Notes 5
Notes 5
Notes 5
we’ve focused on is how people formulate expectations about inflation. We put forward one
model of how these expectations were formulated, an adaptive expectations model in which
people formulated their expectations by looking at past values for a series. Over the next few
weeks, we will look at an alternative approach that macroeconomists call “rational expecta-
tions”. This approach is widely used in macroeconomics and we will cover its application to
Almost all economic transactions rely crucially on the fact that the economy is not a “one-
period game.” In the language of macroeconomists, most economic decisions have an in-
We accept cash in return for goods and services because we know that, in the future,
this cash can be turned into goods and services for ourselves.
You don’t empty out your bank account today and go on a big splurge because you’re
still going to be around tomorrow and will have consumption needs then.
Conversely, sometimes you spend more than you’re earning because you can get a bank
loan in anticipation of earning more in the future, and paying the loan off then.
Similarly, firms will spend money on capital goods like trucks or computers largely in
Another key aspect of economic transactions is that they generally involve some level of
uncertainty, so we don’t always know what’s going to happen in the future. Take two of the
examples just given. While it is true that one can accept cash in anticipation of turning it
into goods and services in the future, uncertainty about inflation means that we can’t be sure
of the exact quantity of these goods and services. Similarly, one can borrow in anticipation
of higher income at a later stage, but few people can be completely certain of their future
incomes.
For these reasons, people have to make most economic decisions based on their subjective
of future values of inflation; in taking out a bank loan, we must have some expectation of our
future income. These expectations will almost certainly turn out to have been incorrect to
some degree, but one still has to formulate them before making these decisions.
So, a key issue in macroeconomic theory is how people formulate expectations of economic
variables in the presence of uncertainty. Prior to the 1970s, this aspect of macro theory
was largely ad hoc. Different researchers took different approaches, but generally it was
assumed that agents used some simple extrapolative rule whereby the expected future value
of a variable was close to some weighted average of its recent past values. However, such
models were widely criticised in the 1970s by economists such as Robert Lucas and Thomas
Sargent. Lucas and Sargent instead promoted the use of an alternative approach which they
called “rational expectations.” This approach had been introduced in an important 1961
The idea that agents expectations are somehow “rational” has various possible interpreta-
tions. However, when Muth’s concept of rational expectations meant two very specific things:
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 3
They use publicly available information in an efficient manner. Thus, they do not make
They understand the structure of the model economy and base their expectations of
behave in an optimal fashion, so why would we assume that the agents don’t understand
the structure of the economy, and formulate expectations in some sub-optimal fashion. That
said, rational expectations models generally produce quite strong predictions, and these can
be tested. Ultimately, any assessment of a rational expectations model must be based upon
We will start with some terminology to explain how we will represent expectations. Suppose
our model economy has a uncertainty so that people do not know what is going to happen in
the future. Then we will write Et Zt+2 to mean the expected value the agents in the economy
have at time t for what Z is going to be at time t + 2. In other words, we assume people have
a distribution of potential outcomes for Zt+2 and Et Zt+2 is mean of this distribution.
qualifier explaining that we are dealing with people’s prior expectations of a Zt+2 rather than
Throughout these notes, we will use some basic properties of the expected value of dis-
tributions. Specifically, we will use the fact that expected values of distributions is what is
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 4
Some examples of this are the following. The expected value of five times a series equals five
And the expected value of the sum of two series equals the sum of the two expected values.
We will use these properties a lot, so I won’t be stopping all the time to explain that they are
being used.
Asset Prices
The first class of rational expectations models that we will look relate to the determination of
asset prices. Asset prices are an increasingly important topic in macroeconomics. Movements
in asset prices affect the wealth of consumers and businesses and have an important influence
on spending decisions. In addition, while most of the global recessions that preceded the year
2000 were due to boom and bust cycles involving inflation getting too high and central banks
slowing the economy to constrain it, the most recent two global recessions—the “dot com”
recession of 2000/01 and the “great recession” of 2008/09—were triggered by big declines in
asset prices following earlier large increases. A framework for discussing these movements is
In these notes, we will start by considering the case of an asset that can be purchased
today for price Pt and which yields a dividend of Dt . While this terminology obviously fits
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 5
with the asset being a share of equity in a firm and Dt being the dividend payment, it could
also be a house and Dt could be the net return from renting this house out, i.e. the rent minus
any costs incurred in maintenance or managment fees. If this asset is sold tomorrow for price
Dt + ∆Pt+1
rt+1 = (4)
Pt
This rate of return has two components, the first reflects the dividend received during the
period the asset was held, and the second reflects the capital gain (or loss) due to the price
of the asset changing from period t to period t + 1. This can also be written in terms of the
so-called gross return which is just one plus the rate of return.
