Gender Issues in Education

Currently, gender parity is present in the Philippines, with girls outperforming boys in terms
of test scores and degree completion. However, equal access does not mean that discrimination has
been eliminated from education.
 early pregnancy
 sexual harassment
 lack of accessible facilities
 access to quality education
Thelma Kintanar in her 2013 text, Gender Concerns on Campus-An Information Kit for College
Administrators and Educators, highlights the gender gaps in higher education. Kintanar believes it is
necessary to analyze the quality of education given to women. Kintanar's information kit helps
identify insufficiency in policies and issues to be considered by institutions of higher education (IHES),
it shows that previous identified issues in literature have yet to be addressed.
should include the following issues:
 gender balance in the curriculum
 sexual harassment on campus
 sexism and sexist language
 violence against women (VAW) on campus
 concerns on sexuality and sexual orientation

Stereotyping as a Violation of Human Rights

Education can be used as a tool to eliminate harmful gender stereotypes. However, it can
also serve as an instrument to keep the status quo because it may be used as a tool for external
regulation on how a specific gender acts. Both primary and secondary education have a high impact
on women in terms of their life choices, economic security, employment, and life goals. Gender
equality cannot be achieved if these stereotypes are perpetuated in this form.

One key term that has risen from the BPfA is the need to eliminate stereotyping in gender
and education. A 2013 report by the High Commissioner for Human Rights declares gender
stereotyping as a violation of one's human rights. The report states that misidentifying stereotyping,
misunderstanding how stereotyping affects women, and the non-recognition of behavior and laws
that stereotype harm women. The CEDAW states that there is limited awareness about stereotyping
and its elimination. As a response, the CEDAW requires the elimination of stereotypes in educational
materials along with the promotion of materials that show women in all aspects of life. It also makes a
call to:
"modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the
elimination of prejudices and customs and all other practices which are based on the idea of the
inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women..."

Gender stereotypes add to how people perceive themselves, how they act and reveal their
abilities, as well as what job they may have in the future. Stereotypes are enforced by numerous
institutions such as one's family, community, religious body or church, school, and the mass media.
Education is regarded as one of the key factors that may either strengthen or break gender
stereotypes.

Gender stereotyping occurs when different institutions reinforce a biased perception of a

certain gender's role. For example, women stereotyped as caring and meek, and their roles are
primarily homemakers and mothers. Lack of positive representation about gender roles in media can
be dangerous because it may disturb one's internalized self- image.
The 2013 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights report shows
that gender stereotypes has a negative effect on women's access to education, the quality of
education they receive, and the field that they engage in. Stereotypes that enforce the de-
sexualization of young girls make education on sexual and reproductive health and rights a low
priority for women. This issue has a lasting impact on the reproductive health of women.
The Women's EDGE Plan shows that gender stereotypes are found not just in textbooks, but also in
the classroom through "teaching strategies, including teachers' use of sexist stereotypes in language
and the design of classroom activities." Despite stereotyping being identified as a priority sector in
Philippine education, it has a long way to go.

Issues in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math)

The promotion of women's successes in the fields of science and technology is lacking. Older
textbooks overlooked female research and achievements in the sciences. Most scientists in various
textbooks are male. Thus, it creates a gap between the genders represented in the scientists that
students learn about. As a result, science textbooks may not relate to the lived experiences of young
women and girls, making it harder for them to see themselves in this field. While the CHED offers
scholarships to females who wish to enroll in male- dominated courses, access to these scholarships is
limited or their existence is relatively unknown.

The technologically driven state of society necessitates that women be involved in the
creation, development, and maintenance of technologies. Women need math and science training to
have an active role in developing new technologies. However, female-specific trainings that take into
account both physiological and socialized roles of women seem to be unavailable so that many
research priorities are still inclined toward male interests. Hence, the scientific world needs people
who can use technology to alleviate women's practical and strategic gender needs.

