MYTHS AND LOGIC: THE GUITAR

ÉTUDES OF FERNANDO SOR (1778–1839)

Davíd Rasko

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Music (Performance).
Sydney Conservatorium of Music.
The University of Sydney, 2017.
Candidate’s declaration

Thesis title: Myths and Logic: The Guitar Etudes of Fernando Sor (1778–1839)

Candidate’s name: Davíd Rasko

I declare that this thesis is the result of my own research, that it does not incorporate without
acknowledgment, any material submitted for a degree or diploma in any university and that it
does not contain any materials previously published, written or produced by another person
except where due reference is made in the text.

Signed _________________________________

Dated __________________________________

2
Abstract

Since the early 19th century, instrumentalists have made use of the musical genre known as
the Étude (study piece) to aid in their technical and musical development. Keyboard masters
such as Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849) and Muzio Clementi (1752–1832) achieved a near
perfect balance between the didactic and artistic aspects of these compositions. During the
same period, the Catalonian guitarist and composer Fernando Sor (1778–1839) also
composed pieces that are today referred to as ‘concert studies’.

It is unfortunate that these guitar works are often dismissed as being little more than
exercises in technique building and that their true quality is misunderstood. It is the goal of
this research project to provide the evidence suggesting that these works are in every way
equal, both in terms of musical beauty and pedagogical purpose, to those of more famous
composers, contemporary with Sor.

Through the use of early editions, Sor’s teaching materials will be examined in detail,
in conjunction with the principles found in his Méthode, published in 1830. Throughout the
second half of the 20th century, guitar students made use of an edition providing a small
portion of Sor’s Studies selected and altered by Andrés Segovia (1893-1987), perhaps not
realising that this material was based not solely on Sor’s ideas but also on those of Mæstro
Segovia.
Works from Sor’s opera 6, 29, 31 and 35 will be examined in detail and in
comparison to later editions to uncover their original musical and technical purposes. The
works will be placed in biographical context to gain a deeper understanding of the period.
It is hoped that this research will expose the reader to a different approach to the
instrument than the generally accepted one and provide stimulus for further study.

3
Acknowledgments

First, I would like to acknowledge the trust and kindness afforded by Professor Anna
Reid (Dean of the Faculty) and my principal supervisor, Professor Neal Peres Da Costa
(Chair of the Historical Performance Unit) in giving me the opportunity to participate in the
postgraduate research program at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music. My situation and
background were not in the usual manner of application and I have always considered it to be
a privilege to be involved with such a prestigious institution and department.

There have been many teachers and performers from all over the world that have
inspired my interest in the arts, but it has only been recently that I have become aware of the
possibility of combining the disciplines of history and of music into a single cohesive focused
study.
Mr Tommie Andersson, my instrumental teacher, has been highly supportive of my
research and invariably has offered an approach of which I was previously unaware. He is a
true musician.
My friends have always given me support in my chosen field, even when it has
strayed far from the accepted path. Most importantly my brother, himself a highly
distinguished medical researcher, and my late mother, a performer of the highest calibre, and
from whom I have inherited my gift of music, continue to hold open the door to my musical
expression.

4
Table of Contents
Candidate’s declaration........................................................................................................... 2
Abstract..................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... 4
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... 5
List of illustrations ................................................................................................................... 6
Preface ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 1 - Literature review ............................................................................................... 10
Publications .................................................................................................................. 10
Historical recordings ................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 2 - Fernando Sor ..................................................................................................... 16
Background ................................................................................................................... 16
Biographical information ............................................................................................. 17
Life in Spain (1778–1812) ............................................................................................ 17
The Peninsular War .................................................................................................. 20
Life as an emigrant (London 1815–1822) ................................................................ 21
Russia (1823–1827) ................................................................................................. 22
Final years: Paris 1826/7–1839 ................................................................................ 23
Chapter 3 - Compositional style ........................................................................................... 24
Compositions for Guitar .............................................................................................. 25
Other Compositions...................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 4 - Instrumental Études .......................................................................................... 27
The Sor Études isolated................................................................................................ 29
Chapter 5 - Sor’s Méthode (1830) ......................................................................................... 37
Chapter 6 - The Études ......................................................................................................... 45
Case studies
Tempo Rubato ......................................................................................................... 45
"Moonlight's Eve" .................................................................................................... 54
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 58
Appendices
Organology ...................................................................................................................................... 60
List of musical examples ................................................................................................................ 69
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 70

5
List of illustrations

NOTE: Every reasonable effort has been made to contact the copyright holder of the images
included in this thesis.

Fig. 1: Ariette in Fernando Sor, Méthode pour la guitare (Paris: 1830).

Figs. 2, 3 and 4: Comparisons of Sor's Études with those of the London Piano Forte School.

Fig. 5: Explanation of single string modal study in Sor, Méthode (Paris: 1830).

Fig.6: Method of supporting the instrument on a table in Sor, Méthode (Paris: 1830).

Fig. 7: Traditional sitting position in Dionisio Aguado, Escuela de Guitarra (Madrid: 1826).

Fig. 8: Fernando Sor, Leçons Op. 31, Leçon XIX (Paris:1828)

Fig. 9: Andrés Segovia, Estudio X, Studies for the Guitar by Fernando Sor (New York: 1945)

Fig. 10: Fernando Sor, Études Op. 6, Studio 12 (London: 1816-17).

Fig. 11: Segovia, Estudio XIV, Studies for the Guitar by Fernando Sor (New York: 1945).

Figs. 12 and 13: Musical example in Manuel Garcia, New Treatise on the Art of Singing
(London: 1857).

Fig. 14: Fernando Sor, title Opus 35, Exercise 22 “Moonlight's Eve” (Paris: 1828)

Fig. 15: Segovia, Estudio V, Studies for the Guitar by Fernando Sor (New York: 1945).

Fig. 16: Guitar by René Lacôte (Paris:1830). Collection of the Author.

Fig. 17: Lacôte Guitar label (1830).

Fig. 18: Panormo Guitar label (1831).

Fig. 19: Guitar by Louis Panormo (London: 1831). Collection of the Author.

Fig. 20: Title page of Sor’s Studio for the Spanish Guitar, Opus 6, (London:1816–1817)

Fig. 21: Cover of Segovia edition, Studies for the Guitar by Fernando Sor (New York: 1945).

Fig. 22: The author visiting Sor’s grave. Cimitière Montmartre (Paris: 2011).

Fig. 23: Title Page and Overture, Fernando Sor, Hercule et Omphale (Moscow: 1824).

Fig. 24: Fernando Sor, letter to the Duke of Fleury (14 January: 1814).

Fig. 25: Dionisio Aguado, portrait in Nuevo Método para Guitarra (Madrid: 1843).

6
Fig. 26: Fernando Sor, portrait, lithograph by Borde after Goubeau (Paris: 1828).

Preface

When I began my musical studies in the 1970s, I was a student of the violoncello and
have treasured memories of each instrumental lesson. My teacher always stressed that the
most important aspect of string playing was ‘quality of tone’. It was a principle to which I
would return time and again over the following decades.

My early training on the classical guitar involved a standard progression through the
common teaching methods drawing material from then contemporary Latin American
publications,1 anthologies,2 an edition of the Studies of Mateo Carcassi (1792–1853),3 and the
famous collection of Studies by Fernando Sor as compiled by Andrés Segovia (1893–1987).4
At that time, I recognised a special quality in the music of Sor that seemed to
transcend the very nature of the guitar. Unfortunately, it would be several years before I
would be again exposed to this music, but on this later occasion it would be with the
additional insights as alluded to in Sor’s own Méthode of 1830.5
Principles such as economy of movement, deriving more from skill than strength, and
idiomatic part writing for the instrument, always with an overlying emphasis on tone and
legato became the focus of my study. These maxims will be discussed in the chapter
regarding performance principles. One of the main technical aspects of the ‘Sor technique’
was that instead of using the fingernails of the right hand to produce the sound, he would use
only the flesh or pad of the finger, a practice more common among lutenists and somewhat
unusual even in Sor’s time.
The changing nature of the guitar has also had a profound effect on the entire
approach to the instrument. In parallel with the change from wooden-framed to iron-framed
pianos in the nineteenth-century, guitarists and luthiers also introduced changes seeking to
increase the volume and power of their instruments. The contemporary classical guitar has a
much greater bass response than the early nineteenth-century instrument, and only the most
highly sympathetic and historically-informed performer would be able to compensate for this.
Added to the equation is the use of fingernails. Use of the flesh alone to pluck the string will

1
Julio S. Sagreras, Las Primeras Lecciones de Guitarra (Buenos Aires: Ricordi, 1975).
2
World’s Favourite Solos for Classical Guitar, edited Harvey Vinson (New Jersey: Ashley Publications,
1956).
3
Matteo Carcassi, Twenty-Five Melodious and Progressive Studies, Op. 60 (Sydney: J. Albert and Son, 1977).
4
Studies for the Guitar by Fernando Sor, edited Andrés Segovia (New York: E.B. Marks Music Corp., 1945).
5
Fernando Sor, Méthode for the Spanish Guitar, translated Arnold Merrick (London: R. Cocks, 1832).

7
create a more rounded and mellow tone as one may expect to hear on the harp; however, the
use of fingertip and nail together may perhaps produce a sweeter and clearer sound more
suited to the modern use of nylon based strings. The sound world of the early-Romantic
guitar is much more intimate, elegant and, especially if strung with gut strings, more suited to
the salon than to the concert hall.
The original purpose and conception of Sor’s didactic works was to educate the
student into the capabilities of the instrument according to his philosophy. Part writing,
placing the melody in the treble or bass, and idiomatic technical issues would lead towards
what may be called an ‘orchestral approach’ to the guitar. Obviously, since their composition,
the instrument itself and its repertoire have an undergone a revolution. The issue in question
is: “How can the modern student of the Classical Guitar benefit from the insights that may be
gained by an in depth study into the historical and musical background of these works”?
It is here that my research question comes into focus. The edition from 1945 of Sor’s
Studies by Segovia was created on the basis of an artist who was in the process of creating a
new repertoire for the instrument, one that included music from the past, and contemporary
material. This was all intended to be performed with the same generic technique, and in a
concert hall designed for the symphony orchestra, without amplification. If the contemporary
student is exposed to the original intention and historical background of these works, it is
hoped that they may uncover further insights into their performance.
Through my thesis I hope that scholars and performers alike may develop a deeper
appreciation of Sor’s music, and I hope it serves to re-invigorate interest in this most valuable
resource of the classical guitar.6

6It should be pointed out that the modern English term Study, will be used interchangeably with those of
Estudio (Segovia), Studio (Sor himself, Op.6, London, 1815-17) and Étude (Op.29, Paris,1827)

8
Introduction

'Sor-the sun to the guitar'!7

There would be few students of the classical guitar who have not been exposed to the
didactic works of Sor, but only a few would be aware of the historical context and the
techniques that inspired their creation. It is not considered to be essential for this music to be
performed on a period instrument or a replica thereof. What is far more important is for the
student to have at least an awareness of the principles that may involve an historically-
informed performance. For them, it is of critical importance to have an understanding of
Sor’s musical education if they are to fully appreciate his compositional philosophy.8 Part
writing, legato and voice leading are usually reserved for music of a multi-instrumental
format, however Sor was one of the earliest musicians to make use of the new possibilities
offered by the then new six single-stringed instrument. Certainly, vocal imitation had
previously existed in the magnificent music composed for the vihuela in the 16th century by
such musicians as Luys Milan (1500–1561) and Alonso de Mudarra (1510–1570), however
this manner of playing, and the instrument itself, had fallen into disuse by the early 19th
century.

Technically speaking, the mechanical aspects of Sor’s technique are based soundly on
the principles of anatomy and logic. One might expect this as it dates from the Age of
Enlightenment, a period on the very cusp of revolutionary change; and also for the guitar.
The five and six courses of the Baroque guitar had been replaced by the newer instrument of
six single strings, which offered the opportunity for greater expression and clarity.
It would fall to artists such as Sor, Dionisio Aguado (1784–1849), Ferdinando Carulli
(1770–1841) and others, to unlock the secrets of this new instrument. Most importantly, by
writing teaching material in the form of Études, they laid the foundations of what we today
refer to as the ‘classical guitar’. This will be the focus of the current investigation.

7
'¡Sor–el sol de la Guitarra!' Emilio Pujol La Guitarra y su Historia -Conferencia, Buenos Aires: 1931.
In Wolf Möser, Fernando Sor, The Unwritten Autobiography (Valencia: PILES Editorial de la
Música, 2005),141.
8
This will be addressed in detail in the chapter entitled Biographical Information.

9
Literature review

Publications

Relevant materials include ‘Urtext’ editions and various other publications, which
have been produced since the mid 19th century. In relatively recent times, particular scholarly
manuals have dealt with this area of study in a highly systematic manner, however, it is
hoped that an approach, which is more sympathetic to the composer’s own artistic aesthetic,
drawing upon the very latest published research, will expand the knowledge base in this area.