Dt + Pt+1
1 + rt+1 = (5)
Pt
A useful re-arrangement of this equation that we will repeatedly work with is the following:
Dt Pt+1
Pt = + (6)
1 + rt+1 1 + rt+1
We will now consider a rational expectations approach to the determination of asset prices.
Rational expectations means investors understand equation (6) and that all expectations of
where Et means the expectation of a variable formulated at time t. The stock price at time t
A second assumption that we will make for the moment is that the expected return on
assets equals some constant value for all future periods, unrelated to the dividend process.
One way to think of this is that there is a “required return”, determined perhaps by the rate
of return available on some other asset, which this asset must deliver. With this assumption
in hand and assuming that everyone knows the value of Dt , equation (8) can be re-written as
Dt Et Pt+1
Pt = + (10)
1+r 1+r
write down the general approach to solving these equations, rather than just focusing only on
our current asset price example. In general, this type of equation can be written as
Its solution is derived using a technique called repeated substitution. This works as follows.
Equation (11) holds in all periods, so under the assumption of rational expectations, the
agents in the economy understand the equation and formulate their expectation in a way that
Note that this last term (Et Et+1 yt+2 ) should simplify to Et yt+2 : It would not be rational if
you expected that next period you would have a higher or lower expectation for yt+2 because
it implies you already have some extra information and are not using it. This is known as the
Repeating this method by substituting in for Et yt+2 , and then Et yt+3 and so on, we get a
yt = axt + abEt xt+1 + ab2 Et xt+2 + .... + abN −1 Et xt+N −1 + bN Et yt+N (15)
N −1
bk Et xt+k + bN Et yt+N
X
yt = a (16)
k=0
For those of you unfamiliar with the summation sign terminology, summation signs work like
this
2
X
zk = z0 + z1 + z2 (17)
k=0
X3
zk = z0 + z1 + z2 + z3 (18)
k=0
X4
zk = z0 + z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 (19)
k=0
and so on.
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 8
Comparing equations (10) and (11), we can see that our asset price equation is a specific case
y t = Pt (20)
xt = Dt (21)
1
a = (22)
1+r
1
b = (23)
1+r
N −1 k+1 N
1 1
X
Pt = Et Dt+k + Et Pt+N (24)
k=0 1+r 1+r
Another assumption usually made is that this final term tends to zero as N gets big:
N
1
lim Et Pt+N = 0 (25)
N →∞ 1+r
What is the logic behind this assumption? One explanation is that if it did not hold then
we could set all future values of Dt equal to zero, and the asset price would still be positive.
But an asset that never pays out should be inherently worthless, so this condition rules this
∞ k+1
X 1
Pt = Et Dt+k (26)
k=0 1+r
This equation, which states that asset prices should equal a discounted present-value sum of
The repeated substitution solution is really important to understand so let me try to explain
it without equations. Suppose I told you that the right way to price a stock was as follows.
Today’s stock price should equal today’s dividend plus half of tomorrow’s expected
stock price.
Now suppose it’s Monday. Then that means the right formula should be
Monday’s stock price should equal Monday’s dividend plus half of Tuesday’s ex-
Tuesday’s stock price should equal Tuesday’s dividend plus half of Wednesday’s
If people had rational expectations, then Monday’s stock prices would equal
And being consistent about it—factoring in what Wednesday’s stock price should be—you’d
and so on.
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 10
A useful special case that is often used as a benchmark for thinking about stock prices is the
case in which dividend payments are expected to grow at a constant rate such that
In this case, the dividend-discount model predicts that the stock price should be given by
∞ k
Dt X 1+g
Pt = (28)
1 + r k=0 1 + r
Now, remember the old multiplier formula, which states that as long as 0 < c < 1, then
∞
2 3 1
ck =
X
1 + c + c + c + .... = (29)
k=0 1−c
This geometric series formula gets used a lot in modern macroeconomics, not just in examples
1+g
involving the multiplier. Here we can use it as long as 1+r
< 1, i.e. as long as r (the expected
return on the stock market) is greater than g (the growth rate of dividends). We will assume
Dt 1
Pt = (30)
1 + r 1 − 1+g
1+r
Dt 1+r
= (31)
1 + r 1 + r − (1 + g)
Dt
= (32)
r−g
When dividend growth is expected to be constant, prices are a multiple of current dividend
payments, where that multiple depends positively on the expected future growth rate of
dividends and negatively on the expected future rate of return on stocks. This formula is
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 11
often called the Gordon growth model, after the economist that popularized it.2 It is often
used as a benchmark for assessing whether an asset is above or below the “fair” value implied
by rational expectations. Valuations are often expressed in terms of dividend-price ratios, and
Dt
=r−g (33)
Pt
A more flexible way to formulate expectations about future dividends is to assume that divi-
ut = ρut−1 + t (35)
These equations state that dividends are the sum of two processes: The first grows at rate
g each period. The second, ut , measures a cyclical component of dividends, and this follows
what is known as a first-order autoregressive process (AR(1) for short). Here t is a zero-mean
random “shock” term. Over large samples, we would expect ut to have an average value of
zero, but deviations from zero will be more persistent the higher is the value of the parameter
ρ.
