Chapter 1 Historical Antecedents in Which Social Considerations Changed the Course of Science

and Technology

What is Science, Technology and Society?

Science and Technology and Society

 is an interdisciplinary course designed to examine the ways that science and technology shape,
and are shaped by, our society, politics, and culture.
 it helps address issues and problems that are of concern to the general population.

• Science is an evolving body of knowledge that is

based on theoretical expositions and experimental and
empirical activities that generates universal truths.

• Technology is the application of science and creation

of systems, processes and objects designed to help humans
in their daily activities.

• Society is the sum total of our interactions as

humans, including the interactions that we engage in to
understand the nature of things and to create things.

The Role of Science and Technology

1. Alter the way people live, connect, communicate and transact, with profound effects on
economic development;;
2. Key drivers to development, because technological and scientific revolutions underpin
economic advances, improvements in health systems, education and infrastructure;;
3. The technological revolutions of the 21st century are emerging from entirely new sectors, based
on micro--processors, tele--communications, bio--technology and nano--technology. Products
are transforming business practices across the economy, as well as the lives of all who have
access to their effects. The most remarkable breakthroughs will come from the interaction
of insights and applications arising when these technologies converge.
4. Have the power to better the lives of poor people in developing countries
5. Differentiators between countries that are able to tackle poverty effectively by growing
and developing their economies, and those that are not.
6. Engine of growth
7. Interventions for cognitive enhancement, proton cancer therapy and genetic engineering

B. Historical Antecedents in the World

From Ancient Times to 600 BC

1. Egyptian civilization- papyrus
2. Mesopotamians- pottery
3. Chinese- compass

 involved practical arts like healing practices and metal tradition.

 Imhotep was renowned for his knowledge of medicine.
 the heart of Egyptian medicine was trial and error

The Egyptian medicine was considered advanced as compared with other ancient nations
because of one of the early inventions of Egyptian civilization – the
papyrus
 an ancient form of paper, made from the papyrus plant, a reed which grows in
the marshy areas around the Nile river.
 Before papyrus, Egyptians, Sumerians, and other races wrote on clay tablets or
smooth rocks.

The Advent of Science (600 BC to 500 AD)

1. Thales, Pythagoras- Classical Antiquity becomes tangible from the 6th century BC in pre-Socratic philosophy
2. Plato- founded the Academy in circa 385 BC
3. Aristotle- begins the "scientific revolution" with scholars (e.g. Archimedes)
 Ancient Greeks
 the early thinkers and as far as historians can tell, they were the first true
scientists

Islamic Golden Age

 Islamic scientific achievements achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas,
especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.

Practice of Scientific inquiry in other subjects like:

 alchemy and chemistry,

 botany and agronomy,
 geography and cartography,
 ophthalmology,
 pharmacology,
 physics and zoology

Astronomy was useful in determining the Qibla

botany is applied in agriculture and geography

The works of Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshid al Kashi led to advanced in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and
Arabic numerals.

Al-Biruni, and Avicenna produced books that contain descriptions of the preparation of hundred of drugs made from
medicinal plants and chemical compounds.

Islamic doctors describe diseases like smallpox and measles, and challenged classical Greek medical knowledge.

Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Biruni and others studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and
criticized Aristotle’s view of motion.

 a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam

 begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al--Rashid

Science and Technology in Ancient China

Four Great Inventions

1. Compass
2. gunpowder
3. papermaking
4. printing

The Renaissance (1300 AD – 1600AD)

after the Fall of Constantinople Constantinople (1453)- invention of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster
propagation of new ideas

Marie Boas Hall (1450–1630)- coined the term Scientific Renaissance to designate the early phase of the Scientific
Revolution.

Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries- restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients;

Scientific Revolution of the 17th century- when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation.

Johannes Gutenberg- inventor of printing

China- papermaking

Flemish technique of oil painting was the origin of the new printers’ ink
Mainz—Gutenberg, Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer- casting metal type and locking it into a wooden press

 the beginning of the cultural movement of the Renaissance, which was considered by
many as the Golden Age of Science.
 scientists shifted from recovery to innovation.
 Three men of Mainz—Gutenberg and his contemporaries Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer—
seem to have taken the final steps, casting metal type and locking it into a wooden press.
 The Enlightenment Period (1715 A.D. to 1789 A.D.)
produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions.

Important contributers

 Galileo Galilei,
 Johannes Kepler
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica (comprehension of a diversity of physical phenomena (motions of heavenly
bodies, together with the motions of sublunary bodies)

 the Age of Reason was characterized by radical reorientation in science, which

emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith.
 produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and
revolutions
 . The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment
ideals and respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its
decline. The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to 19th--century Romanticism.
 roots are usually traced to 1680s England, where in the span of three years
Isaac Newton published his “Principia Mathematica” (1686) and John Locke his
“Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1689)—two works that provided the
scientific, mathematical and philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major advances.

Industrial Revolution (1760 -- 1840)

observation and experimentation to improve Industrial Revolution

The science permitted:

tailoring of alloy steels to industrial specifications

creation of new substances, like the aniline dyes

electricity and magnetism were harnessed in the electric dynamo and motor

problem of steam led to search for a theory of steam power, to the creation of thermodynamics

19th--century

large refracting telescope driven by intricate clockwork to observe nebulae

steam locomotive and the steamship.

main features in the Industrial Revolution:

technological

Socioeconomic

cultural

technological changes included the following:

1. the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel

2. the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam engine,
electricity, petroleum, and the internal--combustion engine
3. the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that permitted increased
production with a smaller expenditure of human energy
4. new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased division of labor and
specialization of function,
5. Important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam locomotive, steamship,
automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, ‘
6. the increasing application of science to industry.
 The rise of modern

20th Century Science: Physics and Information Age

(complexity of the real world)

• discovery is an organised mode of observing nature.

