4977 13448 1 PB

HAZEL M.
DIZON Third World Studies Center Writeshop 2015 91
Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies 2015 30 (1): 91–129
The Contested Development of a Philippine

Tourism Landscape: The Case of Nasugbu,
Batangas
HAZEL M. DIZON
ABSTRACT. A strong reliance on tourism is one of the Philippines’s key strategies to

attain economic growth and security. This requires infrastructures and scenic locations
that attract tourists. However, these scenic locations also contain the agricultural
landscape. Consequently, peasants are displaced from their homes and livelihoods to
give way to tourism projects. With Nasugbu, Batangas as a study site, the paper employs
critical landscape approach by examining the sociopolitical and economic relations
between government officials, private tourism developers, and farmer residents that take
place in its agricultural and tourism landscapes. Through interviews with various
stakeholders and examination of state policies, infrastructure, and resources, the study
reveals that the combination of the decentralized power of the local government units
and the dynamics between government and private sectors (political patronage and
through corporate social responsibility) boost the government’s agenda of making
tourism work for the economy. The paper posits that the kind of development that arises
from the shared landscape of tourism and agriculture is contested development.
KEYWORDS. landscape · tourism · development · agriculture · Nasugbu · Philippines
INTRODUCTION
White sand beaches, tropical climate, seventeenth- to nineteenth-
century architecture, natural wonders, colorful festivals, and friendly,
smiling English-literate locals constitute the Philippine tourism
landscape. With these images, Philippine tourism paints an adventurous,
easygoing leisure, true to its catchphrase, “It’s more fun in the
Philippines!” However, the making of the Philippine tourism landscape
is far from being fun. Conflicts and contestations transpire in the
creation of this landscape but are concealed by the picturesque
panorama being presented to tourists.
92 THE CONTESTED DEVELOPMENT OF A TOURISM LANDSCAPE
Tourism is one of the sectors that the Philippine government has

relied on to fast-track the development of its economy. Believed to have
comparative advantage because of the country’s geography, heritage,
and culture, tourism is hoped to bring foreign exchange earnings,
employment, and investments to the Philippines. However, in the
government’s enthusiasm to fulfill the requirements of a viable tourism
industry, it has put the needs of other key economic sectors on the
sidelines. This paper examines the development trajectory of the state
by looking into its tourism landscape composed of multiscalar—
national, regional, local—development plans and policies, allocation of
resources, and sociopolitical relations that result in undermining the
already marginalized agricultural sector. The geographic lens of critical
landscape is used to interpret not only what we see in the tourism
landscape but also how it has been created.
State policies have recurrently identified tourism as a means of
accelerating national development. Presidential Decree (PD) 1891 of
1973 considers tourism an “untapped resource base toward an
accelerated socio-economic development.” Executive Order (EO)
1202 of 1987 states that the tourism industry “has played a significant
role in promoting the economies of many nations,” while the Tourism
Act of 2009 considers it an “engine of investment, employment,
growth and national development.” Since the 1970s, the state has
drawn national and regional development plans and created
administrative structures to ensure domestic and inbound tourism. In
1973, the national tourism organization (NTO), composed of the
Department of Tourism (DOT),3 the Philippine Tourism Authority,
and the Philippine Convention Bureau, was established. Priority
tourist areas for investment and infrastructure development were
identified through the 1974–1977 Tourism Four-Year Plan (DOT
1974). In 2009, the Tourism Act of 2009 (Republic Act 9593) was
promulgated. Within this policy, the Tourism Infrastructure and
Enterprise Zone Authority (TIEZA) was created, overtaking Philippine
Tourism Authority’s functions and designating, regulating, and
supervising tourism enterprise zones.
It must be noted that from the 1970s to the present, tourism has
evolved from being state-run to private- and market-led industry (Cruz
2009; Domingo 1998). During the martial law period in the 1970s,
excessive government intervention and exclusion from tourism policy
and development marginalized private enterprises.4 But this would
change, as neoliberalism would soon be embraced by the state to
HAZEL M. DIZON Third World Studies Center Writeshop 2015 93
remedy the country’s ailing economy. Given the corruption and the
profligacy of the Marcos regime, toward the end of the decade the
government had incurred massive external debt; and in the early 1980s,
multilateral agencies, such as the International Monetary Fund and the
World Bank, agreed to adjust the loans on the condition that
structural adjustment programs (SAPs) be adopted to strengthen the
economy (Broad 1988). SAPs liberalized the economy through foreign
investments, promotion of new exports, and drastic reduction of
tariffs, quotas, and other restrictions on imports (Bello 2001; Gössling
2003; Mowforth and Munt 2003; Shah 2013; WHO 2015). Following
International Monetary Fund-World Bank prescriptions, tourism
became part of an export strategy (Chavez 1999) and is grouped with
other growth sectors (along with export-oriented industries and
nontraditional agricultural exports), which were believed to stimulate
rapid growth based on the comparative advantages of Third World
countries (Brohman 1996). Foreign and private entities’ involvement
in the tourism industry became more entrenched in 1995, when the
Philippines committed to liberalize its tourism and travel-related
services under the General Agreement on Trade in Services of the
World Trade Organization (WTO Secretariat 1999).
However, while neoliberalism aims to create a free market,
encouraging investments and competition, this only means that
transnational companies have freer access to domestic markets and elite
investors are given much incentive. Ultimately, although tourism is
expected to be a development catalyst for developing countries,
accrued benefits depend on where most of the profits go and who
controls the industry (Badger et al. 1996 cited in Holden 2013).
According to Sharpley and Telfer (2008), tourism in Mexico, Thailand,
the Seychelles, and Fiji has proved to be a driver of development, but
failed elsewhere in the developing world, despite providing a source of
foreign exchange earnings and employment. Oftentimes, local needs
are sacrificed to give way to tourism. Gössling aptly observed: “Tourism
development often satisfies the economic interests of international and
national groups of actors while local development needs are only
partially and too often inappropriately met” (2003, 17). And while
tourism could preserve culture and nature, it could also be instrumental
in their destruction. Trade-offs are part of the equation in developing
countries promoting tourism.
To examine the relevance of Gössling’s view in the Philippine
context, the study chose to scrutinize the tourism and agricultural
landscapes in the coastal town of Nasugbu, Batangas. It is part of the

Philippines’ place marketing as Asia’s beach capital (DOT 2009). Its
long coastline streaked with multiple coves, coupled with its proximity
to Manila—approximately seventy-three kilometers away from Manila
or a two-hour car drive via the Manila-Cavite and Ternate-Nasugbu
Highways5—makes it a popular weekend retreat. Its viability as a tourist
destination did not escape the attention of the national government.
In 1975, Nasugbu was designated a tourist zone through Presidential
Proclamation (PP) 1520.6 This status was reiterated and fortified in
2007 through EO 6477 pronouncing Nasugbu a special tourism zone
(STZ). These proclamations made Nasugbu part of the state’s priority
areas for investment and infrastructure development. Its local
government was made to coordinate with the NTO and urged to
formulate its own comprehensive tourism master and land use plans.
With the private sector enjoying tourist zone incentive packages, beach
resorts and leisure communities began to proliferate in Nasugbu. These
set the minds of its local government officials to the idea that tourism
is key to the town’s development. However, before being groomed as
a tourist destination, Nasugbu is first and foremost an agricultural
municipality. Its coast provides abundant marine resources, while its
rolling terrain yields various crops, providing livelihood to its
population. Since agriculture and tourism use the same resources of
land and marine waters, Nasugbu has become a seat of disputes
between farmers and fisherfolks on the one hand and landowners and
resort developers on the other.
In Natipuan, one of Nasugbu’s barangays and the study site,
residents are being evicted due to tourism development. These residents
are migrants from nearby towns whose population started from a few
families and grew by exogamous marriages and the coming of new
settlers. While some families settled here to find farming lands, others
relocated here after being displaced by the construction of a golf course
and a gated residential enclave in Laurel, Batangas. They migrated here
thinking that nobody owns the lands since these are situated in a
mountainous area. Most residents subsist through various livelihoods.
During the wet season they depend on rain-fed agriculture while raising
cattle and fowls. Throughout the dry season they live by charcoal-
making and construction work. Fishing supplements their diet. Forty
years and four generations later, they were being evicted by JAKA
Investments Corporation (JAKA). This was also the story of Nasugbu
farmers in the barangays of Hacienda Looc, who were bought out and
harassed to give way to a leisure community being developed by SM

Investments Corporation (SM). JAKA and SM are companies that
hold various business ventures and are owned by politically influential
economic elites. JAKA is owned by a senator’s family. Besides property
development, it has businesses in food, investment and securities,
logistics and distribution, personnel and security services, and lumber.
Meanwhile, SM is owned by the country’s richest man as reported by
Forbes in 2015, and has investments in banking, property development,
and retail business (Blankfeld 2015; JAKA 2012; SM 2015).8
This wrestle over land is only one, albeit the most consequential,
of the many tensions experienced in the Nasugbu landscape. Add to
these the development tensions in the construction of a tourism
highway instead of village roads, rights and welfare of tourism workers
being waived to give special treatment to guests, and budget allocation
and marine resource management favoring tourism over agricultural
development. Backed by national and local policies, the policy biases
shaped the tourism landscape of Nasugbu—its sun-sea-and-leisure side—
while pushing agriculture out of the frame. Yet, this landscape
representation is being contested by the solidarity and narratives
formed by farmers.
(Critical) Landscape as Ideological Concept

and Site of Social Reproduction
Landscape studies in geography have evolved from Carl Sauer’s cultural
landscape to contemporary approaches. Sauer claimed that cultural
landscapes are the physical outcomes of the interaction of cultural
groups with their natural environments (Hoelscher 2009). These
landscapes, along with natural ones, are what draw tourists in. Thus,
in tourism literature, landscapes pertain to objects of leisure and how
tourism modifies them (Bell and Lyall 2002; Carneiro, Lima, and Silva
2015; Wall 2003).
Landscapes are not only material manifestations of man’s actions
but also representations of his values and aspirations that structure and
symbolize his surroundings (Cosgrove and Daniels 1988). Hence, from
Sauer’s cultural landscape, landscape has become a way of seeing, an
ideology that carefully selects and represents the world so as to give it
particular meaning (Mitchell 2000; Cosgrove 1984). Accordingly,
landscapes are sites of struggle with multiple interpretations by those
who access them. As Harner (2001, 661) astutely articulated: “Landscape
is a contested terrain full of conflicting meanings from opposing