We will now derive the dividend-discount model’s predictions for stock prices when divi-
Corporation.
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 12
Let’s split this sum into two. First the trend component,
∞ k+1 ∞
1 c(1 + g)t X 1+g k
t+k
X
Et c(1 + g) = (37)
k=0 1+r 1 + r k=0 1 + r
c(1 + g)t 1
= (38)
1 + r 1 − 1+g
1+r
c(1 + g)t 1+r
= (39)
1 + r 1 + r − (1 + g)
c(1 + g)t
= (40)
r−g
∞ k+1 ∞ k
1 ut X ρ
X
Et ut+k = (44)
k=0 1+r 1 + r k=0 1 + r
ut 1
= ρ (45)
1 + r 1 − 1+r
ut 1+r
= (46)
1+r1+r−ρ
ut
= (47)
1+r−ρ
c(1 + g)t ut
Pt = + (48)
r−g 1+r−ρ
In this case, stock prices don’t just grow at a constant rate. Instead they depend positively on
the cyclical component of dividends, ut , and the more persistent are these cyclical deviations
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 13
(the higher ρ is), the larger is their effect on stock prices. To give a concrete example, suppose
1 1
= =5 (49)
1+r−ρ 1.1 − 0.9
1 1
= =2 (50)
1+r−ρ 1.1 − 0.6
Note also that when taking averages over long periods of time, the u components of
dividends and prices will average to zero. Thus, over longer averages the Gordon growth
model would be approximately correct, even though the dividend-price ratio isn’t always
constant. Instead, prices would tend to be temporarily high relative to dividends during
periods when dividends are expected to grow at above-average rates for a while, and would
be temporarily low when dividend growth is expected to be below average for a while. This
is why the Gordon formula is normally seen as a guide to long-run average valuations rather
The dividend-discount model has some very specific predictions for how stock prices should
change over time. It implies that the change in prices from period t to period t + 1 should be
∞ k+1 ∞ k+1
X 1 X 1
Pt+1 − Pt = Et Dt+k+1 − Et Dt+k (51)
k=0 1+r k=0 1+r
Taking away the summation signs and writing this out in long form, it looks like this
2 3
" #
1 1 1
Pt+1 − Pt = Dt+1 + Et+1 Dt+2 + Et+1 Dt+3 + ....
1+r 1+r 1+r
" 2 3 #
1 1 1
− Dt + Et Dt+1 + Et Dt+2 + ... (52)
1+r 1+r 1+r
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 14
We can re-arrange this equation in a useful way by grouping together each of the two terms
that involve Dt+1 , Dt+2 , Dt+3 and so on. (There is only one term involving Dt .) This can be
written as follows
2
" #
1 1 1
Pt+1 − Pt = − Dt + Dt+1 − Et Dt+1
1+r 1+r 1+r
" 2 3 #
1 1
+ Et+1 Dt+2 − Et Dt+2 +
1+r 1+r
" 3 4 #
1 1
+ Et+1 Dt+3 − Et Dt+3 + .... (53)
1+r 1+r
This equation explains three reasons why prices change from period Pt to period Pt+1 .
Pt+1 differs from Pt because it does not take into account Dt – this dividend has been
paid now and has no influence any longer on the price at time t + 1. This is the first
Pt+1 applies a smaller discount rate to future dividends because have moved forward one
2
1 1
period in time, e.g. it discounts Dt+1 by 1+r
instead of 1+r
.
