P1 Describe fundamental techniques, processes, plant and materials used in

groundworks, foundations and substructures?

Site Investigation:

Site investigation involves investigating the site's physical structures, including documentary
research, site assessments, and ground investigation.

Reason of Performing Site Investigation:

Because of the following factors, a site inspection is necessary before all civil engineering
projects are constructed:

 Assess the appropriateness of the site for the works proposed.

 Preparing a suitable and cost-effective design.

 Plan the best way of building; and

 Inform the relative appropriateness of alternate sites.

General Procedures of Site Investigation:

The site analysis will usually be performed in phrases such as desk research, site recognition, in-
depth design examination, including ground and hydrographical investigations, special studies,
and construction follow-up investigations. Following this may be a successful evaluation. Some
steps can overlap or be removed; the site identification, for instance, may well take place
before the desk analysis is completed.

Site Reconnaissance:

At an early point, the platform should be extensively screened. The depth of inspection of the
soil next to the site is also usually needed—a decision issue. During the recognition stage, it is
expected that in the highly developed urban areas of Hong Kong, existing slopes and holding
walls are examined inside and around the site and surrounding buildings.

Procedure of Site Reconnaissance:

All specifications should not necessarily be taken as follows.

Preparatory Work:

The following plans should be made before the site recognition.

The owner and the occupier had to obtain permission to access the site.

There should be a site plan, geological and topographical maps, and the appropriate
equipment, such as a notebook. Pencil, broad clipboard, camera, measuring tape, geological
compass (compasses and clinometers) (x10). For major places. A range finder and binoculars
can be helpful as well. Also included should be any equipment required for the safety of local
workers.

General Procedure:

The following protocol may be followed where appropriate:

 Ideally, on foot, the entire field should be crossed and photographs of selected site
features and its environment taken.

 Differences and errors on plans and maps should be reported (e.g., borders of
locations, houses, roads, etc.).

 Details of all existing structures should be reviewed and, where necessary, records
recorded.

 Potential barriers need to be registered (e.g., transmission lines, telephone lines,

historical characteristics, large trees, gas pipes, sewage cables, and water pipes).

 Access should be tested, including on existing highways, bridges, and facilities, the
influence of construction traffic, and heavy building loads.

 Where appropriate, the water levels, the path, and flow rate for nulls and streams
should be noted, and the flood level and tidal and other fluctuations.

 Features of the adjacent property should be recorded, and their probability should
be evaluated concerning planned works.
  Old systems and other characteristics should be reviewed and appropriate records
made.

 In the site's past use, structural damage to buildings on or near the site, flooding,
and land instability, residents should be questioned. Such information should be
carefully processed but registered and analyzed.
Cost of SiteInvestigation:

Compared to the total cost of the project, the costs of a site inspection are minimal and can be
further minimized by smart future planning. An early discussion with a specialist contractor will
assist in the formulation of an effective and economic plan. In choosing investigational
strategies, rather than cost, the investigation's technical requirements should be the primary
consideration.

Water table:

The position and possible fluctuation of the water table are crucial to the basement's design
and construction. High water tables present the highest risk to a cellar and therefore need to be
established early in the design. Ups and downs of watercourses or water level and the potential
for a perched water table should also be established.

A table with high water refers to the groundwater level regularly above the ground floor level
by definition. A continually low water table is a water table that is continuously below the
ground floor. "A water table with variable amounts varies between the two ends. Drainage
systems may artificially decrease the water table but are not always helpful because of possible
damaging effects on the surrounding properties.

The drainage of the soil and the presence of pollutants will lead to a decision on the concrete
construction and waterproofing process, the location, and the risk of flooding in the nearby
drains.
POTENTIAL CAUSE OF GROUNDWATER POLLUTION:

Storage Tanks:

They can include petrol, oil, chemical substances, or other fluids and may be above or below
the ground. It is estimated that there are more than ten million storage tanks in the United
States and that the tanks will become corrodible, crash and leak over time. Significant
contamination could occur when chemicals are leaking out and into the groundwater.

Septic Systems:

Drainage systems are used in homes, offices, or other buildings not connected to a municipal
wastewater system. Septic systems are designed to drain human waste slowly and cheaply into
the basement. Bacteria, viruses, household chemicals, and other pollutants can leak into
groundwater that is poorly built, located, installed, or maintained, causing severe problems.

Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste:

It is estimated today queued and unregulated hazardous waste sites are over 20,000 identified
in the U.S. and that the number rises every year. Hazardous waste can lead to groundwater
contamination if a container full of hazardous materials lays around barrels or other containers.
If a leak occurs, these pollutants can eventually reach the soil and groundwater.

Landfills:

Deposits are the areas to be buried in our garbage. Deposits should have a protective lower
layer to avoid pollutants entering the water. However, if there is no layer or the pollutants are
crushed, they will reach the groundwater using a deposit (car acid, paint, household cleaners,
etc.).

Road Salts and Chemicals

The widespread use of chemicals and road salts is another source of potential groundwater
contamination. Includes chemicals for the removal of weeds and insects and the fertilization of
plants in lawns and agricultural fields, as well as other products used in homes and businesses.
These chemicals will enter the soil and the water as it rains. In the winter, bath salts are used to
position the melting ice on the roads so that the vehicles do not break. The salt is washed off
the roads when the ice melts and ends up in the water.

Contaminants Of Atmosphere:

As groundwater is part of the hydrological cycle, contaminants are ultimately transferred to our
groundwater source in other areas of the cycle, such as atmospheric or surface water bodies.

SiteFormation:

Including site clearing, land profile reshaping (cutting and filling), traffic, road drainage, and
facilities and utility layout.

Cut andFill:

Few sites are level terrain, and re-shaping is therefore required before any work is started.

The removal of soil from the site causes undisturbed soil but soil disposal issue. To avoid
settlement, filling requires the right quality materials and compaction.

BulkExcavation:

Backhoe:

It can also dig above the track level but in reduced productivity for digging below the level of
the track. Suitable for excavation of trench and bulk. With a wide bucket width equal to the
trench's width, a high-performance rating can be exact . "
Loader Shovel:

Built to charge loose materials such as aggregate and loosened fields, soil and crude grading
may also be propagated. Require an organizational level work framework.

Bulldozer:

Mainly intended to excavate, extend or push soil from one location to another. Excavation
takes place by lowering the board or blade in the soil before the drill. The soil is moved.
Additional duties include vegetation clearing, floor clearance, excavation and pilot road service,
road maintaining, as a tractor for other tractors.

Rock Excavation:

The techniques to crack and excavate rock or other hard materials depend on the material type,
the amount involved, and the on-site conditions. Forms include the following:

Pneumatic breakers:

Pneumatically splitting the rock into small pieces may be used. An air compressor is used for the
power supply for this type of breaker. Tiny pneumatic breakers are kept by hand, while big
breakers are stacked on pumps. Special noise mufflers or silencers should be used to avoid
interference from the noise of a pneumatic breaker.