classes, between those who had control and those who now seek to
assert their power.” Tourists see landscapes as refuge from their
everyday activities, investors as business opportunities, and locals as
home and workplace (Cunningham 2009; Daugstad 2008; Wall
2003). However, among these, one view is privileged. This dominant
view is then naturalized in the landscape, reflecting and incorporating
the desires and fears of the surrounding hegemonic society (Mitchell
2000). It is the hegemon’s view which is believed to be true. It is the
hegemon who has the power and the means to reproduce its
representation through various state apparatuses.
In the case of Nasugbu, the hegemon is the alliance of the local
government and the private sector. The private investors see the
landscape as a profitable enterprise, and this serves well with how the
government sees the landscape, as something to manage toward
development. For the government, the private sector’s profitable
enterprise is equated with development. To support this rationale, the
government creates a conducive environment for these enterprises to
prosper; hence, the formulation of the statute proclaiming Nasugbu as
a special tourist zone. Complementary to this, through the mass and
social media, tourism developers tout Nasugbu’s beaches as haven for
fun and relaxation. In establishing Nasugbu as a tourism landscape, it
has overshadowed the fact that 79 percent of its rolling terrain and
coast provides livelihood to its farmers and fisherfolks (Municipality of
Nasugbu 2003; Palafox Associates 2003).
The use of critical landscape could assist in understanding the
conflicting meanings embedded in the landscape.9 Its proponent,
geographer Don Mitchell, argued that not only what is visible in the
landscape should be examined but also what is concealed (Dubow
2009). This is a radical way of reading landscapes, a departure from the
previous concept that meanings arise from what one noticeably sees in
the landscape. Landscapes are produced under particular historical
conditions and by constant motions of social relationships and social
struggle that are suspended both in the landscape’s image and material
form, making them concealed and naturalized (Bender 2001; Mitchell
1996). The present view of the material landscape is not enough to
convey all that has taken place in its production. Before reaching its
current state, the landscape has undergone processes of control and
modification by various actors based on their interests (thus, the
contested representations). All of these are invisible to the spectator.
What is seen and given representation is the end product, which has
been successfully molded according to the wishes of the dominant
group. Therefore, it is imperative to trace the history and examine the
social relations and social (re)production that made and transformed
the present landscape in order to challenge its hegemonic representations.
To decode the tourism landscape of the Philippines, the tourism
zone of Nasugbu, Batangas, serves as the study site. The social relations
that produced it and its historical context are examined. Socioeconomic
processes within its institutional and organizational settings arising
from social relations are revealed to understand how landscapes are
created and maintained (Le Heron 2009). The landscape has
representations, the meanings of which vary depending on who views
them. The groups or classes who are the actors in the social reproduction
have differing perspectives due to their own ideologies. Therefore, if
representations of landscapes and the features attached to them are
contested, so with the kind of development the tourism landscape
embodies. Since the state is the ruling institution and one of the
producers of dominant thought, it is imperative to know its economic
and governmental policies and how these translate to, affect, and result
in changing or modifying the present landscape that tourism and
agriculture share in the lands of Nasugbu.
Methodology, Study Sites, and Limitations of the Research

Nasugbu has both tourism and agriculture as economic activities, thus
fitting for the study. Located southwest of Manila and facing the West
Philippine Sea, Nasugbu is one of the coastal municipalities of
Batangas, Philippines (maps 1–3). Two agricultural settlements in the
town of Nasugbu served as primary study sites. These settlements are
located in the mountainous area of Barangay Natipuan and have
experienced land disputes. During the course of the research, particularly
while looking at secondary data, the land dispute in Hacienda Looc was
referenced both by reports and by research participants (APC 2012;
Church Peasant Conference 1997; Corpuz 2004). Thus, Hacienda
Looc’s experience with land dispute is cited throughout this paper as
part of the Nasugbu tourism landscape.
Field research in Barangay Natipuan and interviews in government
offices took place from 2010 to 2013. As part of reconnaissance and
via purposive sampling, survey interviews were carried out with thirty
households to review their land tenure, livelihood, and housing and
settlement history. Afterward, through snowball sampling, four key

informants were identified for semi-structured, in-depth interviews.
These informants have stayed long enough in the village to see
significant changes in the landscape. The interviews were focused on
impacts of tourism development and how social relations facilitated
these. It must be noted that their answers were more economic in
nature than cultural. Thus, in this landscape study, the residents’ sense
of place is based more on their fear of losing their livelihood and
habitation than the sentiments of being uprooted from the place they
grew up in.
To see the social relations among the different actors and how they
are linked to government policies, semi-structured interviews with
local government officials and officers were carried out. Data such as
land use plans, development plans, and physical and socioeconomic
profiles were collected from various government offices. Local
government laws and ordinances regarding tourism were identified and
were related to existing national policies that promote tourism. These
were supplemented with secondary data from online media reports.
Through secondary data, and validated through the interviews, a
history of the lands of Nasugbu is reconstructed to trace and contextualize
its changing landscape.
At the onset of my fieldwork, I did courtesy calls to, sought the
permissions of, and interviewed the mayor of Nasugbu and the
barangay captain of Natipuan. There was no need to solicit the
permission of the military to conduct fieldwork since they were not
visibly present in my primary area of study during that time. Later, in
my interviews with the residents, the military and insurgents were
mentioned. I tried to confirm their presence, in particular those of the
insurgents, with the barangay captain and the municipal administrative
and tourism officer. The latter neither confirmed nor denied it, while
the former believed that insurgents were not present in her barangay.
I also sensed that they were hesitant to talk about this, and I did not
insist; else, it might have jeopardized my interviews and fieldwork.
Meanwhile, armed men in Hacienda Looc had a strong presence, as
gleaned from news reports. Data on Hacienda Looc were based on
secondary sources since they were meant more as a support to the case
of Barangay Natipuan, thus no field interview took place.
THE LANDS OF NASUGBU: HISTORY OF THE MATERIAL LANDSCAPE

The land and coast of Nasugbu have provided its residents food,
livelihood, and recreation. However, in the past decade, significant
changes have happened due to tourism. While tourists have gained
access via a newly constructed highway, the managements of subdivisions,
vacation houses, and resorts have restricted the movement of the
residents, farmers, and fisherfolks. It has become impossible to use the
shortest routes to go to the beach and fish. Security guards are
stationed to prevent the locals from peddling their harvested produce
to tourists. In Natipuan, residents from the agricultural settlements are
being displaced from their homes and livelihood. In November 2005,
JAKA sent notices of eviction and, in 2006, filed a case of unlawful
detainer against the residents. The residents expect JAKA to develop
a tourism facility since it has developed properties before in Laurel,
Batangas, for the same purpose. Said development also displaced
residents in the process (Resident 32, pers. comm.).
Natipuan is only one of the barangays that has land use conversion.
Much of Nasugbu’s lands are being converted to commercial use,
which are accompanied by changes in ownership. During the Spanish
colonial period, the vast hacienda of Nasugbu was leased by the king
of Spain to Spaniard Don Fernando de Araya. After the lease expired,
it was sold to a Spanish mestizo before it was finally acquired by the
Roxas family, who used it as a sugarcane plantation. In the early 1970s
and over a period of ten years, the Roxas family decided to sell some
of their landholdings (Municipality of Nasugbu 2008; Palafox Associates
2003; Villacrusis, n.d.). Many well-known families and politicians
currently own lands in Nasugbu. According to the residents, the
business families of Puyat and Concepcion, and politicians such as the
Legardas, Angaras, Ermitas, and Enriles, are landowners in Nasugbu.
Even former president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo owns land in Nasugbu,
as seen in her 2008 statement of assets, liabilities, and net worth
(Jaymalin and Romero 2008; Arroyo 2009). In particular, Enrile’s
land in Natipuan was purchased from the Roxases (Virginia Sapico,
pers. comm.). In his 2011 statement of assets, liabilities, and net
worth, his Natipuan property was declared to have been acquired in
1972 for a mere total price of PHP 1,000; in 2012 it had a current
market value of PHP 36,786,661 (Ponce Enrile 2012; PCIJ 2004).10
Still, the Roxases remain a substantial landowner in Nasugbu.
Some of their holdings have been invested in property development
under Roxas and Company, Inc. (RCI), including two high-end
residential resort communities and a residential subdivision (Roxaco

Land Corporation 2011). The resorts are jointly known as Punta
Fuego, a part of which is in Natipuan. The Roxases also had sugar
plantations in nine barangays until 2014, when the Supreme Court
finally decided in favor of agrarian reform beneficiaries (InterAksyon
2011). The Roxases plan to convert some of the firm’s remaining
agricultural lands into industrial, commercial, and residential use
(Montealegre 2012).
Up in the northern part of Nasugbu, another hacienda, covering
Barangays Calayo, Bulihan, Papaya, and Looc, is also in the midst of
a dispute due to land use conversion. The Dolor family owned
Hacienda Looc until the 1970s when the land was distributed to
thousand of farmers who were given emancipation patent through PD
2711, certificates of land transfer in the 1990s through EO 22912 and
the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL). However, due to
Nasugbu’s land use plan and its being declared a tourism zone through
PP 1520 and EO 647, it was concluded that Hacienda Looc would be
of better use if converted into an agritourism complex. The government
auctioned the land, and it was acquired by Manila South Coast
Development Corporation, a subsidiary of SM. The certificates of land
transfers were cancelled, and a leisure community—consisting of
residential condominiums, villas, residential lots, and hotels, collectively
known as Hamilo Coast—is now operating in place. Thus, the agrarian
dispute in Hacienda Looc has been greatly affected by government laws
and policies. While PD 27, EO 229, and CARL have granted the
farmers their right to the land, this was taken away by PP 1520 and EO
647.
Sociopolitical and Economic Relations