People formulate new expectations for the future path of dividends e.g. Et Dt+2 is gone
In general, the first few items above should not be too important. A single dividend payment
being made shouldn’t have too much impact on a stock’s price and the discount rate shouldn’t
2
1 1
change too much over a single period (e.g. if r is relatively small, then 1+r
and 1+r
shouldn’t be too different.) This means that changing expectations about future dividends
In fact, it turns out there is a very specific result linking the behaviour of stock prices with
changing expectations. Ultimately, it is not stock prices, per se, that investors are interested
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 15
in. Rather, they are interested in the combined return incorporating both price changes and
dividend payments, as described by equation (4). It turns out that movements in stock returns
With a number of lines of algebra (described in an appendix) equation (53) can be re-
expressed as
∞ k
" #
X 1
Pt+1 − Pt = −Dt + rPt + (Et+1 Dt+k − Et Dt+k ) (54)
k=1 1+r
Recalling the definition of the one-period return on a stock from equation (1), this return can
be written as
P∞ 1 k
Dt + ∆Pt+1 k=1 (E
1+r t+1 Dt+k − Et Dt+k )
rt+1 = =r+ (55)
Pt Pt
This is a very important result. It tells us that, if the dividend-discount model is correct,
then the rate of return on stocks depends on how people change their minds about what they
expect to happen to dividends in the future: The Et+1 Dt+k − Et Dt+k terms on the right-hand
side of equation (55) describe the difference between what people expected at time t + 1 for
the dividend at time t + k and what they expected for this same dividend payment at time t.
Importantly, if we assume that people formulate rational expectations, then the return on
stocks should be unpredictable. This is because, if we could tell in advance how people were
going to change their expectations of future events, then that would mean people have not
been using information in an efficient manner. So, with rational expectations, the term in the
summation sign in equation (55) must be zero on average and must reflect “news” that could
not have been forecasted at time t. So the only thing determining changes in stock returns in
One small warning about this result. It is often mis-understood as a prediction that stock
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 16
prices (rather than stock returns) should be unpredictable. This is not the case. The series
that should be unpredictable is the total stock return including the dividend payment. Indeed,
the model predicts that a high dividend payments at time t lowers stock prices at time t + 1.
Consider for example a firm that promises to make a huge dividend payment next month
but says they won’t make any payments after this for a long time. In that case, we would
expect the price of the stock to fall after the dividend is payment. This shows that, even
with rational expectations, stock prices movements can sometimes be predictable. Because
dividend payments are only made on an occasional basis, this prediction can be tested and
various studies have indeed found so-called “ex-dividend” effects whereby a stock price falls
The theoretical result that stock returns should be unpredictable was tested in a series of
empirical papers in the 1960s and 1970s, most notably by University of Chicago professor
Eugene Fama and his co-authors. The website contains a link to Fama’s famous 1970 paper
“Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work”. This literature came
to a clear conclusion that stock returns did seem to be essentially unpredictable. The idea
that you could not make easy money by “timing the market” entered public discussion with
Burton Malkiel’s famous 1973 book, A Random Walk Down Wall Street being particularly
influential. A “random walk” is a series whose changes cannot be forecasted and rational
The work of Fama and his co-authors was very important in establishing key facts about
how financial markets work. One downside to this research, though, was the introduction
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 17
of a terminology that proved confusing. Fama’s 1970 paper describes financial market as
being “efficient” if they “fully reflect all available information.” In general, the researchers
contributing to this literature concluded financial markets were efficient because stock returns
were difficult to forecast. However, this turned out to be a bit of a leap. It is certainly true
that if stock prices incorporate all available information in the rational manner described
above, then returns should be hard to forecast. But the converse doesn’t necessarily apply:
Showing that it was difficult to forecasting stock returns turned out to not be the same thing
The idea that financial markets were basically efficient was widely accepted in the economics
profession by the late 1970s. Then, a Yale economist in his mid-thirties, Robert Shiller,
dropped something of a bombshell on the finance profession. Shiller showed that the dividend-
discount model beloved of finance academics completely failed to match the observed volatility
of stock prices.3 Specifically, stock prices were much more volatile than could be justified by
the model.
To understand Shiller’s basic point, we need to take a step back and think about some
basic concepts relating to the formulation of expectations. First note that the ex post outcome
for any variable can be expressed as the sum of its ex ante value expected by somebody and
the unexpected component (i.e. the amount by which that person’s expectation was wrong).