Fig a)Hand-heldpneumaticbreaker Fig b):Excavator mount breaker

Rockdrilling:

Rock-boiling methods can be used to shape hole 25-150 mm cal in rocks. Hydraulic breakers,
explosives, and non-explosive agents can subsequently break down the rocks.

There are two approaches to create rock holes. They have rotary and rotary percussive boring.

Rotary-percussive drilling:
The lightweight platform gives reasonable penetration rates up to 50m deep and 150mm
diameter, and the rotary-percussive drilling method is also preferred for medium to hard rocks.
The technique is used for the blasting of holes and anchor of the rock.

Different types of bits, including single chisel, winged or cross-bits, button bits, etc., are
required for different conditions. New advances in tungsten carbide enhanced the resilience of
the bits.
 Upper and right corner: Button Bits

Lower left:ChiselBit Lower middle: CrossBit

Different Types of Retaining Walls:

Gravity Retaining Wall:

Gravity holding walls rely on their mass and friction on the base to conquer the slip or
overturning tendency.
Mass Concrete RetainingWall:

It is one of the most superficial retaining walls and is typically trapezoidal. They are perfect for
retained heights of less than three meters. You can be built for higher altitudes, but it is not
economic

CribWalls:

Crib walls are constructed of individual prefabricated units assembled to form a series of crib-
like structures containing ample granular drainage. The crèche units and the infill are intended
to act as a wall-mounted gravity.

Related methods, procedures, materials, and associated construction

equipment:

According to their use, we must research materials from the beginning to the end to learn how
and about super-performing building materials. In this way, the application, implementation,
and viability of this construction material can be quickly concluded and inferred. Construction
materials are said to be super performing when these intelligent materials and techniques are
applied.

 Save total energy by building.

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 Reduced building costs

 Simple to navigate

 Improve building life

 Improving the standard of construction

 Make the building safe.

Building materials are said to be super useful.

 Saving electricity for the whole building

  Render construction agreeable esthetically.

 Reduced building costs

 Simple to navigate

 Improve building life

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 Make the building safe.

P2 Describe the plant and materials used in groundworks, foundations,

substructures and superstructures?

Substructures:

The substructure is that part of a building or other structure which is below the ground, unlike
the superstructure which is above the ground. Typical stages or elements of the substructure,
such as foundations, are listed in the margin

Foundation:

A basis as 'the part of the system designed and built to touch and bring loads to the ground.'

Why is the Foundation Given:

The Foundation should accomplish the following goals:

 Spread the structure's weight over a wide soil field.

 Avoid arbitration unfairly.

 Prevent the structure's lateral movement.

 Increase the stability of the structure.

Foundation’sTypes:
All foundations are typically divided into two categories: shallow and deep. The terms Shallow
and Deep Base relate to the depth of the soil. Generally, it is called the Shallow Foundation if
the foundation's width is greater than the depth of the foundation. The deep foundation and
the low foundation can be seen in the following chart if the width is smaller than that of the
foundation.

Shallow Foundation:

Since the Shallow foundation's depth is low and economic, it is the most common kind of
lightweight foundation. The following are the forms of serpentines of shallow foundations:
"

Shallow Foundation Types:

The following are the kinds of shallow bases.

Isolated Spread Footing:

It is the most commonly recognized and simplest low-floor form since it is the most economical
one. Those are usually used to bear and disperse focus burdens, such as pillars or columns, to
shallow institutions. They are commonly used in ordinary constructions (Typically up to five
stories). "

Figure: "Isolated shallow foundation image"

Wall Footing or Strip footing:

The continuous footing is often called wall footing. This kind is used to disperse to the earth
loads of structural or non-structural walls that do not outperform the soil's load-bearing limit. It
walks along the way towards the wall. The wall base width usually is 2-3 times the wall width.
 Figure: "Wall or Strip footing"

" The wall base is a continuous strip of lath that runs along the length of the wall. It is used for
the construction of wall foundations, stone, brick, reinforced concrete, etc.

Combined Footing:

The integrated foundation is very much like the independent base. The combined foundation is
given when structure columns are carefully positioned, or the bearing ability of the ground is
low, and its footing overlaps. It is a mixture of different foundations, using various balance
properties on an individual basis depending on the structure's requirement. "

Figure: "Combined Footing"

Cantilever or Strap Footing:

" The base of the strap is the same as the base. The reasons for consideration or choice of the
strap base are the same as the one combined.

The base underneath the columns is individually built and connected by a strap beam. In
general, the outer base is connected by a strap beam with an inner base where the foot edge
cannot be extended beyond the property line . "

Figure: "Cantilever or Strap Footing"

Deep Foundations:

When building on the sand and other soft soil, deep foundations are essential that cannot
absorb the building's load. Instead, deep underground or even underwater must be formed as a
base for interaction with more robust planet layers.

For instance, bridges, piers, and dams need to lay underwater foundations while maintaining
the structure's integrity. Here deep foundations are vital to constructing large structures.

Foundation OfPile:
Pile is a deep foundation common form. They are used to minimize costs, and when, in
compliance with soil conditions, loads that are beyond the control of low foundations should be
transmitted to soil strata.

Foundation OfPier:

Pier is an underwater structure that conveys a more significant load that cannot be borne on
shallow bases. Typically, it is less faint than batteries. The pier base is commonly used in
structures of several stories. The base area is determined by the standard establishment plan
technique, which removes the single pier load test. It is progressively recognized in near
conditions along these lines.
 Figure: "Pier Foundation"

Displacement Piles:
The displacement piles are preformed, carried to the site, and then pushed to the ground piles
made in a factory. It is also known as "preformed piles" or "driven piles." Reinforced concrete
or steel piles may be constructed from preformed piles.

(It was a pile style known as a 'driven cast-in-situ pile' shaped from the movement to the
ground of a shell or an enclosure with a near end and cast the ring area with concrete.

Piling equipment for displacementpiles:

Displacement piles are normally guided by one of the following techniques into the ground:

1. Percussion

2. Vibration

Drop Hammer

Diesel hammer(Source: R. Chudley

Vibratory driving :
Comparatively quiet, the vibration hammer. It is used for the driving of small piles like H-piles
and sheet stacks. The system consists of a vibrating unit installed on the stacking head, which
transmits vibration down the pile shaft length. These vibrations are passed to the surrounding
earth, decreasing its sheer power to sink under its weight into the ground and into that of the
hammer of vibrations.

Procedure of driving a displacementpile:

 Prepare a piling platform and hammer for piling.

 At 500 mm intervals, mark the length of the pile to show the driven length.

 In the piling platform, tune the pile—verticality and alignment review.

 Place a suitable stack cask on the head of the stack. Upon it, mount the piling hammer
and push.

 If the entire stack length is forced into the dirt, break a new length on it, drive forward.

 Repeat step 5 until it gives considerable driving resistance.

  Carry out the measurement package. The piling process is completed if the default
setting has been reached. Repeat until it does otherwise from stage 5.
Superstructures:

A part of a house or a building absolutely above its basement. Any building built above the main
deck of the vessel is a continuation of the sides upward. Compare the cottage—a portion of the
bridge over the piers and piers.