Non-traditional Skills Training

This necessity entails further career counseling that cover non-traditional skills for girls.
These non- traditional skills are vital for women to grab economic opportunities. Given the sex-
stereotyped role of women in the economy, their jobs in the public sphere are often similar to their
reproductive roles at home. The skills necessary for these jobs, since learned from their gender
socialization, may not translate into high-paying jobs. This observation is the root of other issues in
education such as the lack of women in STEM fields, as well as the lack of valuation attached to jobs
associated with feminine gender roles like caregiving.

The Multiple Burdens of Women as a Factor

Women often have to juggle multiple roles, depending on where they are in society. At a
very young age, some girls are already mothers. Those from marginalized sectors need to work harder,
albeit informally, to supplement their family's meager income. Other girls do chores or take care of
their younger siblings while their parents are looking for economic opportunities. Women from
different sectors also face different challenges to complete their education.

Young mothers who have yet to finish schooling have to prioritize the well-being of their
child, making the completion of their studies difficult to fulfill. Young pregnant students are also
stigmatized in their school, gInhibited Access to Education
iven the taboo nature of teenage and pre-marital sex in the Philippines. The stigma over young
mothers must be eradicated so that these girls may be able to complete their education. In addition,
the government must build facilities that can help young mothers and children who provide care for
their younger siblings- attend and finish school.

The Necessity of Material Support

While there are public schools and other forms of free education in various parts of the
world, the cost of school supplies, transportation, and other factors affect the ability of girls to attend
school. There must be more monetary support to make education more available to girls in
marginalized sectors.

Inhibited Access to Education

Special issues affect a child's access to education, namely urban relocation to communities
outside of Metro Manila, natural disasters, and the encampment of military forces in school sites of
indigenous peoples. Some families are relocated to far-flung areas where there is no nearby school,
and children have to walk for hours just to get to school. Girls walking long distances especially on
dimly lit streets as part of their commute face higher risk for street harassment and VAW. Girls' access
to education is also affected by natural disasters and conflicts as these events damage school facilities
and cause lack of safety in the area, and shortage of teachers. Similarly, schools of young IPs have
been used for encampment by military forces. School operations are often shut down indefinitely
during encampment to accommodate these armed forces. Girls and women in these situations are
often at risk for violence and harassment.

Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights

The limited sexual and reproductive health rights (SRHR) in the Philippines can affect one's
access to education. The increase in teenage pregnancy in the Philippines is a major factor for the
high drop-out rate of female students. While the Magna Carta of Women prohibits the discrimination
against pregnant women from accessing education, pregnant students are still victims of cultural
discrimination in their institutions. Young mothers and fathers may also drop out of school to support
their families or take care of their children. The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act
of 2012 requires public academic institutions to teach age-appropriate sexual and reproductive health
topics. Private schools, however, are not required to teach this course. Thus, there appears to be a
limited space for discussion of issues on SRHR.

Gender-fair Textbooks and Programs

According to the 2015 PCW report for the 20th anniversary of the Beijing Platform for Action,
DepEd makes numerous efforts to correct gender-biased textbooks, teaching materials, and methods
in accordance with the MCW and Women's EDGE Plan. These endeavors may include the addition of
gender-sensitive instructional materials in science high schools as provided by the Department of
Science and Technology. How exactly this effort will address the STEM issues mentioned in the
previous sections is yet to be discussed. One of DepEd's plans is to incorporate gender-sensitive
principles into teaching guides for primary and secondary education. However, DepEd has not
introduced a core subject on gender and socialization, gender and development, and the like.

Inclusive Education and Alternative Learning Systems

DepEd recognizes the need for alternative learning systems to help out-of-school youth and
older students who have yet to complete their basic education. DepEd also pushes for the creation of
Madrasah schools for the education of Muslim students and the indigenous peoples. This flexibility is
necessary for students. who were not able to complete their primary education due to circumstances
such as the financial issues, early pregnancy, relocation, and displacement, and natural disasters. This
display of sensitivity is essential in addressing gendered issues experienced by the students that come
from different sectors. Several agencies have also heightened their call for the integration of women
and girls with disabilities in regular schools. This plan can be achieved through the institutionalization
of a Leadership Training Manual for female PWDs developed by the National Commission on Disability
Affairs.