It should be pointed out that I do not intend to analyse the concert works of the
composer; I will examine didactic materials only. Of course, the teaching materials were
designed for the student of the guitar to progress towards the performance of concert
repertoire.
One could consider Sor’s Méthode for the Spanish Guitar9 as the zero point from
which all further editions followed. Around this time were also published the Lessons Op. 31,
Exercises Op. 35 and the second set of Études Op. 29, the first set of Études Op. 6 having
been published during the composer’s London years (1815–1823). It is fortunate that these
important works survive today in their original form.
An edition of Sor’s Méthode was published by his student Napoléon Coste (1806–
1883) with various additions, including some arrangements for seven-string guitar, and this
may be considered to be the first of the altered versions of the original.
The standard biography of Sor for many years has been the work by Dr. Brian
Jeffrey10 and it provides a useful backdrop for the study of all aspects of the composer and
places the Études in their historical context. Perhaps the most scholarly work up to this time
is the doctoral thesis by Dr Adrian Walter11 which does discuss Sor’s Studies as a part of a
much broader musical landscape.
Up until 30 years ago, all serious students of the classical guitar would have been
exposed to the 1945 edition by Andrés Segovia12 as their entire experience of Sor’s didactic
works not realising that alterations and modifications had been made by him. More recent

9
Sor, Méthode.
10
Brian Jeffrey Fernando, Sor: Composer and Guitarist (United Kingdom: Tecla Editions, 1977).
11
Adrian Walter, The Early Nineteenth Century Guitar: An Interpretative Context for the Contemporary
Performer (Darwin: Charles Darwin University, 2008).
12
Andrés Segovia, Twenty Studies (New York: E.S. Marks, 1945)

10
editions and Study Notes by David Tannenbaum,13 Abel Carlevaro,14 and especially Matanya
Ophée,15 have most certainly increased the students’ awareness of the original intention of
the material and include playing suggestions for historically-informed interpretation.Also, a
more flexible approach incorporating more modern technical elements, and a window
through which individual musicians can decide which path they wish to follow.
The work by Eduardo Fernández16 has also been consulted, as it covers a single Study
(more correctly a Lesson, namely Op. 31 No. 16) of Sor’s in great detail and an analysis of
how to approach its technical issues.
Of great interest has been the doctoral dissertation of William Gray Sasser,17 as it
examines several of Sor’s pedagogical works in the context of his entire output. Along with
Dr Brian Jeffrey’s published edition18 of the material under research is an article in a little
known, but substantial publication edited by Luís Gásser as part of the Córdoba Guitar
Festival of 2002,19 in which Dr Walter Aaron Clark provides a fascinating juxtaposition with
the then contemporaneous London Pianoforte School. This is the only publication that
focuses specifically on Sor’s Études. Other editions of the Études have been produced by
Schott,20 and most recently by Edizioni Curci,21 which places the Segovia edition side by side
with the original.
In terms of historical background, the book by Wolf Moser22 is an extraordinary
resource as it contains full translations of Sor’s autobiographical article from a 19th century
French musical encyclopædia,23 and an article on Sor’s Bolero from the same publication.
While not specifically focused on the Études, all information gathered can help to deepen the
understanding of this façet of the composer’s output.

13
David Tannenbaum, The Essential Studies: Fernando Sor’s 20 Estudios (San Francisco: Guitar Solo
Publications, 1991).
14
Abel Carlevaro, Technique Analysis and Interpretation of Fernando Sor’s 10 Studies (Heidelberg: Chanterelle
Publications, 1985).
15
Matanya Ophée, Fernando Sor, The Complete Studies for the Guitar (Heidelberg: Chanterelle, 1996).
16
Eduardo Fernández, Technique, Mechanism and Learning (Heidelberg: Chanterelle, 2001).
17
William Gray Sasser, The Guitar Works of Fernando Sor (North Carolina University Press, Ph.D. Thesis,
1960).
18
Brian Jeffrey, The Complete Studies, Lessons, and Exercises for Guitar (London: Tecla Editions, 1993).
19
Luís Gasser (editor) Estudios sobre Fernando Sor (Madrid: Ediciones del ICCMU, 2002).
20
Reginald Smith Brindle ed., Studies for the Guitar (Op. 6) and Studies for the Guitar (Op. 29) (London:
Schott and Company, 1980).
21
Andrés Segovia ed., Angelo Gilardino (new edition/commentary) Fernando Sor: 20 Studies for Guitar,
(Milano: Edizioni Curci, 2008).
22
Wolf Moser, Fernando Sor: The Unwritten Autobiography Including his Reflexions on the Guitar
(Valencia: PILES, Editorial de Música, 2005).
23
Adolphe Ledhuy and Henri Bertini, Encyclopédie pittoresque de la musique (Paris: Delhoy, 1835).

11
 A complete catalogue of all known publications on Sor has been compiled by the
French musicologist Mijndert Jape and this has proven most helpful in the cataloguing and
referencing of obscure editions.24 In terms of organology, the work of Mr Ian Watchorn of
Melbourne25 and Mr James Westbrook26 have proven invaluable in gaining awareness of the
very different timbre and design priorities of the early-Romantic guitar. The article by Mr
Westbrook,27 concerning the work of the London-based Luthier Louis Panormo (1784–1862),
has proven invaluable in providing insights into the London musical scene at the precise time
of the composition of the first set of Études. It might also be pointed out that Mr Watchorn
has personally performed restoration and adjustments to the author's antique instruments.
A publication by the Hungarian musicologist and guitarist Josef Holecek, largely in
Swedish,28 provides hitherto unknown insights and quotations, which have been most useful
in adding depth to this project.
Mention must also be made of an impressive new edition of Sor’s Méthode by
Matanya Ophée.29 This publication has rationalised the original translation by Merrick, which
is apparently based on the German edition of the Méthode. The preface provides the rationale
of the edition, which is to:
• break up sentences into more manageable sections.
• convert double negatives into positive statements.
• modify flowery flights of fancy into a simple discussion of the issues.30
This would appear to be an attempt to analyse the Méthode from a totally objective
point of view. The editor shows no embarrassment in exposing the many contradictory,
illogical and bitterly sarcastic aspects contained in the Méthode. The layout has also been
much improved.
Recent research by Christopher Page31 sheds light on Sor’s very active years in
London which is where the first set of Études Op. 6 were first published and concludes that

24
Mijndert Jape, Fernando Sor, A Bibliography of Published Literature and Music (Hillsdale: New York,
Pendragon Press, 2014).
25
Ian Watchorn, The Guitar in the 19th Century: Technology and Technique (Darwin: International Guitar
Festival, 1999).
26
James Westbrook, Guitars through the Ages: Craftsman to Performer (United Kingdom: Published by the
Author, 2002).
27
James Westbrook, 'Louis Panormo: The Only Maker of Guitars in the Spanish Style', Journal of Early Music
(Oxford University Press, 2013), Vol. LXI, No. 4, 571-584.
28
Josef Holcek, För Musikens Skull, For Music’s Sake: Studies in Interpretative Guitar Technique
from c1800 c1930, Based on Guitar Methods and Études (Göteborg: University Department of Musicology,
1996).
29
Matanya Ophée ed., Fernando Sor Méthode for Guitar (Columbus: Editions Ophée Inc., 2010).
30
Ophée ed. Méthode, 'Foreword’, VI.
31
Christopher Page, ‘New Light on the London Years of Fernando Sor, 1815–1822’, Early Music, Vol. XLI, No.

12
the Méthode was almost certainly written during this same period. He discusses Sor’s success
amongst the aristocracy (and even regal circles), his teaching appointments, and the
philosophical aspects of the Méthode.

Historical recordings

The use of early recordings to gain insight into the music in question is unfortunately
of limited value. Even the earliest known guitar recording32 is played on an instrument vastly
different from that of Sor’s time. The quality of the recording itself is not high, however
certain stylistic aspects, such as a wide vibrato and melody notes approached from several
notes below by portamento, are recognisably of the late Romantic aesthetic. The overuse of
glissando would be considered in poor taste by contemporary guitarists, as it was by Sor
himself. Witness this highly sarcastic passage from his Méthode33 when describing other
guitarist composers who he felt were exploiting the instrument and public:

He is a Teacher and must also be a composer. He will take a known

fashionable Air, employ it as a subject with a Bass made by the open
strings, or a few notes made with the [left-hand] thumb above the
fingerboard.34 He will make a piece of the same number of measures as
the theme, call it to be in the Minor […] in which he will introduce a great
many Coules [sic] and Glisées [Portamento and Glissando], that the
execution may produce a more expressive and touching effect.

Due to its historical importance, this earliest known guitar recording is included in the
appendix.35 It should be pointed out that, paradoxically, Sor himself specifically notated the
use of such effects in some of his own compositions.
The earliest known recording of an ‘Étude’ by Sor was made by the Catalonian
guitarist Miguel Llobet (1878–1938).36 The work is more correctly referred to as an exercise,
and is from Sor’s Op. 35. The recording was made in 1925 and contains the marked use of
agogics to the extent that one may expect to find within the Baroque practice of Inégal. The

4 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).

32
Luis y Simon Ramirez ‘Caridad’ (now commonly known as ‘Romanza’), Madrid, recording from wax
cylinder. Digitisation sponsored by the Author, ‘Viudas de Aramburo’ label, (University of California, Santa
Barbara Collection), believed to have been made between 1896 and 1901.
33
Sor, Méthode, trans. Merrick, 43–44.
34
A technique of which Sor did not approve.
35
The assistance of Dr David Kim-Boyle of the Sydney Conservatorium of Music’s recording department in the
refining of this historical material is appreciated.
36
Miguel Llobet, Solo de Guitarra (Barcelona: Parlaphon, S.A., 1925).

13
recording was presented at recent Guitar Conference at the University of Melbourne37, where
several scholars commented on it having an almost Jazz Swing feel. The work has since
acquired the nick-name “Moonlight's Eve”.
In Segovia’s edition of Sor’s Études entitled Twenty Studies, it is noted that Segovia
had recorded all 20 for the Decca Label, although if he did so, it was never released. The first
guitarist to highlight the importance of these Studies in a recording was the Cuban born José
Rey de la Torre (1917–1994),38 who recorded 13 of the works. The first surviving recording
by Segovia himself dates from 1955, on which he undertakes four of the Études.39
It was not until 1960 that John Williams (born 1940) recorded the complete selection
of the Segovia Twenty Studies for the Westminster Label.40 Since that time, many recordings
have been made by artists such as Narciso Yepes (1927–1997)41 and more recently Jeffrey
McFadden (born 1963) who recorded the complete sets of Op. 6 (Studies 1–12) and Op. 29
(13–24).42
All of these recordings have been made on instruments vastly different to that used by
Sor himself and it has only been in the last few years that attempts have been made to record
the works not only on a period instrument (or a replica thereof) but also using Sor’s own
highly idiomatic technique.43
A most thoughtful and sympathetic rendering of the Segovia selection is by the
French guitarist Lucien Battaglia.44 Using a modern instrument and technique, he planted the
spark of interest in these pieces that still occupies a special place in the author’s heart, being
the first instance of him hearing the Études. This recording is a reminder that the appropriate
period instrument and technique is in no way mandatory for the successful transmission of
the composer’s intent.

37
Presentation by Cla Mathieu (Graduate School of the Arts, Bern) The ‘Espressivo’ Tradition and Early 20th
Century Classical Guitar Playing; Miguel Llobet’s Recordings of the 1920’s. ‘Instrument of Change: The
International Rise of the Guitar (c.1870-1945)’ 9-11 December, 2016. Melbourne Conservatorium of Music,
The University of Melbourne.
38
Rey de la Torre playing ‘The Music of Fernando Sor (United States: Spanish Music Centre SMC-517, mid
1940s).
39
Andrés Segovia Masters of the Guitar (New York: Decca Label DL 9794, 1955).
40
John Williams plays 20 Studies for the Guitar by Fernando Sor (Vienna: His Master’s Voice CSD 1524,
Westminster, 1960).
41
Narciso Yepes, Fernando Sor 24 Etüden (Hamburg: SLPM Deutsche Gramophon 139364, 1968).
42
Jeffrey McFadden, Fernando Sor, Complete Guitar Music, Vol. 7 (Newmarket, Canada: Naxos 8.553451,
1995).
43
William Carter, Fernando Sor, Early and Late Works (East Woodhay, U.K.: Linn Records, CKD 343 and 380,
2009 and 2011).
44
Lucien Battaglia, Fernando Sor: Vingt Études pour Guitare (Aix-en-Provence: Éditions Pierre Verany,
PV.9812, circa 1985).

