Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

AER 1110

Elements of Airplane
Performance
Mohammed Khalil Ibrahim, Ph.D.
Professor
Aerospace Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Cairo University
mkhalil@cu.edu.eg

January 2, 2023
Outline
• Introduction; The Drag Polar
• Equation of Motion
• Thrust Required for Level Unaccelerated Flight
• Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity
• Power Required for Level Unaccelerated Flight
• Power Available and Maximum Velocity
• Altitude Effect of Power Required and Available
• Rate of Climb
• Gliding Flight
• Time to Climb
• Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven Airplane
Outline
• Range and Endurance: Jet Propelled Airplane
• Relation between CDo and CDi
• Take Off Performance
• Landing Performance
• Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• Accelerated rate of Clime (Energy Method)
• Special Consideration for Supersonic Airplane
• Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle (UAVs)
• Micro Air Vehicle
• Quest for Aerodynamic Efficiency
Thrust
• Propeller/ Reciprocating engine combination

• Jet Engine

The fundamental thrust equation

Introduction; The Drag Polar
• The drag polar is given by

• Where

Is known as the parasite drag and r is

an empirically determined constant
• Then

• e can contain the r and the equation

can be written as
e is the Oswald efficiency factor
Introduction; The Drag Polar

Low-speed drag polar and variation of lift to-drag ratio for the Lockheed
C-141A. The airplane is shown in a three-view above the drag polar.
Introduction; The Drag Polar

Drag polar where the zero-lift drag coefficient is not the same as the
minimum drag coefficient.
Equation of Motion

The performance of an airplane for such unaccelerated flight conditions is called

static performance
Equation of Motion
• If q = 0

• For most conventional airplanes, αT is small enough that cos αT ≈ 1 and sin αT ≈ 0.
Thrust Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• Recall

• And

• Divide the previous two equations

• Thus, the thrust required for an airplane to fly at a given velocity in level, unaccelerated flight is
Thrust Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• Thrust-required TR for a given airplane at a given altitude varies with velocity V∞ . The thrust-
required curve is a plot of this variation and has the general shape illustrated in Figure. To calculate
a point on this curve, proceed as follows
1. Choose a value of V∞ .
2. For this V∞ , calculate the lift coefficient from

Note that ρ∞ is known from the given altitude and S is known from the given airplane. The CL calculated from the above
equation is the value necessary for the lift to balance the known weight W of the airplane.
3. Calculate CD from the known drag polar for the airplane

where CL is the value obtained from CL written above.

4. Form the ratio CL / CD .
5. Calculate thrust required from
Thrust Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• Note that TR varies inversely as L/D . Hence, minimum thrust required will be obtained when the
airplane is flying at a velocity where L/D is maximum. This condition is shown in the figure.
Thrust Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• The lift-to-drag ratio L/D is a measure of the aerodynamic efficiency of an airplane; it makes sense
that maximum aerodynamic efficiency should lead to minimum thrust required. Consequently, the
lift-to-drag ratio is an important aerodynamic consideration in airplane design.
• For most conventional subsonic airplanes, L/D reaches a maximum at some specific value of α,
usually on the order of 2° to 5°. Thus, when an airplane is flying at the velocity for minimum TR , it is
simultaneously flying at the angle of attack for maximum L/D .

Low v, High a High v, low a

Thrust Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• Recall
Thrust Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• Recall that

• Then

• Also

• From calculus we find that the point of minimum TR corresponds to dTR/dV∞ = 0.

• Thus
Thrust Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• However

• Hence

• The curves for zero-lift and lift-induced TR intersect at the velocity for minimum TR (that is, for
maximum L/D)
Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity
• TA is strictly associated with the engine of the airplane; it is the propulsive thrust provided by an
engine–propeller combination, a turbojet, a rocket, or the like
• the intersection of the TR curve ( dependent on the airframe ) and the maximum TA curve (
dependent on the engine ) defines the maximum velocity Vmax of the airplane at the given altitude
Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity

Thrust-required curve for the CJ-1.