Walls & its Types:

Wall is an element that separates (room) into two rooms and offers protection and refuge. The
wall is a structural element. The walls are usually characterized by two kinds of exterior and
"

interior walls. Outer walls provide a shelter box, and inside walls help divide the box into the
required number of spaces. External walls are also referred to as curtain walls, inner walls, and
outside walls.

 Load Bearing Walls

 Non-Load Bearing Wall

 Cavity Walls

 Shear Walls

 Partition Walls

 Panel Walls

 Veneered Walls

 Faced Walls

 Load Bearing Wall

Load Bearing Walls:

The entire building system stands on walls instead of columns, as the name itself implies. Loads
of the slab usually travel to the beams, the beams into the columns, and then spread to the
base. "

From the picture above, you can see the frame's beams and plates, but not the columns. The
wall that bears the entire weight of the structure, including the structural elements' self-weight,
is called a load-bearing wall, whether its external or internal walls. In simple words. The belt
base is used for the wall style load carrying

Non-load Bearing wall or Drop Wall:

The roofing or floor loads of this type of wall are not supported above, meaning that the
structure does not bear any weight above it. The best example of this is the partition walls
within the house, which are only designed to separate the rooms, and these walls hold no
structural integrity. Without damaging the building structure, the non-load-bearing wall may be
eliminated or decreased.
Shear wall:

The shear wall is the lift pit wall, the water bottom, or the stepper to hold the field. Any shear
wall carries two persons on it: the wind and the soil's pressure or the pressure of the wind and
water. To withstand these forces, the shear wall is adopted. The side forces on the structure
due to wind, earthquake, or other lateral loads are transmitted through these walls.
Retaining Wall:

The wall constructed on two sides to protect the ground's uneven level is called a retaining
wall. The wall installed around the plot below the ground floor to hold the ground to one end
after the earthworks are known as the wall. The RCC or CRS retainer wall can be used.

Brick masonry wall:

The brick wall is called a brick wall. The brick-making wall is made. The bricks in the wall are
used for masonry. The wall can be 20cm or 10cm in thickness.

For external walls, the 20cm wall is used.

For interior walls, the 10cm wall is used.

ROOFING:

ROOF DECK:

Roofing materials are available in various forms, including the metal deck, gypsum deck, wood
fiber, cement (tectum), precast concrete planks or beams.

GYPSUM ROOF DECK :

Gypsum “concrete” poured onto sheetrock or fiberglass type board and used as roofing
material.

EXPANSION JOINT :

The roof deck is fitted between two separate sections for expansion; it is fitted with flexible
waterproof material; no expansion above 200 feet wide without an expansion joint should ever
occur.

PARAPET :

A part of the wall that stretches above or over a roof deck.

FLASHING:

Any insulation between a vertical surface and the roof deck includes parapets, appliances, curb
brackets, etc.

COPING:

Concrete plank or tile on top of a parapet to prevent water from entering.

TYPES of ROOF :

SINGLE PLY/MEMBRANE ROOF:

A roof-covered panel made of compounds made of rubber or PVC lies over a coping sheet and
insulation and can in different forms be fastened on the roof deck.

METAL ROOF-

A constructed roof can be laid in sheet, wood, or other materials over a steel substructure. The
panels together with a clip are "crimped" and can be separated by different methods.

BERKELEY ROOF:

A wooden frame roof structure that features 2x4 or 2x6 wood sheathing with trusses is mostly
pre-fabricated on the floor and raised onto the roof's panels.

Windows and doors:

A window is a window in a building wall that serves one or more natural light, natural
ventilation, and vision. The principal purpose of a door in a building is to connect the inner parts
and to allow the building to pass freely to the outside.
P3 describe how physical conditions, financial requirements and environmental
constraints impact?

What are "Physical conditions"?

The word 'earth conditions' generally applies to the geological environment, hydrological
processes, soil, and any soil degradation on a building site. The conditions on the ground can be
human or naturally occurring, or both. Antiquities, waste disposal sites, asbestos, old sewers, or
unexploded ordinances can include artificial or human-made conditions or obstructions.
However, transitory surface characteristics like litters or leaves or climatic conditions are not
generally included in this phrase 'land conditions.'

Access is typically a concern in mountain sites. A general evaluation of the site's path should be
made before sending the drilling equipment to the site. Often it is not possible to prevent
interference into adjacent lands. Authorization should be sought in such situations.

It is a lost attempt to transport the boiling machine into the site on soft land, as at the spring
thaw or persistent rain. It is often advisable to first determine usability to avoid loss of time or
towing expense. An all-terrain platform is capable of traveling to areas that traditional
platforms cannot access. In this situation, the consumer should agree to pay the extra cost or
wait until the ground is dry.

UTILITYLINES:

Before sending the drilling plant to the site, it is necessary to thoroughly check the surface
utility lines. Standard agreements between the consulting engineering enterprise and the client
typically state that the enterprise does not have responsibility for the subsurface structure not
indicated on the engineered plans. The details provided by the engineering firm in the event of
an accident cannot prevent the geotechnical engineer from being called a defendant. It is
necessary to inform the telecom company, the public service company, water operations, and
the town engineer on the project for the projects located in a metropolitan area, where the site
is crossed with utility lines, in addition to those stated in the current plans. The parties involved
will send agents to the site to decide precisely how the different lines are positioned.

EXISTINGSTRUCTURES:

In choosing a proposed structure, the behavior of the current structures has a significant
impact. All possible information on-site structures and in the immediate vicinity should be
collected. The structure, age, and form of foundation conditions should be examined. Suppose
there have been water drainage problems in adjacent established structures. In that case, there
is likely to be a high level of water table condition or a perched water condition in the area. It is
best to reach the low level of this building and find watermarks on the wall—the best way to
find certain conditions.

TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY&HYDROLOGY:

As an aspect of soil engineering, topography, geology, and hydrology should be viewed. If there
is no information on these topics, no soil engineer can be regarded as competent. Without
addressing these topics, no soil report can be considered complete. Without considering such
topics, no investigation can be deemed satisfactory.

TOPOGRAPHY:

The topography of a plain or a region is described as features. A topographical survey is

typically available for larger projects. The date of the survey and the referred benchmark shall
be taken into consideration. Site grading often may change the original soil characteristics
entirely. If you took the initial photograph-metric survey when the site was vegetated, the
topography could be different.

The form of the ravines and gullies represents the textures of the earth. Sand slopes are
typically V-shaped, with straight slopes that are even. Gullies also have cross-sections in the
form of a U in silty soils. Tiny barks in clay are mostly in U form, while deeper barges at the tops
of the slopes are broadly rounded out.
It is also essential to locate natural and man-made drainage components. Crossing a natural
gully formation still presents a concern for the potential drainage. The water level should be
measured and registered for nearby streams and pools. During most of the year, irrigation
ditches could be dry but could hold a high water volume during irrigation. Water from the
ditches and ponds may provide the ground soil with moisture and settle or heal the ground or
platform. The levying of drilled piers in a wide soil area is not unusual due to water infiltration
from ditches and pools. The water supply cannot belong detected.

