Acknowledgements: My Eternal Strength - My Family and My Wife, Shravani Thamminidi (Co-Founder, PMF IAS)

PMF IAS® Environment Second Edition
© Manjunath Thamminidi, PMF IAS®

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Environment Second Edition by PMF IAS® Team: Manjunath Thamminidi (author and editor) (ad-
min@pmfias.com), Gaurav Sharma (infographics) (gauravkumarsharma@icloud.com) and Rajashree Borah
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Acknowledgements
Team PMF IAS sincerely thanks all our contributors and readers. You remain our cornerstone, and we are
very much obliged and grateful to you. Special thanks to our early contributors for their generous support.
Special thanks to Anand Parmar, Rajashree Borah and many other aspirants for their input. I wholeheartedly
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thank my family, especially my wife, Shravani Thamminidi, for their constant support and forbearance.
PMF IAS – Learn Smart
Dedicated to
My Eternal Strength – My Family and My Wife, Shravani Thamminidi (Co-founder, PMF IAS)
UPSC CSE Syllabus Relevant to Environment
 UPSC CSE Prelims (GS): General issues on Environmental Ecology, Bio-diversity, and Climate Change – that
do not require subject specialisation.
 UPSC Civil Services Mains GS I: Geographical features and their location – changes in critical geographical
features (including water bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.
 Critical geographical features  Major Geographic Features that have a significant bearing on the re-
gional/global climate/ecosystems. Examples: The Himalayas, The Polar Ice Caps, The Great Barrier Reef, The
Amazon Rainforest, etc.
 UPSC Civil Services Mains GS III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental im-
pact assessment.
Study Guide
1. Analyze the past 5-6 years’ UPSC CSE Prelims and Mains question papers to understand the pattern and
nature of questions from Environment.
2. First Reading: Cover only the first few paragraphs (mostly the introduction part) of each topic to get a
broader understanding of the scheme of things.
3. Reanalyse the past 5-6 years’ UPSC CSE Prelims and Mains question papers.
4. Second Reading: Cover the entire book thoroughly.
5. Take a good test series for Prelims and Mains to identify your strengths and weaknesses.
6. Revise, rerevise, practise test series, and chart your plan based on your strengths and weaknesses.
Environment questions in prelims and mains are predominately based on contemporary issues and current affairs.
Hence it would be best to cover the PMF IAS current affairs thoroughly.
Colour Codes: We have used colour coding extensively to make it easier for you to understand the key con-
cepts and focus areas. Multiple colours are used for distinguishing keywords.
Always Pay attention to an Important Update from PMF IAS !!

PMF IAS Environment Digital Downloads and Current Affairs:
https://www.pmfias.com/environment-downloads/
Stay updated!
PMF IAS Email Newsletter: https://www.pmfias.com/newsletters/
PMF IAS Telegram Channel: https://t.me/pmfias_channel

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Table of Contents
1. Environment, Habitat and Ecosystem ........................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Environment ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Habitat ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
Habitat vs Environment ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Ecosystem .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Classification of Ecosystems ............................................................................................................................... 2
Ecosystem vs Environment vs Ecology ................................................................................................................ 2
1.4. Components of an Ecosystem ................................................................................................................. 3
Abiotic Components............................................................................................................................................ 3
Biotic Components .............................................................................................................................................. 6
2. Ecology – Principles and Organizations ....................................................................................................... 8
2.1. Levels of Organizations in Ecology ........................................................................................................ 8
Individual and Species ........................................................................................................................................ 8
Population .......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Community ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Ecosystem ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
Biome ................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Ecotone ............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Biosphere .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2. Principles of Ecology .............................................................................................................................. 13
Adaptation ........................................................................................................................................................ 13
Variation ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
Speciation ......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Mutation ........................................................................................................................................................... 15
Natural Selection .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Evolution ........................................................................................................................................................... 16
Extinction .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
3. Functions of an Ecosystem – Succession and Homeostasis ....................................................................... 18
3.1. Ecological Succession ............................................................................................................................. 18
Stages in Ecological Succession ........................................................................................................................ 18
Primary Succession ........................................................................................................................................... 18
Secondary Succession ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Autogenic and Allogenic Succession ................................................................................................................. 20
Succession in Plants .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Succession in Water .......................................................................................................................................... 21
3.2. Homeostasis in Ecosystem .................................................................................................................... 21
Homeostasis ..................................................................................................................................................... 22
4. Functions of an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels ............................................................................................... 24
4.1. Food Chain .............................................................................................................................................. 24
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Grazing food chain............................................................................................................................................ 24