Power Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• By definition

• The power required PR is therefore

• Recall

• Hence

• Substitute in PR equation
Power Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
Power Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight

TRmin

• we can obtain the aerodynamic conditions associated with minimum PR from by setting dPR /
dV∞ = 0.
• Recall
Power Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight

• Hence, the aerodynamic condition that holds at minimum power required is

Power Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• The point on the power-required curve that corresponds to minimum TR is easily obtained by
drawing a line through the origin and tangent to the PR curve, as shown in Figure.
Power Required for Level Unaccelerated
Flight
• This result yields dTR / dV∞ = 0 at the tangent point, which is precisely the mathematical criterion for
minimum TR . Correspondingly, L/D is maximum at the tangent point.
Power Available and Maximum Velocity
• Reciprocating Engine–Propeller Combination
• The power delivered to the propeller by the crankshaft is defined as the shaft brake
power P
• However, not all P is available to drive the airplane; some of it is dissipated by
inefficiencies of the propeller itself
• Hence, the power available to propel the airplane PA is given by

• where η is the propeller efficiency, η < 1

Power Available and Maximum Velocity
• Jet Engine
• The power available from a jet engine is obtained from

Power available for (a) a piston engine–propeller combination and (b) a jet engine.
Altitude Effect of Power Required and
Available
• Let the subscript 0 designate sea-level conditions

• At altitude, where the density is ρ, these relations are

Altitude Effect of Power Required and
Available
• Now, strictly for the purposes of calculation, let CL remain fixed between sea level and altitude
• Hence, because , CD is also remain constant.
• We obtain

• and
Altitude Effect of Power Required and
Available

Effect of altitude on maximum velocity - Propeller-driven airplane.

Altitude Effect of Power Required and
Available

Effect of altitude on maximum velocity - Jet-propelled airplane

Altitude Effect of Power Required and
Available
• Also note that at high enough altitude, the low-speed limit, which is usually dictated by Vstall , may
instead be determined by maximum PA . This effect is emphasized in Figure

Situation when minimum velocity at altitude

is greater than stalling velocity.
Homework

Vmax can be increased by

Rate of Climb

• From the figure

• Multiply the first equation by V∞ then we obtain

Rate of Climb
• The right hand side of the previous equation is called the rate of climb R/C:

• The difference between the available power and required power is the excess power

• Hence,

Propeller-driven airplane Jet-propelled airplane

Rate of Climb

Hodograph for climb performance at a given altitude.

Gliding Flight

From the Figure

The equilibrium glide angle can be calculated by dividing the above equations
Gliding Flight
Clearly the glide angle is strictly a function of the lift-to-drag ratio; the higher the L/D , the
shallower the glide angle. From this, the smallest equilibrium glide angle occurs at (L/D)max ,
which corresponds to the maximum range for the glide.

Range covered in an equilibrium glide

Absolute and Service Ceiling
• As altitude increases, the maximum excess power decreases
• The altitude at which maximum R/C = 0 is defined as the absolute ceiling of the airplane
• The altitude where maximum R/C = 100 ft/min is defined as the service ceiling.
Time to Climb
• Hence R/C = dh / dt . Therefore

• Therefore, from calculus, the time to climb from one altitude h1 to another h2 is obtained
by integrating the above equation

• Normally time to climb is considered from sea level, where h1 = 0. Hence, the time to
climb to any given altitude h2 is
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane
• specific fuel consumption, a characteristic of the engine. For a reciprocating engine,
specific fuel consumption (commonly abbreviated SFC) is defined as the weight of fuel
consumed per unit power per unit time.