GEOLOGY:

The origin, composition, and structure of the earth are sciences of geology. "Mineralogy,
petrology, geomorphology, geophysics, sedimentation, structural geology, economic geology,
and engineering geology are all divisions". For founding engineers, the last group matters much.

Long before the progress of soil engineering, geology was created. Schools offer many civil
engineering students geology. However, individual geology professors may not possess much
engineering expertise. The relationship between soil mechanics and geology is therefore rarely
stressed. Studies are not geologically very cautious and take the same weight as astronomy and
chemistry courses. On the closeness of soil mechanics to geology, an engineer only joins the
field of consulting. Geological knowledge may not be needed for average small structures
without unique foundation designs. If the project contents have no impact, it is a mistake for
consultants to place a section in their geology reports. A geology section in the contractor's
report is only needed when such data is necessary for the project.

HYDROLOGY:

The scientific study defines hydrology as the influence, distribution, and distribution of water on
the earth's soil and rock surface. Geotechnical engineers continuously work with water.
Terzaghi said, "Without water, soil mechanics would not be suitable." Permeability, drainage,
and flow with groundwater are the most common problems faced by geotechnical engineers.
The geotechnical engineer should consult a hydrologist for significant projects such as dams and
canals.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND PROJECT LIFECYCLE:

All trends show that the global climate is changing. The impact of climate change on the
different phases of the lifecycle project is heavy. Management professionals should study and
work on the predicted risks, including high temperatures, rainfall, wind, and average sea levels.
Active adaptation policies can effectively decouple risks at the planning stage. Risk
management plays a crucial role in the effective implementation of projects[12]. It is essential
to assess and mitigate climate change effects, as it poses a threat to projects across the project
cycle[13]. There is a need for a response plan with an assessment methodology as a top priority
to reduce the risks associated with increases in sea levels, severe weather events, and
precipitation.

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPLICATIONS OF PROJECT DESIGN AND PLANNING:

Climate change raises challenges for the planning and designing of construction projects,
including the selection of the construction site, delay in completing the building program,
structural damage, and material and building technology. It leads to excessive costs and
unforeseen spending, so that building experts need to take further account of climate change.
Climate change influences price design strategies and considers discrepancies such as building
age, construction, and the mitigation of losses that are likely to impact losses caused by
changes in the building codes in the course of severe weather events. A significant challenge
facing designers and architects is confidently predicting that building elements would be
vulnerable to climate change throughout their lives.

CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECT ON MACHINERY AND MATERIALS:

Dusty conditions can lead to equipment problems; vehicles and machinery filters should be
inspected and periodically changed both inside and outside to avoid premature failures.
Moreover, cold temperatures make water-cooled motors a problem; equipment such as people
can be tedious in cold weather. Cold lubricants are not efficient and inadequate lubrication
operational equipment can accelerate the moving wear of moveable groups. Most materials
are susceptible to water, from cement and mortar to paint, as additional water affects their
strength and viability. High water content material and hydrated or evaporated material cannot
properly cure at low temperatures and thus achieve lower strength[20]. The moisture will
penetrate the brick through capillary action and the action of the windy storm.

This condensation on internal walls will lead to the growth of the mold and degradation of
finishes. Climate change affects the efficiency and the application of surface finishes in the
works.

ENVIROMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROCESS:

A detailed data collection and analysis of the project's underlying conditions is provided via the
local environment overview. The baseline data allows for identifying the main socio-
environmental factors associated with the activities of the project. The ESIA focuses on the
relationship between the project's operations and the ecosystem's environmental and social
baselines on its location.

COMPONENTS OFECOSYSTEM:

Valued Ecosystem Components (VECs) are ecosystem components that are considered essential
or useful and should be carefully considered in the EIA process (Treweek, 1999). In EIAs, the
definition of VECs has been used as an instrument to emphasize primary receptors (individuals
or groups) that may (positively or negatively) be influenced by different aspects.

Environmental Social Impact Assessment:

Undeveloped for more than three kilometers. Indeed, the project sponsor owns much of the
undeveloped land around the site. Around 7 kilometers from the site is the closest residential
area. Emission of equipment and vehicles used on and from the site and on the site would also
reduce air quality.
Gaseous and Exhaust Emissions:
Pollutant emissions during the project testing and start-up process. NOx, CO2, CO, NH3, SOx,
and particulate matter can be pollutants of gaseous waste. To test machinery and installations,
the start-up stage is essential.

As a result of emissions from site machinery and equipment, local and temporary air quality
decreases can occur in construction. Also, diesel engines' exhaust emissions, resulting in
temporary rises of SOx, NOx, and CO2, would occur for heavy equipment such as bulldozers and
other construction equipment. In the event of an emergency, emissions can occur.

The main gases of concern include:

Sulphur dioxide SO2:

The SO2 content of exhaust gases depends directly on the sulfur content of the reduced
emissions from motors using low-sulfur fuel for equipment and machinery. To the extent
available locally, the project company is advised by contractors to use low sulfur gasoline.

Nitrogen oxides NO:

Contractor equipment/activities must reduce NOx emissions. In as much as possible,

construction equipment and machinery may have to be changed.

Carbon Oxides:

CO2 is a greenhouse gas, and during the construction stage, emissions can occur. Although not
specifically detrimental to human and environmental health, carbon dioxide production leads
to global warming and climate change. During the project construction, process carbon dioxide
can both be created and released directly and indirectly.

Community Health and Safety:

The occurrence of non-routine events can affect community safety.

Impact: The following environmental aspects may result

  Vehicles and motor vehicles transport and use

 Removal of waste
A variety of lorries and heavy equipment will be mobilized during the building of the factory.
Increased traffic on existing road networks could lead to increased risk to safety.

But these risks are significantly mitigated by a Maximization of the use of maritime transport to
minimize the vehicle traffic on local roads b Construction equipment operators and operating
vehicles are expected to adhere to local speed limits and regulations. To avoid adverse events
from unexpected events, full contingency plans must be in place.

Noise:

Environmental noise can affect people and other sensitive receptors (e.g., wildlife). In one
extreme, sound can feel physically awkward (e.g., in a boisterous club) and can worsen the
auditory health if persistent enough (e.g., noise-induced hearing loss23). On the opposite, noise
can only be audible and highly annoying: for example, the hum of a remote generator. In the
meantime, a talk can be interrupted (for example, during a flyover), and sleeping can be
adversely affected at night if there is too much noise. Other health effects associated with noise
could occur in addition to sleep disruption, and continuous research is underway into those
effects. So noise needs to be taken into account whether to decide the design and layout of
new developments or where new noise production has to take place and so the designers need
to measure and analyze the impact of noise on sensitive receptors

The different features of the noise which are likely to affect the subjective reaction should be
taken into account when approaching noise measurement. During the planning and
construction of the site, noise pollution is increased.