14
 An historical curiosity was recorded by the Spanish guitarist Vicente Gómez (1911–
2001) in 1952.45 It contains highly distinctive and impressive versions of all the standard
Flamenco Toques (forms) in common usage during that period as well as a single Étude by
Sor. The choice is most unusual being No. 13 from book 2 of Op. 29 in the key of B flat, an
extremely awkward key for the classical guitar. Gómez plays in a beautiful emotional manner,
however, he takes the liberty of altering bass lines and harmonies in many passages, most
likely due to having learned the piece from ear alone. The performance is, however, highly
impressive and near the end contains an extreme example of the technique of tempo rubato,46
where the music flow almost comes to a complete halt: unusual to that extent even in the
classical guitar of that time, but unheard of in Flamenco. Perhaps this somewhat obscure
recording reveals something of a missing link between the Flamenco and Classical guitar.
This relationship between two physically identical instruments has lain unconsidered since
the music’s composition and may reveal a window into how the music was performed in the
1830s47.
Thus, it may be seen that there are very few recordings of these works that pay
attention to the concepts of historically-informed performance. This is a gap that the author is
hoping to fill by way of future performance-based research.

45
Vicente Gómez, Spanish Guitar Recital (U.S.A.: Decca DL 8017, 1952).
46
Richard Hudson, Stolen Time: The History of Tempo Rubato (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
47
It may be mentioned that the distinction between the Classical and Flamenco Guitar is a relatively modern one,
and up until the early decades of the 20th Century, the two were not considered to be separate instruments.

15
Fernando Sor

‘Mr. Sor feels what he has to say, and that feeling is deep and intense’ 48

Background

In order to gain a clearer impression of the musical world into which Sor was born, it
is useful to examine briefly the type of music and guitar styles which were popular in late
eighteenth-century Catalonia. According to Leonard Ratner:

The last echoes of the eighteenth century were being stilled: the
conception and the fading ghost of the harpsichord was finally laid to rest.
The yearning was for a vague mellow tone-cloud, full of ineffable
promise and foreboding, carrying intimations of infinity.49

From the plucked string instrument that Sor would have heard in his childhood, we
may draw a direct parallel between the harpsichord and the newly developing fortepiano. The
Baroque guitar with its five courses (pairs of strings) was most suited to strumming and
accompaniment and a version of this instrument would have been well known in late
eighteenth-century Spain. Transitional instruments, such as the six-course guitar, were also
produced, but it was not until the development of the six-single stringed instrument in the
early nineteenth century that an instrument similar to that of the now accepted classical guitar
came into common use. Julian Bream states:

Gone was the clatter of the Baroque guitar, and in its place evolved an
instrument capable of a firm yet delicate articulation, perfectly suited to
the new polyphonic style.50

It is clear that the instrument of Sor’s youth was regarded as ideal for accompaniment
only, and, as was common in Italy at this time, vocal music was more in vogue than
instrumental. This is not surprising as Italy had strong connections with Barcelona due to the
sea trading routes of that period. Works by Paisiello, Mozart and Cimarosa were presented by
the opera houses and their arias were sung in the street to guitar accompaniments.
The guitar was not considered a solo instrument, and unlike orchestral and keyboard
instruments was not taught in music schools. It was not until Sor happened to hear the

48
Review in Ackerman’s Repository of the Arts (London: 1823).
49
Leonard Ratner, Romantic Music: Sound and Syntax (New York: Macmillan, 1992).
50
Julian Bream, ¡Guitarra!’: A History of the Classical Guitar in Spain: The Classical Heritage (London: RM
Arts Video Series, Episode Three, 1985), at approx. 30 minutes.

16
guitarist Federico Moretti (c1760–1838) that he realised the instrument’s full potential. Sor
explains that:

At that time, I heard a piece on the guitar on which one could distinguish
a melodic line and an accompaniment, the author being Moretti, the first
to understand the true nature of the Instrument. The progression of the
Bass and Intermediate parts led me to consider him to be the beacon to
lead the way. I then began to compose music for the guitar in several
distinct parts.51

Biographical information

Life in Spain (1778–1812)

Joseph Fernando Macari Sors was born on 13 February 1778 in Barcelona and died at
the age of 61 in Paris on 10 July 1839.53 He came from a middle class family and his father
also played the guitar. He showed an early aptitude for music, even inventing his own method
of notation, which involved the modification of accepted solfégè to indicate accidentals and
primary harmony. The boy also received instruction on the violin, but already understood that
his teacher was merely a note player and not a musician; a fine distinction that would
manifest itself in much bitterness later in Sor’s life.

Sor’s father passed away when he was 11 or 12 years old in 1789 or 1790, and his
mother was no longer able to support him in the manner to which he had become accustomed.
It was an act of fortune that the Abbot of the Monastery at Montserrat, not far from Barcelona,
heard of the family’s misfortune and offered the boy a place in the choir school, which
included all material support. He would spend the next six or seven years living and studying
at Montserrat, an apprenticeship that would leave a lasting impression on the history and
concept of the instrument that became known as the classical guitar.
His teacher and mentor was Anselmo Viola (1738–1798) from whom he absorbed all
of the principles of voice leading and harmony as it applied to the choir and small orchestra.
An interesting observation from this period is the way Sor regarded the singing of Gregorian
Chant. He was impressed by the manner in which the Benedictine monks insisted that the
music was not to be shouted, and that:

51
Sor, Méthode, trans. Merrick, 6.
53
This is the Catalonian version of his name.

17
 The voices do not have that vulgar quality that ignorance
and Bad Taste call Vibrato.54

It was during this time that Sor was first exposed to French music, as many Clerics
had been forced to flee France as a result of the recent Revolution of 1789. He found much of
their music to be sub-standard, but did receive instruction in the French language, which
would be of major benefit in the future. He continued his studies of harmony up to a high
level and was exposed to the works of Antonio Soler (1729-1783) and other masters of
clerical polyphony.
A fond memory was the singing of the hymn Ave Maris Stella and this training would
never leave the mind and heart of Sor. 56 Around 1800, he left the monastery to begin the next
period of his life.
He returned to Barcelona and was commissioned a Sub-Lieutenant or Ensign, in the
Regiment of Vilafranca. It would appear that he had also completed studies in the Real
Académia Militar de Matemáticas, which today we would most likely associate with a school
of military engineering.
His duties do not seem to have interfered with his musical activities and he was
promoted to Full Lieutenant (Teniente Primero), primarily, it would seem, due to his skills on
the guitar. It is interesting to observe a parallel in Sor’s Méthode of 1830 with that of an
engineer. It abounds with mechanical diagrams and theorems attempting to break down the
Art and Science of guitar playing into an almost clockwork style mechanism.
It was with his Opera Telemachus on Calypso’s Isle (Il Telemaco nell’Isola di Calipso)
that he achieved spectacular success. This work was highly praised and was performed no
less than fifteen times at the Barcelona Opera House. It is strongly Italianate in style though
Sor was uncomfortable with the orchestration, not having received instruction in this method
of arrangement. In spite of this, the work is a remarkable achievement from a young man in
his late teens. Other works were composed during these years, most unfortunately are now
lost, however they may have included some Italianette songs and others of the characteristic
Spanish style known as Seguidillas Boleras.
It was then that Sor, by now in his early twenties, travelled to Madrid to further his
career. He was presented at Court hoping to gain favour and employment there, however
King Charles IV was informed that his style though having some potential:

54
Sor, In Ledhuy,Encyclopédie, 157. In Jeffrey, Fernando Sor,121.
56
The Hymn Ave Maris Stella was sung by the choir boys of the monastery school of Montserrat.

18
 Is better than the usual ‘Frons-Frons’ [Strums?], but his talent is typical of
the amateurs. He plays by instinct and by ear, without really knowing a
note of music at all.57

This statement was obviously upsetting to Sor and totally false in every respect. He
decided to continue to serve in uniform and let his musical talents speak for themselves. The
Madrid of this time was an exciting and vibrant place for an artist. Luigi Boccherini (1743–
1805) was active, Francisco Goya (1746–1828) was producing fine paintings and the war
clouds that had engulfed Europe had not yet crossed into the peninsular. Sor was fortunate in
obtaining the patronage of no less a figure than the Duchess of Alba (also patroness of Goya)
who prepared a room for him in her home where he could study the piano and compose. It
was a cruel blow when she suddenly passed away on July 23, 1802, but she had left him a
considerable sum to continue his studies for a time. Such fine works as the Grande Sonata Op.
22 were composed during this time, dedicated to the Spanish Regent, Manuel Godoy,“The
Prince of Peace”.58
It should be mentioned that a manuscript of this piece, in an unknown hand, was
recently discovered in the Pilar de Zaragozana archive in Spain. This is the only large-scale
work of Sor’s Spanish period of which a manuscript survives, and, as such provides priceless
insight into changes and revisions in affect, idiomatic technique, and notational conventions
of the guitar at this time. The original title of the work later known as the Grande Sonata Op.
22, and the Sonata Primera was El Mérito (The Merit) and it is believed that the manuscript
dates from 1803.
Further analytical examination of this important discovery is beyond the scope of this
thesis, however scholars may be interested in consulting the work published by Lars
Rosvoll.59
Sor returned to Barcelona and, although still a serving officer in the Army, continued
to compose. At this time, he was under the patronage of the Duke of Medinaceli. Many fine
large-scale works were produced during this time, including two symphonies, which have
unfortunately been lost. A fascinating composition based on the ‘Street Cries’ of Barcelona in
Catalan has been attributed to Sor. It is a four-voiced setting.60

57
Quotation from Alexandre Boucher, Head of the King’s Music. In Madrid, M. Soriano Fuertes,
Historia de la Musica Española, Vol. 4, 1859.
58
‘In 1795, peace was signed between France and Spain under terms quite generous to Spain. It was largely
orchestrated by Godoy, who was dubbed the “Prince of Peace”’.
59
Lars Rosvoll, ‘Sor’s Evolution as Performer and Composer Reflected in Revisions of the Grande Sonata, Op.
22’, (University of Arizona: D.M.A. Dissertation, Pro Quest, 2013).
60
Copy in the library of Don Juan Carreras y Dagas. ‘Serrafoll de Barcelona’, 1870.

19
 Around 1804, he returned to Madrid, where a melodrama entitled La Elvira
Portuguesa was composed (also now lost) and a motet Honour of the Holy Cross. This motet
is significant as Pope VII had bestowed upon Sor the decoration Knight of the Holy Papal
Order in recognition of this work.
He could now legitimately claim to be what may be referred to as Sir (or Don, in
Spanish) Fernando Sor for the remainder of his life. During these years, he is known to have
met and befriended the other major Spanish figure in the history of the guitar from this period,
Dionisio Aguado (1784–1849). They would meet again in Paris in the 1820s and perform
there together, on occasion.
The years preceding the Napoleonic invasion in 1804–1808, were spent in the then
small town of Málaga where Sor’s occupation appears to have been in administration, which
left ample opportunity for music. It is known that he organised concerts for the American
Consul, Mr. William Kirkpatrick, and performed not only as a singer and guitarist, but also
on the double bass.61

The ‘Peninsular War’

The precise details of Sor’s activities during the Napoleonic Period are somewhat
unclear. This is not surprising for someone who would later spend eight years in London and
three in Moscow. It would not have been in his interest to have advertised any involvement
with the common French enemy. It is known that Patriotic songs such as Himno de la
Victoria, Canción Civica: Los Defensores de la Patria and a Marche Patriotique Espagnole
were published. These were all in support of the Spanish and their English allies
commemorating famous battles and victories such as the Battle of Bailén and the re-taking of
Madrid in July 1808. The aforementioned Prince of Peace was forced to flee and Sor was
most likely present during the bloody uprising in Madrid on 2 May, later commemorated in
heartbreaking realism by Goya in his famous painting Los dos de Mayo.

Surprisingly, Sor, in fact, did make contact with several excellent French musicians in
Madrid, but when the city was re-occupied, he fled south, to the town of Córdoba. He was
given the honorary rank of Capitán in the local Militia Unit Los Voluntarios Córdobeses, not
surprising, as Sor was already a commissioned officer and his professional training would
have been most welcome amongst the Militia and ‘Guerrillas’.62 It is possible that he saw

61
Sor, Ledhuy, Encyclopédie. In Jeffrey Sor,10.
62
This modern term, meaning ‘little war’ is now commonplace, but its usage in the English language actually
dates from this period.

20
active service during this time, but the overall French victories caused Sor to re-think his
loyalties.
Like so many other liberals (artists, musicians and those who may be considered
enlightened) he decided to accept the reality of the situation and, after swearing allegiance to
the newly installed King Joseph Bonaparte (brother of l’Empereur Naploéon), accepted the
post of Principal Commissary of Police in the province of Jerez.
The fluid nature of the fighting meant that this part of Spain was liberated in 1812,
and Sor moved to Valencia, again to be appointed as a Police Administrator. In June 1813,
the English Duke of Wellington won a resounding victory at the Battle of Vitoria, which was
the catalyst for a general French withdrawal. The term afrancesado now becomes of critical
importance in the destiny of Sor: it indicates anyone who had been involved with the French,
the greater the level of collaboration, the greater the danger.
It was clear that his position had become untenable, and that he had well founded
fears for his personal safety: he must now leave Spain, and would never return. King
Fernando was re-installed, the Inquisition restored, and Spain would fall into a long period of
isolation, involving a continual struggle between the Reactionary Forces of the left and the
right, which, one could argue, did not end until the 1970s.63

Life as an emigrant (London 1815–1822)

After a brief period in Paris, during which Sor unsuccessfully applied to the Duke of
Fleury for a post in the Royal Household as a Court musician,64 he travelled to London where
he would remain for eight years. This time may well be regarded as Sor’s most happy and
successful.