• Therefore, minimum pounds of fuel per hour are obtained with minimum hpR .Because
minimum pounds of fuel per hour give maximum endurance, we quickly conclude that
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at
minimum power required.
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane
• we have already proved that minimum power required corresponds to a maximum value
of
• On a dimensional basis, we can state the proportionality

Minimum value of hpR/V∞ precisely corresponds to the tangent point

which also corresponds to maximum L / D
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane
• Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at a
velocity such that CL / CD is at its maximum.
• In this development, the specific fuel consumption is couched in units that are consistent:

• For convenience and clarification, c will designate the specific fuel consumption with
consistent units. Consider the product cP dt , where P is engine power and dt is a small
increment of time. The units of this product are (in the English engineering system)
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane
• Recall that W denotes the weight of the airplane at any instant. Also
• let W0 = gross weight of the airplane (weight with full fuel and payload), Wf = weight of the fuel load,
and W1 = weight of the airplane without fuel. With these considerations, we have

• Integrating the equation above between time t = 0, where W = W0 (fuel tanks full), and time t = E ,
where W = W1 (fuel tanks empty), we find
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane
• To obtain an analogous expression for range, multiply by V∞ :

• V∞ dt is the incremental distance ds covered in time dt.

• The total distance covered throughout the fl ight is equal to the integral of the equation above from s
= 0, where W = W0 (full fuel tank), to s = R , where W = W1 (empty fuel tank):
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane

Determination of range and endurance.

Range and Endurance:
Propeller Driven Airplane
Breguet Formulas (Propeller-Driven Airplane)
• To maintain steady conditions, the pilot has adjusted the throttle so that
power available from the engine–propeller combination is just equal to the
power required: PA = PR = DV∞
• PA = η P , where η is the propeller efficiency.

• Recall

• Hence (in level flight L = W)

• However, for practical use it will be further simplified by assuming that η,

L/D = CL / CD , and c are constant throughout the flight
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane
• To maximize range for a reciprocating-engine, propeller-driven
airplane, we want the following:
1. The largest possible propeller efficiency η.
2. The lowest possible specific fuel consumption c .
3. The highest ratio of W0 / W1 , which is obtained with the largest
fuel weight WF .
4. Most importantly, flight at maximum L/D . This confirms our
argument that for maximum range, we must fly at maximum L/D .
Indeed, the Breguet range formula shows that range is directly
proportional to L/D . This clearly explains why high values of L/D
(high aerodynamic efficiency) have always been important in the
design of airplanes. This importance was underscored in the 1970s
by the increasing awareness of the need to conserve fuel.
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane
• A similar formula can be obtained for endurance

• Because

• Thus

• Assuming that CL , CD , η, c , and ρ∞ (constant altitude) are all constant, this equation becomes
Range and Endurance: Propeller Driven
Airplane
• It says that to maximize endurance for a reciprocating engine, propeller-driven airplane, we want
• The highest propeller efficiency η.
• The lowest specific fuel consumption c .
• The highest fuel weight Wf , where W0 = W1 + Wf .
• Flight at maximum This confirms our argument in that for maximum endurance, we must fl
y at maximum
• Flight at sea level, because E∝ρ∞1/2 , and ρ∞ is largest at sea level.
Range and Endurance: Propeller Jet
Airplane
• Thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) for jet engines is commonly given as

• The maximum endurance of a jet airplane occurs for minimum pounds of fuel per hour, the same as
for propeller-driven aircraft. However, for a jet,

• Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at the minimum thrust
required.
Range and Endurance: Propeller Jet
Airplane
• Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at a velocity such that
CL/CD is at its maximum.
• maximum range occurs for a minimum number of pounds of fuel per mile. For a jet, on a
dimensional basis,

• The aerodynamic condition holding at this tangent point (of the figure shown in previous slide) is
obtained as follows. Recall that for steady, level flight TR = D . Then

• Because

• We have
Range and Endurance: Propeller Jet
Airplane
• Maximum range for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL1/2/CD
is at its maximum.
• Let ct be the thrust-specific fuel consumption in consistent units:

• Let dW be the elemental change in weight of the airplane due to fuel consumption over a time
increment dt . Then

• Integrating
Range and Endurance: Propeller Jet
Airplane
• Recalling that TA = TR = D and W = L , we have

• With the assumption of constant ct and CL / CD = L/D , The above equation becomes

For maximum endurance for a jet airplane, we want

1. Minimum thrust-specific fuel consumption ct .
2. Maximum fuel weight Wf .
3. Flight at maximum L/D . This confirms our argument that for maximum endurance for a jet, we
must fly so that L/D is at its maximum.
Range and Endurance: Propeller Jet
Airplane
• Now consider range

• However, again noting that for steady, level flight, the engine throttle has been adjusted such that TA
= TR.