3
“Do Stock Prices Move Too Much to be Justified by Subsequent Changes in Dividends?” American
Xt = Et−1 Xt + t (56)
From statistics, we know that the variance of the sum of two variables equals the sum of their
two variances plus twice their covariance. This means that the variance of Xt can be described
by
Now note that this last covariance term—between the “surprise” element t and the ex-
ante expectation Et−1 Xt —should equal zero if expectations are fully rational. If there was
a correlation—for instance, so that a low value of the expectation tended to imply a high
value for the error—then this would means that you could systematically construct a better
forecast once you had seen the forecast that was provided. For example, if a low forecasted
value tended to imply a positive error then you could construct a better forecast by going for
a higher figure. But this contradicts the idea that investors have rational expectations and
The variance of the observed series must equal the variance of the ex ante expectation plus
the variance of the unexpected component. Provided there is uncertainty, so there is some
In other words, the variance of the ex post outcome should be higher than the variance of ex
This reasoning has implications for the predicted volatility of stock prices. Equation (26)
says that stock prices are an ex ante expectation of a discount sum of future dividends.
Shiller’s observation was that rational expectations should imply that the variance of stock
prices be less than the variance of the present value of subsequent dividend movements:
"∞ k+1 #
X 1
Var(Pt ) < Var Dt+k (60)
k=0 1+r
A check on this calculation, using a wide range of possible values for r, reveals that this
inequality does not hold: Stocks are actually much more volatile than suggested by realized
movements in dividends.4
Figure 1 on the next page reproduces the famous graph from Shiller’s 1981 paper showing
actual stock prices (the sold line) moving around much more over time than his “discounted
outcome of dividends” series (the dashed line). Figure 2 shows an updated version of his
4
While technically, the infinite sum of dividends can’t be calculated because we don’t have data going past
the present, Shiller filled in all terms after the end of his sample based on plausible assumptions, and the
Longer-Run Predictability
We saw earlier that the dividend-discount model predicts that when the ratio of dividends to
prices is low, this suggests that investors are confident about future dividend growth. Thus,
a low dividend-price ratio should help to predict higher future dividend growth. Shiller’s
volatility research pointed out, however, that there appears to be a lot of movements in
stock prices that never turn out to be fully justified by later changes dividends. In fact,
later research went a good bit further. For example, Campbell and Shiller (2001) show that
over longer periods, dividend-price ratios are of essentially no use at all in forecasting future
dividend growth.5 In fact, a high ratio of prices to dividends, instead of forecasting high
growth in dividends, tends to forecast lower future returns on the stock market albeit with a
This last finding seems to contradict Fama’s earlier conclusions that it was difficult to
forecast stock returns but these results turn out to be compatible with both those findings
and the volatility results. Fama’s classic results on predictability focused on explaining short-
run stock returns e.g. can we use data from this year to forecast next month’s stock returns?
However, the form of predictability found by Campbell and Shiller (and indeed a number
of earlier studies) related to predicting average returns over multiple years. It turns out
an inability to do find short-run predictability is not the same thing as an inability to find
longer-run predictability.
To understand this, we need to develop some ideas about forecasting time series. Consider
yt = ρyt−1 + t (61)
5
NBER Working Paper No. 8221.
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 23
where t is a random and unpredictable “noise” process with a zero mean. If ρ = 1 then the
yt − yt−1 = t (62)
so the series is what is what we described earlier as a random walk process whose changes
cannot be predicted. Suppose, however, that ρ was close to but a bit less than one, say
Now suppose you wanted to assess whether you could forecast the change in the series based
on last period’s value of the series. You could run a regression of the change in yt on last
period’s value of the series. The true coefficient in this relationship is -0.01 with the t being
the random error. This coefficient of -0.01 is so close to zero that you will probably be unable
to reject that the true coefficient is zero unless you have far more data than economists usually
But what if you were looking at forecasting changes in the series over a longer time-horizon?
To understand why this might be different, we can do another repeated substitution trick.
The series yt depends on its lagged value, yt−1 and a random shock. But yt−1 in turn depended
on yt−2 and another random shock. And yt−2 in turn depended on yt−3 and another random
shock. And so on. Plugging in all of these substitutions you get the following.
yt = ρyt−1 + t
= ρ2 yt−2 + t + ρt−1
Now suppose you wanted to forecast the change in yt over N periods with the value of the
N −1
yt − yt−N = ρN − 1 yt−N + ρk t−k
X
(65)
k=0
Again the change in yt over this period can be written as a function of a past value of the
series and some random noise. The difference in this case is that the coefficient on the lagged
value doesn’t have to be small anymore even if had a near-random walk series. For example,
suppose ρ = 0.99 and N = 50 so were looking at the change in the series over 50 periods.
In this case, the coefficient is (0.9950 − 1) = −0.4. For this reason, regressions that seek to
predict combined returns over longer periods have found statistically significant evidence of
predictability even though this evidence cannot be found for predicting returns over shorter
periods.