Conglomerates JAKA, SM, and RCI are the leading leisure community
developers in Nasugbu. They are owned by prominent families who
have political ties. The family of Sen. Juan Ponce Enrile owns JAKA,
the Roxas clan owns RCI, and the Sy family owns SM. While JAKA
was the highest election campaign contributor of Senator Enrile (PCIJ
2016), the owners of SM and RCI were once officially appointed to
oversee Nasugbu’s tourism development. Meanwhile, local government
officials enjoy a certain amount of autonomy due to the ratification of
the Local Government Code of 1991 (LGC). It has decentralized
powers, responsibilities, and resource management from the national
government. This gives the mayor much authority to manage his
town’s resources and personnel. During the data gathering for this
study, Antonio Barcelon was on his third consecutive term as Nasugbu
mayor. During his first term, Nasugbu was designated as an STZ and
he was the one who identified the barangays that were considered
priority tourist areas (TIEZA consultant, pers. comm.). Municipal
officers interviewed for this study were coterminous with him. The
Barcelons also held multiple electoral positions in Nasugbu. In fact,
the barangay captain of Natipuan, Virginia Sapico, is his cousin.
When JAKA claimed ownership of its land in Nasugbu, the
residents still hoped that they had a chance to keep it. Since the
disputed area is in the mountains, the residents asserted that they never
knew anyone to have had owned the land where they have lived for over
forty years. However, they recognized that it was not theirs either since
they do not have land titles. JAKA offered the residents a relocation site
and PHP 5,000 for each family to build their house. Twenty-three of
the original 113 families accepted this. The majority who remained
reasoned out that the amount was too small to buy materials for their
houses, and no arable fields were offered for their farming.
When the remaining residents resisted relocation efforts, JAKA
filed a complaint of unlawful detainer against them. Unlawful detainer
is a legal action to recover possession of real property from one who
illegally withholds it even after the complainant demanded him/her to
vacate. Thus, if JAKA wins this case, the residents will be evicted from
the property and can even be made to pay compensation for litigation
expenses and for the use and occupation of the said premises (1997
Rules of Civil Procedure, Rule 70, Section 17). Meanwhile, JAKA
security guards roved around the villages, prohibiting the construction
of new houses and threatening residents in efforts to drive them away.
In response, the resident farmers formed their organization, and
looked for a lawyer to defend them. They also solicited the help of their
barangay captain (village head) and the mayor. They had different
experiences with their former and current barangay captains. When
asked what they think of their barangay leader, they instead answered
in a roundabout way that if it were the former barangay captain Jaime
Alonzo, they might have had more support. The first time they were
threatened with eviction, the former barangay captain stood his
ground in favor of the residents and even refused bribes from the
developer’s men (Resident 31, pers. comm.). This was different from
the stance of the current barangay captain Sapico, who identified that
her role was merely to relay the compensation offer of the developer in
exchange for the disputed land (Sapico, pers. comm.).
Mayor Barcelon had the same stand as his cousin. He said that he
should not take sides and that the case should be left for the court to
decide (Barcelon, pers. comm.). The only assistance that his office
could provide was access to legal documents available in the municipal
office that were needed in the case. The TIEZA coordinator observed
that this was a well-measured way of dealing with the residents because
elected officials see them as “votes”; thus, they do not totally oppose
nor support their cause (TIEZA consultant, pers. comm.).13
Local officials of Nasugbu are not new to land disputes between
farmers and developers. For the last fifteen years, land disputes in the
town have been frequent. Because of this, the Sangguniang Bayan
(Municipal Council) passed Nasugbu Municipal Resolution (NMR)
11014 in 2004. The resolution requested the House of Representatives
to reverse the proclamation of Nasugbu as a tourist zone as decreed by
PP 1520, using the justification that it was primarily an agricultural
land. Though Mayor Barcelon approved the resolution, nothing came
out of it. According to former municipal councilor Juner Villarin
(pers. comm.), it was probable that Mayor Barcelon did not follow up
the resolution with Eileen Ermita-Buhain, the district representative in
Congress during that time. Congresswoman Ermita-Buhain is the
daughter of then-executive secretary Eduardo Ermita, the one who
attested to the signing of EO 647 by President Arroyo. Three years after
NMR 110 was passed, Nasugbu was declared an STZ where the mayor
himself identified the barangays that should compose it (TIEZA
consultant, pers. comm.). This was despite the fact that there were
existing land disputes between tourism developers and the peasants in
the municipality.
Tourism activities prevail in Nasugbu because of the hegemonic
belief that tourism stimulates development more than agriculture.
Nasugbu’s elected officials, particularly the mayor and Natipuan’s
barangay captain, subscribe to this belief. Mayor Barcelon had this to
say:
With the current state of the Philippines, [the production of] our
traditional products, like coffee, abaca, sugar, are dying . . . If you
are familiar with what happened in Mexico and in other Latin
American countries, which we have the same traditional products
with, it was tourism that made them rise to development . . . 15
(Barcelon, pers. comm.)
Barangay Captain Sapico echoed the same view:
It is better when there is tourism . . . If there would be establishments,

there would be jobs. Is not that the start of development? How
could you develop if you just depend on charcoal making, cultivating
a few crops? (Sapico, pers. comm.)
Thus, when JAKA and its partner, Sta. Lucia Land, Inc., applied
for a permit to develop the property in Natipuan for residential and
commercial subdivisions, its approval was endorsed by the Municipal
Council and, as a matter of procedure, expressed in a municipal
resolution. The resolution states that the Municipal Council, as
empowered by the LGC to process and approve development plans,
stamped its approval because “the project shall promote and enhance
progressive development of Nasugbu, especially in residential tourism
and leisure estates development in consonance with the master
development plan” (NMR 159-2011).16
Other than the subscription to the development prospect of
tourism, patron-client relations also existed between the tourism
developer in Natipuan and the local government of Nasugbu. The
tourism developer in Natipuan has strong political ties. JAKA’s
founder, Juan Ponce Enrile, has been elected senator four times (1987,
1995, 2004, and 2010), even holding the Senate presidency twice
(2008–2010, 2010–2013). As a senator, he had discretionary funds
through his Priority Development Assistance Fund that could be
utilized for infrastructure or community projects. Meanwhile, the
Municipality of Nasugbu was diligent in requesting funds for road
construction projects from senators, congressmen, the provincial
governor, concerned line agencies and offices, and even from the Office
of the President. As said by the municipal administrative and tourism
officer Emerito Bordeos (pers. comm.), they never let a year pass
without roads being constructed, as this was one of the requirements
to attract tourists and tourism investors. Senator Enrile was one of the
politicians they frequently asked for funding support. In 2011 and
2010, for instance, two municipal resolutions were passed regarding
the funding of two roads under his office, amounting to PHP 13
million.17 The Municipal Council and Mayor Barcelon declared
Senator Enrile a distinguished son of Nasugbu because he “has
distinguished himself as a genuine public servant with a deep concern
for the welfare of Nasugbu by allocating funds for the development
projects of the locality” and this “magnanimous gesture . . . can at least
be compensated by making him part and parcel of this municipality”
(NMR 99-2011).18 Two months after Senator Enrile was “adopted” as
a son of Nasugbu, NMR 159 (2011) was signed and approved by the
Municipal Council and the mayor. This was the municipal resolution
mentioned above that approved JAKA’s application for a residential
and commercial subdivision.
Another way of developing the tourism landscape of Nasugbu, and
making the farmer residents accept this transformation, is through the
collaboration of the government and the private sector, as seen in the
case of Hacienda Looc. The national government officially involved the
business sector in this endeavor when tourism developers were appointed
as members of the eminent persons group (EPG). The creation of the
EPG is mandated through EO 647. According to the municipal
administrative and tourism officer (Bordeos, pers. comm.), the president
appointed the EPG members who were chosen based on their knowledge
and interest in making tourism a sustainable development in Nasugbu.
He added that the members of the EPG are owners of big development
companies but claimed that they were unknown to him. In a separate
interview, the TIEZA consultant revealed that members of the EPG
were prominent personalities from private entities; and during the
Arroyo administration, two of the appointees were Teresita Sy-Coson
of SM and Santiago Elizalde of RCI. He added that being owners of
leisure destinations, they were in the best strategic position to oversee
tourism development in Nasugbu (TIEZA consultant, pers. comm.).
Having been appointed by the government, these private developers
have gained authority to shape the landscape of Nasugbu.
During their appointment, SM was already developing the first
phase of Hamilo Coast in Hacienda Looc. While SM was busy buying
out lands from the farmers, SM’s corporate social responsibility (CSR)
arm, SM Foundation, was also busy doing community projects in the
area. It has provided day care centers, resources for livestock raising,
agricultural trainings, and one-month vocational courses on massage
and manicure-pedicure in Hacienda Looc (APC 2012). In an interview
with the municipal agricultural officer Rhodora Agapay, she confirmed
that SM Foundation funded their vegetable training program in the
four barangays. For her, this was a fortunate intervention since the
Municipal Agricultural Office budget from the local government unit
(LGU) was not enough to implement its program. It relies on the
assistance of the Department of Agriculture and the private sector, such
as the SM Foundation, to accomplish its mandate (Agapay, pers.
comm.).
SM has also pledged that the phased developments at Hamilo

Coast will be ecologically sustainable through renewable energy—that
is, through solar power, proper waste management, and the conservation
and preservation of biodiversity of marine life, flora, and fauna in the
area (SM 2015). Among the conservation activities were mangrove
planting, upland tree planting, and supporting the Bantay Dagat (Sea
Patrol) (Philippine Star 2009b). Bantay Dagat are civilian fisheries patrol
volunteers who guard marine protected areas (MPAs) against trespassers.
Private developers and their CSR arms, like Hamilo Coast, SM
Foundation, and Punta Fuego Foundation, support Bantay Dagat
since the local government lacks funds for implementing conservation
activities (Conservation International 2010). According to the municipal
environment and natural resources officer Mildred Sanchez (pers.
comm.), aside from Bantay Dagat, the resorts also guard the MPAs
since most of the conserved areas are “inside the territories of their
resorts” and need preservation for the enjoyment of their guests.
Barangay Natipuan also accepted financial support from private
tourism establishments. In interviews in 2010 and 2012, the barangay
captain of Natipuan said that they received financial support from the
resorts. During tourism’s peak season in summer, resort owners give
monetary honorarium to barangay tanod (village guardians). The barangay
also solicit funds from wealthy residents of the leisure communities
during fiestas. The barangay captain claimed that she was neutral,
siding neither with the developer nor with the residents. Nevertheless,
she favored tourism because it generated jobs and brought funds
through the collection of real property tax (Sapico, pers. comm.).
The aforementioned CSR activities could possibly gain the tourism
developers triple points in their favor. One, the CSR activities could
soften the resistance of the farmers against tourism projects. Farmers
could be more accepting of the changes since social services and
livelihood resources are provided. Two, the tourism developers have
manufactured an altruistic image of themselves by doing their share of
CSR as projected through the media. The general public is informed
of the activities as reported in numerous newspaper articles and in their
company websites, burying reports about the land dispute (see, for
example, De la Cruz 2010; Garcia 2011; Lesaba 2011; Philippine Star
2009a, 2009b; SM Foundation 2015). Lastly, they have fostered good
relations with Nasugbu’s LGU by funding projects and programs that
are originally the latter’s responsibility. However, according to the anti-
landgrabbing peasant movement Asian Peasant Coalition, these were
forms of bribery to soften the people’s resistance against tourism

development in their place (APC 2012, 2015).19
State Policies and Local Projects: Conflicted Development