• Because

• Then
Range and Endurance: Propeller Jet
Airplane
• Again assuming constant ct , CL , CD , and ρ∞ (constant altitude), we rewrite
Range and Endurance: Propeller Jet
Airplane
To obtain maximum range for a jet airplane, we want the following:
1. Minimum thrust-specific fuel consumption ct .
2. Maximum fuel weight Wf .
3. Flight at maximum CL1/2/CD. This confirms our argument that for maximum range, a jet must fly at a
velocity such that CL1/2/CD is at its maximum.
4. Flight at high altitudes—that is, low ρ∞ . Of course the previous equation says that R becomes
infinite as ρ∞ decreases to zero (that is, as we approach outer space). This is physically ridiculous,
however, because an airplane requires the atmosphere to generate lift and thrust. Long before
outer space is reached, the assumptions behind the above equation break down. Moreover, at
extremely high altitudes ordinary turbojet performance deteriorates and ct begins to increase. All
we can conclude from the above equation is that range for a jet is poorest at sea level and
increases with altitude up to a point. Typical cruising altitudes for subsonic commercial jet
transports are from 30,000 to 40,000 ft; for supersonic transports they are from 50,000 to 60,000 ft.
Relation between CDo and CDi
Take-off Performance
• From Newton’s second law,

• Integrating

• Solving for t , we get

Take-off Performance
• Recall

• Integrating

• Substituting about t
Take-off Performance

• This resistance force is given by

• Summing forces parallel to the ground and employing Newton’s second law, we have

• However, both L and D vary with velocity because

Take-off Performance
• Where (ground effect)

where h is the height of the wing above the ground and b is the wingspan.
• Assume that T is constant. Also assume an average value for the sum of drag and
resistance forces, then

• V = VLO (the lift off velocity), and m = W / g , where g is the acceleration of gravity,
Take-off Performance
Take-off Performance
• To ensure a margin of safety during takeoff, the liftoff velocity is typically 20 percent higher than the
stalling velocity

• Substituting, we obtain

• Shevell suggests that the average force in above equation be set equal to its instantaneous value at
a velocity equal to 0.7VLO ; that is,
Take-off Performance
• Then

The above equation illustrates some important physical trends:

1. Liftoff distance is very sensitive to the weight of the airplane, varying directly as W 2 . If the weight is doubled, the
ground roll of the airplane is quadrupled.
2. Liftoff distance is dependent on the ambient density ρ∞ . If we assume that thrust is directly proportional to ρ∞ , (that is,
T ∝ ρ∞ ), then above equation demonstrates that

This is why on hot summer days, when the air density is less than that on cooler days, a given airplane requires a longer
ground roll to get off the ground. Also, longer liftoff distances are required at airports that are located at higher altitudes
(such as at Denver, Colorado, a mile above sea level).
3. The liftoff distance can be decreased by increasing the wing area, increasing C L ,max, and increasing the thrust, all of
which simply make common sense.
Landing Performance
• with T = 0

• Assume the RHS of the above equation is equal to its instantaneous value evaluated at
0.7 VT :

• we integrate between the touchdown point, where s = sL and t = 0, and the point where
the airplane’s motion stops, where s = 0 and time equals t :