It is very easy to demonstrate this result using any software that can generate random
numbers. For example, in an appendix at the back of the notes I provide a short programme
written for the econometric package RATS. The code is pretty intuitive and could be repeated
for lots of other packages. The programme generates random AR(1) series with ρ = 0.99 by
starting them off with a value of zero and then drawing random errors to generate full time
series. Then regressions for sample sizes of 200 are run to see if changes in the series over one
period, twenty periods and fifty periods can be forecasted by the relevant lagged values. This
is done 10,000 times and the average t-statistics from these regressions are calculated.
Table 1 shows the results. The average t-statistic for the one-period forecasting regression
is -1.24, not high enough to reject the null hypothesis that there is no forecasting power. In
contrast, the average t-statistic for the 20-period forecasting regression is -5.69 and the average
t-statistic for the 50-period forecasting regression is -8.95, so you can be very confident that
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 25
The intuition behind these results is fairly simple. Provided ρ is less than one in absolute
value, AR(1) series are what is known as mean-stationary. In other words, they tend to revert
back to their average value. In the case of the yt series here, this average value is zero. The
speed at which you can expect them to return to this average value will be slow if ρ is high but
they will eventually return. So if you see a high value of yt , you can’t really be that confident
that it will fall next period but you can be very confident that it will eventually tend to fall
Pulling these ideas together to explain the various stock price results, suppose prices were
given by
∞ k+1
" #
X 1
Pt = Et Dt+k + ut (66)
k=0 1+r
where
ut = ρut−1 + t (67)
with ρ being close to one and t being an unpredictable noise series. This model says that
stock prices are determined by two elements. The first is the rational dividend-discount price
and the second is a non-fundamental AR(1) element reflecting non-rational market sentiment.
The latter could swing up and down over time as various fads and manias affect the market.
1. Short-term stock returns would be very hard to forecast. This is partly because of the
though with a relatively low R-squared. This is because the fundamental element that
accounts for much of the variation cannot be forecasted while you can detect a statisti-
3. Stock prices would be more volatile than predicted by the dividend-discount model, per-
haps significantly so. This is because non-fundamental series of the type described here
can go through pretty long swings which adds a lot more volatility than the dividend-
This suggests a possible explanation for the behaviour of stock prices. On average, they
appear to be determined by something like the dividend-discount model but they also have
a non-fundamental component that sees the market go through temporary (but potentially
long) swings in which it moves away from the values predicted by this model.
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 27
These results would suggest that it may be possible to detect whether a stock market is over-
valued or under-valued and thus to forecast its future path. Let’s consider an example and
look at the current state of the U.S. stock market as measured by the S&P 500 which is a
Figure 4 shows that the U.S. market has been on a tear over the past decade and has
moved well past previous historical highs. The last two times the market expanded rapidly
Figure 5 shows the ratio of dividends to prices for the S&P 500 index of US stocks over
the period since the second world war. The measure of dividends used in the numerator is
based on the average value of dividends over a twelve month period to smooth out volatile
month-to-month movements. The chart shows that the dividend-price ratio for this index has
been very low by historical standards in recent years. In other words, prices are very high
Still, comparisons with the long-run historical average might be a bad idea. The average
value of this ratio over the period since 1945 is 3.2 percent. The only point since the mid-1990s
that the ratio has exceeded that historical average was a brief period in early 2009 due to the
plunge in stock prices after the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy and the emergence of the worst
One reason for this change is that many firms have moved away from paying dividends. In
more recent years, it is particularly clear that dividends have been low relative to how much
companies can afford to pay. The ratio of dividends to earnings for S&P 500 firms is about
half its historical level. There are two reasons for this. There has been a long-run trend of
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 30
moving away from paying dividends and towards using earnings to fund share repurchases.
This is a way to return money to shareholders and increase the value of the remaining shares
(each of them can get a higher share of future dividend payments) without the shareholders
explicitly receiving dividend income at present, which would be taxable at a higher rate than
capital gains.