 • Plato and Aristotle put at the origin of thought

• Einstein’s formulation of the theory of relativity (1905)

(e.g. concept of energy related to mass and the speed of light: E = mc2 )

• Modern physics grew in the 20th into a primary discipline contributing to all today’s basic natural sciences,
astronomy, chemistry and biology.

• Crick and Watson- structure of DNA, the carrier of genetic information

• Physics has enabled us to understand the basic components of matter

• Information technology and the digital processing of information

• medicine find a cure for many life-threatening diseases and the beginning of organ transplants.

• neurosciences to robotics.

 an important century in the history of the sciences

 generated entirely novel insights in all areas of research
 established an intimate connection between science and technology
 in particular, physics, biology, astronomy, chemistry, neurosciences and earth and environmental
sciences
 was strongly marked by Einstein’s formulation of the theory of relativity (1905) E = mc2

Science and Technology in the Fourth Industrial Revolution

(describing boundaries between the physical, digital, and biological worlds)

• (AI), robotics,
• the Internet of Things (IoT)
• 3D printing
• genetic engineering
• quantum computing,
• GPS systems
• voice-activated virtual assistants (Apple’s Siri)
• Netflix
• Facebook’s ability to recognize your face and tag you in a friend’s photo
• Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can “think” like humans — recognizing complex
patterns, processing information, drawing conclusions, and making recommendations
• Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset) that simulate the real
world, while augmented reality merges the digital and physical worlds
• (e.g. make up products, google translate apps)
• Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new technologies and
products for a range of uses
• (e.g cleaner, efficient energy sources)
• Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal and commercial use.
• 3D printing
• the blurring of boundaries between the physical, digital, and biological worlds. It’s a
fusion of advances in artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT),
3D printing, genetic engineering, quantum computing, and other technologies

C. Historical Development of Science and Technology in the Philippines

Pre--Spanish Era.
 the first inhabitants in the archipelago who settled in Palawan and Batangas around 40
000 years ago have made simple tools or weapons of stone which eventually developed
techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard stones.
 primitive technology was brought by primal needs of survival by hunting wild animals
and gathering fruits and vegetables in the forest
 understand when clay is mixed with 2 water and then shaped into something before sun
drying, it hardens to an object that can also be useful to them. And because clay is
moldable, it can be shaped into various objects.
  that primitive Filipinos are practicing science and technology in their everyday lives.
The ancient crafts of stone carving, pottery and smelting of metals involves a lot of
science, which is understanding the nature of matter involved.
 The ingenuity of the Ifugaos in building the Banaue Rice Terraces
 The smelting of metals exhibited the primitive Filipino’s knowledge on the
composition of alloy and the optimum temperature that will produce the metal with
acceptable tensile strength
 a very simple science of understanding how mother nature operates

Spanish Colonial Era.

As claimed by Caoili (1983), the beginnings of modern science and technology in the country
can be traced back to the Spanish regime because they established schools, hospitals and started
scientific research that had important consequences in the development of the country
The The 3 highest institution of learning during this time was the Royal and Pontifical University of
Santo Tomas.

Dr. Jose P. Rizal. Dr. Jose Rizal

 the epitome of the Renaissance man in the Philippine context. He is a scientist, a doctor,
an engineer (he designed and built a water system in Dapitan
 creating a water system that improved the sanitation of households in the area
 Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila, 1887 created to conduct biochemical
analyses for public health and to undertake specimen examinations
 Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas, the first scientific journal in the country

Manila, become a cosmopolitan center and modern amenities were introduced to the city.
Philippines had evolved into a primary agricultural exporting economy

American Period

extensive public education system from elementary to tertiary schools

the Philippine Normal School and University of the
The University of the Philippines Los Baños opened the College of Agriculture in 1909 while
the University of the Philippines – Diliman opened the Colleges of Arts, Engineering and Veterinary
Medicine in 1910. The College of Medicine was opened four years later.

Bureau of Science
 previously called as Bureau of Government Laboratories
 the primary training ground for Filipino scientists and pioneering scientific research
 the publication of the Philippine Journal of Science.
 the primary research center of the Philippines until World War II
National Research Council of the Philippines
 established on December 8, 1933

Commonwealth Period

 When the Americans granted independence

 declaring Phillippine Commonwealth Constitution article XIII, section 4 “The State shall promote
scientific research and invention…”
 was succeeded by the Japanese occupation when the Pacific war broke out in 1941

Science and Technology since Independence

Institute of Science
 replaced Bureau of Science in 1946
 placed under the Office of the President of the Philippines
US Economic Survey to the Philippines in 1950
 there is a lack of basic information which were necessities to the country's industries, lack
of support of experimental work and minimal budget for scientific research
Science Act of 1958
 established the National Science Development Board (NSDB)
 The government focused on science and technology institutional capacity building
The increase in the number of graduates led to the rise of professional organizations of scientists
and engineers.

As summarized by Caoili, “There has been little innovation in the education and training of
scientists and engineers since independence in 1946. This is in part due to the conservative nature of
self--regulation by the professional associations. Because of specialized training, vertical
organizations by disciplines and lack of liaison between professions, professional associations
have been unable to perceive the dynamic relationship between science, technology and society
and the relevance of their training to Philippine conditions.

Science and Technology in the 1960s to 1990s

 the government gave greater importance to science and technology.
 declared in Section 9(1) of the 1973 Philippine Constitution that the “advancement of
science and technology shall have priority in the national development”

April 6, 1968
 Pres. Ferdinand Marcos proclaimed the 35-hectare land in Bicutan, Taguig as the site of
the Philippine Science Community

several research institutes were established under the National Science Development Board
(NSDB)
 Philippine Coconut Research Institute
 Philippine Textile Research Institute
. Moreover, the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission, another agency under NSDB,
explored the uses of atomic energy for economic development. To prepare the pool of scientists who
will work on Philippine Atomic Commission, Pres. Marcos assisted 107 institutions in undertaking
nuclear energy work by sending scientists abroad to study nuclear science and technology, and
providing basic training to 482 scientists, doctors, engineers and technicians.
Presidential Decree No. 4, 1972
 the National Grains Authority was created and it was tasked to improve the rice and
corn industry and thereby help in the economic development of the country
 followed by the creation of Philippine Council for Agricultural Research to support the
progressive development of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the country
Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972.
 established the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Service
Administration (PAGASA) under the Department of National Defense
Presidential Decree No. 334, s.
 the Philippine National Oil Company was created
Presidential Decree No. 1003--A, s. 1976.
 the National Academy of Science and Technology
 composed of scientists with “innovative achievement in the basic and applied sciences”
who will serve as the reservoir of scientific and technological expertise for the country.