Male Performance in Schools

Statistics show an increase in female participation and a decrease in male performance in
schools. This disparity calls for a need to find out why there is a larger percentage of male students
who drop out of school or do not enroll in the first place.

Sexual Violence in Education

One marker of a gender-responsive university is a clear protocol for sexual harassment,
including mechanisms for addressing sexual harassment cases on campus. Sexual harassment has
been tackled extensively in the previous chapter about violence; however, the impact of this form of
violence on education merits discussion, Sexual violence is a form of discrimination against mostly
women. It is usually women who are victims of sexual violence and harassment in schools, which
contributes to higher and earlier drop-out rates, as well as their lower academic achievement. Sexual
violence inhibits women and girls from participating in the education sector and accessing and
continuing their education. It must be noted, however, that sexual harassment happens to men and
members of the LGBT as well.
 The Philippines' Anti-Sexual Harassment Law of 1995 defines sexual harassment as the
demand of a sexual act or favor in an institution, wherein the person who demands the act is in moral
ascendancy or influence over the person being solicited.

Sexual harassment in education can be committed if the person soliciting the sexual act is
taking care of, supervising, training, or tutoring the person being solicited. In the case of students, it
covers the following persons: a teacher, instructor, professor, coach, or trainer. The request for a
sexual act is considered harassment if the act is necessary for a passing grade, a scholarship, or
certain benefits within the institution. A sexual request or advance can also be sexual harassment if it
results in "an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment for the student, trainee, or apprentice.
Students are particularly vulnerable to sexual harassment because of the power dynamics between
the students and those of moral ascendancy. The society's high respect for persons of authority, the
importance given to education, and the taboo nature sex and sexuality make students vulnerable to
sexual harassment. Students' trust in a person of moral ascendancy in their school, alongside their
youth and immaturity, make them unaware that they are being harassed. Some students may see
harassment as something that is just another part of their lives. Others may be unable to fight back
because of the fear of repercussions, such as the stigma attached to sexual acts or the implication for
their academic or extra-curricular standing.

Sexual harassment and violence in schools are symptomatic of the lack of gender-
responsiveness in education. The Philippines has a long way to go in this regard. No system is
available to consolidate the number of sexual harassment cases in education, both public and private.
Stigma also revolves around the reporting of these cases. The Philippine law lacks precise
qualifications for the term "hostile environment" on sexual harassment. No institutions address gaps
on campus interactions-the unspoken culture in the classroom and within the institution. Lastly, there
are no provisions for peer- to-peer and subordinate-to-superior harassment. While some institutions
have their own mechanisms to address these gaps in the Anti-Sexual Harassment Act, there is a call
for the strengthening of the CODI in schools. The NEDA guidelines see the presence or absence of
mechanisms to address sexual harassment in the education setting as an indicator of the gender-
responsiveness of an institution. CHED Memorandum Order No. 1, series of 2015, has a lengthy
section detailing the recourse for those who experience sexual harassment in their IHES.

A Gendered Education and a Gendered Curriculum

Gender plays an important part in how a person experiences the world, what one learns, and
how one relates to the topics in the classroom. Education as an institution cells students about who is
important, and who is in power, and what values and characteristics are important to succeed in life.
Alternatively, it imparts to students how to participate in the world that had been set up by certain
powers. The current curriculum was shaped by years of highlighting men's experience and feats, while
making women's experiences invisible. The resulting form of education is based on how men were
socialized to learn and experience life, which promotes stereotypically masculine characteristics such
as assertiveness and dominance. The content of the curriculum, as well as the form in which this
content is taught, prepares both young girls and boys how to succeed in a male world; men play
dominant roles and are heads of institutions, and women must fight twice as hard to be considered in
these institutions,

A gender-biased curriculum gives a one sided view of the subjects being taught. Students
only learn the experiences and knowledge of half the population, and may have a skewed
understanding of the world they live in. One could say that women's lived experiences were not taken
into consideration when creating, this curriculum as women's work, experience, and contribution to
the society has continuously been ignored. An important part of knowing women's participation in
society is knowing their contributions to history While one can argue that only a few women were
worthy of inclusion in history textbooks, one must realize that the standard of "worth" was created by
those in power in a patriarchal society. Certain subjects, for example in literature, have more women
as subjects of the texts being studied, but not as authors. While more female writers of historical
significance are coming to light, most texts being studied now are still written by men. Similarly,
women artists must be recognized as producers of arts, not just subjects to be gazed at. Part of the
process for making education gender-fair is to document women's achievements in various fields.
 Women's studies must be recognized as a legitimate discipline. This acknowledgment will
bring to light the topic of women in society and history. Knowledge must not be dichotomized
between female and male knowledge. The curriculum must be transformed to incorporate both
perspectives into all disciplines.