There had existed another plucked string instrument in England at this time
sometimes referred to as the English Guitar or Cittern. Its metallic tone was not suited to
emotional expression, thus, further enhancing the profound effect of Sor’s early performances.
It must be said that the Spanish Guitar did already exist in England, however this was largely
as an instrument of accompaniment. Sor’s manner of playing and composing for the
instrument was something of a novelty; several independent musical parts could clearly be

63
Various conclusions and interpretations in this paragraph are drawn from multiple historical references
consulted by the author over the past twenty-five years of active research, as well as having lived in Spain. They
are the result of his own personal insight and are to be taken at face value. Any apparent misunderstanding or
lack of direct referencing is the responsibility of the author.
64
This letter is reproduced in the Appendix, Fig. 24.

21
heard. Sor became a highly sought after performer, but possibly even more so as a teacher
both of singing and the guitar as evidenced in the following:

Mr Sor’s vocal compositions have gained such a favour among the Higher
Order of Musical Dilletante, that a new set of Ariettes from his pen causes
almost as much sensation as the publication of a new novel by the author
of ‘Waverley’.66

It was also during this period that Sor composed the first set of Études Op. 6, as well
as many other fine works such as his most celebrated piece, the so-called Mozart Variations
Op. 9, and the Grand Solo Op. 14. Recently published research provides a fascinating
window into this critical period of the composer’s career and, in particular into the
philosophy behind the celebrated Méthode of 1830.67
Less than a month after his arrival in London he was invited to perform before
Royalty at the palatial residence Carlton House. It would appear that the concert was such a
success that it resulted in Sor and his brother Carlos being recognised as the guitar teachers
from whom the gentry wished to learn. A further distinction was that Sor was granted
membership in 1816 of the Philharmonic Society. There were many other Spanish émigrés
residing in London at this time and they all supported each other’s careers in the form of
benefits and exhibitions.

Russia (1823–1827)

Sor had become romantically involved with a gifted ballerina, some 25 years his
junior, Félicité Hullin, who had been offered the position of prima ballerina in the Moscow
Ballet, a position she held from 1823–1829. He accompanied her to Russia, on the way
passing through Paris, where his Ballet Cendrillon (Cinderella) was being rehearsed. Also,
through Germany where the publishing company Simrock in Bonn began the publication of
some of his works, and Warsaw in Poland where he is known to have performed guitar solos
and possibly guitar duos with his young daughter.68

In Moscow, Cendrillon was again performed, and in St Petersburg he performed

before the Imperial family and composed the Funeral March for Tsar Aleksandr I. The score
for military band is lost, however, there exists an arrangement for piano by Sor. A new ballet

66
Rudolph Ackermann’s Repository of the Arts(London: published 1 March 1820). Waverley was a highly
successful novel by Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832).
67
Christopher Page, ‘London Years’, Early Music, Vol. XLI, No. 4, 2014. The subject will be addressed further
in Chapter 5, specifically devoted to the Méthode.
68
Review in Kurier Warzawski, 12 October 1823. In Jeffrey, Fernando Sor, 108.

22
entitled Hercule et Omphale, which Sor actually considered to be his finest work,69 was used
at the Coronation of the new Tsar, Nicholas I. It was also while there that he composed the
guitar duet Souvenier de Russie Op. 63. He also had dealings with the luthier J.H. Schröder,
who is known to have been active in St. Petersburg in the 1820’s70, and whose instruments he
admired.
On his return journey, Hercule at Omphale apparently created a sensation when it was
performed in Germany.

Final years: Paris 1826/7–1839

On his return from Russia, Sor devoted himself solely to the guitar. He performed in
concerts, gave lessons and published much of his finest music, both large and small scale.
This period is that of which we have the greatest details, such that one may almost follow a
calendar of his activities.

It must be said that the guitar itself, which had enjoyed a fantastic popularity earlier in
the century, during le Guitaromanie (Guitar Mania) had become less fashionable. The Op. 31
Leçons and Op. 35 Exercises and the second set of Études Op.29 were published during this
period. It was unfortunate that publishers and public alike demanded ever more simplistic
compositions from the composer, which resulted in a series of somewhat unfortunate
collections such as his Op. 45: Voyons si c'est ça [...] dédiées à celui qui aura le moins de
patience ( Let's see if it is, that what you want [...] dedicated to whoever has the least
patience), also Op. 48: Est-ce bien ça? (Is this good enough?) and, when the subscribers were
satisfied, Op. 51: A la Bonne heure!, composées selon le désir de quelques Amateurs (At last!,
composed following the demands of some amateurs).71
All of his guitar duets were produced at this time and these contain magnificent
material for players of all levels. As was conventional at the time, the musical soirée
consisted of various performers sharing the stage, and it is known that Sor performed with the
singer and pedagogue Manuel García (1775–1832), and alongside Franz Liszt (1811–1886).72
He also played in concert with student and colleague Napoléon Coste (1805/6–1883), and
child prodigy Giulio Regondi (1822–1872). He dedicated many pieces to these highly-gifted

69
Ledhuy, see footnote 22 above. See Appendix, Fig.25.
70
Mikhail Yablokov, Klassischeskaya gitara v Rosii I SSR (Classical Guitar in Russia and the USSR).
(Tyumen, self published ,1992)1979.
71
Translations by the Author.
72
20 April 1828.In Jeffrey, Fernando Sor,85.

23
colleagues.73 The Méthode was published at this time, as well as music for an unwieldy
instrument, the Harpolyre, which had three necks and some 21 strings. He appealed to the
Spanish Regent, Queen Cristina, to allow him to return to his homeland, but his requests went
unanswered. It appears that Sor had a comfortable life, but the death of his daughter, Caroline,
at the age of 20 in 1837, was devastating. His feelings of nostalgia for his youth at Montserrat
expressed to those who visited him are of a deeply sensitive man.74 Sor passed away on 10
July, 1839 and was buried in the cemetery of Montmartre in Paris two days later.

Compositional style

‘An author must live!’ 75

In recent times Sor’s style has been described as being firmly within the vocabulary
of Haydn and Mozart,76 however closer examination does not appear to support this widely
held belief. Most guitarists today are of the opinion that Sor was a composer who was
looking back over his shoulder to the masters of the Classical period. While this may be true
of his earlier works, the later material is, in fact, in keeping with the programmatic style of
his period and aligns with other major stylistic developments by his contemporaries such as
Liszt and Hector Berlioz (1803-1869).77

It must be said that Sor’s early training at the choir school left an indelible impression.
All of his work possesses a correctness and elegance that has resulted in high regard for them
even now in the twenty-first century. Sor’s adherence to the rules of voice leading and
harmony, though often resulting in fiendish difficulties on the guitar, create a truly magical
effect when played with the skill and sensitivity that the music demands.
One could argue that Sor never really intended to become known solely as a guitarist.
It is clear that his ambitions lay within the larger musical world, and the guitar seemed
always to be an avenue through which he gained entry into aristocratic circles. Perhaps

73
For example, the Souvenir d'Amité, Fantaisie composée pour Jules Regondi, Opus 46 (Paris: Pacini, 1831-32).
74
Eusebio Font y Moresco and Jaime Battle, 'Una visita a Sors en los últimos días de su vida'
(‘A visit to Sor in the last days of his life’), La Opiníon Pública (Barcelona: 1850). In Jeffrey,
Fernando Sor, 108.
75
Sor, Méthode, trans. Arnold Merrick, 43.
76
Bream, ¡Guitarra!, at approx. 50 minutes.
77
For example the Fantaisie Villageoise Op. 52 (Paris: Pacini,1832) with its highly evocative and almost
cinematic effects recreating the effect of distant church bells by playing harmonics at the 6th fret.

24
through its novelty, and the fact that his method of playing had not been heard, doors were
opened.
Here is an eyewitness account of one of his early performances in London:

We will not attempt to describe the sensations which the magic of his play
excited within us […] this Gentleman executed, with the greatest
precision, and with the deepest Expression, scores of five or six distinct
parts. How this was done remains a matter of wonder to us.78

As stated, Sor was equally well known, especially in London as a composer of songs,
as he was during the earlier years in Spain. It is clear that the vocal style was influenced by
the other singers of the day such as Giovanni Paisiello (1740–1816), Luigi Cherubini (1760–
1842) and Manuel García.79
Sor’s musical output may be arranged into the following groupings:

Compositions for guitar

I. Guitar solos
1. Collections of guitar music
2. Works with and without Opus number
3. Editions of Sor’s Méthode.
II. Guitar duets
III. Guitar and other instruments
IV. Arrangements or transcriptions
V. Music for Harpo-Lyre

Other compositions

I. Opera melodrama80 and Tonadillas

II. Ballets
III. Music for orchestra
IV. Chamber music
V. Vocal music
VI. Songs with accompaniment for piano or guitar
VII. Piano solos and duets

78
Author unknown. Review in Ackermann’s Repository of the Arts, February1820. In Jeffrey, Fernando Sor, 62.
79
In Jeffrey, Fernando Sor, 86. ‘27th March 1831, Sor performs with the pianist Miró, also guitar duets with
Aguado and the singer García’.
80
An intermediate operatic form from the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

25
 The works that fall under the category of ‘Other compositions’ are rarely performed
today, with the possible exception of the Songs or Seguidillas, as they are more correctly
named. Sadly, much of the others have been lost or have fallen into oblivion. Indeed, it is rare
to hear even Sor’s major works for the guitar performed in the contemporary guitar recital.
With the exception of the patriotic songs from his earlier years in Spain, Sor’s vocal
works fall well within the conventional style of the period. Here (Fig. 1) is an excerpt from
one of Sor’s Ariettes as found in the Méthode.

Fig. 1 Fernando Sor. Ariette, bars 17-20.81

The coloratura figuration is highly evident, and similar to what one would expect to
find in the vocal works of Gioachino Rossini (1792–1868).
Of doubtful authenticity is a violin concerto sometimes attributed to Sor.84 Another
lost work is the march for military band composed on the death of Czar Alexander.
Fortunately, this piece does at least survive in the piano reduction by Sor himself. The works
for piano of four hands seems to have been written strictly for the ballroom, and do not
contain anywhere near the emotional depth of the composer’s better works.86
Perhaps it is as well that we are concerned here with the studies, lessons and exercises,
and not other works whose creation took place with the backdrop of war, or in response to
publishers and public alike who had little understanding or interest in uncovering the true
potential of the composer.
Clearly, Sor’s true nature is revealed in these miniatures; masterpieces that, in the
author’s opinion, have yet to be surpassed in this genre.

81
Sor, Méthode (1830), Reprint (Geneva: Minkoff, 1981). Example 83, on plate XXVII.
84
As held in the Austrian Abbey of Heiligenkreuz. It is maintained by some that the term ‘del Sigre Sors’ in the
title indicates the work’s provenance. This is apocryphal.
86
Ten sets of Waltzes ‘for two performers on one Piano Forte’, London, circa 1818–1823.

26
Instrumental Études

By way of introduction, it is useful to place Sor's Méthode and didactic works within
their historical context. Here follows a brief catalogue of some of the instrumental Études
which predated and were concurrent with those of Sor.

The guitar (or vihuela) occupies a distinguished position in the history of instrumental
music. The Spanish court musician Luys de Milán (c1500–1561) published his El Mæstro
(The Teacher) in 1536. This is in fact a highly-sophisticated method for the guitar containing
material to guide the student from the elementary to virtuoso style performance pieces. Being,
in reality, the first book of music ever published for an instrument closely resembling the
guitar,87 it is of immense historical importance. Other composers for the vihuela included
Luys de Narvæz (1500-1555) and Alonso de Mudarra (1510-1570). Both of these musicians
included music intended for teaching within their publications.

During the Baroque period, the guitar and lute were both extremely popular. Gaspar
Sanz (1640-1710) published his Instruccion de musica sobre la guitarra española in
Zaragoza in 1674. Again, this is an extensive method with detailed illustrations of hand
positions and instructions on how to approach the instrument. The Italian Francesco Corbetta
(1615-1681) published La guitare royale in 1670. The work was dedicated to Charles II and
contains lessons in both French and Italian in tablature. In 1682, Robert de Visée (1660-1724)
published his Livre de guitare, dedicated to Louis XIV. It is another resource for the study of
tablature and music for the plucked string of this important period.