Executive Order No. 889

 March 1983
 which provided the establishment of a national network of centers of excellence in
basic sciences:
 National Institutes of Physics
 Geological Science
 Natural Sciences Research
 Chemistry
 Biology
 Mathematical Sciences

Presidential Decree No. 901

 19 July 1983
 the establishment of a Scientific Career System in the Civil Service
 to attract more qualified scientists to work in government and encourage young people to
pursue science degrees and careers.
 Executive Order 128
The functions and responsibilities of DOST:
1. Pursue the declared state policy of supporting local scientific and technological effort
2. Develop local capability to achieve technological self--reliance
3. Encourage greater private sector participation in research and development. moreover,
funding for the science and technology sector was tripled from 464 million in 1986 to 1.7
billion in 1992.

Department of Science and Technology (DOST)

 the premiere science and technology body in the country

Hopes in Philippine Science and Technology

Diwata-1
 the micro-satellite in April 2016
 assembled by Filipino researchers and engineers under the guidance of Japanese experts
 provides real-time, high-resolution and multi--olor infrared
Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards (NOAH)
 uses the Lidar (light detection and ranging) technology im June 2012
 to help manage risks associated with natural hazards and disasters
 providing timely warning with a lead time of at least six hours in the wake of impending
floods
Intelligent Operation Center Platform
 collaboration between the local government of Davao City and IBM Philippines Inc.
 to use analytics software for monitoring events and operations in real time

Current Initiatives in Science and Technology in the Country

Advanced Device and Materials Testing Laboratories
The center houses advanced equipment for failure analysis and materials characterization to
address advanced analytical needs for quality control, materials identification and R&D
Electronics Products Development Center
used to design, develop and test hardware and software for electronic products.
Genome Center
a core facility that combines basic and applied research for the development of health
diagnostics, therapeutics, DNA forensics and preventive products, and improved crop varieties.
Die and Mold Solutions Center
which enhances the competitiveness of the local tool and die sector through the localization of
currently imported dies and molds.

D. Paradigm Shift
Scientific paradigm
 is a framework containing all the commonly accepted views about a subject, conventions about
what direction research should take and how it should be performed.
 contain all the distinct, established patterns, theories, common methods and standards that
allow us to recognize an experimental result as belonging to a field or not.
 The body of pre--existing evidence in a field conditions and shapes the collection and
interpretation of all subsequent evidence.
Thomas Kuhn
 suggested that a paradigm includes “the practices that define a scientific discipline at a
certain point in time

A paradigm dictates:

what is observed and measured

the questions we ask about those observations how the questions are
formulated how the results are interpreted how research is carried out
what equipment is appropriate

Many students who opt to study science do so with the belief that they are undertaking
the most rational path to learning about objective reality. But science, much like any other discipline,
is subject to ideological idiosyncrasies, preconceptions and hidden assumptions.
 In fact, Kuhn strongly suggested that research in a deeply entrenched paradigm invariably ends
up reinforcing that paradigm, since anything that contradicts it is ignored or else pressed through the
preset methods until it conforms to already established dogma.

Paradigm Shift
 “revolutionary science”
 "The successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual
developmental pattern of mature science" -- Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

Chapter 2 Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society

Intellectual Revolution
 a period where paradigm shifts occurred and where scientific beliefs that have been widely
embraced and accepted by the people were challenged and opposed
 the “replacement of Aristotelian ethics and Christian morality by a new type of decision
making which may be termed instrumental reasoning or cost--benefit analysis”

The Birth of Modern Science

 the first to explain the world in terms of natural laws rather than myths about gods and
heroes. They also passed on the idea of the value of math and experiment in science,
although they usually thought only in terms of one to the exclusion of the other.

Aristotle
 the most influential figure in Western science until the 1600's
 who created a body of scientific theory that towered like a colossus over Western
Civilization for some 2000 years

A. Copernican Revolution

Nicolas Copernicus
 the first person who started this slow process of dismantling Aristotle's cosmology
 the paths of planetary orbits
 the heavens do move backwards known as retrogradations
 they expanded Aristotle’s theory, adding smaller circular orbits (epicycles) that spun
off the main orbits
 the universe had some 80 epicycles attached to ten crystalline spheres (one for the
moon, sun, each of the five known planets, the totality of the stars, a sphere to move
the other spheres, and heaven).
 his solution was basically geometric
 His book, Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Worlds, 1543

Ptolemy
 The second century Greek astronomer
 the main authority who put order to and passed this cumbersome system of
epicycles to posterity.
Johannes Kepler
 Tycho Brahe, tracked entire orbits using the naked eye
 a brilliant mathematician
 had a mystical vision of the mathematical perfection of the universe
 owed a great deal to the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras.
 his calculations showed that those orbits were elliptical.

