UNIT-III

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTION MOTORS

Objectives:
 To impart the knowledge of maximum torque and starting torque for induction motors.
 To familiarize the students with torque slip characteristic of induction motor.
 To impart the knowledge of crawling and cogging of induction motor.

Micro Syllabus:
Torque developed-torque equation-expressions for maximum torque and starting torque for
squirrel cage and slip ring Induction Motor- condition for maximum starting torque-condition for
maximum torque-torque slip characteristic-effect of change in supply voltage on torque and
speed-effect of change in supply frequency on torque and speed-relation between full load torque
and maximum torque- relation between starting torque and maximum torque-equivalent circuit-
crawling and cogging.

Outcomes:
Students will be able to
 understand the maximum torque and starting torque expressions
 draw the torque slip characteristic
 understand the relation between starting torque, maximum torque and full torques.
 understand the concept of crawling and cogging.
3.1 Torque Equation of Three Phase Induction Motor:
The torque produced by three phase induction motor depends upon the following three factors:
 Firstly the magnitude of rotor current
 secondly the flux which interact with the rotor of three phase induction motor and is
responsible for producing emf in the rotor part of induction motor,
 lastly the power factor of rotor of the three phase induction motor.

Combining all these factors together we get the equation of torque as

T ∝ ∅ I 2 cos θ2

where, T  the torque produced by induction motor,

φ  flux responsible of producing induced emf,
I2  rotor current,
cosθ2  the power factor of rotor circuit.

The flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to stator emf E1. i.e φ ∝ E1
We know that transformation ratio K is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage (rotor voltage)
to that of primary voltage (stator voltage).
E2
K=
E1

E2
¿ , K=
∅

¿ , E2 ∝∅

Rotor current I2 is defined as the ratio of rotor induced emf under running condition , sE2 to total
sE2
impedance, Z2 of rotor side, i .e I 2= and total impedance Z2 on rotor side is given by ,
Z2

√
Z2 = R 22 + ( sX 2 )
2

sE2
Putting this value in above equation we get, I 2=
√R 2
2
+ ( sX 2 )
2

We know that power factor is defined as ratio of resistance to that of impedance. The power
R2 R2
factor of the rotor circuit is cos θ 2= Z =
2
√ R22+ ( sX 2 )2

Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor cosθ2 in the equation of torque we get,
 sE 2 R2
T ∝ E2 ×
√R 2
2
+ ( sX 2) 2
√R 2
2
+ ( sX 2 )2

2 R2
Combining similar term we get, T ∝ sE 2
R 2 + ( sX 2) 2
2

2 R2
Removing proportionality constant we get, T =KsE 2
R22 + ( sX 2 )2

3
This constant K=
2 π ns

Where ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s,

ns = Ns / 60.

So, finally the equation of torque becomes,

2 R2 3
T =sE2 × 2 2
× N −m
R + ( sX 2 )
2
2 π ns

Derivation of K in torque equation:

In case of three phase induction motor, there occur copper losses in rotor. These rotor copper
losses are expressed as Pc = 3I22R2

sE2
We know that rotor current, I 2=
√R 2
2
+ ( sX 2 )
2

Substitute this value of I2 in the equation of rotor copper losses, Pc. So, we get

(√ )
2
sE 2
Pc =3 R2 2
R 22+ ( sX 2)

The ratio of P2 : Pc : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s) Where P2 is the rotor input, Pc is the rotor copper losses,
Pm is the mechanical power developed.

Pc s
=
P m 1−s

( 1−s )
¿ Pm= Pc
s
 2 2
1 ( 1−s ) 3 R2 s E 2
P
Substitute the value of Pc in above equation we get, m= ×
s 2
R 2 + ( sX 2 )
2

( 1−s ) 3 R2 s E 22
On simplifying we get, Pm= 2 2
R2 + ( sX 2 )

2 πN
The mechanical power developed Pm = Tω, ω=
60

2 πN
¿ Pm=T
60

Substituting the value of Pm

2 2
1 ( 1−s ) 3 R 2 s E2 2 πN
× =T
s 2
R2 + ( sX 2 )
2
60

2 2
1 ( 1−s ) 3 R 2 s E2 60
¿T= × ×
s 2
R2 + ( sX 2 )
2
2 πN

We know that the rotor speed N = Ns (1 - s)