The Italian harpsichordist and composer Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757) spent much
of his professional life in the Iberian Peninsular and, as the musical instructor of the Spanish
Princess María Barbara, composed, in 1738, works that he described as Essercizi, or
exercises. As with the music published earlier, this collection already displays the two
characteristics essential in all fine quality instrumental teaching material: a balance between
musical beauty and didactic benefit.
Muzio Clementi (1752–1832) produced his Gradus ad Parnassum for piano, in the
1820s, which again was designed to educate the student step-by-step up to the heights of
artistic excellence. The Austrian Carl Czerny (1791–1857) is still very well known amongst

87
Bream, ¡Guitarra!. Episode one, at approx. five minutes.

27
students of the piano for the studies that he wrote for the instrument.88 He is also recognised
as one of the first to actually use the expression ‘Étude’ to describe these works.
The Méthode des méthodes de piano published by Ignaz Moscheles (1794–1870) and
François-Joseph Fétis (1784–1871) in Paris in 1840 contains many interesting examples
which have a direct association in form and purpose with those of Sor.90
Johann Nepomuk Hummel (1778–1837) is recognised as one of the most
distinguished educators for the piano, being the teacher of Czerny, who also studied under
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827). In 1828 he produced his Ausführliche theoretisch-
practische Anweisung zum Piano-Forte-Spiel translated as Complete Theoretical and
Practical Course of Instruction on the Art of Playing the Piano Forte.91 This work and the
others already mentioned above contain detailed suggestions with regard to interpretation. In
this respect, the Sor Études are somewhat lacking, with very few playing suggestions and no
fingerings. There is no doubt that the student was expected to be already familiar with Sor’s
system of fingerings and manner of expression through his Méthode, so that no further
suggestions would be required. It may also be mentioned that, interestingly, Hummel made a
serious and in depth study of the guitar, and published many works for it.
With the publication of the Études by Frédéric Chopin (1810–1839) in the 1830s
came the birth of the concert study. There were two sets of 12: Op. 10 (1823–1829) and Op.
25 (1832–1837); as well as three more without Opus number. These works have deservedly
retained their popularity until the present day, and have become the cornerstones of this
musical genre.92
Nicolò Paganini (1782–1840) composed his 24 Caprices for Solo Violin between
1802 and 1817. There are two sets, each of 12 in number, curiously mirroring the exact
number of Études written by Sor and Liszt. Paganini’s relationship with the guitar is well
known and Sor was most definitely aware of this most famous of violinists:

In my presence, someone described the efforts and Extraordinary

Inventions that the famous Paganini played: ‘And how does he play
simpler music’? someone asked. ‘Perfectly’ answered another whose

88
Carl Czerny, Vollständige theoretische-practische Pianoforte-Schule Op. 500 (London, R.Cocks & Co.1839);
trans. as Theoretical and Practical Pianoforte School Op.500 (London: Cocks, 1839).
90
This is the same Fétis who reviewed Sor’s performances in Paris.
91
Czerny, Ausführliche theoretisch-practische Anweisung zum Piano-Forte-Spiel (Vienna: Tobias
Haslinger,1827).
92
According to William Carter ‘There is a persistent rumour that Sor gave a concert or two with Chopin. This
has not been verified from any 19th Century source’. See Liner Notes to Le Calme, Fernando Sor’s Late Works
(UK, Linn Records, CKD 380, 2010), 3.

28
 opinion I respect. I have since regarded him as the Colossal Talent that
richly deserves his considerable reputation.93

The contemporary guitarists of Sor’s time such as Giuliani, Carcassi and Carulli all
composed Studies. In the opinion of the author, none of these compositions match the
emotional intensity of Sor's Études, being somewhat formulaic in their approach. The
exception is Dionisio Aguado (1784–1849), friend and colleague to Sor. The two had already
known each other in Spain, as mentioned above. The 27 studies contained in his Nuevo
método para guitar, published in Madrid in 1843, bridge the gap between the early and mid
nineteenth-century style and lay a strong foundation for the modern school of guitar.94
The Transcendental Études (final version 1852) of Franz Liszt (1811–1886) are
perhaps the most famous examples of the form. A combination of flamboyance and
showmanship inspired something of the mystical aspect to the concept of the concert study.
They are works designed for pianists to rise above the everyday world and reach a higher
level of consciousness and artistic expression. Let us remember that Sor and Liszt not only
knew each other, but performed on the same stage, as mentioned above.
The strongest connection to the research at hand lies in the London Pianoforte School
of the 1810s and1820s. This was the period in which Sor lived in London and coincides
precisely with the first published set of Études Op. 6. This relationship will be the focus of
the following chapter.

The Sor Études isolated

An issue in studying the pedagogical material of the early nineteenth century is the
fact that the terms Étude, exercise and lesson were used interchangeably, irrespective of
context, and without a clear distinction.
This interchangeability of classification makes the study of Sor’s Études somewhat
problematic, as he wrote all three types of didactic pieces. Sor addressed this issue in his
Méthode, describing any confusion that may have been suggested:

93
Fernando Sor, Méthode pour la guitare par Ferdinand Sor, 53.Translated by the author.
94
All of the principles and techniques employed by the ‘modern’ school of guitar were already presented in
Aguado's Method. The claim that Francisco Tárrega (1850-1909) created the ‘modern school’ is highly
debatable. Such a discussion lies well outside the scope of this research.

29
 An Author should give his work the appropriate title: Method,
Exercises, Lessons, and Studies are by no means synonymous.95

He then goes on to explain such differentiations in detail: Exercises were to benefit a

single pedagogical aspect, for example a particular arpeggio pattern. Lessons were designed
to work several challenges simultaneously, and to initiate the student into the concept of self-
learning. Studies stood at the summit insofar as they were to introduce multiple problems,
more complex application of the principles, and to introduce to the student the possibility of
exceptions and contradictions to the rules.
As seems to be the case with any reflections on Fernando Sor, on analysis, the end
result lies open to interpretation. The musical value of many of his Exercises actually
outweighs that of the Studies. Technically speaking a work such as the Étude Op. 29 No. 22,
in the extremely awkward key on the guitar of Eb major, while pleasant enough if performed
with an immaculate technique, has nowhere near the simple elegance and profundity of a
miniature masterpiece such as the Exercise Op. 35 No. 22 (“Moonlight's Eve”). The latter
being from a collection entitled ‘Very Easy Exercises’.
The inconsistency may lie in the fact that Sor was not always as aware of the
application of theory to practice. That is to say that many of the Lessons and Exercises are
technically indistinguishable from the Studies. On the other hand, some of the Studies are
more like Exercises in their length and preoccupation with a single technical aspect (for
example Op. 29 No. 19 being a one-dimensional work concerned only with slurring).
Mæstro Segovia was keenly aware of this fact, which led him to include all three
types of works in his celebrated collection of the Studies.96 Sor himself was also fully aware
of this simple fact and went so far as to issue an apology, of sorts:

I admit that in my twenty-four lessons, I had not sufficient patience, and

that the difference from one to the other is too striking. After learning the
Exercises, these lessons will become easier.97

As stated earlier, Sor was living in London when he produced the first set of Études
published by Milhouse and Sons in 1816. This company was well known for the manufacture
of instruments for military band and it is highly likely that his vague connections with the
Peninsular War gained him this affiliation. It is of critical importance to remember that there

95
Sor, Méthode, Merrick translation, 46.
96
Studies for the Guitar by Fernando Sor, ed. Segovia.
97
Sor, Méthode, Merrick translation, 47.

30
were several eminent pianists in London at this time, all of whom wrote Études. Foremost
among the London Pianoforte School were the aforementioned Clementi, his student John
Baptist Cramer (1771–1858) and John Field (1782–1837). Cramer’s ‘Studio per il piano
forte’, Op. 30, appeared in parts in 1804 and reached completion in 1835, ultimately
comprising 100 numbers. Moscheles, who had ties to London, published his ‘24 Studien’, Op.
70 in 1826. Frédéric Kalkbrenner (1785–1849) dedicated his ‘Études pour piano’, Op. 120 of
1816 to Clementi, while the Bertini Brothers, Auguste (1780–c1830) and Henri (1798–1876),
were popular in London and also produced pedagogical works for the piano.
In the Méthode, Sor singles out several contemporary pianists for praise. In a
particularly memorable passage he states:

I have always preferred it said of a performance, ‘He appears to be doing

nothing, that appears so easy’, rather than ‘Oh, how difficult that must be!’
This is one of the reasons why the greatest pianists will never forget
Cramer, Field, Kalkbrenner and Bertini.98

It seems certain that Sor was highly familiar with the works of the London Pianoforte
School, and it is interesting to note that the first edition of Sor’s Op. 6 was entitled “Studio
for the Guitar”, which is similar to Cramer’s “Studio per il piano forte” and probably an
attempt to link his work with that of the already well established Cramer.
Sor's compositional style shows little change in the Leçons, Exercises and Études that
were to follow, hence there would appear to be little chance of any influence from
Kalkbrenner or the Bertini Brothers (it is unclear to which of the brothers Sor was referring).
In the opinion of various scholars, in particular Jeffrey,99 Sor’s later didactic works
indicate a more mellow and refined style, a trend towards resignation and simplification that
is in direct contrast to the direction the Étude was taking in the literature of the piano.
Already in the Études of Hummel and Moscheles, as well as those of the famed Kalkbrenner,
there exists an increasing technical jump rendering them much less accessible to the less
accomplished performers than their earlier works. Although there is no hard evidence that
these piano composers influenced Sor’s writing of his Études, there remains interesting points
of comparison. Additionally, certain aspects of relative contrast may also be drawn. These
points may assist us in better understanding Sor’s output within this genre.
As stated earlier, Sor established his musical grounding during the late Classical
period of Mozart, Haydn and the young Beethoven. His musical vocabulary is thoroughly

98
Sor, Méthode, Merrick translation , 32.
99
Sor, Complete Studies, edited Jeffrey, iv.

31
immersed in, but not constrained by, the conventions of the late eighteenth century. His
harmonic voice is diatonic and the phrasing usually symmetrical. The concern for correct
harmonic movement and determination on adhering to the rules of voice leading and (to a
lesser extent) counterpoint are clearly evident. The avoidance of extremes of virtuosity for its
own sake reflect a pre-occupation with musical elegance and with that most difficult
characteristic of all music from this period to define: namely “taste”.
Sor’s Studies may be seen to have been aimed towards the musically-educated
aristocracy (who comprised the largest purchasers of guitar music) rather than established
professional musicians. However, there is no doubt whatsoever that these works provide
significant challenges, both musically and technically, and are most suitable for concert
performance. As stated by Mæstro Segovia:

the Studies can be used not only for the development of the technique of
the student, but as well for the preservation of it at its heights, for the
Masters. 100

Indeed, the very first of the Twelve Maxims at the end of the Méthode is “To regard
the effect of the music more than the skill of the performer.”101
It appears that Sor’s general philosophical way of thinking is firmly based within the
mindset of the Age of Enlightenment, or ‘el Illustración’ in Spanish. His Méthode is a jewel
of systematic inquiry, the entire work breathes life into the empirical spirit of his time. If it
were not also tarnished with an acrid sarcastic bitterness and self-defensive air, it may well be
what has been described as ‘easily the most remarkable book on Guitar Technique ever
written,’102 which is, ironically, a misunderstanding in itself. The Méthode is far more than a
technical manual. These issues will be discussed more thoroughly in the following chapter.
Sor's grounding in the harmonic language of the eighteenth century is manifested in
his conviction that melody arises out of harmony. The accompaniment to a melody was not
considered to be something that was added to it, but rather an integral part of the melody
itself: “I nearly always make my melody line fingering depend on those I have given to the
bass and intermediate voices.”103
It comes as no surprise, that in all of the Studies and other works there is not one
devoted to the development of single-note scalar playing. This aspect sets him apart from
Czerny and Clementi, whose Études lay great importance on the development of scales, as do

100
Sor, Studies for the Guitar, edited Segovia.
101
Sor, Méthode, 48.
102
Frederic V. Grunfeld, The Art and Times of the Guitar (New York: Da Capo Press, 1969).
103
Sor, Méthode, Merrick translation, 28.

32
the works of most of his guitar “colleagues”. Sor was quite clear and made no apology of his
dislike for scalar-like performance. He found little use for violin-style Études as examples to
apply to guitar technique, because of their preoccupation in the development of velocity in
scales. He did make the suggestion that if one wanted to learn to execute scales with rapidity:

I could do no better than direct them to the Method of my colleague

Monsieur Aguado, who, excelling at this manner of performance is the
best placed to offer the necessary guidance.104

Few whould argue that it is Sor’s unique harmonic sense, when applied to the guitar,
which lends to his Studies their magnificent poignancy. This aspect is made clear when he
states that his goal is to satisfy the opinion of the ‘Harmonists’,105 a term dating from the
eighteenth century indicating musicians who regarded harmony as the zenith of musical
accomplishment. Sor's genius results in largely-homophonic textures decorated with many
variations of rhythms and arpeggio patterns. It may be seen that the role of the right hand in
piano playing is adopted by the fingers (index, middle and ring) of the right hand in guitar
playing, while the pianist's left hand is played by the thumb on the guitar: ‘The Cart-Horse of
the Hand’.106
Sor’s gift is demonstrated in his ability to place the melody either in the bass (as in Op.
6, No. 1) or, in the treble (Op. 6, No. 2). Many varieties of arpeggio patterns are employed,
for which one can detect direct parallels in the piano literature.

104
Sor, Méthode, Author’s translation.
105
Sor, Méthode, Merrick translation, 1.
106
Old Spanish Maxim as mentioned in reminiscences to the author by Antonio Losada (1940–2006).