The Unspoken Curriculum: Campus Culture and Gender

The following section discusses the different issues that were mentioned in passing by the
development reports. These concerns contribute to socialization and how people continue to carry
themselves in their communities.

Microaggression and education

Microaggression is a subtle form of aggression towards a historically marginalized social
group which may be intentional or unintentional. Originally, Derald Wing Sue and colleagues used the
microaggression theory to map the racism people of color experience in the United States, focusing
on the "stress associated with maintaining their identities within [contexts] of social stigma."
Microaggression may also apply to women who have been historically marginalized. Women have
been targets of different forms of discrimination, with the school serving as a form of external social
control that may pressure a female student into pursuing a certain stereotype of her gender. This
type of aggression can be put-downs, conscious or unconscious, that can cause psychological harm,
self-doubt, and a lack of confidence.

The microaggression theory frames the subtle biases students may experience in their
schools that have a large impact on how they act, see themselves, and even their careers later in life.
It must be discussed in the context of education given the highly vulnerable situation of students due
to their lack of experience, subordinate position, sex, or gender. It is also a theory that is related to
how boys and girls: (girls are supposed to act in the classroom are quiet and must not strain
themselves, boys are loud and should participate in physical activities). There can be many forms of
microaggression against a person because of multiple facets of one's identity. One's race, residence,
religion, and even type of family (single mother, second family, etc.) are other subjects of
microaggressive comments. However, institutions of education contribute largely to gender, and
hence, to microaggression as well.
examples of microaggressions concerning the female gender.
 The sexual objectification of women
 Assumption of inferiority about a certain gender
 Assumption of traditional gender role
 Use of sexist language
 Denial of one's individual sexism
 Invisibility, denial of reality of sexism
 Subtle and discriminatory messages communicated in school
 Exoticization of women from a certain race

Though this book focuses on women, LGBT-specific microaggressions that are different from the
aforementioned are also included. The following examples will add to the awareness on
microaggressions against other genders."
 Use of heterosexist or transphobic terminology
 Assumption of universal LGBT experience
 Endorsement of heteronormative or gender normative culture and behavior
 Exoticization of LGBTs
 Discomfort with the approval of LGBTs
 Denial of the reality of heterosexism or transphobia
 Assumption of sexual pathology or abnormality especially in which people oversexualize LGBTs
Denial of one's individual heterosexism

Bullying and relational aggression

The way women have been socialized affects what they do and how they relate to one
another. Bullying and corporal punishment are both issues in the Philippines, especially in public
schools. Yet, both issues have a gendered dimension that merits discussion. While women are
traditionally associated with being weak and docile. they also get angry and fight. There is little
Philippine literature on this issue, as other concerns may be more pressing. However, studies abroad
show that the manner in which women fight and the psychological damage it causes, as well as the
reason for fighting, have a great impact on how they relate to one another in the future. While adult
women argue and fight in other institutions, how they fight is formed in schools.

Aside from fighting, bullying is also a general issue in schools. Bullying, as defined by R.A.
10627, is a physical, verbal, electronic gesture or act directed toward a student that aims to place that
student in a state of fear or panic, which disrupts the students education. The Republic Act, however,
only covers elementary and secondary education. Typical examples of bullying are emotional bullying,
unwanted physical contact, shoving, kicking, and fighting. Emotional bullying involves name-calling,
tormenting or humiliating a person, or any act that can cause the victim emotional distress.
Technology is also a means to perpetuate bullying" through cyberbullying.