 Environmental activity from the following aspects: impacts

 Creation of roads

 Transportation and use of machinery

  Nitrogen building excavation and earthworks
But these effects are transient and are unlikely to significantly impact any person, given the
uninhabited area around the site.

AIR AND CLIMATE:

During activity, the ISBL and OSBL air quality can be decreased with gaseous emissions from
machinery and equipment. Possible gaseous emissions cause general disruption in the
environment and may affect human health. Possible gaseous notice emissions include:

Nitrogen oxides NOx:

NOx is a combination of oxide nitrogen (NO) and dioxide nitrogen (NO2). NO2 is a highly
corrosive odorous, brown, acidic gas capable of impacting human and environmental health.
High levels of NO2, in particular, are vulnerable to and severity of respiratory infections and
asthma and can harm the human breathing system. Long-term exposure can contribute to
chronic pulmonary disease. NO2 is also vegetation toxic, leaf damaging, and growth inhibitors.

Carbon dioxide – CO2

As well as being a greenhouse gas, CO2 emissions need to be tracked and regulated to avoid a
worsening in overall air quality within the workplace and beyond. During the operation of the
plant, carbon dioxide is produced and emitted directly or indirectly. To reduce CO2 emissions, it
is necessary to carry out both energy use and CO2-generating activities as effectively as
possible. It is nevertheless important to remember that the combination of CO2 and ammonia
into the rea product is crucial for the process chemistry. Therefore, the main performance
objective of the plant is to optimize CO2 conversion to urea and minimize fugitives CO2
emissions.
P4 Produce method statements specifying the plant, materials and methods to
be used in two separate civil engineering projects?

Materials handling and installation:

 Risk assessments and method statements (qualitative and quantitative).

 Materials storage: moving materials safely

 working in confined spaces.

 Working at height.

 Occupational health risks associated with materials: asbestos-related and respiratory

diseases.

 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).

1) Height Regulations Working:

Enter surveillance equipment and safe use of ladders, fabrics, and other equipment. Features
like double guardrails and toe boards, for example, that protect staff and prevent transients
from dropping by the passers-by to ensure artifacts and debris are not.

2) Regulations on elevating and elevating equipment:

Addresses, among other uses, the use of cranes, board lifting equipment on lorries. It
frequently needs rigorous equipment checks, proper training, and consistent computer signage.

3) Regulations affecting construction (design and management):

Take a cooperative approach to risk management to identify risks and ensure steps to minimize
defined risks are taken.

4) Policy on the management of asbestos:

Facilitates comprehensive guidance on best practice in the handling of asbestos and asbestos
concrete to reduce risks for staff and the general public, mainly when working on demolitions.
 5) Working legislation on vibration control:

It is a process that defines the prolonged use of vibrating tools, such as jackhammers, as a
response to the realization that users have poor health, usually hand-arm, but in some cases
also whole-body effects.

6) Job Laws Noise Control:

Recognizes and involves measures such as restriction of the maximal allowable decibels and the
supply of shielding gear to the irrevocability of hearing loss caused by heavy noise.

7) Regulations on Manual Control Operations:

Addresses the inherent risks of life, movement, or loading of an object or object. Employers
must perform risk analyses and educate workers on security procedures and techniques.

Materials management system:

The management of materials is a planning, execution, and control mechanism for building
areas and office activities. The purpose of materials management is "to ensure that materials
are accessible when appropriate at their point of use. The materials management system
ensures appropriate selection, purchase, delivery, and handling of materials at the proper
quality and volume on-site in a timely and reasonable manner. Materials management is the
mechanism for preparing and managing all efforts needed to ensure the quality and quantity of
the correct materials are defined in time, at a fair cost, and available at the point of use where
appropriate. The handling of materials is also an essential component of project management.
Materials are a significant building expense, which ensures that the lowest cost of procurement
allows you to reduce the project's total cost. Poor management of materials can lead to higher
building costs. Efficient material management can contribute to significant project cost savings.
If items are bought too early, capital and interest charges on the excess inventory of products
may be withheld. During storage or stolen materials can deteriorate, even if special attention is
provided. Delays and additional costs can be incurred if the necessary supplies for specific
activities do not exist. Material control is essential to ensure the timely flow of materials. The
efficiency of materials management should be evaluated to handle efficiently and monitor
materials. A performance test determines the successful functioning of a function". These
performance indicators may vary from one system to another. The steps break the system into
pieces and improve the efficiency of the system operation. When the steps are integrated, the
entire management structure is created.

Components of material management are:

 Estimated supplies, budgeting, preparation, and scheduling.

 Planning, procurement, and acquisitions

 Receipt and power.

 Control of inventory, distribution, and storage

 Management and transport of goods

 Control of wastes

Use of materials on a construction site:

The material management team should centralize the leadership of the site and the
organization.

 The device must be adequately monitored, tracked, and supervised.

 Sensitivity and transparency within the organization should be established.

 Effective MIS integration of all material management aspects is needed.

 The overall performance of companies with proper material management systems is

shown to have improved.
Fundamentals of Civil Engineering :
A successful civil engineer should assess and overcome engineering problems with a degree in
mathematics and physics. Civil Engineers must also be able to "deal with charts, sketches,
"

models, and CAD tools in design techniques. You must be able to predict and find solutions for
any potential future problems.

In building projects, each civil engineer must have high technical skills. Some of the best
developments they need to know are below;

Tests Of Building Materials:

The correct understanding of various tests of construction material should be an excellent civil
engineer. Below you will find some essential samples.

Beton test: slump test, pressure test, split tensile test, soundness, etc. Slump testing.

Test soil: Test core cutters, tests on sand substitution, tri-axial test, consolidation test, etc. Soil
test.

Ductility test, softening point test, seriousness test, penetration test, etc.

Investigation Of soil:

Several soil tests are carried out before construction is started to evaluate the soils' settlement
and stability. As a civil engineer, you should have ample details about these on-site
assessments.

Uses Of Surveying Instruments:

Each civilian engineer also includes survey instruments such as the total station, Theodolite, etc.
They are used for marking and measuring purposes.

Standard Codes Used In Construction:

For construction projects, each country has its standard safety standards (e.g., code). Each new
design should be carried out in compliance with all rules and procedures specified in the
standard codes. Otherwise, there are still high risks of structural failure.

Bar Bending Schedule:

The main chart for civil engineers and civil engineering skills is the bar bending schedule,
making the RC beam reinforcement calculus such as cutting length, a form of bending, length of
bending, etc.

Drawing and Design:

The primary keys to an ongoing project are drawing and design. It sets out all the requisite
project specifications. The analytical capacity of such drawings and designs should be available
to each site engineer.

Estimation and Bills:

In a building project, calculations and bills shall be drawn up by a structural engineer.

Quality Control:

Quality management guarantees the viability of a project by reducing the added costs. You,
therefore, need to have specific quality management skills.

On-Field Management:

Also, a crucial factor is an experience of forming, concretion, security measures, etc.