The belief that development arises from the tourism landscape of
Nasugbu has been conditioned and (re)enforced by the state’s multiscalar
tourism development plans. After identifying Batangas as one of the
priority areas in the 1974–1977 Tourism Four-Year Plan (DOT 1974),
Nasugbu was proclaimed a tourism zone in 1975. In a response to the
1991–2010 Philippine Tourism Master Plan’s call for comprehensive
master plans for tourism areas, the 1997 Regional Tourism Master
Plan for Southern Tagalog20 was drawn, wherein the coastline of
Nasugbu was identified as a destination for water sport enthusiasts
(NEDA CALABARZON 2004). Meanwhile, the 2004–2010 Regional
Development Plan for CALABARZON (wherein Batangas is included)
was formulated in accordance with the 2004–2010 Medium-Term
Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP). In this Regional Development
Plan, Nasugbu is listed as part of the Beach Resort Cluster that would
cater to domestic and East Asian markets (NEDA CALABARZON
2004). The reiteration of Nasugbu as an STZ through EO 647 in 2007
was a response to the call of the 2004–2010 MTPDP’s creation of
tourism zones. Upon the expiration of the 2004–2010 MTPDP in
2010, the Philippine Development Plan 2011–2016 and the 2011–
2016 Philippine National Tourism Development Plan were drawn up.
The latter has placed Nasugbu as part of the Nasugbu-Looc-Ternate-
Cavite Tourism Development Area (DOT 2011).
The image of Nasugbu as a tourism zone has been successfully
established through various development plans and statutes. It also
gave the local authorities the impression that tourism is the key to their
own development. The municipality has formulated not only its
comprehensive land use plan, where tourism areas are identified, but
also its own tourism development plan. Furthermore, in its municipal
profile for 2010, tourism is listed as its lone priority development
thrust.
The translation of multiscalar development plans into statutes,
policies, and infrastructures illustrates the continuing construction of
the tourism landscape in Nasugbu. From these, the creation of the
tourism landscape in Nasugbu threatens to annihilate its agricultural
landscape since they utilize the same resources of land and marine
water. This section cites the fulfillment of tourism requirements in

Nasugbu and how these have displaced the development needs of
agriculture, creating tensions between the respective sectors. The
infrastructure development and prezoning and titling of lands for
tourism priority areas are national projects that aim to remove barriers
to investments as stated in MTPDP 2004–2010 and in Tourism Act
of 2009 (NEDA 2004). Funding for local government initiatives that
promote tourism then follows, such as that for peace and order
operations or the opening of MPAs to tourism operators.
The conversions of agricultural land to tourism use in Natipuan
and Hacienda Looc are facilitated and legitimized by various laws and
tourism plans. The MTPDP 2004–2010 pronounced that lands with
high potential for tourism shall be prezoned and titled in order to
reduce the lengthy land acquisition and conversion process. In
accordance with MTPDP 2004–2010, the Tourism Act of 2009
(Section 61, p. 26) was promulgated, which states that lands identified
as part of tourism priority areas, including tourism enterprise zones, are
exempted from CARL (Republic Act 6657) and from the Urban
Development and Housing Act of 1992 (Republic Act 7279). Thus,
the declaration of Nasugbu as an STZ has given its local government a
stronger justification to privilege access to land that caters to tourism.
Putting up zones not only for tourism but also for industrial and
commercial purposes is hardly new in the country. It has just become
sophisticated over time. In the 1970s and 1980s, development plans
and policies identified economic zones, industrial estates, and tourism
zones. This approach is a regional strategy of developing selected
growth centers as a way of optimizing the benefits from infrastructural
investments (Intal 1995). However, this has also fostered land
speculations and land banking, often converting agricultural lands
leading to the displacement of peasants (Corpuz 2002; Church
Peasant Conference 1997; Kelly 1998).
Agricultural lands covered by the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP) are not spared from this process.21 In fact, CARL,
where CARP is anchored, has hastened the process of land conversion
(Corpuz 2002; Kelly 1998). In Section 65 of CARL, it is stated that
when land ceases to be agriculturally productive, or the locality has
become urbanized and the land will have a greater economic value if it
is used for residential, commercial, or industrial purposes, then
reclassification of the land can be authorized by the Department of
Agrarian Reform. This resulted in land speculators and real estate and
tourism developers buying out farmers, making the land idle, and
converting it later to other use (Kelly 1998, 2000). Meanwhile,
landowners who do not want to lose their land convert their farms into
corporations and opt for CARP’s stock distribution scheme, making
their tenants stockholders.
The LGC has also made land conversion easier for developers.
Through the LGC, the LGUs are given a certain level of autonomy,
devolving functions and responsibilities that were once being handled
by national government agencies, including resource management. To
manage their resources, LGUs are required to draw their comprehensive
land use plans, classifying their municipality into different districts:
residential, agricultural, commercial, industrial, tourism, etc. Through
an ordinance, the LGU can reclassify up to 15 percent of its agricultural
land base on its economic viability in comparison with other use
(LGC, Section 20). The decision to reclassify land use is left to the local
officials, particularly mayors, whose decisions can be swayed by
monetary considerations (Kelly 2000). The president can also authorize
conversion of agricultural lands to tourism development areas as per
EO 124 (1993).22 In the case of Nasugbu, after the formulation of its
comprehensive land use plan and tourism development plan, it was the
mayor who identified the barangays that are to be part of Nasugbu’s
tourism priority areas (TIEZA consultant, pers. comm.).
Unbalanced prioritization of infrastructure has added fuel to the
contested development in Nasugbu. The construction of the PHP 860
million Nasugbu-Ternate Tourist Road is a testament to the
government’s prioritization of tourism. It passes through the coastal
barangays of Nasugbu, including Natipuan and Hacienda Looc. It has
shortened travel time from four to two hours by passing through the
Pico de Cero Mountain via a 303-meter underground tunnel connecting
the coastal towns of Ternate (Cavite) and Nasugbu (Burgonio 2013;
DPWH 2009; GMA News 2011; Pico Sands Hotel 2016) (map 4).
Though the resident farmers are privileged to have the Nasugbu-
Ternate Tourist Road passing by their place, they are still deprived of
good roads that lead to their village. While the Tourist Road is
asphalted, the path leading to them are rough roads (see figure 1). The
path going to Natipuan is two hundred meter of rugged, undulating
terrain. According to Resident 32 (pers. comm.), the residents themselves
plowed the path to make it more passable for them and their carabaos.
During rainy days, the rough path becomes muddy and poses a threat
to residents due to the slippery stones scattered throughout the road.
Schoolchildren even bear the embarrassment of wearing soiled uniforms.
While the Tourist Road has provided larger access and an alternative
route to industries, residential areas, and tourism destinations, it has
been built at the expense of communities and the environment. The
R-1 Expressway Extension Project, to which the Tourist Road is
connected, traverses the Bacoor Bay through a combination of
reclamation and viaduct works (UEM-MARA Philippines Corp.
2011). It has demolished 7,500 hectares of corals and mangroves in
Manila Bay, displaced 1,000 urban poor families, and has felled 4,000
trees (Lazaro 2009; Corpuz 2004). The relentless undertaking of
reclamation projects in Manila Bay since the 1970s is suspected to be
linked to storm surges along the entire stretch of the bay from Cavite
to Bataan due to the change in the movement and flow of the waters
inside the bay (Hicap 2011).
Constructing infrastructures in priority tourism areas is mandated
by the Tourism Act of 2009 and its Implementing Rules and Regulations
(Tourism Act of 2009, Section 54, p. 84). The 2004–2010 MTPDP
also emphasized the prioritization of infrastructure projects that are
“strategic and critical to stimulate trade and investments,” including
roads and airports for tourism hubs (NEDA 2004, 77). Accordingly,
the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH 2005) expects
the Tourist Road to “pave way to the recognition of the tourist hubs
and world-class resorts which attract the foreign and domestic tourists.”
President Aquino echoed similarly, “This will further boost tourism in
Cavite and Batangas” (Burgonio 2013).
The establishment of MPAs in Nasugbu through NMR 23 (2009)
has marginalized the fisherfolks, while providing access to tourism
developers. The ordinance was passed to protect marine biodiversity
and to ensure the sustainability of marine resources that provide
livelihood to fishermen and food security of the community. Fishermen
are restricted from the MPAs to preserve and rehabilitate spawning
grounds of fish. Despite the good intention, there are practical
drawbacks. To avoid the MPAs, fishermen have to go farther away as
MPAs are near the coastlines. Fishing far in the ocean requires a larger
boat, which small fisherfolks cannot afford. Small boats, which are
weak against the strong winds of the open seas, are prone to accidents.
At such distances, fisherfolks also encounter big commercial fishing
boats with trawls that they cannot compete with. “Those trawls of big
fishing boats are the ones that hurt small fisherfolks,” complained a
resident (Resident 31, pers. comm.). While fisherfolks are left with
little or no catch at all and with limited alternative livelihood, tourism
Table 1. Programmed appropriation and obligation by object of expenditure

for 2010, Office of the Mayor/General Fund, Municipality of Nasugbu
Object of Expenditure Amount in Peso
Other Maintenance & Operating Expenses
Cultural & Historical Presentation 100,000.00
Youth & Sports Development 400,000.00
Nutrition Program 1,755,000.00
Barangay Affairs, Conditions & Operations 200,000.00
Traffic Maintenance & Enforcement 1,560,600.00
Tourism, Promotion & Development 1,214,700.00
Zero Waste Management Program 1,676,800.00
Peace and Order 2,515,200.00
Municipal Disaster Program 30,000.00
Source: Culled from the Annual Budget Report, Municipality of Nasugbu,
2011.
operators gain advantage. In effect, tourism operators acquire exclusive

access to MPAs, where tourism activities like diving and snorkeling are
allowed. Fishermen caught fishing in MPAs are apprehended by the
Bantay Dagat and resort watchers.
The prioritization of a sector can be seen in the resources allocated
to it. In the case of agriculture in Nasugbu, the Municipal Agricultural
Office’s budget is limited; thus, their services are limited as well.
According to the municipal agricultural officer (Agapay, pers. comm.),
Natipuan was not part of their program because they do not have
enough agricultural technicians to oversee the area. Since the
appropriated budget for them was not enough, they depended on
politicians for infrastructures such as farm-to-market roads and
footbridges, while agricultural and fisheries programs were being
sourced from the Department of Agriculture and from private entities
such as SM Foundation. Because of the limited budget, they had
narrowed down their programs to three barangays for irrigated areas
and two for upland rice production out of the forty-two barangays of
Nasugbu.
Aside from the general fund of every municipal office, the Office
of the Mayor appropriates additional funds for programs that it deems
important. Looking at the 2010 budget of the Office of the Mayor,
there was no allocation for agricultural purposes but only for activities
that were vital to tourism investment such as historical presentations,
traffic maintenance and enforcement, a zero waste management program,
Table 2. Barangay Natipuan’s expenditures program for 2012