Galileo Galilei
• the first to successfully use math to define the workings of the cosmos.
• saw the sun's perfection marred by sunspots and the moon's perfection marred by
craters.
• He also saw four moons orbiting Jupiter.
• The Starry Messenger,1611
• Dialogue on the Great World Systems
• the first comprehensive attack on the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic cosmic model.
Isaac Newton
• The story of being hit on the head by an apple may very well be true.
 • theory of gravity
• Principia Mathematica (1687) the start of the Enlightenment (1687--1789)
B. The Darwinian Revolution
▪ Origin of Species by Charles Darwin ushered in a new era in the intellectual
history of humanity.
▪ the theory of biological evolution: he accumulated evidence demonstrating that
organisms evolve and discovered the process, natural selection, by which
they evolve.
▪ it completed the Copernican revolution initiated three centuries earlier, and
thereby radically changed our conception of the universe and the place of
humanity in it.
▪ William Paley in his Natural Theology (1802) elaborated the argument-from-
-design as forceful demonstration of the existence of the Creator.
C. Freudian Revolution

Sigmund Freud
 had as great an impact on humanity's conception of itself as had Copernicus and Darwin.
 mental illness was almost universally considered “organic”, kind of deterioration or disease
of the brain

Insane people were those with physical diseases of the brain.

Sane people were those without diseased brains.

Jean-Martin Charcot
 One of Freud's biggest influences during his early days as a
 the famous French psychiatrist

D. Scientific Revolution in Mesoamerica

Meso--America is the region from Mexico to Guatemala, Belize and parts of Honduras and El
Salvador. There were no major ancient civilization that developed in North America. The
Mesoamerican civilization were isolated from the accumulated scientific knowledge of Africa,
Asia and Europe. They were confronted with much harder conditions than the ancient civilizations
of the Indus valley, Mesopotamia, and Egypt which developed in parallel with each other and
established contacts between each other at a very early stage. This exchange of knowledge between
these ancient civilizations was critical in the development of their scientific knowledge. Because of
this isolation, Mesoamerican civilization developed on their own and became much more self--reliant.

The most advanced Mesoamerican civilization was the Maya civilization that was well on its way to
develop true science. They knew how to make paper and had pictorial script called Maya
hieroglyphs that allowed them to record all knowledge on long strips of paper folded harmonica-
-style into books. One of the three books recovered called The Dresden Codex contains predictions of
solar eclipses for centuries and a table of predicted positions of Venus. Unlike the European
scientists who used astronomical instruments like telescopes, the Maya made predictions by aligning
stars with two objects that were separated by a large distance, a technique that achieved great
accuracy of angular measurement. As a result, the Maya developed the most accurate calendar ever
designed.

The Aztec followed the same road. They kept their own script and languages but assimilated all they
could learn from Maya society. Their manuscripts describe how the Maya performed their astronomical
observations.

Several outstanding achievements can be reported in the area of technology and invention. The
manufacture of rubber was one of the earliest inventions, documented by the use of a rubber ball
in the ball game tlachtli, a game played by Meso--American civilizations from earliest times. In
architecture the Maya were the first to use pitched ceilings in their buildings after the invention of the
corbelled vault. Aztec city builders also understood the need for public sanitation;; public latrines
were found along all highways, and to prevent pollution of Lake Texcoco canoes transported the
sewage from Tenochtitlán to the mainland every morning. (von Hagen, 1957)

American people were gifted horticulturalists and cultivated crop plants from the earliest times.
Among the plants that originated in Meso--America are corn (maize), papaya, avocado and cocoa.
Maize is the only cultivated plant that was developed so early in human history that its wild ancestor
is no longer known. It can, however, still be crossed with two other plants found only on the Yucatan
Peninsula.

Finally, several sculptures found at Meso--American sites in 1975, 1979 and 1983 and dating back to
2000 -- 1500 BC have clear magnetic properties. In some of these sculptures the north and south
poles are in most conspicuous positions, for example at the snout and at the back of the head of a
frog or turtle. Another magnetic object found in 1966 was shaped as if it was to be used to
indicate direction. These finds strongly suggest that the early Meso--American civilizations knew about
and used magnetism. (Malmström, 1976, 1979)

E. Asian Scientific Revolution

Aside from China, there were other Asian countries that contributed to the development of
science and technology in the world, although it varied depending on country and time,
specially in the present times. Currently, Japan is probably the most notable country in Asia
in terms of scientific and technological achievement, particularly in terms of its electronics
and automobile products. Other countries are also notable in other scientific fields such as
chemical and physical achievements.
The general conception is that many of the cutting--edge technological developments,
and to a lesser extent scientific advancements, emanate from Asia. For instance, Japan,
Taiwan, South Korea, and China together produce a staggering 90% of the world’s digital
gadgets. Aside from the region’s hardware dominance, nations across Asia are becoming
increasingly important to the global supply of digital content and services, something which will
only increase as the continent develops over the coming decades.
South Korea’s cultural popularity around the world has caused a number of startup’s to
emerge working within the digital and technology sectors, including website viki.com.
Taiwan is following a similar path to Japan meanwhile, moving away from hardware
production, instead turning to software and content development.
Together, the points raised throughout this article proves Asia is truly a crucible of
innovative technological development;; a continent that will play an incredibly important
role in the evolution of our digital age.

F. Scientific Revolution in Middle East

During the 3,000 years of urbanized life in Mesopotamia and Egypt tremendous strides were
made in various branches of science and technology. The greatest advances were made in
Mesopotamia—very possibly because of its constant shift of population and openness to foreign
influence, in contrast to the relative isolation of Egypt and the consequent stability of its
population. The Egyptians excelled in such applied sciences as medicine, engineering, and
surveying;; in Mesopotamia greater progress was made in astronomy and mathematics. The
development of astronomy seems to have been greatly accelerated by that of astrology, which took
the lead among the quasi--sciences involved in divination. The Egyptians remained far behind the
Babylonians in developing astronomy, while Babylonian medicine, because of its chiefly magical
character, was less advanced than that of Egypt. In engineering and architecture Egyptians took an
early lead, owing largely to the stress they laid on the construction of such elaborate monuments
as vast pyramids and temples of granite and sandstone. On the other hand, the Babylonians led in
the development of such practical arts as irrigation (Albright, 2014).