Specification of Aggregates, Concrete, Bituminous materials, Steel,

Timber
The cement, bitumen, lime, gypsum, or another adhesive mixing in building and construction in
concrete or mortar is used for the cement. The aggregate gives the finished product volume,
stability, wear or erosion resistance, and other desired physical properties. Popular to use
include grit, crushed or broken pump, gravel (pebbles), broken slag from a blast-furnace,
burned shale and burnt clay, ashes from a boiler (clincher). Fine aggregate typically consists of
gravel (pebbles), pieces of broken stone, slag, and other coarsest substances, or screenings of
crushed stones or slag. Fine aggregate is used to make thin concrete sheets or other structural
components and where a smooth surface is desired.

Some aggregate features or characteristics affect the characteristics of the resulting concrete
mix. The following are:

 Composition

 Size & Shape

 Surface Texture

 Specific Gravity

 Bulk Density

 Voids

COMPOSITION:

Never should be used with aggregates composed of materials that can react with alkalis in
cement that cause excessive expansion, cracking, and degradation. Accordingly, aggregates
must be checked to see if individual components are present or not.

SIZE & SHAPE:

The aggregate particles' size and shape significantly affect the amount of cement used in the
concrete blending. The largest possible coarse aggregates for the structure should be used for
preparing an economical concrete mix. IS-456 recommends that the coarse mix's overall size to
be used in the P.C.C & R.C.C mix should be determined according to the following
recommendation.

SURFACE TEXTURE:

The formidable bond strength between aggregate particles and cement paste depends on its
surface texture, surface roughness, and surface porosity. If the surface is rough but porous, it
develops full bond force. In porous aggregates, due to the placement of cement paste in pores,
the bond strength increases.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

The weights of oven-dried aggregations held 24 hours at temperatures between 100 and 1100C
are known as the necessary gravity of aggregates and the same amount of weight of water
displaced by dry saturated surface aggregates.

There are mainly two forms of defined gravity.

Apparent specific gravity

Bulk specific gravity

BULK DENSITY:

The weight of the total necessary for the filling of a container of unit volume is specified. It is
usually in kg/liter.

The amount of aggregates depends on the three variables that follow.

Degree of compaction

Grading of aggregates

Shape of aggregate particles

VOIDS:

The voids are known as empty spaces between these aggregates. The void volume equates to
the discrepancy between the aggregate mass's gross volume and the particles' volume alone.

Type 1 of civil structure

Reinforced Concrete:

The mixture of water, cement, compounds, and steel. The proportion of three main
components is required to produce a concrete mix with the desired compression strength. Both
components work together to provide the compressive strength and the steel bar's resistance
to the concrete.

Different properties of concrete:

 Grades (M20, M25, M30 etc.)

 Compressive strength

 Characteristic Strength

 Tensile strength

 Durability

 Creep

 Shrinkage

 Unit weight

 Modular Ratio

 Poisson’s ratio

Grades of concrete:
Grades are considered M15, M20, etc., where the letter M refers to the concrete combination,
and the number 15, 20 to denote the compressive strength (f ck), defined at 28 days, of 150mm
cube, expressed at N/mm2, indicated.

The compression strength of concrete is also known. For harsh, very serious, and severe
conditions, M20 and M25 are the most common grades and higher concrete levels.

Compressive strength of concrete:

Like load, cement strength also varies significantly for the same concrete mix. A single
representative value, called a feature power, is therefore used.

Characteristic strength of concrete:

It is known as the value below the power, which should not fall more than 5% of the test results
(i.e., there is a 95 percent probability of achieving this value only 5 percent of not achieving the
same)

Tensile strength of concrete:

The fcr ratios = 0.7 fck N/mm2 measure the bending tensile strength, or the rupture module or
cracking strength of the cube compressive strength. Experimentally the tensile strength of
directly tensed concrete is accomplished by a split cylinder. The force of compression ranges
from 1/8 to 1/12 cubic.

Creep in concrete:

Creep is characterized as the deformation of plastic under a long term load. The strain of Creep
mainly depends on the length of the load. According to the code, at 28 days of loading, the final
creep factor's value is taken as 1,6.

Shrinkage of Concrete:
During drying and hardening, the property of volume decrease is called a retrenchment. The
length of the exposure depends primarily. If this pressure is avoided, friction is created in the
concrete, and thus cracks are formed in the concrete.

Steel:

Steel's material properties are derived from a mixture of chemical, mechanical and thermal
composition.

For the mechanical properties of steel, the chemical composition is essential. The addition of
alloys like Carbon, Manganese, Niobium, and Vanadium can boost strength. However, these
additional alloys increase steel costs and can adversely affect other properties (such as ductility,
toughness). Maintaining the low sulfur level can increase ductility and increase toughness by
adding nickel".

Steel specifications:

The requirements for steel vary from country to country and may be based on various
parameters, most of which are determined by the steel's chemical composition.

The composition suggests that an experienced engineer can give heat treatment to the steel
and its corresponding mechanical properties. For the specification of steel, alternative
requirements based on mechanical characteristics or hardness are often used.

The word "steel specification" is most frequently closely linked to and interchangeably
employed, although its significance is not the same. The DIN letters, JIS, Japanese, International,
ISO, etc., are also used for German steel requirements.

The standard steel requirements most commonly used in the United States are those published
by ASTM, which are a consensus among producers, manufacturers, and steel mills users". The
ASTM specifications also have identical measurements, tolerances, limitations, and restrictions
to the AISI manuals' corresponding products.

Steel Properties:
  Steel is probably the world's most significant manufacturing and building material.

 The main characteristics of steel are high formability and longevity, excellent tensile
strength and performance, and excellent thermal conductivity. In addition to these
essential features, its corrosion resistance is the most characteristic feature of stainless
steel.

 Engineers should be assured that they would be matched to cargo requirements and
environmental issues in their operation when choosing a material for a given
application. Therefore, it is essential to understand and regulate the properties of a
material.

 By selecting suitable chemistry, treatment, and heat treatment that contributes to their
final microstructure, the mechanical properties of steel can be carefully controlled.

Type 2 of structure:

A flexible layer, comprising a combination of aggregates and bitumen, can be described in a

superficial sense as a pavement layer, correctly heated and mixed, then placed and compacted
on a granular layer sheet. Stiff cement or strengthened concrete plates mounted over a low-
force concrete sheet (Dry lean Betone, DLC) or on a well-compact layer of aggregates, or the
two are made from durable pavements.

Road construction:

The pavement's architecture varies with soil conditions and the projected traffic throughout its
design life. In India, the flexible pavements were planned to reflect the California CBR ratio and
the estimated cumulative (measured in a million standard axles, MSA) number of axles during
paving design life. These floors are planned for 15 years. The design method uses both
traditional and stabilized materials in any layer of pavement. It is taken from the templates
defined in the Indian Roads Congress (IRC).
Strong flooring is constructed over 30-40 years, and rigid flooring thickness designs are affected
by road charges, soil subgrades, moisture, and the temperature difference. For a failure of
fatigue, the thickness of the rigid flooring is built. The measured pavements thicknesses are
tested for critical load and temperature load stress combinations.