Substituting this value of rotor speed in above equation we get,

2 2
1 ( 1−s ) 3 R 2 s E2 60
T= × 2
×
s 2
R2 + ( sX 2 ) 2 π N s ( 1−s )

Ns is speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and n s is speed in revolution per sec (rps) and the
N
relation between the two is s =n s
60

Substitute this value of Ns in above equation and simplifying it we get

s E 22 R 2 3
Torque , T = ×
2
R 2 + ( sX 2 )
2
2π Ns

2 R2
¿ T =Ks E2
R2 + ( sX 2 )2
2

Comparing both the equations, we get, constant K = 3 / 2πns

3.2 Equation of Starting Torque of Three Phase Induction Motor:

Starting torque is the torque produced by induction motor when it is started. We know that at
start the rotor speed, N is zero.
N s−N
So , slip s= becomes 1.
Ns

So, the equation of starting torque is easily obtained by simply putting the value of s = 1 in the
equation of torque of the three phase induction motor,
E 22 R 2 3
Tst = 2 × N −m
R2 + X 2 2 π ns
2

Starting Torque of a squirrel-cage motor:

 The resistance of a squirrel cage motor is fixed and small as compared to its reactance
because at starting the frequency of the rotor current is equal to supply frequency.
 Hence the starting current I2 of rotor though very large in magnitude lags by very large
angle behind E2 so the starting torque is very poor for squirrel cage Induction Motor.
 It is roughly 1.5 times the full-load torque although starting current is 5 to 7 times full –
load current.
 Hence such motors are not useful where the motor has to start against heavy loads.

Starting Torque of a slip-ring Induction Motor:

 The starting torque can be increased by improving its power factor by adding external
resistance in the rotor circuit from the star connected rheostat, the rheostat resistance
being progressively cut out as the motor gathers speed.
 Addition of external resistance, however, increases the rotor impedance and so reduces
the rotor current.
 The effect of improved power factor predominates the current – decreasing effect of
impedance.
 Hence starting torque is increased.
 But after a certain point, the effect of increased impedance predominates the effect of
improved power factor and so the torque starts decreasing.

3.3 Condition for Maximum Starting torque:

We know

2
E2 R 2 3
Tst = 2 2
× N −m
R2 + X 2 2 π ns
 The rotor inductive reactance and synchronous speed of induction motor remain constant.
The supply voltage to the three phase induction motor is usually rated and remains constant so
the stator emf also remains the constant. The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of rotor
emf to that of stator emf. So if stator emf remains constant then rotor emf also remains constant.

If we want to find the maximum value of some quantity then we have to differentiate that
quantity with respect to some variable parameter and then put it equal to zero. In this case we
have to find the condition for maximum starting torque so we have to differentiate starting torque
with respect to some variable quantity which is resistance in this case as all other parameters in
the equation of torque remains constant.

dTst
=0
dR2

d
(
E 22 R 2
×
3
dR2 R 2 + X 2 2 π ns
2 2
=0
)
( R 22+ X 22) (1 ) −R2 (2 R 2)
K2 2
=0
( R2 2 + X 2 2 )
2 2 2
R2 + X 2 −2 R2 =0
2 2
X 2 =R 2

R 2= X 2

This is the condition for maximum starting torque which occurs when rotor resistance per phase
is equal to rotor reactance per phase.

3.4 Maximum Torque Condition for Three Phase Induction Motor:

In the equation of torque,
2
s E2 R2 3
T= × N −m
2
R 2 + ( sX 2)
2
2 π ns
The rotor resistance, rotor inductive reactance and synchronous speed of induction motor
remain constant. The supply voltage to the three phase induction motor is usually rated and
remains constant so the stator emf also remains the constant. The transformation ratio is defined
as the ratio of rotor emf to that of stator emf. So if stator emf remains constant then rotor emf
also remains constant.
 In this case we have to find the condition for maximum torque so we have to differentiate
torque with respect to some variable quantity which is slip, s in this case as all other parameters
in the equation of torque remains constant.

So, for torque to be maximum,

dT
=0
ds

R2
T =Ks E22
R22 + ( sX 2 )2

Now differentiate the above equation by using division rule of differentiation. On differentiating
and after putting the terms equal to zero we get,

2 R 22
s=
X 22

Neglecting the negative value of slip we get

R2
s=
X2
So, when slip s = R 2 / X2, the torque will be maximum and this slip is called maximum slip S m
and it is defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor reactance.