33
 As an example, Sor’s Étude Op. 29 No. 23 demonstrates an interlocking pattern that is
basically identical to that of Clementi’s Gradus No. 33 and Cramer's Op. 30 No. 5.

Fig. 2. Comparison between Sor’s Étude Op. 29 No. 23, Clementi’s Gradus No. 33 and Cramer's Op. 30 No. 5.107

107
Walter A. Clark, 'Fernando Sor's Studies and the London Pianoforte School', Estudios sobre Fernando Sor,
edited Luis Gásser (Madrid: Institúto de Ciencias Musicales, 2002), 365.

34
 The Siciliano-like pattern of Op. 29 No. 13 is comparable to Cramer’s Op. 30 No. 38.

Fig. 3. Comparison between Sor’s Op. 29 No. 13 and Cramer’s Op. 30 No. 38.108

The study of the intervals of thirds and sixths was considered so indispensable to Sor
that he devoted an entire section of his Méthode to their study. Op. 6 No. 6 marked Allegro in
parallel thirds, and the deeply expressive Op. 6 No. 9 marked Andante Allegro in parallel
sixths are but two examples with which comparisons may be drawn from contemporary piano
literature, such as with Clementi’s Gradus No. 36, and especially in Cramer’s Op. 30.

108
Clark, ‘Fernando Sor’s Studies’, 366.

35
Fig. 4 .Comparison between Sor’s Op. 6, Numbers 6 and 9, and Clementi’s Gradus, No.36.109

An apparent interplay between the piano and guitar literature is clearly apparent. We
may find arpeggios, parallel intervals, exploration of different keys and counterpoint, all to be
explored simultaneously, in keeping with the concept of presenting the student with multiple
technical problems. As an example, in the leçon, Op. 31 No. 12, the student is presented with
scordatura (6th string to D), a rapid arpeggio and parallel thirds.
One manner of differentiation between the piano literature lies in the issue of form.
Whereas the Sor Études are largely in simple-part forms, the piano composers were moving
towards what may be considered to be a ‘through-composed’ style. There is no doubt that Sor
and his pianistic contemporaries both enjoyed the same ‘well of inspiration’, an obvious
cause of the difference must, of course, lie in the vastly different nature of their respective
instruments. Certain musical textures that are relatively accessible on the piano are not
available to the guitarist, while the reverse is equally true.
All of Sor’s pedagogical offerings remained somewhat conservative throughout his
career. His path did not follow that of Liszt, Paganini and Chopin in writing works of ever-
increasing complexity and virtuosity. One may argue that this is the very reason that this

109
Clark, ‘Fernando Sor’s Studies’, 368.

36
material has remained popular to the present day. One should not forget that in Sor the world
had not only a concert performer, but a devoted teacher, these two aspects being well
reflected in his musical personality and complex artistic temperament.

Sor's Méthode (1830)

'The true knowledge of the scale is the key to all musical knowledge'110

In the opening remarks to Sor's Méthode, we find precisely what one might expect
from a gentleman scholar of his time when he states that he would never tell the reader what
is necessary to be done; only what he himself found it necessary to do. For the purpose of this
research it is useful to break the Méthode into its most fundamental principles:

• the instrument
• notation
• plucking the string
• producing tones
• scales
• tone colours
• left hand
• summary and twelve maxims.
There appear to be several different versions of the Méthode dating from Sor’s own
time. Only one is known to be fully authoritative. First editions are of the highest rarity and
the author was privileged to have perused the copy in the Biblioteca Nacional in Madrid.
That copy is inscribed: Presenté par l’auteur á son Excellent Ami Dionisio Aguado [signed]
F. Sor.111
The eminent Spanish musicologist Baltasar Saldoni (1807–1889), who visited Sor
during his final days, claimed that Sor personally destroyed the plates from which the
Méthode was printed. Why would that be? Part of the answer may lie in the words of his
friend and student Napoléon Coste:

The bickerings he bore from the part of ignorant “colleagues” who did not
understand him, soured his mind, and it was under the effects of this
bitterness that he wrote the text of his Méthode.112

By the time of its publication, Sor was 52 years old and had led an extraordinarily
varied life, with many spectacular successes and also a fair share of heartbreaking tragedies.
110
Sor, Méthode, Merrick translation,19.
111
Sor, Méthode, Title page.
112
Napoléon Coste, Méthode complète pour la guitare par Fernando Sor (Paris: Schonenberger, c.1845).

37
During all of his career the guitar had remained with him and it would seem that after
returning from Russia, he desired a more stable lifestyle and decided to codify his
experiences of the instrument. The result could perhaps be defined as a manifesto, rather than
an instructional Méthode. There would be very few beginner guitar students now days who
could appreciate what it has to offer. Even among professional guitarists, of the small number
that have read the Méthode, even fewer have felt the need to resurrect all, or any, of its
principles. The work offers a depth of perception from the mind of an individual who was
involved with music in general, and not merely the insular world of the guitar. Artists from
the sister arts of theatre, such as the actors Charles Potier (1775–1851), François-Joseph
Talma (1763–1826) and Jacques-Charles Odry (1781–1853) are all mentioned in passing, as
are anatomists and other scholars, indicating the highly-educated circles in which Sor moved.
Possibly the most fundamental aspect of his approach to the instrument lies in the
concept of the guitar as an instrument of harmony, and not merely as an instrument for the
accompaniment of songs. Sor's conception was that the guitar was a self-contained solo
instrument in which melody, bass and inner voices complement each other.
The Méthode is extremely detailed as it attempts to break down instrumental
technique into what might be described as a "philosophical mechanism". It is beyond the
scope of the present research to cover all aspects, however, one concept may be of interest to
the modern player. It involves a process of learning the fingerboard of the guitar in an
extremely thorough manner through the practice of what might be called ‘single string studies’
by string players. The following is a guide to this approach as interpreted by the author.
If one considers the sixth string of the guitar, namely the note E, as the root or tonic
one will proceed up the neck to the 12th fret or beyond to play the scale in the standard or
Ionian mode. Now, the same open string and note is considered to be the 2nd note of the
scale, so we are now in the key of D major. This will require a totally different fingering
pattern and we are thus in the second, or Dorian mode. The same string is then assumed to be
the 3rd note, the key of C, or Phrygian mode, and again played ascending, and descending,
the octave. The remaining modes are thus studied on this string in a similar manner. The
student would then proceed to the 5th string and perform the same exercise, as he would on
the remaining four strings. As Sor goes on to state:

My entire fingering system depends on the study of Thirds and Sixths, I

cannot recommend their study strongly enough to those who wish to perform

38
 my music without an air of difficulty; a display of which good Taste would
forbid.113

This modal concept is then extended into intervallic study, so that the same idea is
applied, but now in thirds. If the average beginner was confronted with such a method of
study, it seems highly unlikely that they would make progress. It is interesting to observe that
such systems are used in the training of jazz guitarists and also the sitar: both disciplines
requiring a deep knowledge of their instruments’ fingerboard to enable fluid and
instantaneous melodic improvisation. Here is Example 37 from Sor’s Méthode illustrating the
concept, in this case using the 2nd string (the note B) as the tonic.

Fig. 5. Example 37 from Sor’s Méthode indicating his concept to unlock the knowledge of the instrument’s fingerboard.114

Recent research has opened a new window into the creation of the Méthode, and it
now seems certain that an early version of it was already in circulation during the eight years
that Sor spent in Regency London.115 The first known reference to it dates from this period, a
full 15 years before its eventual publication in Paris in 1830.
A certain Major Algernon Langton, veteran of the Peninsular War and of the Battle of
Waterloo, makes reference to:

An able Spanish Professor, celebrated in Europe by his complete Mastery

of the instrument, maintains that the guitar is more adapted to Harmony
than Melody, and those that seek to execute quick movements do not

113
Sor, Method, Merrick translation, 26.
114
Sor, Méthode, 14.
115
Page, “New Light on the London Years”, 557-69.

39
 succeed as well when they seek to produce a Concord of Sounds
corresponding to the Melody.116

Military archives indicate that Major Langton was in Cádiz at the precise time that
Sor was in Jerez de la Frontera. Perhaps they had met and discussed guitar technique at that
time, or at one of the fashionable soirées that Sor and members of the nobility were known to
attend. The fact remains that a preliminary form of the Méthode was indeed circulating in
London some six years prior to its official publication in Paris. A fascinating adjunct to the
story lies in the February 1820 edition of the fashionable magazine Ackerman’s Repository,
wherein a music critic states how deeply impressed he was with Sor, and that the manner of
his playing:

was the result of a system at once simple and efficient, the fruit of
matured experience, and of a diligent enquiry into the nature and
capabilities of the Instrument.117

Such an elegant and succinct statement must certainly be referring to either the
Méthode itself, or possibly an earlier version, now lost.
The final analysis on the net effect of Sor’s London years is highly ironic. The
aristocratic English audiences for whom he performed were no doubt excited by romantic
Andalucían fantasies of bandoleros, gitanos and passionate Flamenco dance; the very
antithesis of the reserved English drawing room. The paradox and wonder lies in the fact that
Sor exploited this idealised image of the guitar to create an appreciation for the instrument
that was hitherto unknown. His legacy is rich and distinguished: it lies at the very heart of the
instrument, which is still today commonly referred to as the “Spanish guitar”.
A unique aspect of the Méthode concerns the position of the instrument. This has been,
and remains a problem even today, which has yet to be satisfactorily resolved with unanimity.
The basic shape of the instrument, whether from the nineteenth century or more
recently, does not lend itself to a stable position. Some means of support becomes necessary,
and as ever more complex music is demanded of the instrument, its position must be further
stabilised. On occasions where the guitarist wishes to stand, the use of a strap or ribbon
becomes useful. This method may also be used while seated. The modern guitarist will use
either the ‘traditional’ position involving the use of a footstool to raise the left leg, or the use

116
Major Algernon Langton, The History of the life of the Squire Marcos de Obregon [...]
by Vincent Espinel [...] translated into English from the Madrid Edition of 1618 (London: private
correspondence, 1816), xxxvi-xxxvii. In Page, “New Light on the London Years”, 563
117
Ackerman's Repository, new series (February 1820), 100-1. In Page,“New Light on the London Years”, 564.

40
of the footstool under the right leg. The latter position would place the middle of the
instrument (at the 12th fret) close to the centre-line of the player's body, very similar to the
concept described in Sor’s Méthode.118 In recent times, devices that attach to the instrument
itself have been developed so that the performer may play with both feet on the ground,
thereby minimising the probability of painful muscular tension either in the lower back and
or the leg. It would appear that a balance between physical access to the strings by both hands,
stability and comfort is the goal. The linked issues of physical presentation and elegance are
also important factors to be considered.
The position recommended by Sor is unique to him and has been a source of
puzzlement, probably since the first publication of the Méthode. He suggests that the player
sit before a table and rest a corner of the guitar upon it, as seen in this illustration:

Fig. 6. Use of a table to support the guitar (possibly depicting Sor himself).119

In the author's experience, the position is quite comfortable, assuming the table and
chair are of an appropriate height. Its use for a modern guitar is unlikely, due to that
instrument's greater size. The question of the acoustic resonance of the table also comes into
play, with a higher quality table producing a notable improvement in volume and bass

118
Sor, Method, translation Merrick, 10.
119
Sor, Méthode, Plate II, Figure 6.

41
response. Though the position may be useful for practice, its use on the concert platform
would seem unlikely. According to Dionisio Aguado:

Those who have heard M. Sor, will recall that he habitually places his left
foot on a footstool and that he rests the lower concavity of the instrument
on his left thigh.120

This position is corroborated by accounts by other writers, which, however, do not

mention a footstool, or table at all. This could suggest that Sor’s sitting position, may, on
occasion, have been similar to what is today referred to as the ‘traditional Flamenco’ position,
and quite similar to that as shown in Aguado’s Escuela of 1826, whereby the guitar is
carefully balanced on the player's right thigh and the chair itself.