Hot Mix Asphalt Baghouse Fines and Sustainable Pavements:

The small dust particles collected from the hot mixing plant's exhaust gasses are generally
referred to as hot baghouse asphalt mix. Annually from the U.S. asphalt production industry,
approximately 5.4 million to 7.2 million tons (6 million to 8 million tons of baghouse fine) [12]
such data are not available in our country. Baghouse fines can be up to 75 microns depending
on the collection method. These fines naturally absorb less than 2% humidity, at a relative
humidity of 50%. The fines can be minimal or no clay. The pH of baghouse fines varies up to
12.4 depending on the origins of the parent rocks. These fines quickly fulfill the mineral filling
criteria, which decreases the plasticity index to 4.0. A return of dust in a paving mix of asphalt,
as a component, in some cases all of the mineral fillings, is the only known use for bughouse
fines or dust. Some asphalt floorings can comprise mineral fillers up to 5 percent.

Bitumen:

Bitumen is an intricate substance with a complicated stress response. There is a more or less
pronounced viscoelastic behavior in all bitumen. That deformation resistance is dependent on
both the temperature and the time of the force. It can either be a regular elastic stable (low
temperature, concise load time) or a viscous liquid under extreme conditions (high
temperature, long loading time) . Both vicious and elastic actions play their part under normal
"

temperature conditions. Because under the conditions of use, temperature, as well as loading
time, differ.

Following are the properties of Bitumen

 Adhesion

 Resistance to Water

 Hardness

 Viscosity and Flow

 Softening Point

 Ductility

 Specific Gravity

 Durability

 Versatility

 Economical

 Strength

Adhesion:

Without bringing in any optimistic or damaging properties, the adhesive property of bitumen
binds all components. Bitumen may adhere, depending on the surface's nature, with a solid
surface to a fluid state. Water can avoid adhesion on the surface.

Resistance to Water:
Bitumen is waterproof and can act as an effective screening agent. Bitumen is waterproof.
Water can be absorbed in the bitumen or filled with minute amounts of inorganic salts under
some conditions.

Hardness:

The penetration test tests the bitumen's penetration depth in ten mm of a weighted needle
after a specific duration at a known temperature to measure the strength of the bitumen. For 5
sec at a temperature of 77 °F, a weight of 100 gm is usually added. The penetration is a
toughness test. Typical results for hard asphalt coating are 10, for asphalt roofs 15 to 40, and
for water resistance bitumen up to 100 and more.

Viscosity and Flow:

At high temperatures during processing and application and a low temperature, bitumen is
subjected to operation. The dense or floral properties of bitumen are essential. Temperature
and stress conditions differ significantly in their flow properties. The desired properties of
bitumen would be degraded or lost as hardening. As a result, the adhesive and flow
characteristics are decreased, and the softening temperature and the thermal expansion
coefficient are increased.

Softening point:

This property helps one know whether bitumen can be used at the given location, i.e., the soft
point value should be higher than the floor temperature; otherwise, bitumen in the layer
should be mild and outstanding.
P5 Explain the roles and responsibilities of civil engineers in civil engineering
infrastructure projects?

Civil Engineers Role and responsibilities:

 " Assess Environmental Impact and Risks

 Assemble Project Deliverables

 Assist With Staging, Testing, and Shipping of Equipment Prior to Deployment

 Analyze Survey Reports, Maps, and Data to Plan Projects

 Clearly Explain Design Ideas

 Comfortable Writing Technical Reports

 Compile and Submit Permit Applications to Local, State, and Federal Agencies

 Create Blueprints Using CAD (Computer-Aided Design)

 Design Public Work Projects

 Develop Designs, Layouts, and Design Calculations

 Develop Project Scope and Timeline

 Ensure Job Sites Meet Legal Guidelines, and Health and Safety Requirements

 Experience with Civil 3D

 Experience with Micro station

 Experience with Reinforced Concrete and Steel Design

 Experience with On-Site Construction Observation and Management

 Highly Detail Oriented

  Identify Possible Design Improvements

 Knowledgeable of AutoCAD

 Manage and Monitor Each Stage of Project

 Manage the Repair and Maintenance of Public and Private Infrastructures

 Perform or Oversee Soil Testing

 Perform or Oversee Surveying Operations

 Prepare Designs and Estimates

 Prepare Conclusion and Analysis Reports

 Present Environmental Impact Statements to the Public

 Proactive and Willing to Take on New Challenges

 Provide Cost Estimates for Materials, Equipment, and/or Labor

 Recommend Modifications for Design Improvements and Simplification

 Sound Knowledge of Engineering Fundamentals

 Test Building Materials

 Understand Diagrams, Drafts, Flow-Charts, and Other Information and Documentation

 Understand and Design

 Use Software to Design Within Industry and Government Standards

 Work Effectively Under Pressure

Project Management:

Project Management It is common for project participants at all levels to look for guidance and
resolution from the engineer when issues occur. A civil engineer is necessary to accomplish the
task and handle a different team of professionals while retaining the customers' trust.

Scheduling:
The fact that project planning is a vital project management skill should go without saying.
However, I have learned that some of them are out of order in this field to talk to people who
oversee project managers at their end-of-year analysis.

Cost Control:

Curiously one of my favorite subjects is budget control. I'm not a whiz in natural mathematics,
but I like a tablet well prepared. I will tell you how much my project costs if I understand the
numbers and build my monitoring mechanism. For project managers, cost control is a crucial
subject. Many that have not this capacity will struggle because budgets are tight. You must
prove your project in the sense of cost restrictions and intelligently handle the finances of the
project.

Risk Management:

The more advanced project management becomes as a discipline, the more unique we become.
The more 'routine' the project is, the more often a functional manager is outsourced or
provided a capability to do stuff. Project managers can work on dynamic, transformational, and
particular tasks requiring decent risk management.

P6 Explain the economics associated with civil engineering infrastructure

projects?

Economics associated with civil engineering infrastructure projects :

Infrastructure's increasing importance in maintaining economic and social activity has
necessitated a greater examination of the topic's resilience.

Development of civil engineering infrastructure is essential for socioeconomic progress and

pandemic recovery. All civil engineering projects need the use of high-quality materials, a
thorough scope of work, and a timely delivery of the project. Civil engineers, stakeholders,
related professions, consultants, and contractors all need capacity-building programmers in
order to recover from a pandemic. It will be very beneficial to conduct multidisciplinary
research with members of both the health care industry and the industrial sector.

To promote economic growth and long-term development, civil infrastructure systems play an
important role in the basis of modern civilization. Unpredictability means that it is necessary to
set criteria for safeguarding and sustaining critical structures in the face of uncertainty. Life-
cycle thinking is being promoted in the design process by the SEI/ASCE TC and TG1 in an effort
to influence the formulation of structural design rules and standards, to improve the status of
civil structures to guarantee public safety, and to enhance the quality of life for all people.

With civil infrastructure, modern society's economic, social, and political well-being relies
substantially. Those facilities are susceptible to ageing, which is random and has a time-
dependent influence on their dependability. Public investment in civil infrastructure
performance assurance has advanced in recent years via the use of life-cycle engineering
analysis and risk-informed decision making. Life-cycle engineering decisions may have far-
reaching consequences in certain civil infrastructure projects, where the service life of
buildings, bridges, and other facilities may be much longer than expected.