Because of these factors, many analysts instead look at the ratio of total corporate earnings
to prices. Figure 6 compares this to the dividend-price ratio. This ratio of average earnings
over the previous twelve months to prices was about 3.4 percent in September 2020. This is
well below the historical average of about 6.7 percent so this series suggests that stocks are
A final consideration, however, is the discount rate being used to value stocks. We know
from the Gordon growth model that one reason stock prices might be high relative to dividends
(or earnings) is that the expected rate of return r may be low. Assuming the required rate
of return on stocks reflects some premium over safe investments such government bonds, this
could provide another explanation for high stock price valuations. Figure 7 shows that real
interest rates on US Treasury bonds are at historically low levels (this series is the yield on
ten-year Treasury bonds minus inflation over the previous year). If these rates are being used
as a benchmark for calculating the required rate of return on stocks, then one might expect
This shows that figuring out whether stocks are under- or over-valued is rarely as easy as
one in which stock prices are also determined by a temporary but volatile non-fundamental
component. However, the last observation in the previous section — about discount rates
— suggests another way to “mend” the dividend-discount model and perhaps explain the
extra volatility that affects stock prices: Change the model to allow for variations in expected
returns. Consider the finding that a high value of the dividend-price ratio predicts poor future
stock returns. Shiller suggests that this is due to temporary irrational factors gradually
disappearing. But another possibility is that that the high value of this ratio is rationally
We can reformulate the dividend-discount model with time-varying returns as follows. Let
Rt = 1 + rt (68)
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 32
Start again from the first-order difference equation for stock prices
Dt Pt+1
Pt = + (69)
Rt+1 Rt+1
where Rt+1 is the return on stocks in period t + 1. Moving the time-subscripts forward one
zero and taking expectations, we get a version of the dividend-discount model augmented to
This equation gives a potential explanation for the failure of news about dividends to explain
stock price fluctuations. Stock prices depend positively on expected future dividends. But
they also depend negatively on the Rt+k values which measure the expected future return on
stocks. So perhaps news about future stock returns explains movements in stock prices: When
investors learn that future returns are going to be lower, this raises current stock prices.
The website provides a link to a 1991 paper by Eugene Fama which provide his updated
overview of the literature on the predictability of stock returns. By this point, Fama accepted
the evidence on long-horizon predictability and had contributed to this literature. However,
Fama and French (1988) put forward predictable time-variation in expected returns as the
likely explanation for this result.6 This explanation has also been promoted by leading modern
finance economists such as John Campbell and John Cochrane and is currently the leading
hypothesis for reconciling the evidence on stock prices movements with rational expectations.7
6
Eugene Fama and Kenneth French (1988). “Dividend Yields and Expected Stock Returns” Journal of
Changing interest rates on bonds are the most obvious source of changes in expected returns
on stocks. Up to now, we only briefly discussed what determines the rate of return that
investors require to invest in the stock market, but it is usually assumed that there is an
In other words, next period’s expected return on the market needs to equal next period’s
expected interest rate on bonds, it+1 , plus a risk premium, π, which we will assume is constant.
Are interest rates the culprit accounting for the volatility of stock prices? They are cer-
tainly a plausible candidate. Stock market participants spend a lot of time monitoring the Fed
and the ECB and news interpreted as implying higher interest rates in the future certainly
tends to provoke declines in stock prices. Perhaps surprisingly, then, Campbell and Shiller
(1988) showed that this type of equation still doesn’t help that much in explaining stock mar-
ket fluctuations.8 Their methodology involved plugging in forecasts for future interest rates
and dividend growth into the right-hand-side of (74) and checking how close the resulting
series is to the actual dividend-price ratio. They concluded that expected fluctuations in in-
terest rates contribute little to explaining the volatility in stock prices. A study co-authored
by Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke examining the link between monetary policy and
So, changes in interest rates do not appear to explain the volatility of stock market fluctuations.
The final possible explanation for how the dividend-discount model may be consistent with the
data is that changes in expected returns do account for the bulk of stock market movements,
but that the principal source of these changes comes, not from interest rates, but from changes
in the risk premium that determines the excess return that stocks must generate relative to
bonds: The π in equation (75) must be changing over time. According to this explanation,
asset price booms are often driven by investors being willing to take risks and receive a
relatively low compensation for them (when investors are “risk-on” in the commonly-used
market terminology) while busts often happen when investors start to demand higher risk
One problem with this conclusion is that it implies that, most of the time, when stocks are
increasing it is because investors are anticipating lower stock returns at a later date. However,
the evidence that we have on this seems to point in the other direction. For example, surveys
have shown that even at the peak of the most recent bull market, average investors still
If one rejects the idea that, together, news about dividends and news about future returns
explain all of the changes in stock prices, then one is forced to reject the rational expecta-
tions dividend-discount model as a complete model of the stock market. What is missing
from this model? Many believe that the model fails to take into account of various human
behavioural traits that lead people to act in a manner inconsistent with pure rational expec-
tations. Economists like Shiller point to the various asset price “bubbles” of the past twenty
years — such as the dot-com boom and bust and the rise and fall in house prices in countries
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 37
like the U.S. and Ireland, as clear evidence that investors go through periods of “irrational ex-
huberance” which sees asset prices become completely detached from the fundamental values
Indeed, the inability to reconcile aggregate stock price movements with rational expecta-
tions is not the only well-known failure of modern financial economics. For instance, there
are many studies documenting the failure of rational optimisation-based models to explain
various cross-sectional patterns in asset returns, e.g. why the average return on stocks ex-
ceeds that on bonds by so much, or discrepancies in the long-run performance of small- and
large-capitalisation stocks. Eugene Fama is the author of a number of famous papers with
Kenneth French that have demonstrated these discrepancies though he interprets these results
as most likely due to a rational pricing of the risk associated with certain kinds of assets.