Fig.7. Method of supporting the guitar as suggested by Aguado in his first method book.121

This is not surprising when we consider Sor’s years in Andalucía where he no doubt
witnessed this posture, which many, including some highly-eminent contemporary classical
guitarists consider most sensible. Mæstro Aguado was a friend and colleague of Sor’s, and
his account mentioned above bears no hint of any hidden meaning. The use of a table in
supporting the guitar would almost certainly not have gone unnoticed in the many reviews of
Sor’s performances. Perhaps we may conclude that Sor used the footstool under his left leg,

120
Dionisio Aguado, Escuela de guitarra, 2nd edn. (Paris: propiedad del autor, 1825).
121
Aguado, Escuela.

42
as did his contemporaries Carulli ,Carcassi and Giuliani, as well as the Flamenco position for
performance, but reserved the use of the table for his own private practice.
Unfortunately, Aguado’s own excellent, and perfectly sensible invention, the guitar
tripode has been relegated to oblivion. This device allows the guitarist to sit simply and have
the instrument presented to them, as would a pianist sitting at a keyboard. The other
advantage is that the guitar was now totally free to resonate without interference.123
Another point of interest lies in the manner in which scales were executed by Sor.
According to his Méthode, and in keeping with the concept of harmonic rather than melodic
playing, he placed little emphasis on rapid scale passagework. His suggested manner is to use
the right-hand thumb and index finger, as in lute technique, quite similar to how a modern
jazz guitarist's hand appears when using a plectrum.124 Here we find another conundrum,
again, thanks to Aguado. Earlier in his career Aguado adopted the technique of using the ring
and index fingers for scale work, but on the recommendation of Sor, he switched to the now
accepted practice in classical guitar of alternating between the index and middle fingers:

I prefer to use forefinger and middle finger to play scales, rather than
forefinger and ring as had been my habit in earlier years. My own
experience does confirm that one can rely on Mr. Sor’s reasoning for this
preference.125

We can never know for sure which system Sor used, even though he recommended
one to Aguado. Perhaps, being aware of Aguado's flair for rapid passagework, he suggested
the now accepted modern method. Indeed, as stated earlier, if a player was looking to ‘detach
notes with rapidity’, Sor directs them to Aguado's Method.
Upon studying Sor’s Méthode one is confronted with a highly unexpected
arrangement of a portion of Joseph Haydn’s (1732-1809) magnificent Oratorio “The Creation”
(Die Schöpfung,1798). It would appear that this is reduction of the arrangement by Clementi
for voices with piano. Such an arrangement of an oratorio for massed choir, orchestra and
soloists with solo guitar accompaniment is ambitious, to say the least. The text is 4 pages and
the music itself is no less than 13 pages, which comprises one third of the entire Méthode.
The fingering analysis is extremely detailed, the apparent purpose behind this large section
being for Sor to extoll the virtues of studying 3rds and 6ths:

123
See Figure 26, page 67,showing a portrait of Aguado with the device. The author is currently investigating
the possibility of the construction of a replica of the tripod.
124
Sor, Method, translation Merrick, 33.
125
Dionisio Aguado, Nuevo método de guitarra. Opus 6. (Madrid: Campo, 1840) §38. Reprinted in
Complete Works of Dionisio Aguado, ECH 0801, (Heidelberg: Chanterelle, 1994). 91. Translation by the author.

43
 The knowledge of thirds and sixths is the foundation of the whole
fingering in regard to harmony. I shall not cease exhorting those
who would devote themselves to the study of the guitar,
to endeavour to acquire this knowledge.126

Perhaps the final word on the Méthode of Fernando Sor may be left to the
distinguished English guitarist and teacher Frank Mott Harrison (1867–1945) who stated:

whether from extreme modesty, or the fear of frivolous objection from his
opponents, Sor presents his ideas so apologetically, that the value of his
directions are almost lost to the student.127

126
Sor, Méthode. Merrick, 39-42 and plates XXVIII-XL.
127
Frank Mott Harrison, Sor’s Méthode, condensed and revised (London: R. Cocks, 1896), prefatory remarks.

44
The Études

‘Ses études vivront comme celles de Cramer’128

The epigram above is interesting as Sor compares himself to Cramer. At the time
Sor’s Études were written, those of Cramer were undoubtedly far better known in the general
world of music. However, Cramer’s works are perhaps less well known today, whereas those
of Sor continue to be published in new editions and their significance discussed and extolled.

Sor’s original set of Studio Op. 6 was composed in London in 1815–17 and contain
various musical textures such as the placing of the melody in the treble, or in the bass,
arpeggio patterns, slurs, octaves and the sustaining of a musical line with an accompaniment
which may itself be in intervallic motion. The second set was composed in 1829 after Sor’s
return from Russia, where they were probably composed. These are of a somewhat higher
level of difficulty and explore more complex figuration and the exploration of most ‘un-
guitaristic’ keys such as the Studio in Eb Op. 29, No. 22. We may also consider Opera 31 and
35 to be included, even though Sor considered these to be Lessons and Exercises. The fact is
that these pieces are occasionally somewhat more involved than the actual Studies
themselves.
There are few, if any, fingerings in any of the Études, but in the other didactic works
there are helpful fingerings and, quite often, instructions on the purpose of the piece in
question. The principle point of departure from accepted classical guitar technique is in Sor’s
much greater use of the thumb of the right hand than is found in the music of his
contemporaries and in the modern school. His notation is clear and un-ambiguous: when a
note’s stem is pointing down, it indicates the use of the thumb. As explained in the Méthode,
Sor would also use the thumb and index finger to play rapid repeated notes, as in Studio Op.
6, No. 4, the Leçon Op.31 No. 19, and in his Exercise Op. 35 No. 19.

Case studies129

Let us take Op. 31 No. 19 as a case study and compare the original intended approach
with that of the Segovia edition. Sor states quite clearly that:

128
Fernando Sor, 'SOR', in Ledhuy and Bertini, Encyclopédie pittoresque, 166. As published in Jeffrey,
Fernando Sor,130.Translated by the author as 'His Studies will live on like those of Cramer'.
129
The three works examined in this chapter are included in the appendix entitled 'List of Musical Examples'.
Here the reader will find twentieth-century recordings contrasted with historically-informed performances by
the author.

45
 The point of this lesson is to accustom the student to adopt the correct
thumb position by alternating it with the index finger for the
demisemiquavers.130

The piece in cut common time, begins on the second half of beat 2 and the tempo
indication is Andante. It has something of a military march-like quality as is seen in a
surprising number of Sor’s works. In bar 32 of this Lesson, the characteristic repeated-note
pattern is transposed into the bass but the same technique of thumb and index, as used on the
first and second strings, is retained. This technique is sometimes encountered in the general
concert repertoire of the contemporary classical guitar, for example in certain passages of
guitar transcriptions of Sevilla Op. 47, by Isaac Albéniz (1860–1909).

130
Sor, Commentary for Op. 31 No. 19. Author’s translation. In Jeffrey, Complete Works, Volume Four. Op.31,
Book Two, 8. See figure 8, below, for the original French instruction.

46
 131
Fig. 8 Sor, Op.31, Leçon XIX, with introductory note from the composer, describing the work’s intended purpose.

131
Fernando Sor, Vingt Quatre Leçons Progressives, Op. 31 No. 19. In Jeffrey, Complete works, Volume 4,8.
Translated by the author as Twenty-Four Progressive Lessons.

47
 If we compare this with the Segovia edition (See Fig. 9), we encounter many

alterations. The work is not referred to as a Lesson (Leçon), but rather as a Study (Estudio).

A term strictly reserved by Sor for the Études (Opera 6 and 29). The tempo/expression

indication is Molto Moderato and con gracia. Additionally:

• There are the dynamic markings piano, mezzo-forté, sforzando, and multiple uses of the
single hairpin indication.
• The right hand fingering has been altered to: ‘a,i,m,i’, that is to say: ‘ring, index, middle,
index’.

This last point is, from a technical point of view, and for those interested in the
performance practice of the early nineteenth-century guitar, of fundamental importance.
Changing the fingering in this manner totally alters the very nature of the music. From
being a swaggering march, the texture becomes far lighter and the accent no longer falls on
the metrically strong beat at the beginning of the bar, but, rather, on the chord on the second
half of beat one. There is no doubt that Segovia, being fluent in French himself, was fully
aware of the work’s original intention. If his goal was to convert the piece into a study for the
development of the ring finger, surely there was already a wealth of existing material from
Giuliani and Francisco Tárrega (1852-1909) to draw from.132 Let us also recall that the
monumentally important Douze Études for guitar by Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) were
already in publication (with an endorsement by Segovia himself) in the 1920s, many of which
were specifically designed to develop the ring or ‘a’ (anular, in Spanish) finger.

132
Tárrega, F. Complete Preludes (Zürich: Universal,1961). Giuliani, M. Opus 1a, 120 Daily Guitar Studies for
the Right Hand. edited, Vladimir Bobri. (San Francisco: Guitar Solo Publications,1993).

48
Fig. 9 Sor/Segovia, Estudio X. Indicating the altered technique, detailed fingerings and expression marks. 133

133
Studies for the Guitar, edited Segovia,12.

49
 The Étude Op. 6 No. 12 is one of the most beautiful works written in the genre. If one
considers both Opera 6 and 29 as they were originally intended, it seems possible to me that
the composer had carefully selected the order in which they were to be performed. Each
collection begins with relatively basic concepts and then progresses into music of much
greater complexity, often in awkward keys. As is so often the case with Sor, the system is far
from progressive. Here again we find issues with the Segovia edition, where Studies, Lessons
and Exercises are arranged with little regard for Sor's own nomenclature.
As the concluding Étude of the first book of studies, and considering the fact that the
second set was not published until some ten years later, it may well have been that this piece
was originally conceived to have been the final Étude. As such, it may be considered for
special attention.
It is a more homophonic work than the the other Études, that consists of an upper-
voice melody with an inner-voice accompaniment, which itself, is in thirds. As previously
stated, the Études do not contain fingerings, it being assumed that the student was already
sufficiently well acquainted with the system from study of the Méthode, as well as from
Opera 31 and 35 as outlined by Sor himself in the Méthode.
The work begins with a minim A melody note followed by two crotchet As. The
supporting accompaniment is in thirds, and the melody is quite clearly notationally indicated
to be sustained on the first string. For this to be achieved on beat three, it is required for the
notes B sharp and D sharp to be played on the 3rd and 4th strings, at the 8th and 10th frets
respectively. This is a difficult and large stretch, even on the smaller-scale instruments of the
nineteenth century.134 Perhaps this is why the correct duration of the note is ignored by most
modern players. What was designed to be of a high level of difficulty on the smaller guitar is
considerably more so on the modern instrument.
By the early nineteenth century, legato playing was becoming the general rule in both
instrumental and vocal performance.

The connected rather than the distinctly articulated style of playing,

which was already being cultivated by some schools of players and
composers during the last decades of the 18th century became firmly
established as the norm during the early 19th century.135

134
The modern classical guitar is measured usually at a scale length of 650mm, while the ‘Romantic’ instrument
is more likely to be 630mm.
135
Clive Brown, "Dots and Strokes in late 18th and 19th century music", Early Music 21 (1993), 599.

50
 Here again we find how Sor stood outside the general world of the guitar. The general
trend amongst guitarists was to compose and perform ever more dazzling works involving
technical pyrotechnics, whereas his approach was always geared towards a more sustained
and multi-voiced texture.
The notation is un-ambiguous: the note is to be sustained to maintain the legato nature
of the melody. The previously mentioned concept of the student's initial hearing of the music,
and a subsequent overlooking of the notation has been clearly evident in performance and
recording to facilitate a ‘false fluidity’ of the musical phrase.

Fig. 10 Sor, Studio 12. The value of the second A in bar one is clearly that of a crotchet.136

136
Sor, Six Studio, Set 2. Op.6/12. Jeffrey, Complete works, Volume 1,12.

51
Fig. 11 Sor/Segovia. Estudio XIV. The A mentioned above is impossible to sustain by the fingering indicated here.137

In the Segovia edition of the work we again find the addition of terms of expression
and hairpins. Another issue is the use of the ‘rest stroke’ or ‘apoyando’ (from the Spanish ‘to
lean’), which involves allowing a finger to push through the string coming to rest on the
lower adjacent string. This was, and largely still is recognised by the modern player as a
means of generating a stronger sound, and is habitually used to bring out the melody. The
annotation ‘Bien cantada la parte superior’138would almost certainly suggest that Segovia
intended the melody to be played using this technique. Its use was standardised by Segovia,
who, wanting to perform in concert halls designed for the symphony orchestra (without
amplification), desired a more powerful response from the instrument. If the finger does
come to rest on another string, it will, by definition, cut the sound of that string. In the case of
Op. 6 No. 12, the result is that one of the notes of the accompaniment will be cut.
Additionally, in the ‘modern’ school of playing, the student is taught to support habitually the
hand by resting the thumb on a bass string. Again, this will significantly reduce the
instrument’s resonance. It should be remembered that the guitar of Sor’s time was designed
for the salon or drawing room. It had a delicate and intimate voice whose subtleties required a
totally different touch and manner of listening.
Already when Sor returned from Russia, in around 1830, the guitar was beginning to
decline in popularity. It might be said that it could not compete with the rapidly evolving
piano, and it returned to the country of its birth. When it re-emerged before the public, largely
due to the efforts of artists like Segovia, the fundamental nature of music had undergone a
revolution. Late Romanticism, and with it, massive orchestral forces had become firmly
established. For the guitar to be accepted into this new aesthetic, a new more powerful
instrument, such as those designed by José de Torres (1817-1892), and a new technique were
required.

Tempo Rubato

A major issue of discussion with respect to a historically-informed performance is the

application of tempo rubato. Due to its importance in the interpretation of Early-Romantic
period music, and in particular to the final case study work Op. 35 No. 22,“Moonlight's Eve”,
a brief discussion of its background and application is appropriate.