• Note that F is a negative value

Landing Performance
Landing Performance
• Recall

• Then

• Thus

• To maintain a factor of safety,

• Finally we obtain
Landing Performance
• In case of Thrust reversal

• Thus

• Another ploy to shorten the ground roll is to decrease the lift to near zero, hence imposing
the full weight of the airplane between the tires and the ground and increasing the
resistance force due to friction. The lift on an airplane wing can be destroyed by spoilers,
which are simply long, narrow surfaces along the span of the wing, defl ected directly into
the flow, thus causing massive flow separation and a striking decrease in lift.
Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• From the Figure

• the magnitude of the resultant force

is

• We introduce a new term, the load

factor n , defined as

• Hence
Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• The airplane is moving in a circular path at velocity V∞ ; therefore the radial acceleration
is given by V∞2 / R . From Newton’s second law,

• Combining the above equation and solving for R , we have

• The angular velocity, denoted by ω ≡ d θ / dt , is called the turn rate and is given by V∞/ R
. Thus, from the above equation we have
Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• For the maneuvering performance of an airplane, military or civil, it is
frequently advantageous to have the smallest possible R and the
largest possible ω. The above show that to obtain both a small turn
radius and a large turn rate, we want
1. The highest possible load factor (that is, the highest possible L / W ).
2. The lowest possible velocity.
Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• Because L > W

• From Newton’s second law,

• Combining the above

equations and solving for R
give

• and because ω = V∞ / R ,
The pull-up maneuver
Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• For The pull-down maneuver, we
can show that

The pull-down maneuver.

Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• High-performance fighter aircraft are designed to operate at high load factors—typically from 3 to
10. When n is large, then n + 1 ≈ n and n − 1 ≈ n ; then

• Let us work with these equations further. Because

• Then
Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• Substituting, we obtain

• Define
Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• Clearly R will be minimum and ω will be maximum when both CL and n are maximum. That is,

• There are some practical constraints on the preceding considerations. First, at low speeds, nmax is a
function of CL ,max itself because
Turning Flight and V-N Diagram
• Corner velocity
Accelerated rate of Climb (Energy
Method)
• Define

• The energy per unit weight of the airplane is obtained by dividing above equation by W = mg . This
yields the specific energy, denoted by He :
Accelerated rate of Climb (Energy
Method)
• How does an airplane change its energy state?, recall

• Recalling that m = W/g , we can rearrange

• Multiplying by V/W , we obtain

• Recall,

• Then
Accelerated rate of Climb (Energy
Method)
• The specific excess power and is denoted by Ps.

• But we have

• Then

• That is, the time rate of change of energy height is equal to the specific excess power .
Accelerated rate of Climb (Energy
Method)

Construction of the specific excess-power contours Specific excess-power contours for a supersonic
in the altitude–Mach number map for a subsonic airplane.
airplane below the drag-divergence Mach number.
Accelerated rate of Climb (Energy
Method)
• The time to move between these energy states can be obtained as follows

• Integrating between He,1 and He,2 , we have

• The time to climb will be a minimum when Ps is a maximum.

Special Consideration for Supersonic
Airplane
• This slope is equal to (L/D)max , and point A corresponds to flight at maximum lift-to-drag ratio.

The values of (L/D)max at supersonic speeds are smaller than at subsonic

speeds
Special Consideration for Supersonic
Airplane
Special Consideration for Supersonic
Airplane
• Perhaps the most severe effect on airplane performance associated with the decrease in (L/D)max at
supersonic speeds is that on range

• Note that the above equation shows that maximum range is obtained not with maximum L/D but
rather with the maximum value of the product V∞(L/D). This product is maximum when CL1/2/CD is
maximum, as shown through the derivation in previous equation in this regards. Nevertheless, the
above equation is a useful expression for the range for a jet airplane.
Special Consideration for Supersonic
Airplane
• to compensate for the loss of (L/D)max , and hence CL1/2/CD in the range for a supersonic
airplane
1. Decrease the thrust-specific fuel consumption ct .
2. Increase the fuel weight Wf , thereby increasing the ratio W0 / W1 in
Reading
• Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle (UAVs)
• Micro Air Vehicle
• Quest for Aerodynamic Efficiency