Bullying or pupil-on-pupil violence is often gender-neutral. However, as written in a few

studies that discuss how girls and boys fight, women use emotional abuse in their fights, which is
often more damaging than physical abuse." This abuse is known as relational aggression, defined as
"acts that harm others through damage (or the threat of damage) to relationships or [feelings] of
acceptance, friendship, or group inclusion." This abusive behavior includes repetitive threats,
brainwashing, and physical and emotional isolation. It is another form of bullying, but is usually
ignored because it is so subtle, or so normalized that it is merely seen as another way of girls relating
to one another. Valerie Besag studied why girls fight more than boys and why there is more tension
between girl friendships and relationships. She noted that quarrels occur more often between girls
who previously had close relationship than girls who had no prior connection.

A study by Currie, Kelly, and Pomerantz uncovers adolescent meanness and relational
aggression as a way for young girls to police their peers' femininity, as well as enact their agency.
Their 2007 study looked at meanness and girls' agency in girls ages 13-16. They found that relational
aggression is often non-confrontational. Effects of relational aggression come in the form of one's
damaged self-esteem or social status."

The social construction of girls' identity makes them aggressive to others. If this behavior
against other girls has no real resolution, it may be carried over on how women's relationships
develop in the long term. Relational aggression becomes a problem when girls are hindered from
confronting their issues with themselves and with others, meaning that the problem is never properly
resolved. Because girls are socialized to be indirect, the manner in which they approach problems is
affected. Some forms of microaggression may also be considered relational aggression, from girls
teasing others because of what they own, who their friends are, and how they act. This
microaggression may be the result of their socialization as girls who are supposed to acknowledge
and enact only one form of femininity. Students may police each other based on their perception of
proper femininity, depending on the rules their schools purport. Not all sexisms are enacted by men,
and some considerations for a positive gender culture occur outside the classroom. Thus, policy is not
everything. The beliefs and culture of the students can continue to affect gender relations.

Campus Culture
The compounded effect of relational aggression, microaggression and classroom culture
creates a campus culture. Culture can be defined as "shared characteristics and norms of particular
nationalities or sub- or cross-national groups." It also covers groups with shared identities such as
religious groups or LGBT communities. For this text, campus culture is defined as the culture formed
within a school based on the shared values of the institution. Educational institutions may have
distinct cultures per group or identity in a given setting. Many types of campus culture exist, formed
by different values and activities.

With the caveat that campus cultures are subject to change and may well contain sub-
cultures of their own. we can see student cultures and consciousness as forged through the
intellectual values of institutions as well as through social activities, clubs and fraternities, and other
non-academic spheres of activity such as student activism.

Campus culture may also be influenced by outside factors such as policies set up by trends in
development and budgeting priorities. Campus culture strengthens and is affected by the hidden
curriculum in the classroom, implicit rules, and "everyday school practices which reinforce gender
differentiation." include school traditions, events and occasions, and even teaching privilege styles in
the classroom that may promote gender stereotypes. The hidden curriculum is shaped by
institutionalized mechanisms, implicit and explicit rules, norms, and symbols that have sexist ideals at
their roots. These components of campus culture often r men and overlook women and other
marginalized groups,

Peer culture also contributes to campus culture as it plays an important role in gender
socialization, from acceptable behavior and interaction between the same sex and opposite sex. Girls
and boys both police each other as to what they deem to be acceptable gender behavior, from lad
culture for the boys to relational aggression for the girls.
The school may attempt to be gender-fair and gender-responsive. However, it must balance
the values of the students and surrounding communities. If the school is located in a community that
is more traditional in its views of gender roles or has sexist traditions and customs, the school can do
so little to challenge the systemic sexism its students are exposed to at home. However, it can
conduct education seminars for parents to change these patterns, such that the students' growth is
not hindered and the values of the community can change for the better.

Future Steps, Looking Forward

Twenty years after the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, gains have been
noted insofar as education and training of women and girls are concerned. Women have received
gender parity in education in most countries across the globe. However, school culture and
discriminatory practices against both women and men still greatly hinder gender equality. What is
clear is that there must be constant push for gender equality in all aspects of education, from
curriculum to programs and services, as well as campus culture and other interactions.