Current structural engineering is based on the most recent advances in modelling, analysis,
design and maintenance and rehabilitation of decrepit civil structures and infrastructures.
These developments are important in order to produce guiding norms and help decision-
making processes for the trustworthy design of enduring buildings and rational planning for the
upkeep, repair, or replacement of existing structures. It is feasible to include emerging issues
like climate change into structural design using quantitative life-cycle performance measures.
Social and economic obstacles in adopting life-cycle thinking affects the decisions of public
sector, civil infrastructure users and owners, and owners of public infrastructure.
Visualization:

Visualization One of the most critical capabilities for a civil engineer is envisioning how
something would appear when done and picture how complex components interact. To define
and address issues before they become problems, visualization skills must be versatile and
dynamic. Since large-scale projects have so many parts, civil engineers need to find out how
interrelation changes when one or more different things are modified.

Critical Thinking:

Critical thinking is also one of the fundamental civil engineering skills that civil engineers often
have to deal with and find successful solutions to complex problems. You need to weigh the
benefits and drawbacks of all possible solutions and be critical to selecting the best.

Civil Infrastructure:

Civic service programs provide the design, study, and operations of human support
infrastructure, including electrical, petroleum and gas, water and wastewater, communications,
transportation, and urban and rural collections. These networks provide vital resources,
safeguard and facilitate economic and social connections. It is the lifelines of civilization.

Traditional fields of civil engineering construction and broaden in the field of civil infrastructure
systems. Civil Infrastructure Programs emphasize how various structures function together as a
framework that meets a group's needs, rather than concentrating on specific structural
components or structures. Problems in this area generally entail considerable complexity,
diverse and overlapping agendas, and, at times, multiple opposing constituencies. It is also
complex and spatial. In the social, economic, political, and cultural sense where they operate,
infrastructure engineering's technological aspects must be recognized". Over a long-term
horizon, they must be considered, covering not only design and development but also
maintenance, operations, natural disaster performance, and other extremes, and destruction as
well.

Engineering Economics in Civil Engineering:

A sub-group of economics, particularly microeconomics, is also known as engineering or the
engineering economy. The text is described as a "guide for the economic selection among
technically feasible alternatives for the purpose of a rational allocation of scarce resources.". Its
objective is to lead private or government entities that face the fundamental problem of
economics.

Two main questions must be addressed to solve the economy's fundamental issue, namely,
what priorities should be investigated or discussed and how? Economics as a social science
answers such questions and is characterized as information used to "...technically feasible
alternatives for the rational allocation of scarce resources." Consequently, all problems
associated with "benefit or cost reduction" include technical problems with economic goals,
which are correctly represented in an "engineering economy" label.

Civil engineering engineers deal with these fundamental economic problems by continuously
using the advanced expertise of engineering and economics as a structure "the analysis of
economic viability, the use of a step-by-step method....' over the entire life cycle of the project.

To 'form priorities, specify alternative options, forecast performance,' and estimate minimum
investment acceptability and optimization, the engineering economist needs to be able,to
incorporate these economic factors into relevant design solutions and management plans that
are supposed to be in place.

The civil engineering profession plays a unique role in our society. The economy was investing
significant funds in public infrastructure needs "...a certain reassurance that it is going to
perform its intended function". In making decisions about fundamental problems, the civil
engineer relies on engineering skills from the profession.
P7 Explain lifecycle issues associated with civil engineering infrastructure projects?

LIFE CYCLE PERFORMANCE OF CIVIL STRUCTURE AND INFRASTRUCTURE

SYSTEMS:

Are there five stages in the construction life cycle?

During the building project lifespan, the following are the five stages:

1. Initiation and conception of the project

2. Defining the scope of the project.
3. Execution of the project and its launch
4. The project's performance is the fourth factor.
5. Project End

1. Project Initiation and Conception:

The building life cycle's initial phase is to begin, as it is with everything else. There is generally a
lot of work involved in this, even if it seems to be easy. Idea-driven projects are simple to get
started on. A specialized project team is needed to turn that notion into actionable things the
project will need input from everyone involved.

It's also important to remember that time is running out. If you have an idea for a project, it's
preferable to get the facts straight as soon as possible rather than wait until it's too late.
Feasibility testing may help you assess whether or not a project is a good fit for your needs
before you ever begin.

2. Project Planning and Definition:

A project's real planning begins once the team or the feasibility test decides whether or not the
project is worthwhile. During this stage, the project's goals and objectives should be defined.

Planned projects are often more successful than those that aren't. You and your team will be
entrusted with defining the project's scope from start to finish at this phase in the project.
It's critical to keep the budget in mind at all times. The budget is estimated, detailed, and
authorized at the planning stage. The budget plan must be given the attention it deserves by a
project team. To determine if a project succeeds or fails, one must spend a significant amount
of time and effort in this phase.

3. Project Execution And Launch:

The most exciting part of the building process is now upon us: the project execution. Project
planning and scoping are put to the test at this point. Companies and projects need to make
sure everyone is on the same page since even the smallest oversight may have a major impact.

As the project progresses, it will be easier for the project's leaders to make modifications if they
are aware of the progress.

4. Project Performance:

The performance and monitoring stage of a project begins after the project has commenced in
earnest. During this phase, the project's progress is monitored to verify that it is on track and
within budget.

Every day, a team of project and construction managers is needed to monitor the development
of the project at this phase. It is their responsibility to make any necessary revisions to the
original plans. In this stage, the project leaders are responsible for ensuring that the project is
on track.

5. Project Close:

In the last step of a construction project's life cycle, the project is completed or closed out.

This is the point in the project that project leaders must be prepared to provide their customers
with deliverables or a finished construction project. Even more responsibility is placed on
project leaders at this point in the construction process, since they are responsible for
completing all aspects of the project, from scheduling to budgeting to finalising the building or
construction site itself.

In order for a project to be completed, the client or site owner must sign off on the final
inspections and authorise the project's closure. Upon the client's approval, the project end.
Sustainable:

A healthy environment based on ecological value is the practice of sustainable building. It

encompasses six principles: 'maintenance, reuse, recycling/renovation, conservation of nature
and creation of high-quality non-toxic items.'

Methods to achieve sustainability:

Sustainable construction Include those methods:

 Cutting of material to properly eliminate waste

 Regulation of waste management, such as waste disposal and recycling

 Construction of green buildings

 Climate control buildings Examples include in-house water treatments, no smoking,

recycling of food containers, etc.

 Preservation of strength

Promotes Sustainability:

Sustainable construction also promotes recycling and efficient energy use. More people are
starting to understand how vital and efficient sustainable ways are by rising renewable energy
and sustainable building practices. While there are apparent advantages for sustainable
development, the transition does not occur overnight. Excellent activities need time to plan.
The teaching in sustainable practices, taking time and money, must be undertaken.
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