
22. Lateral ventricles
23. Third ventricle