For many, the answers to these questions lie in abandoning the pure rational expecta-
tions, optimising approach. Indeed, the field of behavioural finance is booming, with various
researchers proposing all sorts of different non-optimising models of what determines asset
Here’s a brief summary of the things that you need to understand from these notes.
2. The repeated substitution method for solving first-order stochastic difference equations.
4. How to derive the Gordon growth formula and the variant with cyclical dividends.
7. The logic behind Robert Shiller’s test of the dividend-discount model and his findings.
9. Why stock returns may be predictable over a longer horizon but not a shorter one.
10. How to incorporate time-varying expected returns, interest rates and risk premia.
11. The state of debate about rational expectations and asset pricing.
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 39
2
" #
1 1 1
Pt+1 − Pt = = − Dt + Dt+1 − Et Dt+1
1+r 1+r 1+r
" 2 3 #
1 1
+ Et+1 Dt+2 − Et Dt+2 +
1+r 1+r
" 3 4 #
1 1
+ Et+1 Dt+3 − Et Dt+3 + ....
1+r 1+r
This shows that the change in stock prices is determined by a term relating to this period’s
dividend’s “dropping out” and then a whole bunch of terms that involve period t + 1 and
period t expectations of future dividends. To be able to pull all the terms for each Dt+k
k
1
together, we both add and subtract a set of terms of the form 1+r
Et Dt+k . The equation
1
Pt+1 − Pt = = [Dt+1 − Et Dt+1 ]
1+r
2
1
+ [Et+1 Dt+2 − Et Dt+2 ]
1+r
3
1
+ [Et+1 Dt+3 − Et Dt+3 ] + ....
1 + r
1
− Dt
1+r
1 1
+ 1− Et Dt+1
1+r 1+r
2
1 1
+ 1− Et Dt+2
1+r 1+r
3
1 1
+ 1− Et Dt+3 + ... (76)
1+r 1+r
The sequence summarised on the first three lines of equation (76) can be described using a
summation sign as
∞ k
" #
X 1
(Et+1 Dt+k − Et Dt+k ) (77)
k=1 1+r
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 40
This is an infinite discounted sum of changes to people’s expectations about future dividends.
The sequence summarised on the last three lines of equation (76) can be simplified to be
r 1 r
(1 + r) Pt − Dt = rPt − Dt (78)
1+r 1+r 1+r
∞ k
" #
r 1 1
X
Pt+1 − Pt = − Dt − Dt + rPt + (Et+1 Dt+k − Et Dt+k )
1+r 1+r k=1 1+r
∞ k
" #
X 1
= −Dt + rPt + (Et+1 Dt+k − Et Dt+k ) (79)
k=1 1+r
which is the equation we were looking for: So the return on stocks can be written as
P∞ 1 k
Dt + ∆Pt+1 k=1 (E 1+r t+1 Dt+k − Et Dt+k )
rt+1 = =r+ (80)
Pt Pt
University College Dublin, Advanced Macroeconomics Notes, 2021 (Karl Whelan) Page 41
Below is the text of a programme to generate the return predictability results reported in
Table 1. The programme is written for the econometric package RATS but a programme of
this sort could be written for any package that has a random number generator.
allocate 10000
set y = 0
set tstats_1lag = 0
set tstats_20lag = 0
set tstats_50lag = 0
do k = 1,10000
set y 2 300 = 0.99*y{1} + %ran(1)
set dy = y - y{1}
set dy20 = y - y{20}
set dy50 = y - y{50}
linreg(noprint) dy 101 300
# y{1}
comp tstats_1lag(k) = %tstats(1)
linreg(noprint) dy20 101 300
# y{20}
comp tstats_20lag(k) = %tstats(1)
linreg(noprint) dy50 101 300
# y{50}
comp tstats_50lag(k) = %tstats(1)
end do k
stats tstats_1lag
stats tstats_20lag
stats tstats_50lag