Both sciences and pseudosciences spread from Egypt and Mesopotamia to Phoenicia and
Anatolia. The Phoenicians in particular transmitted much of this knowledge to the various
lands of the Mediterranean, especially to the Greeks. The direction taken by these influences can
be followed from Egypt to Syria, Phoenicia, and Cyprus, thanks to a combination of excavated art
forms that prove the direction of movement, as well as to Greek tradition, which lays great stress
on what the early Greek philosophers learned from Egypt. Mesopotamian influence can be
traced especially through the partial borrowing of Babylonian science and divination by the Hittites
and later by the transmission of information through Phoenicia. The Egyptians and Mesopotamians
wrote no theoretical treatises;; information had to be transmitted piecemeal through personal
contacts.

Of all the accomplishments of the ancient Middle East, the invention of the alphabet is
probably the greatest. While pre--alphabetic systems of writing in the Old World became steadily
more phonetic, they were still exceedingly cumbersome, and the syllabic systems that gradually
replaced them remained complex and difficult. In the early Hyksos period (17th century BC) the
Northwestern Semites living in Egypt adapted hieroglyphic characters—in at least two slightly
differing forms of letters—to their own purposes. Thus was developed the earliest known
purely consonantal alphabet, imitated in northern Syria, with the addition of two letters to
designate vowels used with the glottal catch.

This alphabet spread rapidly and was in quite common use among the Northwestern
Semites (Canaanites, Hebrews, Aramaeans, and especially the Phoenicians) soon after its
invention. By the 9th century BC the Phoenicians were using it in the western Mediterranean, and
the Greeks and Phrygians adopted it in the 8th. The alphabet contributed vastly to the Greek
cultural and literary revolution in the immediately following period. From the Greeks it was
transmitted to other Western peoples. Since language must always remain the chief mode of
communication for people, its union with hearing and vision in a uniquely simple phonetic
structure has probably revolutionized civilization more than any other invention in history.

G. Scientific Revolution in Africa

The history of the sciences in Africa is rich and diverse. The applied sciences of agronomy,
metallurgy, engineering and textile production, as well as medicine, dominated the field of
activity across Africa. So advanced was the culture of farming within West Africa, that ‘New
World‘ agricultural growth was spawned by the use of captives from these African societies that
had already made enormous strides in the field of agronomy. In her work Black Rice, Judith
Carnoy demonstrates the legacy of enslaved Africans to the Americas in the sphere of rice
cultivation. We know also that a variety of African plants were adopted in Asia, including coffee,
the oil palm, fonio or acha (digitaria exilis), African rice (oryza glabberima), and sorghum
(sorghum bicolor). Plants, whether in terms of legumes, grain, vegetables, tubers, or, wild or
cultivated fruits, also had medicinal implications for Africans and were used as anesthetics
or pain killers, analgesics for the control of fever, antidotes to counter poisons, and anthelmints
aimed at deworming. They were used also in cardiovascular, gastro--intestinal, and
dermatological contexts. Some of these such as hoodia gordonii and combrettum caffrum are being
integrated within contemporary pharmaceutical systems (Emeagwali, n.d.).

Africa’s areas of scientific investigation include the fields of astronomy, physics, and
mathematics. Laird Scranton, making use of the extensive collections of Marcel Griaule, has
deepened our understanding of Malian cosmological myths and their perceptions of the structure
of matter and the physical world. Dogon knowledge systems have also been explored in terms
of their perceptions on astronomy. Dogon propositions about Sirius B have been discussed by
Charles Finch in The Star of Deep Beginnings. The solar calendar that we use today evolved
from the Egyptian calendar of twelve months, calibrated according to the day on which the star
Sirius rose on the horizon with the Sun. Scranton suggests major interconnections between the
thought of the ancient Egyptians and that of the Malians of West Africa.

In the field of Mathematics, Nubian builders calculated the volumes of masonry and building
materials, as well as the slopes of pyramids, for construction purposes. Bianchi points to a Nubian
engraving at Meroe, in ancient Sudan, dated to the first century B.C.E., which reflects “a
sophisticated understanding of mathematics.” Included in the engraving were several lines,
inclined at a 72--degree angle, running diagonally from the base of a pyramid. Bianchi
suggests that the Nubian King Amanikhabale of the first century BCE was the owner of that
pyramid. Interestingly, the Nubians of Meroe, who constructed more pyramids than the
Egyptians, built steep, flat--topped pyramids.

In the field of medicine, common patterns and trends emerged across the continent.
These included scientifically proven methods, as well as techniques and strategies which were
culturally specific and psychologically significant. Among the common principles and procedures
were hydrotherapy, heat therapy, spinal manipulation, quarantine, bone--setting and surgery.
Incantations and other psychotherapeutic devices sometimes accompanied other techniques. The
knowledge of specific medicinal plants was quite extensive in some kingdoms, empires, and
city states such as Aksum, and Borgu (in Hausaland). The latter continues to be well known
for orthopedics (bone--setting), as is the case of Funtua in Northern Nigeria. Many traditional
techniques are still utilized in some areas. Others have undergone change over time, have been
revived in more recent periods, or have fallen into oblivion.

Various types of metal products have been used over time by Africans, ranging from gold,
tin, silver, bronze, brass, and iron/steel. The Sudanic empires of West Africa emerged in the
context of various commercial routes and activities involving the gold trade. In the North and
East, Ethiopia and Sudan were the major suppliers of gold, with Egypt a major importer. In
Southern Africa, the kingdom of Monomotapa (Munhumutapa) reigned supreme as a major gold
producer. In the various spheres of metal production, specific techniques and scientific principles
included: excavation and ore identification;; separation of ore from non--ore bearing rock;; smelting
by the use of bellows and heated furnaces;; and smithing and further refinement.
The use of multishaft and open--shaft systems facilitated circulation of air in intense
heating processes, while the bellows principle produced strong currents of air in a chamber
expanded to draw in or expel air through a valve. The various metal products served a wide
range of purposes, including: armor (as in some northern Nigerian city--states), jewelry (of gold,
silver, iron, copper and brass), cooking utensils, cloth dyeing, sculpture, and agricultural tools. The
technical know--how and expertise of blacksmiths helped to enhance their status, although they
were also often associated with supernatural and psychic powers, as well.