Program/Project/Activities/Description Amount in Peso
Administrative and Legislative Services 1,060,499.26
Peace and Order Services 522,180.00
Health and Nutrition Services 335,336.00
Day Care Services 16,500.00
Agricultural Services 0.00
Infrastructure Services 0.00
Implementation of Development Projects 267,620.00
(20% of IRA)
Sangguniang Kabataan (Youth Council) Projects 390,820.70
(10% SK Share)
Implementation of Projects/Activities for 139,499.07
Unforeseen Events (5% Calamity Fund) Program
Gender & Development Fund 139,499.07
Total Barangay Expenditures 2,902,904.10a
Source: Appropriation Ordinance No. 01, 2012, Barangay Natipuan.
a
Total computation should be PHP 2,871,954.10, but figure used in the table
is the amount reflected in the ordinance.
peace and order, and tourism promotion and development (see table
1).
This situation is mirrored down to the barangay level. According
to the barangay captain, they had no programs for agriculture because
of their limited budget. Looking at their barangay expenditure program
for fiscal year 2012, second place in their budget appropriation went
to peace and order services, an aspect that is important to tourism (see
table 2).
The prioritization of tourism through the various legislations and
policies and their translation to local programs and infrastructural
projects have been transforming the landscape, gradually edging out
agriculture.
Tensions Triggered, Hegemonic Representation Contested

The prioritization of tourism has brought tensions in the landscape.
While the government has formed and implemented policies and
projects and tourism developers have provided environmental
preservation activities and alternative livelihood trainings, negative
impacts of tourism development are palpably present. In 2012, the
Asian Peasant Coalition held an international solidarity mission in

Hacienda Looc and documented the plight of the farmers. According
to the report (APC 2012), the people’s sources of livelihood had
narrowed down. Before the inception of the Hamilo Coast project, the
people had enough food. There was enough land to plant and harvest
from, and the shores near their homes were rich in marine resources.
At the onset of the project, the fisherfolks could no longer fish freely
as Hamilo Coast guards disallowed them to fish where a boundary line
was built. Kaingin or slash-and-burn for charcoal making was prohibited.
The reduction of farm lots resulted in meager income for the families.
There were a number of employments in the resort, but these lasted
only for a few months. The project also disturbed the environment,
consequently affecting the livelihood of the locals. When construction
started, soil erosion and siltation were experienced, causing damage to
crops. Since then, fish catch also diminished. The locals believed that
these were results of the project’s earthmoving activities and cutting of
trees.
Locals are also vulnerable to visitors’ unruly behaviors. While there
were no cases of maltreatment and molestation done by tourists in
Barangay Natipuan, an act of lasciviousness was reported in Hacienda
Looc. In June 2012, a female hotel receptionist of Hamilo Coast
complained to the Nasugbu Police that a Pakistani guest touched her
private parts (Police Officer 1, pers. comm.). The Women and
Children’s Protection Desk police officer who handled the case relayed
that it took the complainant a day before she decided to seek police
help. The hotel management discouraged her and gave false promise of
getting hold of the Pakistani guest that would prevent him from leaving
the country (Police Officer 2, pers. comm.). This incident indicates
that tourist facilities are willing to protect their guests more than their
workers.
Despite the CSR activities of the tourism developers in Hacienda
Looc, there were farmers who did not give up their land. They
experienced harassment and intimidation. According to the APC’s
international solidarity mission report (2012), farmers have been
harmed and killed by alleged hired goons and security guards who were
on the payroll of the developers. Military personnel were also deployed
in the area because of the increasing tension between the developers
and farmers. Ever since the deployment of all these armed elements,
farmers have reported several instances of their houses being stoned and
doors being rapped at night by masked and heavily armed men. There
have been illegal searches and indiscriminate firing by drunken security

guards, hired goons, and military personnel, as well.
The farmers in Natipuan had the same experience, albeit to a
limited degree. Because of their resistance to leave the land, they were
accused of being insurgents. The residents believed this to be a ploy to
instill fear so that they would eventually be forced to leave. The military
camped at their barangay hall. The first time they camped, two of the
male residents were summoned, threatened, and interrogated on the
whereabouts of insurgents. The wives of the male residents asked the
help of the barangay captain, but all she did was refer them to other
members of the barangay council. As Resident 32 (pers. comm.)
recounted:
If they cannot get you to admit anything, they give threats. We were
really afraid, so we went to the barangay captain and asked for
help. All she did was refer us to others: “Go to Lorna.” “Go to
Mercy.” “Go there.” But she is the barangay captain . . . Ana [wife
of the resident summoned by the military] was already crying. [The
barangay captain] did not help us. [So I said,] “Let us just go home;
we would not get any help from her.” So we just went home.
In 2011, elements of the Philippine Air Force camped at Natipuan,
frightening some of the residents. Some of the armed men positioned
themselves near a communal toilet, thus women were not able to use
the facility. A year after that, four men visited and accused the residents
of being associated with the insurgents. They introduced themselves as
officials from Malacañang wearing civilian clothes, big boots, and
military haircuts. They threatened the residents, saying that if they will
not cooperate with the government, they will be abducted (Resident
32, pers. comm.).
Military presence in the area was discreet to visitors. During my
fieldwork, there were no military checkpoints to indicate they were
there. However, it seemed that from news articles and from the
interviews with the residents, the military was doing its rounds in
Batangas due to the alleged presence of insurgents (Ozaeta 2010; PNA
2012; Silverio 2011). In separate interviews with the village head and
the municipal administrative and tourism officer, I tried to confirm the
presence of the insurgents, but both said that their place was peaceful
(Bordeos, pers. comm.; Sapico, pers. comm.). The local government
officials seemed to downplay the existence of rebels in their town,
understandably because this might negatively affect tourism. Security,
after all, is one of the factors that tourists consider in choosing a

destination (Sönmez 1998).
Not all farmers and residents in Hacienda Looc and Barangay
Natipuan withdrew from their homes and fields when the tourism
developers claimed the land. While some of the resident farmers
accepted compensation offers from the tourism developers, the majority
cannot accept losing what they consider to be their land and have made
steps to protect their rights. They organized themselves and formed
solidarity movements with other peasant organizations and other
sectors. The International Solidarity Mission mentioned above was
part of the Hacienda Looc farmers’ campaign to expose what was
happening in their locality. Lobbying earned them the support of the
minority bloc in the House of Representatives, which filed a resolution
that seeks to look into the reported landgrabbing and harassment of
farmers in the hacienda (Dalangin-Fernandez 2014).
The resident farmers in Barangay Natipuan also looked for a lawyer
to help them claim the lands. The residents were strong in their belief
that they could hold on to the land because JAKA could not present
papers proving ownership of the land. Resident 32 (pers. comm.)
relayed that they even inquired at the Department of Agrarian Reform
and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources if JAKA
or the Enriles has the title to the property where they have been living
in and tilling. But no such document was found. The only confirmed
property that was under the Enriles was the one near the beach, where
the latter’s summerhouse and abandoned fishpond stood, and which
anyone in the village already knew about.
The resident farmers also went to the Municipal Council to make
their problem known to the authorities and solicited help. They
formed solidarity with other farmers who were experiencing the same
plight, such as the farmers of Hacienda Looc. They joined protest rallies
with other peasant organizations, claiming their rights to life and to
land. According to Resident 32 (pers. comm.), forming solidarity with
other peasant organizations was critical because they were the only ones
who gave them assistance, particularly in terms of mobilizing participants
and moral support. When they held dialogues with municipal officials,
farmers from other organizations went along with them, and they
reciprocated when it was the other groups’ turn. United, they also
went to dialogues with national government agencies such as the
Department of Agrarian Reform and the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources.
After six years, the resident farmers finally heard the court’s
decision through their lawyer.23 They lost the case. The court believed
that the case was truly of unlawful detainer since JAKA had presented
evidence of ownership of the land and the residents refused to vacate
even though they were served written notices of eviction. On the other
hand, the residents failed to present any evidence that would prove
their right to possess the land. With regard to the counterclaim of the
residents, that the case against them should be dismissed since they
were already occupying the land long before the land titles were issued
to JAKA, the court substantiated that it was not necessary for JAKA
to have prior possession of the land to file the suit.24
In the end, the one who has the land title is the one who wins. The
farmer residents believe that money made the difference. “Of course it
is money [that made them win]. Even in Quiapo25 you could buy a land
title,” said Resident 32 (pers. comm.). They appealed the case to the
higher court but this was not sustained as they do not have the PHP
40,000 needed for the process. Even though they have failed, they are
determined not to waver in their cause and will not leave the land until
their houses are demolished. They recognized that they do not have
legal rights to the land but they believed that they have rights to
livelihood:
We have nowhere to go. We do not have our own land, but are
mere farmers tilling somebody else’s land. For me, the reason why
we are going to fight people like them [who are powerful], is just for
the right to livelihood and farming. To live. (Resident 32, pers.
comm.)
FINDINGS
The creation and naturalization of the tourism landscape in Nasugbu
involved the collaboration of the state and the private sector to the
detriment of the agricultural sector. As the liberalization of the tourism
industry intensified, the state and the private developers worked in
synergy. The state prepared the necessary policies and infrastructure,
while the private developers provided the business and capital. The
national tourism master plans, drawn regularly since the 1970s, have
led to the formulation of a Regional Tourism Master Plan for Southern
Tagalog that in turn gave birth to the Nasugbu Tourism Development
Plan. From these plans, Nasugbu, twice proclaimed as a tourism zone,
has been prioritized in terms of direct supervision by the NTO.