Detritus food chain ........................................................................................................................................... 25
4.2. Food Web ................................................................................................................................................ 26

Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web ...................................................................................................... 29
4.3. Ecological Pyramids............................................................................................................................... 31
Pyramid of Numbers ......................................................................................................................................... 31
Pyramid of Biomass .......................................................................................................................................... 33
Pyramid of Energy ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids ................................................................................................................... 36
Biomagnification – Pollutants and Trophic Level ............................................................................................. 36
5. Functions of an Ecosystem – Biogeo Chemical Cycling ............................................................................. 38
5.1. Types of Nutrient Cycles........................................................................................................................ 38
5.2. Carbon Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) ............................................................................................................... 38
Steps in Carbon Cycle ........................................................................................................................................ 39
5.3. Nitrogen Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) ............................................................................................................ 40
Nitrogen Fixing – N2 to Ammonia (NH3) ........................................................................................................... 40
Nitrification – Ammonia to Nitrites and Nitrates ............................................................................................. 42
Ammonification – Urea, Uric Acid to NH3 to Nitrite ......................................................................................... 42
Denitrification – Nitrate to Nitrogen ................................................................................................................ 43
Nitrogen Cycle Summary .................................................................................................................................. 43
5.4. Methane Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) ............................................................................................................ 44
Natural Sources of Methane Emissions ............................................................................................................ 45
Human Sources of Methane Emissions............................................................................................................. 46
Methane Sink .................................................................................................................................................... 47
5.5. Phosphorus Cycle (Sedimentary cycle) ................................................................................................ 47
5.6. Sulphur Cycle (Mostly Sedimentary Cycle) .......................................................................................... 47
Steps in Sulphur Cycle ....................................................................................................................................... 48
6. Natural Ecosystems ...................................................................................................................................... 52
6.1. Terrestrial Ecosystems or Biomes ......................................................................................................... 52
Major Biomes ................................................................................................................................................... 53
Tundra Biome ................................................................................................................................................... 53
Taiga or Boreal Biome ...................................................................................................................................... 54
Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate) ................................................ 55
Temperate Rainforest Biome ............................................................................................................................ 55
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South-eastern USA .............................................................. 55
Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome ............................................................................................................ 55
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean) ................................................................................................ 55
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)................................................................................................. 55
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome .......................................................................................................... 55
Tropical Rainforest Biome ................................................................................................................................ 56
Desert Biome .................................................................................................................................................... 59
6.2. Aquatic Ecosystems ................................................................................................................................ 60
Aquatic Organisms ........................................................................................................................................... 60
Factors Limiting the Productivity ...................................................................................................................... 61
6.3. Natural Ecosystem Services and Goods ............................................................................................... 62
Quantifying the Economic Value of Natural Ecosystems (Ecosystem valuation) ............................................. 63
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)..................................................................................... 63
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) ............................................................................................................. 64
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Ecosystem Services by Seagrass ....................................................................................................................... 65

Ecosystem Services by Seaweed ....................................................................................................................... 66
7. Wetland Ecosystem ....................................................................................................................................... 69

