Surveying & Measurement

Total Station
 Introduction
• Until recently, transits and theodolites were the
most commonly used surveying instruments for
angle measurements.
• Total station instrument accomplish all the tasks
much more efficiently than transits and
theodolites.
• In addition, it can also observes distance
accurately and quickly.
• Furthermore, it can make computations with the
angle and distance measurements and display
the result.
• It is used for all types of surveys.
 Three Basic Components
• Total station instruments combine three
basic components into one integral unit:
 An electronic distance measurement (EDM).
 An electronic angle measuring component.
 A computer or microprocessor.
 Features
• Automatically observe
 Horizontal and vertical angles, and
 Slope distances from a single set up.
• Instantaneously compute
 Horizontal and vertical distance components,
 Elevations, and
 Coordinates of the point sighted.
• Display the result on LCD
 Store the data, either on board or in external data
collectors connected to their communication ports.
 Features
• The EDM instruments that are integrated into the
total station instruments, lengths up to about 4
km which is adequate for most work.
• Total station instruments are manufactured with
two graduated circles, mounted in mutually
perpendicular planes.
 Its horizontal circle is oriented in a horizontal plane,
which automatically puts the vertical circle in a vertical
plane.
 Horizontal and zenith (vertical) angels can then be
measured directly in their respective planes.
 Features
• Averaging of multiple angles and distance
measurements,
• Correcting electronically measured distances for
prism constants, atmospheric pressure and
temperature,
• Making curvature and refraction corrections to
elevations determined by trigonometric levelling,
• Reducing slope distances to their horizontal and
vertical components,
 Features
• Calculating point elevations from the
vertical distance components
(supplemented with keyboard input of
instrument and reflector heights),
• Computing coordinates of surveyed points
from horizontal angle and horizontal
distance components (supplemented with
keyboard input of coordinates for the
occupied station and a reference azimuth).
 Handling and Setting Up
• For most surveys, prior to observing distances and
angles the instrument must first be carefully set up over
a specific point.
• The set up process is mostly accomplished with the
following steps:
1. Adjust the position of the tripod legs by lifting and moving the
tripod as a whole until the point is roughly centred beneath the
tripod head (by dropping a stone or using a plumb bob).
2. Firmly place the legs of the tripod in the ground.
3. Roughly centre the tribrach levelling screws on their posts.
4. Mount the tribrach approximately in the middle of the tripod
head to permit maximum translations in step (9) in any
directions.
 The set up process
1. Properly focus the optical plummet on the point,
2. Manipulate the levelling screws to aim the intersection
of cross hairs of the optical plummet telescope at the
point below,
3. Centre the bull’s eye bubble by adjusting the lengths of
the tripod extension legs,
4. Level the instrument using the plate bubble and levelling
screws, and
5. If necessary, loosen the tribrach screw and translate the
instrument (do not rotate it) to carefully centre the
plummet cross hair on the point.
6. Repeat step (8) and (9) until precise levelling and
centring are accomplished.
 The set up process
• To level a total station instrument, the telescope is
rotated to place the axis of the level vial parallel to the
line through any two levelling screws, as the line through
A and B in Figure(a).
• The bubble is centred by turning these two screws, then
rotated 90°, as shown Figure(b), and centred again using
the third screw (C) only.
• The process is repeated and carefully checked to ensure
that the bubble remains centred .
 Handling
• When moving between setups
in the field, proper care should
be taken.
• Before the total station is
removed from the tripod, the
food screws should be
returned to the midpoints of the
posts.
• The instrument should NEVER
be transported on the tripod.
 Handling
• With adjustable-leg tripods, stress on the legs
can be avoided by retracting them to their
shortest positions and lightly clamping them in
position.
• When returning the total station to its case, all
locking mechanisms should be released.
• If the instrument is wet, it should be wiped down
and left in an open case until it is dry.
 Relationships of
Angles and Distances
• The formula for relating distances to
angles is given by the geometric
relationship.
• where, S is the arc length subtended at a
distance R by an arc of θ in radians.
 Relationships of
Angles and Distances
• To appreciate the precision capabilities of
a high-quality total station, an instrument
reading to the nearest 0.5" is theoretically
capable of measuring the angle between
two points approximately 1 cm apart and 4
km away.
 Sources of Error
in Total Stations Work
• Instrumental Errors
 Plate Bubble out of adjustment.
 Horizontal axis not perpendicular to vertical axis.
 Axis of sight not perpendicular to horizontal axis.
 Vertical-circular index error.
 Eccentricity of centres.
 Circle graduation errors.
 Errors caused by peripheral equipment.
 Sources of Error
in Total Stations Work
• Natural Errors
 Wind
 Temperature effects
 Refraction
 Tripod settlement
 Sources of Error
in Total Stations Work
• Personal Errors
 Instrument not set up exactly over point.
 Bubbles not cantered perfectly.
 Improper use of clamps and tangent screws
 Poor focusing
 Overly careful sights
 Careless plumbing and placement of rod.
 Mistakes
• Some common mistakes in angle
measurement work are
 Sighting on, or setting up over the wrong
point.
 Calling out or recording an incorrect value.
 Improper focusing of the eyepiece and
objective lenses of the instrument.
 Leaning on the tripod, or placing a hand on
the instrument when pointing or taking