NOTE: At starting s= 1, so the maximum starting torque occur when rotor resistance is equal to
rotor reactance.

3.5 Equation of Maximum Torque:

2
s E2 R2
The equation of torque is T = 2 2
R 2 + ( sX 2)
The torque will be maximum when slip s = R2 / X2

Substituting the value of this slip in above equation we get the maximum value of torque as,

E 22
T max=K N−m
2 X2
Conclusion:
From the above equation it is concluded that
1. The maximum torque is directly proportional to square of rotor induced emf at the standstill.
2. The maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor reactance.
3. The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
4. The slip at which maximum torque occur depends upon rotor resistance, R2. So, by varying
the rotor resistance, maximum torque can be obtained at any required slip.

3.6 Torque Slip Characteristics of Three Phase Induction Motor:

The torque slip curve for an induction motor gives us the information about the variation
of torque with the slip. The variation of slip can be obtained with the variation of speed that is
when speed varies the slip will also vary and the torque corresponding to that speed will also
vary.

The curve can be described in three modes of operation:

Figure 3.1 Torque slip curve of 3-phase Induction Motor

Motoring Mode:

In this mode of operation, supply is given to the stator sides and the motor always rotates
below the synchronous speed. The induction motor torque varies from zero to full load torque as
the slip varies. The slip varies from zero to one. It is zero at no load and one at standstill. From
the curve it is seen that the torque is directly proportional to the slip. That is, more is the slip,
more will be the torque produced and vice-versa. The linear relationship simplifies the
calculation of motor parameter to great extent.

Generating Mode:

In this mode of operation induction motor runs above the synchronous speed and it
should be driven by a prime mover. The stator winding is connected to a three phase supply in
which it supplies electrical energy. Actually, in this case, the torque and slip both are negative so
the motor receives mechanical energy and delivers electrical energy. Induction motor is not
much used as generator because it requires reactive power for its operation. That is, reactive
power should be supplied from outside and if it runs below the synchronous speed by any means,
it consumes electrical energy rather than giving it at the output. So, as far as possible, induction
generators are generally avoided.

Braking Mode:

In the breaking mode, any two leads of the supply voltage are inter-changed so that the motor
starts to rotate in the reverse direction and as a result the motor stops. This method of breaking is
known as plugging. This method is used when it is required to stop the motor within a very short period
of time. The kinetic energy stored in the revolving load is dissipated as heat. Also, motor is still receiving
power from the stator which is also dissipated as heat. So as a result of which motor develops enormous
heat energy. For this stator is disconnected from the supply before motor enters the breaking mode.

If load which the motor drives accelerates the motor in the same direction as the motor is
rotating, the speed of the motor may increase more than synchronous speed. In this case, it acts
as an induction generator which supplies electrical energy to the mains which tends to slow
down the motor to its synchronous speed, in this case the motor stops. This type of breaking
principle is called dynamic or regenerative breaking.

3.7 Effect of change in supply voltage on Torque and Speed:

The torque equation is

K ∅ s E2 R2
T=
R 22+(sX ¿¿ 2)2 ¿
We know E2 ∝ ∅ ∝V where V is supply voltage
2
So T ∝sV

 So the torque at any speed is proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
  If stator voltage decreases then torque also decreases.
 Hence to maintain the same torque, slip increases and speed falls.

3.8 Effect of change in supply frequency on Torque and Speed:

 Hardly changes in frequency takes place on a large distribution system except during a
major disturbance.
 The major effect of change in supply frequency is on motor speed.
 If frequency drops by 10% then motor speed also drops by 10%.

pN
f=
120

f∝N

3.9 Effect of Variation of Rotor Resistance on the Torque-slip Characteristic:

The torque equation for an induction motor at constant input voltage is rewritten as