137
Studies for the guitar, ed. Segovia,18.
138
Make the melody sing out well. (Author's translation).

52
 Rubato is an Italian word meaning robbed or stolen. The term was first used in
relation to the vocal music of the eighteenth century by the Italian castrato Pier Francesco
Tosi in 1723.139 In his case the rubato was strict, as the technique was used for: ‘Intensely
expressive purposes within the context of the late 17th century Opera’.140 Its use was seen and
heard in both vocal and violin music well into the twentieth century. Even if guitar treatises
do not specifically discuss rubato, there is enough evidence in other sources that it was an
expected musical practice. To discover how it was used, we may refer to contemporary
instructional methods for the voice and other instruments. The main authority on vocal
performance practice in this period is undoubtedly Manuel García Jnr. (1805-1906). It may
be recalled that Sor performed on the same stage as Manuel García Snr. (1775-1832) on at
least one occasion, hence they may be considered to have had a common artistic sensibility.
García’s work was widely disseminated and he was held in high respect. According to
musicologist James Radomski: ‘García’s dynamic perfectionism left its impact on three
continents, and his legacy, in the hands of his children, was carried into the 20th Century’.141
His funeral oration was delivered by the same François-Joseph Fétis, who reviewed Sor’s
performances, and honoured his deep tenor voice and also his talents as a composer.142 The
following excerpt displays García’s treatment of rubato in an aria from Rossini’s opera La
Gazza Ladra.143 The first stave is Rossini’s original melody, and the second indicates
García’s rubato. Here, García aligns with his concept which is characterised by: ‘The
momentary increase in value […] while the total length of the bar remains unaltered.’144

Fig. 12 Rossini/García. La Gazza Ladra, comparing Rossini’s original with García’s interpretation.145

139
Pier Francesco Tosi, Opinioni de’cantori Antichi, e Moderni o Sieno Observazioni Sopra il Canto
Figurato, (The opinions and observations of Modern and Historical Singers on the Art of Figured
Accompaniment for Voice) Bologna: L. dalla Volpe, 1723, 113.
140
Hudson, Stolen Time, 43.
141
Radomski, James. Manuel García (1775-1832); Chronicle of the life of a bel canto tenor at the dawn of
romanticism. (Oxford: New York, Oxford University Press, 2000),55.
142
Radomski, James. García, Manuel, in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1997),Vol.2, 345-347.
143
García, Garcia's New Treatise, (1857), 50. Cited in Walter, The Early 19th Century, 257.
144
García, New Treatise, 50.
145
García, New Treatise, 51.

53
 García continues: ‘Time is mixed when the feelings expressed in a piece exhibit
frequent irregularities of movement, as is often the the case in tender, melancholy sentiments.
In such pieces, the value of the notes is generally too long and the rhythm but little
perceptible’.146
The following excerpt demonstrates the principle found in García's New Treatise
(p.50, bars 1-4)

Fig.13 García's New Treatise, demonstrating the concept of altering indicated note values.147

It is important to remember that Sor, in addition to being a teacher of the guitar and
piano, was also a singing teacher. There can be little doubt of the validity of the extensive
application of rubato to certain aspects of his output. According to García:

Paganini excelled in the use of tempo rubato. While tempo was regularly
maintained by the Orchestra, he would abandon himself to his inspiration,
till the instant the chord changed.148

“Moonlight's Eve”

These concepts may well be applied to the final work under analysis: Op. 35 No. 22.
Figure 14 below shows a facsimile of the original edition. Careful note should be made of the
fact there are no dynamic or expressive indications, however, in contrast to Sor's actual
Études, there are left-hand fingerings. This work, one of Sor's most famous, possesses some
of the most remarkable and impressive qualities we associate with Sor's playing. Namely,
sustained note values, use of legato and deep sensitivity. As seen below in the original, the
form of the music, and perhaps the Allegretto tempo imply a prelude like nature to the work;
unfortunately, this important aspect is often missing in modern readings.

146
García, New Treatise, 50.In Walter, The Early 19th Century,257.
147
García, New Treatise, 50. In Walter, The Early 19th Century, 263.
148
García, New Treatise, 51. In Walter, The Early 19th Century, 286.

54
Fig. 14 Sor, Op.35, Exercise No.22. Note the complete lack of any expression marks.149

149
Sor, Vingt Quatre Exercises trés Facile, Livre 2. Op.35/22. In Jeffrey, Complete works, Volume 5.
Translated by the Author as Twenty-Four Very Easy Exercises, Book 2.

55
 Let us compare it now to the same work listed as Estudio V, as found in the Segovia
edition.

Fig. 15 Sor/Segovia, Estudio V. Again, detailed fingerings and expression marks have been included.150

150
Studies for the Guitar, edited Segovia,7.

56
 From a technical examination, it seems certain that Segovia would have expected the
student to have adopted the previously mentioned technique of apoyando (rest-stroke) for the
melody notes wherever possible. The employment of this manner of playing would not
necessarily be successful on the instrument as known by Sor. If one forces the voice of the
smaller guitar, the result is actually a reduced response. The passage three bars before the rall.
indication contains the notation indicating a broad accent (–): this would almost certainly
suggest the use of apoyando. The same bar indicates the use of the ring finger to play the
melody: contrary to Sor's teachings: “the reader may easily infer that, if I rarely use the ring
finger for harmony, I forbid it entirely for melody.”151
Regarding timing and expression, the tempo indication has been altered from
Allegretto to Moderato. This suggests a slower tempo, which would be in keeping with the
dark, brooding mood of the piece. The phrasing indications in Segovia’s edition are highly
effective and would certainly add to the piece’s emotional impact. They are very similar to
the markings as found in many of the Études; again emphasising the porous nature of the
different didactic groupings. The dynamic shaping indicated by hairpins are what one might
expect in a well-read modern performance and most interestingly, a rallentando and
diminuendo are indicated before the return of the main melodic statement, basically making a
clear suggestion for the artistic use of rubato. In the final bar, the comma suggests a ‘breath’
before the final chord, and the use pianissimo appears entirely appropriate. The climax of the
piece is reinforced by a crescendo indication that may well be enhanced by the use of
accelerando.

151
Sor, Méthode, Merrick translation,33.

57
Conclusion

‘To regard the effect of the music more than the skill of the performer.’152

Amongst scholars of the classical guitar, the name of Fernando Sor would
undoubtedly still be known today, with or without the publication of the Segovia edition of
his Studies. However, it is certain that this edition has perpetuated and enhanced the
reputation of the composer .

We have seen how even the earliest reprints and later editions of Sor's didactic works
have been altered and revised by the editorial inclusion of expression marks which would,
due to their awareness of the artistic conventions of the general musical world, have been
largely unnecessary for the students of his own time. Additionally, due to the physical
changes of the instrument itself, many fingerings, particularly for the right hand, have been
vastly altered. However, it is probable that these later editions (and possibly early recordings)
may, in fact, more closely reflect the composer’s actual intentions. The precarious conditions
under which Sor, embittered by what he perceived to be jealousy and misunderstandings,
wrote his Méthode have left us with an enigmatic, but curiously fascinating window into the
guitaristic intrigues of the Paris of the 1830s.

Perhaps it was artists from the generation immediately following Sor, such as his
student, colleague and friend Napoléon Coste, that have come closest to preserving his
playing style. Andrés Segovia (who based his 1945 edition of the Études on those found in
Coste’s Méthode153) may allow us a clearer glimpse of the great Sor himself. Segovia, in
recognising the renaissance of his instrument, was enthusiastically searching for composers
who had written, or who could write, for the guitar. The changes that he made to Sor's
Studies reflect the technical requirements of his time played on a very different instrument,
and, as has been clearly demonstrated, run contrary to Sor's teachings. What emerges in the
nature of these changes is an artist immersed in the affect of late Romanticism, interpreting
the music of an artist of an earlier age in the light of his own æsthetics and ideals.

152Sor, Méthode (1830), Merrick, First General Maxim,48.

153Méthode complete pour la Guitare de Ferdinand Sor, rédigée et augmentée de nombreux exemples et leçons
par N. Coste (Paris: Schönenberger,1851).

58
 Technical matters aside, it seems certain that, by comparing Sor's music with that of
his contemporaries, such as those of the London Pianoforte School and contemporary singers
such as Manuel García, we gain a clearer understanding of how his music was played at the
time of its composition. When one considers Segovia’s interaction with Llobet and Tárrega,
an almost unbroken line, back to the time of Sor himself, may be perceived.

Here comes into focus the musicality of historical performance practice and the
conclusion that the readings by Segovia and his contemporaries, though technically straying
far from the original, may, in fact, preserve remnants of how this music could have been
performed in a manner that would have been familiar to Sor and his followers. If the
musician of today appreciates these historical principles, the use of a period instrument, and
even an ‘authentic’technique, are secondary to one’s appreciation of the quality of the music
itself.

It is seems clear that this important genre of music has not received the scholarly
attention it deserves, and that its position in the history of instrumental pedagogy should be
recognised. Amongst the family of instruments, it would appear that the guitar played a much
more prominent rôle in the development of instrumental music than is generally assumed.
The Études of Fernando Sor may well be considered to be of equal quality, both in terms of
technical development and musical beauty, to those of his contemporaries who are much
more likely to be recognised within this genre.

59
Appendices

Organology

Fig. 16. Guitar by René Lacôte (Paris,1830). Collection of the Author.

60
Fig. 17. Lacôte (1830) label.

Fig. 18. Panormo (1831) label. Indicating the legacy of Sor's London Years (1815-1823) Guitars in the Spanish Style.

61
Fig. 19. Guitar by Louis Panormo (London, 1831) Collection of the Author.

62
Fig. 20. Title page of Op. 6, first set of Études. (London: Milhouse,1816–1817) Reprinted (London: Tecla, 1982), Vol.1, 38.

63
Fig. 21. Studies for the Guitar by FERNANDO SOR. Edited Andrés Segovia (New York: E.B. Marks,1945).

Fig. 22. The Author visiting Sor’s grave. Cimitière Montmartre, Paris. (2011)

64
Fig. 23. Title page and Overture to Hercule et Omphale. Moser, Wolf. Fernando Sor: The Unwritten Autobiography.
(Valencia: PILES Editorial de la Musica, 2005). Considered by Sor himself to be his finest work.

65
Fig. 24. Letter from Sor to the Duke of Fleury, 14 January 1814. Jeffrey, Brian. Fernando Sor: Composer and Guitarist.
(London:Tecla Editions,1977), 35.

66
Fig. 25. Dionisio Aguado (1784–1849). Shown with his ‘Tripode’ for supporting the instrument and allowing it to resonate
more freely. Nuevo Método de Guitarra (Madrid: Campo,1843) Reprint. (London: Tecla,1982) Plate I.

67
Fig. 26 Fernando Sor (1778–1839) by courtesy ‘Bibliothéque Nationale de Paris’. Drawing by Goubeau after a painting
(now lost). Lithograph by Bordes (Engelmann printing works). (Paris: Meissonier,1828)

68
List of musical examples

1. Simon Ramirez, ‘Caridad’ (‘Romanza’) Viudas de Aramburo, wax cylinder, Madrid,

España, c.1896~1900. https://soundcloud.com/david-rasko/david-rasko-restored
2. Vicente Gómez, Sor, ‘Preludio’ Op. 29, Étude 13, ‘Spanish Guitar Recital’ 1952. USA
Decca DL 8017. https://fr.redmp3.su/7072516/vicente-gomez-preludio.html
3. Miguel Llobet, Sor, ‘Moonlight’s Eve’ Op. 35, Exercise 22, Parlaphon, S.A. Barcelona,
España 1925. Re-issue Chanterelle Historic Recordings. Heidelberg, Germany. CHR
001. 1991. https://darkmp3.ru/slushat-miguel-llobet.html
3b. Davíd Rasko, Sor, ‘Moonlight’s Eve’ Op. 35, Exercise 22. Guitar by René Lacôte. Paris, France
1830. Instrument tuned at A=430 Hz. Synthetic strings. https://soundcloud.com/david-
rasko/sor-op35-exercise-22-david-rasko
4. John Williams, Sor, Op. 31, Leçon 19. ‘Fernando Sor 20 Studies for Guitar’, Westminster,
WST-17039, USA, 1960. https://soundcloud.com/david-rasko/john-williams-sor-
op.31-19
4b. Davíd Rasko, Sor, Op. 31, Leçon 19. Guitar by Ian Watchorn. Melbourne, Australia.
Modelled after early 19th Century Model by Pons & Lacôte, Tuned to A=432 Hz. Gut
strings. https://soundcloud.com/david-rasko/sor-op3119david-rasko
5. José Rey de la Torre, Sor, Op. 6, Étude 14 (Fragment), ‘The Music of Fernando Sor’
Spanish Music Centre, SMC-517. New York, USA, recorded early 1940s.
https://darkmp3.ru/slushat-jose-rey-de-la-torre.html
5b. Davíd Rasko, Sor, Op. 6, Étude 12 (Fragment). Guitar by Louis Panormo, London,
England, 1831. Instrument tuned to A=432 Hz. Gut strings.
https://soundcloud.com/david-rasko/sor-op6-12-rasko

69
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