In various parts of ancient, medieval, and contemporary Africa, building constructions of

various dimensions, shapes, and types emerged, reflecting various concepts, techniques, raw
material preferences, and decorative principles. Builders integrated the concepts of the arch, the
dome, and columns and aisles in their constructions. The underground vaults and passages,
as well as the rock--hewn churches, of Axum are matched in Nubia and Egypt with
pyramids of various dimensions. In the Sahelian region, adobe, or dried clay, was preferred in
the context of moulded contours, at times integrated with overall moulded sculpture. Permanent
scaffolding made of protruding planks characterized the Malian region. The principle of evaporative
cooling was integrated into building design. Mats were used as part of the decor and also to
be saturated repeatedly in order to cool the room. Derelict ruins from walled cities—such
as Kano, Zazzau, and other city--states of Hausaland in the central Sudanic region of West
Africa—complement structures such as the rock--hewn and moulded churches of Lalibela in
Ethiopia or the Zimbabwe enclosures. The structures of ancient Nubia, as well as those of
Egypt, are parallel structures in the northeast.

H. Information Revolution

Information revolution is a period of change that describes current economic, social

and technological trends beyond the Industrial Revolution. The information revolution was
fueled by advances in semiconductor technology, particularly the metal--oxide--semiconductor
field--effect transistor (MOSFET) and the integrated circuit (IC) chip, leading to the
Information Age in the early 21st century (Lukasiak, 2010;; Orton, 2009).

Information revolution might prove as significant to the lives of people. Computer

technology is at the root of this change, and continuing advancements in that technology seem
to ensure that this revolution would touch the lives of people. Computers are unique
machines;; they help to extend the brain power. Computerized robots have been replacing
blue-­collar workers;; they might soon be replacing white collar workers as well. Computers are
merely devices that follow sets of instructions called computer programs, or software, that have
been written by people called computer programmers. Computers offer many benefits, but there
are also many dangers. They could help others invade one's privacy or wage war. They might
turn one into button pusher and cause massive unemployment. User-friendly systems can be
easily used by untrained people. The key development that made personal computers possible
was the invention of the microprocessor chip at Intel in 1971.

The information revolution led us to the age of the internet, where optical
communication networks play a key role in delivering massive amounts of data. The world
has experienced phenomenal network growth during the last decade, and further growth is
imminent. The internet will continue to expand due to user population growth and internet
penetration: previously inaccessible geographical regions in Africa and Asia will come
online. Network growth will only be accelerated by improvements in integrated circuits.
Transistor size has been halved every two years since the middle of the last century. The new
internet--based global economy requires a worldwide network with high capacity and
availability, which is currently limited by submarine optical communication cables.

New ideas keep coming from the information transport community. Since the first edition
of Undersea Fiber Communication Systems in 2002, the optical fiber communication industry
moved into the “coherent” era. We transport an order of magnitude more bits than just five
years ago. We encode information into phase, polarization, and amplitude of electromagnetic
waves. Michael Faraday would be proud, knowing that we send over 10,000,000,000,000 bits
every second across the Atlantic Ocean in a single strand of fiber. We would leave in awe Sir
William Thomson (known as Lord Kelvin), who was the scientific leader of an 1858
endeavor that built the first submarine cable with a transmission speed of one word per minute.
 Sir Thomson and Cyrus Field, an American businessman and telecommunications pioneer,
would be surprised to find out how many tools developed during their first transatlantic
expedition are still in use today. At first glance, the modern cable looks similar to the 1858
cable, which was copper based with a gutta--percha (trans--poly isoprene) isolator. In
modern day cables, gutta-percha has been replaced with polyethylene. We still use copper
to power submarine repeaters, and have added optical fibers during the last decade of the last
century.

The uniqueness of this engineering marvel is a combination of information science,

nonlinear optics, electrical engineering, material science, engineering practices, project
management, marine expertise, and high reliability standard. Undersea fiber communication
systems will continue to serve society.

Impact of Information Revolution

The truly revolutionary impact of the Information Revolution is just beginning to be

felt. But it is not "information" that fuels this impact. It is not "artificial intelligence." It
is not the effect of computers and data processing on decision-making, policymaking, or
strategy. It is something that practically no one foresaw or, indeed, even talked about ten or
fifteen years ago: e--commerce—that is, the explosive emergence of the Internet as a major,
perhaps eventually the major, worldwide distribution channel for goods, for services, and,
surprisingly, for managerial and professional jobs. This is profoundly changing economies,
markets, and industry structures;; products and services and their flow;; consumer segmentation,
consumer values, and consumer behavior;; jobs and labor markets. But the impact may be even
greater on societies and politics and, above all, on the way we see the world and ourselves in
it.
At the same time, new and unexpected industries will no doubt emerge, and fast. One is
already here: biotechnology. And another: fish farming. Within the next fifty years fish farming
may change us from hunters and gatherers on the seas into "marine pastoralists"—just as a
similar innovation some 10,000 years ago changed our ancestors from hunters and gatherers
on the land into agriculturists and pastoralists.
It is likely that other new technologies will appear suddenly, leading to major new
industries. What they may be is impossible even to guess at. But it is highly probable—indeed,
nearly certain—that they will emerge, and fairly soon. And it is nearly certain that few of
them—and few industries based on them—will come out of computer and information
technology. Like biotechnology and fish farming, each will emerge from its own unique and
unexpected technology.
Of course, these are only predictions. But they are made on the assumption that the
Information Revolution will evolve as several earlier technology--based "revolutions" have
evolved over the past 500 years, since Gutenberg's printing revolution, around 1455. In
particular, the assumption is that the Information Revolution will be like the Industrial
Revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. And that is indeed exactly how
the Information Revolution has been during its first fifty years.