KsR 2
T=
R 2+ s 2 X 22

 Let the values of R2 and X2 for a particular induction motor be 1Ω and 10 Ω respectively.
Let us also assume that it is possible to increase the rotor circuit resistance by some
external means.
 In slip-ring induction motors, external resistance can be connected across the rotor
terminals with the help of brush and slip-ring arrangement.
 Let us assume that the total rotor resistance is made 1,2,6 and 10 Ω respectively.
 The rotor standstill reactance X2= 10 Ω will remain constant since X 2 is fixed by the
design of the rotor.
 If we calculate the value of torque, T, for different values of slip, s, we shall get a number
of points on the torque-slip characteristic.
 Table 3.1 gives the magnitudes of torque at different values of slip for R 2=1, X2=10;
R2=2, X2=10; R2=6, X2=10; and R2=10, X2=10;
 For studying the nature of torque-slip characterisitics, a suitable value of K can be taken.
Let us take K= 100.
 Thus
100 sR 2
T= 2 2
R 2+ s X 2
  The values of torque calculated at different values of slip for various combinations of R 2
and X2 are shown in table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Calculated Values of Torque at Different Slips Having Variable Rotor Resistance

 Torque-slip characteristics for different values of rotor circuit resistance as per table 3.1
have been drawn as shown in figure 3.2.
 Torque-slip characteristics for four different values of rotor circuit resistance have been
drawn together for the sake of comparison.

From figure 3.2 the following observations can be made:

 Starting torque increases with increase in value of rotor resistance.

 Maximum torque remains constant and is independent of the value of rotor resistance.
 The slip at which maximum torque occurs varies with the variation of rotor
resistance.
 Maximum torque is developed at starting when rotor resistance is equal to the
standstill rotor reactance, i.e., when R2 is equal to X2.
 Torque is maximum when the rotor reactance X2r= (sX2) is equal to the rotor
resistance R2 (in graph A, for example, maximum torque occurs when s=0.1. Thus the
relationship R2= sX2 holds well. For R2=10 and X2=10, maximum torque occurs when
s=1).
 ----------> slip

Figure 3.2 Effect of variation of rotor circuit resistance on torque slip characteristic of an
Induction Motor

3.10 Relation between full load torque ( Tf) and Maximum Torque(Tmax):

Let sf be the slip of full-load torque

s f R2
Tf ∝ 2 2
R2 +( s f X 2)

1
T max ∝
2 X2

Tf 2s R X
= 2 f 2 22
T max R 2 +(s f X 2 )

Dividing numerator and denominator by X22 we get

 2 s f R2
Tf X2
= 2
T max R2
( ) + sf 2
X2

R2
Let =a
X2

Tf 2as
= 2 f2
T max a + s f

In fact a=sm  slip corresponding to maximum torque

So
Tf 2 sm sf
= 2 2
T max s m + s f

3.11 Relation between Starting Torque ( Tst) and Maximum Torque(Tmax):

R2
Tst ∝ 2 2
R2 + X 2

1
T max ∝
2 X2

T st 2 R2 X 2
= 2
T max R 2 + X 22

Dividing numerator and denominator by X22 on both sides

2 R2
T st X2
=
T max ¿¿

T st 2a
So =
T max 1+ a2

3.12 Equivalent Circuit for an Induction Motor:

Induction motor is a well-known device which works on the principle of transformer. That is,
when an EMF is supplied to its stator, then as a result of electromagnetic induction, a voltage is
induced in its rotor. So an induction motor is said to be a transformer with rotating secondary.
Here, primary of transformer resembles stator winding of an induction motor and secondary
resembles rotor.
The induction motor always runs below the synchronous or full load speed and the relative
difference between the synchronous speed and speed of rotation is known as slip which is
denoted by s:

( N s−N )
s=
Ns

Where, Ns is synchronous speed of rotation which is given by:

120 f
Ns=
P

Where, f is the frequency of the supply.

P is the number of poles of the machine.

N is the speed of rotation.

The equivalent circuit of any machine shows the various parameters of the machine such as its
ohmic losses and also other losses. The losses are modeled just by inductor and resistor. The
copper losses are occurred in the windings so the winding resistance is taken into account. The
winding also has inductance for which there is a voltage drop due to inductive reactance.

Exact Equivalent Circuit:

Figure 3.3 Exact Equivalent Circuit

Here, R1 is the winding resistance of the stator. X 1 is the inductance of the stator winding.
Rc is the core loss component. XM is the magnetizing reactance of the winding. R 2/s is the power
of the rotor, which includes output mechanical power and copper loss of rotor. If we draw the
circuit with referred to the stator then the circuit will look like-

Figure 3.4 Equivalent circuit referred to Stator side

Here all the other parameters are same except- R 2’ is the rotor winding resistance with
referred to stator winding. X2’ is the rotor winding inductance with referred to stator winding. R 2
(1 - s) / s is the resistance which shows the power which is converted to mechanical power output
or useful power. The power dissipated in that resistor is the useful power output or shaft power.