Coupled with this development is the devolution of powers to the
LGUs under the 1991 LGC. This empowered the Nasugbu Municipal
Council to dovetail infrastructure development, investor packages,
and, most importantly, local laws that legitimatized the use of
resources for tourism.
With tourism prioritized as recipient of meager government
resources, the agricultural sector was undermined. Agricultural lands
were grabbed and converted for tourism use, using the justification
that Nasugbu was a tourism zone. The Tourism Act of 2009 exempts
tourism lands from agrarian reform, and local government officials can
reclassify agricultural lands to commercial use as authorized through
the LGC. Houses, marine ecosystem, and livelihoods have been
demolished and sacrificed for the completion of roads and highways
leading to tourist areas, while village roads remain unpaved. Municipal
budget has more appropriation for activities that support tourism,
while agricultural programs are limited and solicited from other
government agencies and foundations. Meanwhile, though the
establishment of MPAs is not directly for tourism purposes, it has been
used by tourism operators as reason to restrict fishermen from entering
the said areas while their guests can freely snorkel and dive within them.
The establishment of MPAs has given tourism operators control of
access in guise of protecting the areas and doing their share of CSR. To
some extent, they treat the MPAs as terrestrial territory that they can
own and control especially since they pool their resources into them
(Oracion, Miller, and Christie 2005).
While laws and policies lay out the transformation of the landscape,
the dominant actors are the ones who ultimately produce and
reproduce what they want seen in the landscape. The mass and social
media might show that the land and coast of Nasugbu are places of
relaxation but these are actually born out of conflict and coercion. The
tourism developers in Nasugbu acquired the lands from the farmers by
buying them out, using law and violence. Meanwhile, the farmers seek
the help of the government—only to be disappointed. Since the
officials believe that tourism will bring development to their place,
they do not take the side of the farmers and just leave the matter to the
legal system. As Knudsen (2012) identified, this kind of response is, in
a sense, passive. The officials do not proactively help the farmers but
they do not also antagonize them, for fear of losing their votes. They
have veiled themselves with neutrality. But being neutral means
maintaining the status quo, wherein the power resides with the
moneyed.
It is important to note that the tourism developers in Nasugbu are
not only prominent businessmen but also politicians, or have political
ties, fortifying their position and power in the landscape. They exert
influence through patronage, through the use of discretionary funds
for municipal infrastructure projects—a suave way of building good
relations with the local government officials while also earning goodwill
from the local residents. Deeds such as these are returned as favor either
through electoral votes or backing up the politician’s business endeavors.
Also, to get the farmers and government officials on their side, the
developers, through their foundations, sponsor scholarships and
various livelihood activities for farmers. These activities and programs
are primarily the government’s responsibility but are taken over by the
developers, branding them as CSR.
The change, though, in the landscape is not easily accepted.
Resident farmers are not mere passive actors, hence tensions have
surfaced. While some gave in to the various land use conversion
strategies, most of them have not surrendered their land. Instead, they
organized themselves, challenging the developers and the state. For
them, tourism is not equivalent to development. “How could it bring
development? Instead of gaining something from it, it deprives us,” said
Resident 31 (pers. comm.).
CONCLUSION
Behind the visual pleasure and semblance of development, the Philippine
tourism landscape is marred by conflicts. Embracing hegemonic
neoliberal policies and treating it as an export industry, tourism is
expected to contribute significant growth to the Philippine economy.
State laws and policies, infrastructures, and the involvement of the
private sector have been in place to create the tourism landscape.
However, just as landscapes are seen differently by opposing groups, the
representation of the Philippine tourism landscape is challenged since
the land and marine water resources that tourism uses are the same
resources that agriculture utilizes. The critical landscape optic has been
effective in examining the contested landscape and has unpacked the
intentions that determined the conflict.
Landscape is both a material construct and a representation with
multiple and conflicting meanings. The critical landscape approach
allows for the examination of how these meanings are constructed and
struggled over by various actors. Critical landscape has pushed for a
more grounded interpretation of the landscape wherein its physical
form interacts with an ideological concept. The actors have their own
interests and they construct the landscape based on their ideals of how
the landscape should be used. In the case of Nasugbu, the idea of
development shapes the landscape. While all actors involved see the
land and coast of Nasugbu as means of production, they have different
notions of what development is and how it should be achieved by using
the physical component of the landscape. Thus, tensions between the
groups ensue and the kind of development produced in the landscape
is contested. In the present case, the agricultural sector is sacrificed to
fulfill the interventions for tourism. Impacts of this might not be
visible when looking at the image of the tourism landscape, unless the
landscape’s history is traced and the social relations that produced and
reproduced it are revealed, as prescribed by critical landscape. Moreover,
when development in the landscape is contextualized, it is necessary to
examine the state policies and projects as these are embedded in the
state’s ideological concept of what development is. These are
instrumental in modifying the landscape. In turn, these laws and
policies stem from the development discourse that has been put in
effect by the Global North. It has been defined according to their
standards and could be achieved through interventions they have
prescribed, which are essentially market-based (Broad and Cavanagh
1993; Escobar 1995). However, not all economies suit the given
formula. Global South countries have compromised their economies
in pursuit of this development, and these compromises impact heavily
on marginalized groups. It has even come to a point where the
prescribed development schemes are questioned if they are morally
right, if sacrifices are prerequisites for long-term yields. Tourism is
expected to bring employment; but for a place to be viable to
accommodate world-class tourism, should its locals be unemployed
first? While waiting for the assured benefits of this kind of development
to trickle down, the marginalized sectors are already withering away.
Fine sand, endless blue waters, and exotic marine life are visually
consumed and enjoyed by the visiting tourists, while lying in their
cabanas and sipping piña coladas. Such a landscape is viewed as a result
of development and at the same time hides the misery of farmer
residents whose resources are grabbed from them. Only by stripping
away this façade can one understand the ensuing contested development
that is reified in the conflictual space of agricultural and tourism

landscapes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the two anonymous referees and the people
behind the 2015 Third World Studies Center Writeshop, notably
Elinor May Cruz and Joel Ariate, for their insightful comments and
valuable suggestions. This work is drawn from my master’s thesis, “The
Hegemonic Representation of Bahay Kubo in the Cultural, Rural, and
Tourism Landscapes: Discursive Narratives on the Political Economy
of Iconic Development Landscapes” (University of the Philippines,
2013). The Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Development,
University of the Philippines Diliman funded the field research of the
thesis through its Thesis and Dissertation Grant.
NOTES
1. PD 189, “Amending Part IX of the Integrated Reorganization Plan by Renaming
the Department of Trade and Tourism as the Department of Tourism, and
Creating the Department of Tourism with a Philippine Tourist Authority Attached
to It in Lieu of Philippine Tourist Commission” ( 11 May1973).
2. EO 120, “Reorganizing the Ministry of Tourism, Defining Its Powers and Functions,
and for Other Purposes” (30 January 1987).
3. The Department of Tourism was later renamed Ministry of Tourism after the
amendment of the 1973 Philippine Constitution in 1976.
4. The second development plan of the government, which is the 1976–1980
Tourism Investment Priorities Plan (MOT 1976), emphasized the importance of
the private sector in tourism development and even mentioned the incentives
they were entitled to, such as tax holidays, profit repatriation, and duties exemptions
of imports, such as transportation, spare parts, and goods consumed in the course
of services. However, in actuality, the private sector was very dependent on the
dictates of the NTO (Domingo 1998).
5. Distance was calculated through the navigation application Waze (www.waze.com).
This was also similar to the distance provided by the website of Pico Sands Hotel
(2016), which is located in Nasugbu, Batangas.
6. Presidential Proclamation 1520, “Declaring the Municipalities of Maragondon
and Ternate in Cavite Province and the Municipality of Nasugbu in Batangas
Province as a Tourist Zone, and for Other Purposes” (28 November 1975).
7. EO 647, “Authorizing an Eminent Persons Group to Oversee the Sustainable
Development of Nasugbu, Batangas Tourism” (3 August 2007).
8. JAKA was founded by Senator Juan Ponce Enrile and his wife, Cristina Castañer,
in 1974. His daughter, Karina Ponce Enrile, is currently its president and chief
executive officer. Juan Ponce Enrile, a Harvard-educated tax lawyer, has been a
cabinet secretary, congressman, and senator under six presidents. He served as

defense minister for sixteen years under the Marcos regime and as administrator of
martial law from 1972 to 1981. He has been elected as senator four times and
served twice as Senate president. It is alleged that he used his power as defense
minister in the 1970s to amass wealth. In 2014, Senator Enrile was indicted for
plunder in connection with the use of his Priority Development Assistance Fund.
A year after, he was released on bail due to humanitarian grounds, citing his
physical condition and his age, which was ninety-one then, and returned to his
position as senator (Branigin 1986; JAKA 2012; PCIJ 2016; Senate of the
Philippines 2016; Vitug and Hofileña 2015). SM is owned by the Sy family, with
Henry Sy Sr. as the chairman and his children, Henry Sy Jr. and Teresita Sy-
Coson, as vice chairpersons. From a modest shoe store in 1958, SM is now known
because of its chain of malls under its subsidiary, SM Retail, Inc. Meanwhile, its
property development is under SM Prime Holdings, Inc. Aside from its leisure
community, Hamilo Coast in Nasugbu, it has also aggressively entered into
building condominiums, changing the urban landscape of Metro Manila. One of
its two banks, BDO Unibank, Inc., holds the highest amount of assets among
universal and commercial bank groups in the country as of 2015 (BSP 2015; SM
2013, 2015).
9. In his writings, Don Mitchell does not give a name for the kind of landscape
perspective he uses, though he focuses on the political economy of landscape. It
was Dubow (2009) who branded Mitchell’s landscape perspective as “critical
landscape.”
10. The total land area of the property was not mentioned in the statement of assets,
liabilities, and net worth.
11. PD 27, “Decreeing the Emancipation of Tenants from the Bondage of the Soil,
Transferring to Them the Ownership of the Land They Till and Providing the
Instruments and Mechanism” (21 October 1972).
12. EO 229, “Providing the Mechanisms for the Implementation of the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Program” (22 July 1987).
13. The TIEZA consultant used the word “timpladong-timplado.” This means that the
actions of the mayor in dealing with the issue were measured in a way that neither
the farmers nor the tourism developers would be offended.
14. NMR 110, “Resolution Requesting the Congress of the Philippines to Amend
‘Presidential Proclamation No. 1520’ and Remove the Municipality of Nasugbu
from Its Declaration as ‘Tourist Zone’” (10 September 2004) (translated from
Filipino: “Kapasiyahang Humihiling sa Kongreso ng Pilipinas na Maamendahan
ang ‘Presidential Proclamation No. 1520’ at Maalis ang Bayan ng Nasugbu sa
Deklarasyon bilang ‘Tourist Zone’ na Munisipalidad”).
15. Interview quotes in this paper were translated from Filipino to English.
16. NMR 159, “Approval of the Application for Development Permit for Residential
and Commercial Subdivision of Sta. Lucia Land, Inc. in Joint Venture with JAKA
Investment Corporation Represented by Exequiel D. Robles” (12 August 2011).
17. These were NMR 52 (14 July 2010) and NMR 185 (2 September 2011).
18. NMR 99 (15 June 2011).
19. Founded in 2003, the Asian Peasant Coalition is an Asia-wide coalition of farmers,
landless peasants, fisherfolks, agricultural workers, dalit, indigenous peoples,
herders, pastoralists, peasant women, and rural youth. According to its profile, it
represents fifteen million members in thirty-three organizations coming from

Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines,
and Sri Lanka. Its membership in the Philippines includes the Kilusang Magbubukid
ng Pilipinas (Peasant Movement of the Philippines), a democratic and militant
national organization that has been active in fighting for the rights of peasants for
almost thirty years now (APC 2015; Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas 2015).
20. Southern Tagalog was the former name of the region where Batangas is included.
It is now called Region 4A or CALABARZON, which is an acronym for the
provinces of Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon.
21. While Hacienda Looc farmers claimed that their lands were under CARP, the
ones in Barangay Natipuan were not, as far as Department of Agrarian Reform’s
online database was concerned. However, the Natipuan residents were in doubt
whether the land was private property as it was in the mountains and could be
considered forestland, which is not alienable and disposable.
22. EO 124, “Establishing Priorities and Procedures in Evaluating Areas Proposed for
Land Conversion in Regional Agri-Industrial Centers/Regional Industrial Centers,
Tourism Development Areas and Sites for Socialized Housing” (8 September
1993).
23. In 2006, JAKA filed the case in the Municipal Trial Court (MTC) of Nasugbu and
the decision was served a year after. The residents and their lawyer then sought an
appeal, which reached the Court of Appeals. Due to financial difficulties, they
failed to comply with subsequent proceedings. Thus, in 2010, the appeal was
dismissed and the MTC’s decision in favor of JAKA was upheld. However, it was
only in early 2012 that the residents were fully informed of the finality of the case
by their lawyer. In 2013, the court ordered the writ of execution, giving JAKA the
signal to take possession of the property.
24. The civil case reference number is purposely withheld to protect the anonymity of
the residents.
25. Quiapo is a place in Manila where one can commission forged documents.
REFERENCES
APC (Asian Peasant Coalition). 2012. “Report of the International Solidarity Mission:
Save Hacienda Looc and Peasants Livelihood.” Asian Peasant Coalition. Posted 24
February. Accessed 6 April 2012. http://www.asianpeasant.org/sites/default/files/
ISM-HL%20Executive%20Summary%20Report.pdf
———. 2015. “About Us.” Asian Peasant Coalition. Accessed 10 July 2015. http://
www.asianpeasant.org/content/asian-peasant-coalition-apc.
Badger, Anne, Patricia Barnett, Lynn Corbyn, and Jean Keefe. 1996. Trading Places:
Tourism as Trade. London: Tourism Concern.
Bell, Claudia, and John Lyall. 2002. The Accelerated Sublime: Landscape, Tourism, and
Identity. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.
Bello, Walden. 2001. “Structural Adjustment Programs: ‘Success’ for Whom?” In The
Case against the Global Economy: And for a Turn towards Localization, edited by Edward
Goldsmith and Jerry Mander, 127–34. London: Earthscan.
Bender, Barbara. 2001. Introduction to Contested Landscapes: Movement, Exile and Place,
edited by Barbara Bender and Margot Winer, 1–20. Oxford and New York: Berg.
Blankfeld, Keren. 2015. “Philippines’ 50 Richest 2015: Henry Sy Tops the List for
Eighth Straight Year.” Forbes, 26 August. Accessed 4 January 2016. http://
www.forbes.com/sites/kerenblankfeld/2015/08/26/prosperity-buys-a-mixed-lot/.
Branigin, William. 1986. “Juan Ponce Enrile: The Chameleon Minister.” The Washington
Post, 14 September. Accessed 19 January 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/
archive/politics/1986/09/14/juan-ponce-enrile-the-chameleon-minister/535fec61-
b722-440e-b679-c329bc3e309f/.
Broad, Robin. 1988. Unequal Alliance, 1979–1986: The World Bank, International
Monetary Fund and the Philippines. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Broad, Robin, and John Cavanagh. 1993. Plundering Paradise: The Struggle for the
Environment in the Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Brohman, John. 1996. “New Directions in Tourism for Third World Development.”
Annals of Tourism Research (Elsevier Science) 23 (1): 48–70.
BSP (Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas). 2015. “Ranking as to Total Assets: Universal and
Commercial Bank Group as of June 30, 2015.” Accessed 20 January 2016. http://
www.bsp.gov.ph/banking/psoc/by_ranks/assets.htm.
Burgonio, T. J. 2013. “Aquino Woos Caviteños, Raves over ‘Tourism Road.’” Philippine
Daily Inquirer, 5 April. Accessed 18 March 2015. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/
385159/aquino-woos-cavitenos-raves-over-tourism-road.
Carneiro, Maria Joao, Joana Lima, and Ana Lavrador Silva. 2015. “Landscape and the
Rural Tourism Experience: Identifying Key Elements, Addressing Potential, and
Implications for the Future.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 23 (8–9): 1217–35. doi:
10.1080/09669582.2015.1037840.
Chavez, Raymond. 1999. “Globalisation and Tourism: Deadly Mix for Indigenous
Peoples.” Third World Network, March. Accessed 15 April 2012. http://
www.twnside.org.sg/title/chavez-cn.htm.
Church Peasant Conference. 1997. “Hacienda Looc.” Church Peasant Conference
Proceedings. 9–10 June. Accessed 23 April 2012. http://www.bekkoame.ne.jp/
~sukke/peasant3.htm.
Conservation International. 2010. “Spotted: Bamboo Sharks in Nasugbu Marine
Protected Areas.” Conservation International Philippines, 13 December. Accessed
30 July 2012. http://www.conservation.org/global/philippines/news/Pages/
Spottedbamboosharks.aspx.
Corpuz, Gerry Albert. 2002. “Braganza Bragging on Failed Land Reform, Peasant
Leaders Say.” Bulatlat.com, 9–15 June. Accessed 17 June 2012. http://
www.bulatlat.com/news/2-18/2-18-Gerry.html.
———. 2004. “Hacienda Looc: The Next Hacienda Luisita?” Bulatlat.com, 28 November–
4 December. Accessed 14 October 2010. http://bulatlat.com/news/4-43/
4-43-looc.html.
Cosgrove, Denis E. 1984. Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape. London: Croom
Helm.
Cosgrove, Denis, and Stephen Daniels. 1988. The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the
Symbolic Representation, Design, and Use of Past Environments. Cambridge [England];
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cruz, Reil G. 2009. Principles of Travel and Tourism: Introduction to Tourism Theory.
Quezon City: Tourism Research Philippines.
Cunningham, Paul. 2009. “Exploring the Cultural Landscape of the Obeikei in
Ogasawara, Japan.” Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change 7 (3): 221–34.
Dalangin-Fernandez, Lira. 2014. “House Minority to Back Probe of ‘Land Grabbing’

at Hacienda Looc.” InterAksyon.com, 22 May. Accessed 6 November 2015. http://
www.interaksyon.com/article/87377/house-minority-to-back-probe-of-land-
grabbing-at-hacienda-looc.
Daugstad, Karoline. 2008. “Negotiating Landscape in Rural Tourism.” Annals of
Tourism Research 35 (2): 402–26.
De la Cruz, Rose. 2010. “SM Foundation to Expand Agri Training Program.” Philippine
Star, 14 February. Accessed 12 September 2015. http://www.philstar.com/
agriculture/549062/sm-foundation-expand-agri-training-program.
Domingo, Manolo Miguel de Castro. 1998. “An Organizational Framework for the
Tourism Industry and Its Implications for National Security.” Policy Option Paper.
Quezon City: National Defense College of the Philippines.
DOT (Department of Tourism). 1974. “Tourism Four-Year Development Plan 1974–
1977.” Philippines: Department of Tourism.
———. 2009. “Philippine Beaches.” Official Website of the Department of Tourism.
Accessed 15 March 2015. http://www.tourism.gov.ph/sitepages/
PhilippineBeaches.aspx.
———. 2011. “Tourism Overview and Directions: 2011–2016.” PowerPoint slides
presented at HSMA general membership meeting, 18 August. Accessed 1 October
2013. http://www.slideshare.net/janettetoral/philippines-tourism-overview-and-
directions-2011-2016.
DPWH (Department of Public Works and Highways). 2005. “Region IV-A - News
Archive 2005: Honorable Buhain Joins RD Seguit in Nasugbu-Ternate Tourism
Road Inspection.” Department of Public Works and Highways website. Posted 31
December. Accessed 5 April 2012. http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/offices/region/04A/
news_archive_05.asp.
———. 2009. “Region IV-A - News Archive 2009: With Ternate-Nasugbu Road Tourism
and Economic Boom Loom in Batangas and Cavite.” Department of Public Works
and Highways website. Posted 26 January. Accessed 5 April 2012. http://
www.dpwh.gov.ph/offices/region/04A/news_archive_09.asp.
Dubow, J. 2009. “Landscape.” In International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, edited
by Rob Kitchin and Nigel Thrift, 124–31. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Escobar, Arturo. 1995. Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third
World. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Garcia, Angelo G. 2011. “The Grass Is Green Too, on the Other Side of the Fence.”
Manila Bulletin, 25 May. Accessed 12 July 2015. http://web.archive.org/web/
20110530025143/http://www.mb.com.ph/node/319662/the-gra.
GMA News. 2011. “Ternate-Nasugbu Tunnel Target Completion in April 2012.” GMA
News Online, 20 December. Accessed 15 April 2012. http://www.gmanetwork.com/
news/story/242263/news/regions/ternate-nasugbu-tunnel-target-completion-in-
april-2012.
Gössling, Stefan. 2003. “Tourism and Development in Tropical Islands: Political
Ecology and Perspectives.” In Tourism and Development in Tropical Islands: Political
Ecology and Perspectives, edited by Stefan Gössling, 1–37. Massachussetts: Edward
Elgar Publishing Limited.
Harner, John. 2001. “Place Identity and Copper Mining in Sonora, Mexico.” Annals of
the Association of American Geographers 91 (4): 660–80.
Hicap, Fernando. 2011. “Reclamation Projects Real Cause of Storm Surge in Manila
Bay.” Inquirer.net, 3 October. Accessed 4 July 2012. http://opinion.inquirer.net/
13261/reclamation-projects-real-cause-of-storm-surge-in-manila-bay.
Hoelscher, S. 2009. Landscape Iconography. Vol. 6 of International Encyclopedia of Human
Geography, edited by Rob Kitchin and Nigel Thrift, 132–39. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Holden, Andrew. 2013. Tourism, Poverty, and Development. Oxon: Routledge.
Intal, Ponciano S. Jr. 1995. “Visions for Philippines 2000: The Challenge of Economic
Restructuring toward Sustained Economic Growth.” Journal of Philippine Development
22 (39): 1–42. Accessed 17 June 2012. http://www3.pids.gov.ph/ris/pjd/pidsjpd95-
1restructure.pdf.
InterAksyon. 2011. “SC Exempts Roxas Firm’s Batangas Property from CARP.”
InterAksyon.com. Accessed 1 May 2015. http://www.interaksyon.com/article/
13694/sc-exempts-roxas-firms-batangas-property-from-carp,%20http://
www.businessmirror.com.ph/dar-prepares-for-redistribution-of-hacienda-roxas/.
JAKA (Jaka Investments Corporation). 2012. JAKA Investments Corporation website.
Accessed 19 January 2016. http://jakagroup.com/jaka/index.php.
Jaymalin, Mayen, and Paolo Romero. 2008. “Palace: Nothing Wrong with Rise in
GMA Wealth.” Philippine Star, 22 May. Accessed 1 May 2015. http://
www.philstar.com/headlines/63689/palace-nothing-wrong-rise-gma-wealth.
Kelly, Philip F. 1998. “The Politics of Urban-Rural Relations: Land Use Conversion in
the Philippines.” Environment and Urbanization 10 (1): 35–54.
———. 2000. Landscapes of Globalization: Human Geographies of Economic Change in the
Philippines. London: Routledge.
Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas. 2015. “About.” Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas
(Peasant Movement of the Philippines) website. Accessed 10 July. http://
kilusangmagbubukid.weebly.com/about.html.
Knudsen, Magne. 2012. “Fishing Families and Cosmopolitans in Conflict over Land
on a Philippine Island.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 43 (3): 478–99.
Lazaro, D’Jay. 2009. “Reclamation Project Violates SC Ruling on Manila Bay, Fisher
Groups Assert.” GMA News Online, 11 February. Accessed 4 July 2012. http://
www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/148275/news/nation/reclamation-project-
violates-sc-ruling-on-manila-bay-fisher-groups-assert.
Le Heron, Richard. 2009. “Geographical Political Economy.” In International
Encyclopedia of Human Geography, edited by Rob Kitchin and Nigel Thrift, 234–42.
Amsterdam, Oxford: Elsevier.
Lesaba, Marrah Erika. 2011. “Nasugbu Protected Areas Yield More Catch.” Inquirer.net,
17 January. Accessed 10 July 2015. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/
regions/view/20110117-315014/Nasugbu-protected-areas-yield-more-catch.
Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria. 2009. Sworn Statement of Assets, Liabilities, and Net
Worth for 2008. Accessed 1 May 2015. http://pcij.org/resources/20090810-2008-
Dec-SALN-Gloria-Macapagal-Arroyo.pdf.
Mitchell, Don. 1996. The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape.
Minneapolis/London: University of Minnesota Press.
———. 2000. Cultural Geography: A Critical Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Montealegre, Kristina Angela M. 2012. “Roxas & Co Board Approves Sale of 1,212
Hectares for CARP.” InterAksyon.com, 20 November. Accessed 1 May 2015. http:/
/www.interaksyon.com/business/48510/roxas—co-board-approves-sale-of-1212-
hectares-for-carp.
MOT (Ministry of Tourism). 1976. Tourism Investment Priorities Plan, 1976–1980.