Chapter 3 Science, Technology and Nation Building

A. The Philippine Government Science and Technology Agenda

Scientists and technologists

 are the backbone of an industrialized nation that propels socioeconomic gain and
national progress.
 the key players and lifeblood of research and innovation and plays an important role
in the industry and manufacturing sector.
 are essential players in nation building.
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
 is tasked to oversee and manage national technology development and acquisition
 responsible for formulating and adopting a comprehensive National Science and
Technology plan for the

Science for the People thru Administrative Order No. 003 s. 2017
 call to address inequity in developments within and among countries and is aligned with
the national goals and plans.
 aims to make science and technology more relevant to the conditions, needs and
opportunities for contributing to regional development while keeping abreast with the trends
and development in the country and in the world
  maximize the use of science, enhance innovation and the creative capacity of the Filipinos
towards the achievement of inclusive and sustainable growth.

Seven outcomes that the agency strives to achieve:

1. Innovation and stimulus

2. Technology and adoption promoted and accelerated
3. Critical mass of globally competitive STI human resources developed
4. Productivity and efficiency of communities and the production sector, particularly
MSMEs improved
5. Resiliency to disaster risks and climate change ensured
6. Inequality in STI capacities and opportunities reduced
7. Effective STI governance achieved

DOST Eleven Point Agenda:

1. Pursue R&D to address pressing national problems.

2. Conduct R&D to enhance productivity and improve management of resources.
3. Engage in R&D to generate and apply new knowledge and technologies across
sectors.
4. Strengthen and utilize regional R&D capabilities.
5. Maximize utilization of R&D results through technology transfer and
commercialization.
6. Develop STI human resources and build a strong STI culture.
7. Upgrade STI facilities and capacities to advance R&D activities and expand S&T
services.
8. Expand STI assistance to communities and the production sector, particularly
MSMEs.
9. Provide STI--based solutions for disaster risks and climate change adaptation and
mitigation.
10. Strengthen industry--academe--government and international STI collaboration.
11. Enhance effectiveness of STI governance.

In Focus: Batangas State University KIST Park

• first Knowledge, Innovation and Science Technology (KIST) Park on July 20, 2020.
• designated as a Special Economic Zone under Presidential Proclamation No. 947, s. 2020.
• theme “Towards a New Frontier of Knowledge--building and Innovation in Science and
Technology.”
• headed by Dr. Tirso A. Ronquillo
• key partner of the government in fostering industry--academe linkages, knowledge and
technology transfer, and promoting the commercialization of innovations.
• will serve as a catalyst for industrial productivity and increased economic growth in
CaLaBaRZon.
• This manifestation of the strong collaboration between government, industry and academe is
central to inclusive innovation strategy.
• long-­term vision for “state universities and colleges in the country to expand their
programs for industry, academe, market synergy, technopreneurship, [innovation--based] business
incubation and acceleration, and knowledge co-­creation in science and technology.”

B. Major Development Programs and Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines

Major Development Programs in Science and Technology

The Science for Change Program (S4CP) was created by the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) to accelerate STI in the country in order to keep up with the developments in
our time wherein technology and innovation are game changers. Through the Science for Change
Program (S4CP), the DOST can significantly accelerate STI in the country and create a massive

S4CP focuses on Accelerated R&D Program for Capacity Building of R&D Institutions
and Industrial Competitiveness which is composed of four (4) programs namely:
(1) Niche Centers in the Regions for R&D (NICER) Program,
(2) R&D Leadership (RDLead) Program,
(3) Collaborative R&D to Leverage PH Economy (CRADLE) for RDIs and Industry Program,
 (4) Business Innovation through S&T (BIST) for Industry Program.

NICER Program
 capacitates Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in the regions to make significant
improvement in regional research by integrating its development needs with the
existing R&D capabilities and resources.
 provides institutional grants for HEIs in the regions for R&D capacity building to
improve their S&T infrastructure.
 The NICER Program was established in consultation with the academe and industry
 endorsed by the Regional Development Council (RDC).
 a unique center for collaborative R&D to address specific S&T needs of local
communities and industries, thereby accelerating regional development.
 caters to the specific needs of the Regions, which include upgrading, development, and
acquisition of R&D equipment to undertake collaborative R&D activities.
 there are 18 existing NICERs across 14 regions for a total funding of P641M.
R&D Leadership Program
 complements the establishment of R&D Centers thru the NICER Program.
 provides the mechanism to bring in experts and highly skilled professionals with strong
leadership, management and innovative policy-making proficiencies
 strengthening the research capabilities of the HEIs, National Government Agencies
(NGAs) and Research Development Institutions (RDIs) in the regions.
 help improve and hasten the use of research results that will contribute to the socio-
-economic development of the country and help address pressing challenges.
 the implementing agency for this program is NRCP.
Collaborative Research and Development to Leverage Philippine Economy (CRADLE) Program
 foster collaboration between academe and local companies to improve competitiveness
and catalyze innovation.
 aims to improve the country’s innovation ecosystem by facilitating the smooth
transition of new technologies from universities and research and development
institutes (RDI) to industries - from lab to market.
 the framework of CRADLE is a trihelix partnership between the government
 address a problem of a Filipino company using R&D to develop innovative
solutions.
Business Innovation through S&T (BIST) for Industry Program
 aims to level-up the innovation capacity of the Philippine Industrial Sector through
R&D
 helping private companies and industries acquire novel and strategic technologies, such
as state-of--the--art equipment and machinery, technology licenses and patent rights
among others.
 cover up to 70% of the total eligible cost of the needed technology at zero percent
interest.
Steering committee for CRADLE and BIST Programs
 was created through the DOST Special Order No. 0276
 approved on 02 April 2018
 headed by Dr. Rowena Cristina L. Guevara, Undersecretary for R&D
Research and Development (PCIEERD)
(1) Review/formulate policies relating to the implementation of CRADLE and BIST Program
(2) Provide advice and guidance in the management and administration of the projects;; and
(3) Other functions necessary for the successful implementation of CRADLE and BIST
Programs.