The rotor current is given by

sE2
I 2=
√R 2
2 2
+s X2
2

E2
I 2=
√¿ ¿ ¿

The rotor circuit can, therefore, be represented by a resistance R 2/s and a reactance X2 connected in
series across a voltage source E2 which causes a current I2 flowing through the circuit.

To show the mechanical power conversion in the rotor circuit, the resistance R 2/s of the rotor circuit can
(1−s)
be represented as two separate resistances, viz., R 2 and R2 as
s

R 2 R2
= −R2 + R2 (by subtracting and adding R 2)
s s

( )
R2 1−s
=R 2 + R2
s s
Power Relation of Equivalent Circuit:

1. Input power to stator- 3 V 1I1CosƟ. Where, V1 is the stator voltage applied. I 1 is the current
drawn by the stator winding. CosƟ is the stator power stator.
2. Rotor input=Power input- Stator copper and iron losses.
3. Rotor Copper loss = Slip × power input to the rotor.
4. Mechanical Power Developed = (1 - s) × Rotor input power.

3.13 Crawling and Cogging of Induction Motor:

The important characteristics normally shown by a squirrel cage induction motors are
crawling and cogging. These characteristics are the result of improper functioning of the motor
that means either motor is running at very slow speed or it is not taking the load.

Crawling of Induction Motor:

 Certain combinations of S1 and S2 cause accentuation of certain space harmonics of the

mmf wave, e.g. fifth and seventh harmonics which correspond to poles five and seven
times that of the fundamental.
 Since the space-phase difference between fundamental poles of the winding phase is
(00,1200,2400), this (space-phase) difference is (00,2400, 1200), for the fifth harmonic poles
and (00,1200,2400), for the seventh.
 Hence the fifth harmonic poles rotate backwards with synchronous speed of ns/5 and the
seventh harmonic poles rotate forward at ns/7.
 Theses harmonic mmfs produce their own asynchronous (induction) torques of the same
general torque-slip shape as that of the fundamental.
 Figure 3.4 below shows the superimposition of the fundamental, fifth and seventh
harmonic torque-slip curves.
 A marked saddle effect is observed with stable region of operation ( negative torque-slip
slope) around 1/7th normal speed (s=6/7) .
 In figure 3.4 the load torque curve intersects the motor torque curve at the point M
resulting in stable operation.
 This phenomenon is known as crawling ( running stably at low speed).
 Certain slot combinations, e.g. S1=24 and S2=18 cause the stator mmf to possess a
reversed 11th and a forward 13th harmonic mmf while the rotor has a reversed 13 th and a
forward 15th.
  The stator 13th harmonic mmf rotates at speed +ns/13 with respect to the stator and the
rotor mmf of the 13th harmonic rotates at –(ns-n)/13 with respect to the rotor when the
rotor is running at speed n.
 These two mmf’s lock into each other to produce a synchronous torque when

ns n −n
=n− s
13 13

Figure 3.5 Torque-slip Characteristic of a 3-phase Induction motor showing the effect of
harmonic asynchronous (induction) torques

Cogging of Induction Motor:

 A squirrel-cage rotor may exhibit a peculiar behavior in starting for certain relationships
between the number of poles and the stator and rotor slots.
 With the number of stator slots S1 equal to or an integral multiple of rotor slots S2, the
variation of reluctance as a function of space will be quite pronounced resulting in strong
alignment forces at the instant of starting.
 These forces may create an aligning torque stronger than the accelerating torque with
consequent failure of the motor to start.
 This phenomenon is known as cogging.
 Such combination of stator and rotor slots must, therefore, be avoided in machine design.
Methods to overcome cogging:

This problem can be easily solved by adopting several measures. These solutions are as follows:

 The number of slots in rotor should not be equal to the number of slots in the rotor.
 Skewing of the rotor slots, that means the stack of the rotor is arrange in such a way that
it angled with the axis of the rotation.

Cogging and crawling are much less prominent in slip-ring induction machines as these possess
higher starting torques. The induction harmonic torque cannot be avoided, but can be reduced by
making a proper choice of coil-span and by skewing (slightly twisting the rotor teeth). The
synchronous harmonic torques can be avoided totally by a proper combination of stator and rotor
slots.