readings.
 Measuring Horizontal Angles
Repetition Method
• To measure a horizontal angle JIK, the
instrument is first set up and centred over station
I, and levelled.
• Then a backsight is taken on station J. This is
accomplished by:
 Releasing the horizontal and vertical locks,
 Turning the telescope in the approximate direction of
J,
 Clamping both locks,
 Making a precise pointing, and
 Setting up the horizontal angle as 0°00‘ 00“.
 Measuring Horizontal Angles
Repetition Method
 The horizontal motion is then unlocked, and
the telescope turned clockwise toward point K
to make the foresight.
 The value of the horizontal angle will
automatically appear in the display.
 To eliminate instrumental errors and increase
precision, angle measurements should be
repeated an equal number of times in each of
the direct and reversed modes, and the
average taken.
 Measuring Horizontal Angles
Direction Method
• As an alternative to
repetition method, the
direction method is used to
measure horizontal angles.
• This method is particularly
efficient when multiple
angles are being
measured at a station.
 Measuring Horizontal Angles
Direction Method
• Final values for the two
angles are taken as the
averages of the four angles
in column (6).
• These are 37° 30‘ 28“ and
36° 43‘ 14“ for angles a and
b, respectively.
• Note that in this procedure,
the multiple reading
increase the precisions of
the angles.
 Measuring Deflection Angles
• A deflection angle is a horizontal angle
measured from the prolongation of the preceding
line, right or left, to the following line.
• A straight line between terminal points is
theoretically the most economical route to build
and maintain for highways, railroads, pipelines,
canals, and transmission lines.
• However, terrain conditions and land-use require
bends in the route, but deviations from the
straight line are kept as small as possible.
 Measuring Deflection Angles
• If an instrument is in perfect adjustment,
 The deflection angle at F is measured by
setting the circle to zero and backsighting on
point E with the telescope in the direct
position.
 The telescope is then plunged to its reversed
position, which places the line of sight on EF
extended, as shown dashed in the figure.
 Measuring Deflection Angles
• The horizontal lock is released for the foresight,
point G sighted, the horizontal lock clamped, the
vertical cross hair carefully set on the mark by
means of the horizontal tangent screw, and the
angle read.
• Deflection angles are subject to serious errors if
the line of sight is not perpendicular to the
horizontal axis.
 Measuring Deflection Angles
• To eliminate errors from this cause, the
following procedure may be used.
 Backsight with telescope direct. Plunge the
reversed and measure the angle. Hold the
display angle.
 Backsight with the telescope still reversed.
Plunge again to direct, release the angle
display and measure the angle.
 Read the total angle and divide by 2 for an
average.
 Measuring Azimuth
• Suppose that the azimuth of line AB is
know as 137°17' from north.
• The azimuth of any other line that
starts at A, such as AC can be found
directly using a total station.
• In this process:
 The instrument is set up and cantered
over station A, and levelled.
 A backsight is first taken on point B.
 The azimuth of line AB (137°17' ) is then
set on the horizontal circle using the
keyboard. If the circle were turned until it
reads 0°, the telescope would be pointing
towards north.
 The azimuth of AC (83°38 ') can be read
when the telescope is turned clockwise to
C.
 Measuring Vertical
(or Zenith) Angle
• A vertical angel is the angel above or below a
horizontal plane through the point of
observation.
• Angles above the horizontal plane  Plus
Angles or angles of elevation
• Angles below the horizontal plane  Minus
Angles or angles of depression.
• Most total stations display zenith angle rather
than vertical angle.
• A zenith angle is measured in a vertical plane
from the zenith (point directly overhead) to
another point.
 Measuring Vertical
(or Zenith) Angle
• The relationship between vertical angles and
zenith angels is
• Direct Model : α = 90° - z
• Reverse Model : α = z - 270°
 where z: zenith angle and α: vertical angle.
• With a total station in the direct mode:
 A (zenith) reading of 0°: telescope pointing vertically
upward.
 A (zenith) reading of 90°: the telescope horizontal
 A (zenith) reading of 60°: the telescope is elevated
30° above horizontal.
 Measuring Vertical
(or Zenith) Angle
• With a total station in the reversed mode:
• A (zenith) reading of 270°: the telescope
horizontal
• A (zenith) reading of 300°: the telescope is
elevated 30° above horizontal.
• Vertical angles and zenith angels are
measured in trigonometric levelling for
reduction of measured slope distance to
horizontal.
• As with horizontal angles, instrumental
errors in vertical angle measurements are
compensated for by computing the mean
from an equal number of direct and
reversed observations.
• With zenith angles, the mean is computed
from
 Determining Differences in Elevation
Trigonometric levelling (short lines)

V = S cos z
or
V = S sin α

Alternatively,
V = H cot z
or
V= H tan α

Δelev = hi + V - r
 Determining Differences in Elevation
Trigonometric levelling (long lines)

Earth curvature and refraction must

be considered.
Δelev = hi + V + (C - R) - r
• Column (a): Lists the
backsight and foresight
station identifiers and the
positions of the telescope
(D: Direct, R: Reverse) for
each observation.
• Column (b): Tabulates the
backsight vertical
distances (BS+).
• Column (c): Lists the
backsight horizontal
distances to the nearest
decimetre.
• Column (d): Gives the
foresight vertical
distances (FS-)
• Column (e): Lists the
foresight horizontal
distances to the nearest
decimetre, and
• Column (f): tallies the
elevation differences
between the stations,
computed as the
difference of the BS
vertical distances, minus
the FS vertical distances
• The observed elevation
difference between
station A and E is 8.405
m.