Manila: Ministry of Tourism.
Mowforth, Martin, and Ian Munt. 2003. “Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism
in the Third World.” Accessed 4 July 2012. http://ism.epage.ir/images/tourism/
product/tourism_and_sustainability.pdf.
Municipality of Nasugbu. 2003. “About Nasugbu.” Nasugbu, Batangas official website.
Accessed 3 April 2010. http://www.theartistweb.net/sites/nasugbu/
nasugbu_batangas_about.htm.
———. 2008. Nasugbu’s Socio-Economic Profile. Nasugbu, Batangas: Municipality of Nasugbu.
———. 2009. Nasugbu Municipal Ordinance No. 23. An Ordinance Establishing
Marine Protected Areas in the Municipality of Nasugbu, Batangas. 4 August.
NEDA (National Economic and Development Authority). 2004. “Medium-Term
Philippine Development Plan 2004–2010.” Manila: NEDA.
NEDA CALABARZON (National Economic and Development Authority, Cavite,
Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon). 2004. “Region IV-A: CALABARZON
Development Plan.” Accessed 25 May 2012. http://calabarzon.neda.gov.ph/
cdp20042010/CALABARZONDevtPlan20042010.toc.pdf.
Oracion, Enrique G., Marc L. Miller, and Patrick Christie. 2005. “Marine Protected Areas
for Whom? Fisheries, Tourism, and Solidarity in a Philippine Community.” Ocean &
Coastal Management 48 (3–6) 393–410. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2005.04.013.
Ozaeta, Arnell. 2010. “Suspected NPA Rebels Attack Military Operations in Batangas.” ABS-
CBN News.com, 1 August. Accessed 14 February 2016. http://rp3.abs-cbnnews.com/
nation/regions/08/01/10/suspected-npa-rebels-attack-military-operations-batangas.
Palafox Associates. 2003. Proposed Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) of Nasugbu.
Makati: Municipality of Nasugbu.
PCIJ (Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism). 2004. “Assets and Liabilities.” i-
Site: The Information Site of Philippine Politics and Government, June. Accessed 7 April
2012. http://www.i-site.ph/Databases/Congress/13thSenate/SALS/enrile-
SAL.html.
———. 2016. “Public Profiles: Enrile, Juan Ponce.” Moneypolitics. Accessed 19 January.
http://moneypolitics.pcij.org/profiles/enrile-juan-ponce/#social-network.
Philippine Star. 2009a. “Hamilo Coast Empowers Communities through Cooperatives.”
11 July. Accessed 12 September 2015. http://www.philstar.com/modern-living/
485210/hamilo-coast-empowers-communities-through-cooperatives.
———. 2009b. “New Beginnings at Hamilo Coast.” 6 June. Accessed 18 June 2012.
http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleid=474893.
Pico Sands Hotel. 2016. “Directions from Manila to Pico de Loro.” Accessed 4
January. http://picosandshotel.com/getting-there/car.
PNA (Philippine News Agency). 2012. “4 Soldiers Hurt in NPA Attack in Batangas.”
InterAksyon.com, 23 January. Accessed 14 February 2016. http://
www.interaksyon.com/article/22600/4-troops-hurt-in-npa-landmine-attack.
Ponce Enrile, Juan. 2012. Sworn Statement of Assets and Liabilities for 2011.
Accessed 19 January 2016. http://interaksyon.com/assets/images/saln-watch/
saln/sen-ponce-enrile-juan.pdf.
Roxaco Land Corporation. 2011. “About Roxaco Land Corporation.” Roxaco Land
Corporation website. Accessed 1 May 2015. http://www.roxaco.com/index.php/
finder/about.
Senate of the Philippines. 2016. “Juan Ponce Enrile.” Senate of the Philippines, 16th
Congress. Accessed 19 January. https://www.senate.gov.ph/senators/senpres/
enrile.asp.
Shah, Anup. 2013. “Structural Adjustment—a Major Cause of Poverty.” Global Issues,
24 March. Accessed 17 March 2015. http://www.globalissues.org/article/3/
structural-adjustment-a-major-cause-of-poverty.
Sharpley, Richard, and David J. Telfer. 2008. Tourism and Development in the Developing
World. New York: Routledge.
Silverio, Ina Alleco. 2011. “Philippine Air Force Tagged in Foiled Abduction of
Fisherfolk Leader in Batangas.” Bulatlat.com, 24 November. Accessed 14 February
2016. http://bulatlat.com/main/2011/11/24/philippine-air-force-tagged-in-foiled-
abduction-of-fisherfolk-leader-in-batangas/.
SM (SM Investments Corporation). 2013. “Corporate Profile.” Accessed 21
January2016. http://www.sminvestments.com/corporate-profile.
———. 2015. SM Investments Corporation 2014 Annual Report. Accessed 21 January 2016.
http://www.sminvestments.com/sites/default/files/reports/2014_SMIC_lo.pdf.
SM Foundation. 2015. “Farmers’ Training Program.” SM Foundation, Inc. Accessed
12 July 2015. http://www.sm-foundation.org/livelihoodtrainings.html.
Sönmez, Sevil. 1998. “Tourism, Terrorism and Political Instability.” Annals of Tourism
Research 25 (2): 416–56.
UEM-MARA (United Engineers [Malaysia] Berhad-Majlis Amanah Rakyat) Philippines
Corp. 2011. “President Benigno ‘Noynoy’ Aquino III Leads the Inauguration of the
R-1 Expressway Extension, Segment 4, of the Manila-Cavite Tollway Project.” UEM-
MARA Philippines Corporation. Accessed 4 July 2012. http://umpc.com.ph/.
Villacrusis, Francisco. n.d. “A Tale of Two Towns: Balayan and Nasugbu.” Pahayagang
Batangueno.
Vitug, Marites Dañguilan, and Chay F. Hofileña. 2015. “Behind the SC Decision on
Enrile’s Bail.” Rappler.com, 18 August. Accessed 19 January 2016. http://
www.rappler.com/newsbreak/inside-track/102998-behind-supreme-court-decision-
enrile-bail.
Wall, Geoffrey. 2003. “Landscape Resources, Tourism and Landscape Change in Bali,
Indonesia.” In Destinations: Cultural Landscapes of Tourism, edited by Greg Ringer.
New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2015. “Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs).”
Accessed 17 March 2015. http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story084/en/.
WTO (World Trade Organization) Secretariat. 1999. “Trade Policy Review Body: The
Philippines.” Accessed 7 January 2016. https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/
tpr_e/tp114_e.htm.
_________________
HAZEL M. DIZON is assistant professor at the Department of Geography, College of Social
Sciences and Philosophy, University of the Philippines Diliman. Send correspondence to
the author at hazel.dizon@up.edu.ph.

4977 13448 1 PB

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

4977 13448 1 PB

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

4977 13448 1 PB

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HAZEL M.

DIZON Third World Studies Center Writeshop 2015 91

Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies 2015 30 (1): 91–129

The Contested Development of a Philippine

ABSTRACT. A strong reliance on tourism is one of the Philippines’s key strategies to

KEYWORDS. landscape · tourism · development · agriculture · Nasugbu · Philippines

Tourism is one of the sectors that the Philippine government has

landscapes in the coastal town of Nasugbu, Batangas. It is part of the

harassed to give way to a leisure community being developed by SM

(Critical) Landscape as Ideological Concept

is a contested terrain full of conflicting meanings from opposing

Methodology, Study Sites, and Limitations of the Research

settlement history. Afterward, through snowball sampling, four key

THE LANDS OF NASUGBU: HISTORY OF THE MATERIAL LANDSCAPE

residential resort communities and a residential subdivision (Roxaco

Sociopolitical and Economic Relations

It is better when there is tourism . . . If there would be establishments,

SM has also pledged that the phased developments at Hamilo

forms of bribery to soften the people’s resistance against tourism

State Policies and Local Projects: Conflicted Development

water. This section cites the fulfillment of tourism requirements in

Table 1. Programmed appropriation and obligation by object of expenditure

operators gain advantage. In effect, tourism operators acquire exclusive

Table 2. Barangay Natipuan’s expenditures program for 2012

Tensions Triggered, Hegemonic Representation Contested

Asian Peasant Coalition held an international solidarity mission in

have been illegal searches and indiscriminate firing by drunken security

after all, is one of the factors that tourists consider in choosing a

has been prioritized in terms of direct supervision by the NTO.

that is reified in the conflictual space of agricultural and tourism

cabinet secretary, congressman, and senator under six presidents. He served as

represents fifteen million members in thirty-three organizations coming from

Dalangin-Fernandez, Lira. 2014. “House Minority to Back Probe of ‘Land Grabbing’

MOT (Ministry of Tourism). 1976. Tourism Investment Priorities Plan, 1976–1980.

You might also like