Personalities in Science and Technology in the Philippines

Aisa Mijeno
 To light up the rest of the Philippines
 Sustainable Alternative Lighting (SALt) lamp.
 formed after living with the Butbut tribe for weeks relying only on kerosene lamps
and moonlight to do evening chores.
 Her mission and advocacy is to address the light inequality gap and end the use of
combustion based light sources
 runs on saltwater (two table spoons of salt and one glass of tap water), this ecologically
designed lamp can run for eight hours.
 the chemical conversion of energy (Galvanic cell)
Ramon C. Barba
  a Filipino scientist, inventor and horticulturist
 the inducement of flowering of mango trees by spraying with ethrel and potassium
nitrate
 developed a tissue culture procedure for the banana plant and sugar cane
 the rank and title of National Scientist in the Philippines for his distinguished achievements
in the field of plant physiology

Fe V. del Mundo
 She is known as the Mother of Philippine Pediatrics
 a very great scientist and a symbol of female empowerment in medicine
 more than 70-year medical career
 making major breakthroughs in immunization and in the treatment of jaundice
 invention of the incubator and a jaundice relieving device
 her methods, like the BRAT diet for curing diarrhea
 authored the Textbook of Pediatrics
 the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Public Service, 1977
 the Philippines’ first female National Scientist in 1980,
 the Grand Collar of the Order of the Golden Heart Award in 2011, by President
Benigno Aquino III.

Maria Y. Orosa
 Advances in modern Filipino food technology
 the “calamansi nip,” powdered form of the fruit which could be made into juice
most notable of her food inventions, is “Soyalac,” powdered preparation of soya-
-beans, known as “magic food.”
 taught Filipinos how to preserve such native delicacies
 she invented “Oroval” and “Clarosa”
 invented the “Orosa Palayok Oven” for cooking various dishes

Angel Alcala
 a hero for natural sciences
 contribution to marine ecosystems and established the first artificial reef around the
coastline of the Philippines, greatly boosting the ecosystem's health and viability
 the Field Museum Founders’ Council Award of Merit for contributions to environmental
biology
 proclaimed National Scientist by President Benigno S. Aquino III through Presidential Decree
782 on June 6, 2014.

C. Science Education in the Philippines

The role and goal of science in education should always be the same. Since science is
considered both knowledge and method, operating independent of time and place, the benefits of
science anywhere can only be the same. The value of science lies not only in the knowledge that
it imparts and bequeaths to the learner but also in its methods and techniques that inculcate
in the learner’s scientific habits, skills, and attitudes. Science, even as it is considered a body
of knowledge, it is also taken as methodology. It has given a tangible method and system to what
would otherwise be by chance and accident. From the utilization of scientific methods and techniques,
one is able to very possibly explain the past and predict what the future holds.
The general benefits of science have greatly challenged education of the Philippines.
While the country might have been a beneficiary of the methods of science even before the program
of formal education, it was during the American period that brought about a most significant and
essential change in the nature of education. There has been a corresponding increase in knowledge and
understanding of natural and social phenomena covered by all the disciplines of science available now.
It is this education that has been largely credited for the development of science in the Philippines.

Early Efforts to Improve Science Education

As early as the decade of the 1950s, scientists were concerned with the state of science education in
the schools. Leading scientists made Philippine authorities aware that the teaching of science from
grade school level to college levels in both public and private schools was very inadequate. The
inadequacies and weaknesses of science teaching were recognized as those relating to
undertrained teachers, the inadequate science curriculum in schools and colleges, the minimum
allotted to science, the lack of books, equipment and teaching aids. In 1957, the Philippine
government made the teaching of science compulsory in all elementary and secondary schools.
A National Committee for Science Education was set up in 1958 to formulate objectives for
the teaching of science education at all levels and to recommend steps that would upgrade the
teaching of science. The committee identified the areas to which improvement efforts were needed
such as integration of science with classroom instruction, acquisition of more science equipment
and tools, coordination of efforts with other agencies, negotiations for a science institute for
teachers, national science talent search and fellowships, higher salaries of science and
mathematics teachers and promotion of science teachers competence.

The BSCS Adaptation Project

In1959, biological sciences curriculum study (BSCS) project was launched by American
Institute of Biological Science, university of Colorado in order to improve biology education in
secondary schools. A steering committee of biological scientists, teachers and educators was
constituted. The project was financed by National Science Foundation, USA.
The BSCS project was started to design high school biology course with the objectives
to: provide recent and latest knowledge in biological sciences;; develop understanding of the
conceptual structure of biological sciences;; develop skills and processes of biology among the
students;; create an opportunity to use inquiry approach in teaching and learning of biology;; prepare
rich supplementary or support materials to enrich learning experiences in biological sciences and
present current status of biological sciences The organization of the BSCS project necessitated because
of the inadequacies and defects felt in the ongoing or conventional biological sciences teaching.
Defects were observed in conventional biological science teaching such as inclusion of dead or useless
contents in syllabus, little practical work, no correlation of biological sciences and physical science,
lack of integrated approach and no proper consideration of psychological aspects of teaching
learning.

The Science Education Project

These were the total efforts of SEP TO improve science education in the Philippines. First,
the dissemination of improved curricula, teaching techniques and approaches in science and
mathematics on basic levels of education through the introduction of new curriculum and the
application of new teaching techniques and approaches by the returned Master of Arts in Teaching
trainees and the teachers that they teach. On the other hand, these institutions disseminated many of
the curriculum materials by the UP Science Education Center. Second, quality science and math
education programs in the recipient--sponsor institutions through new and/or improved course offerings
and a generally improved teacher education program.