7.1. Differences Between Wetlands and Lakes ........................................................................................... 69
7.2. Estuarine Wetland Ecosystem ............................................................................................................... 71
Differences between Lagoon and Estuary ........................................................................................................ 71
Importance of Estuaries.................................................................................................................................... 71
Estuarine Vegetation ........................................................................................................................................ 72
Indian Estuarine Ecosystem .............................................................................................................................. 72
Threats Faced by the Estuarine Ecosystem....................................................................................................... 72
7.3. Mangroves .............................................................................................................................................. 73
Adaptive Mechanism of Mangroves ................................................................................................................. 73
Mangroves in India ........................................................................................................................................... 73
Global Status of Mangrove Cover ..................................................................................................................... 76
Importance of mangroves ................................................................................................................................ 76
Threats to Mangroves ...................................................................................................................................... 78
7.4. Importance of Wetlands ........................................................................................................................ 80
7.5. Reasons for the Depletion of Wetlands ............................................................................................... 80
Mitigation of Wetland Destruction .................................................................................................................. 81
7.6. Measures to Protect Wetlands of India ................................................................................................ 81
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) ...................................................................... 81
Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2010 ........................................................................................ 82
Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2017 ........................................................................................ 82
7.7. Measures to Protect Global Wetlands .................................................................................................. 83
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands ..................................................................................................................... 83
Ramsar Site ....................................................................................................................................................... 86
8. Biodiversity and Loss of Biodiversity .......................................................................................................... 88
8.1. Terms Related to Biodiversity ............................................................................................................... 88
Biodiversity ....................................................................................................................................................... 88
Genetic Diversity ............................................................................................................................................... 89
Species Diversity ............................................................................................................................................... 89
Ecological Diversity ........................................................................................................................................... 89
Endemism ......................................................................................................................................................... 89
Species Types .................................................................................................................................................... 91
Bioprospecting .................................................................................................................................................. 92
Biopiracy ........................................................................................................................................................... 92
8.2. Biodiversity of India .............................................................................................................................. 92
Realms .............................................................................................................................................................. 93
Biomes, Biogeographic Zones and Provinces ................................................................................................... 94
8.3. Biodiversity Hot Spots ........................................................................................................................... 95
Biodiversity Hotspots in India ........................................................................................................................... 96
8.4. Loss of Biodiversity ................................................................................................................................ 97
The Extent of Biodiversity Loss as per IPBES Report ......................................................................................... 98
Living Planet Report 2022................................................................................................................................. 98
The State of the World’s Birds .......................................................................................................................... 98
8.5. Causes Behind Biodiversity Loss ......................................................................................................... 100
Habitat Loss and Fragmentation .................................................................................................................... 100
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Alien Species Invasions ................................................................................................................................... 101

Over-Exploitation ............................................................................................................................................ 102
Species Extinction ........................................................................................................................................... 102
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO/Transgenic Organisms) ................................................................... 103

Trade in Wildlife ............................................................................................................................................. 104
Pollution and Climate Change ........................................................................................................................ 104
8.6. Consequences of Loss of Biodiversity ................................................................................................. 104
Affects Livelihood............................................................................................................................................ 104
Human-animal Conflict ................................................................................................................................... 104
Increased Zoonoses due to Habitat Loss ........................................................................................................ 107
Adverse Changes to Biotic Interactions .......................................................................................................... 107
9. Biodiversity Conservation .......................................................................................................................... 108
9.1. In situ conservation.............................................................................................................................. 108
Reserved and Protected Forests ..................................................................................................................... 108
Wildlife Sanctuaries or Wildlife Refuges......................................................................................................... 108
National Park .................................................................................................................................................. 109
Biosphere Reserve........................................................................................................................................... 109
Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) .............................................................................................................................. 111
Conservation Reserves .................................................................................................................................... 112
Community Reserves ...................................................................................................................................... 112
Sacred Groves ................................................................................................................................................. 112
9.2. Ex Situ Conservation ............................................................................................................................ 112
9.3. National Initiatives .............................................................................................................................. 113
Wildlife Mitigation Measures – Eco-Bridges .................................................................................................. 113
Quarantine Centres to Check Invasive Species ............................................................................................... 113
Preservation of the Western and Eastern Ghats ............................................................................................ 114
Historic Citizen Movements ............................................................................................................................ 115
9.4. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ........................................................................................ 116
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety .................................................................................................................... 117
Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing ............................................................................................ 117
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA)..................................... 117
Aichi Biodiversity Targets ............................................................................................................................... 118
COP-15 of the UN CBD .................................................................................................................................... 118
Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework ..................................................................................................... 118
9.5. Other International Efforts.................................................................................................................. 119
Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration (GPFLR) ................................................................ 119
World Forestry Congress and Seoul Declaration ............................................................................................ 121
Initiatives By The UN....................................................................................................................................... 122
10. Wildlife Conservation ................................................................................................................................ 124
10.1. Regulating Trade in Wildlife......................................................................................................... 124
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) ........................ 124
19th Conference of the Parties to CITES (CoP19) ............................................................................................. 125
Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE).......................................................................................... 127
The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC) ........................................................................................ 128
Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) ................................................................................................ 128
10.2. Policies/Laws Concerning CITES in India ..................................................................................... 128
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 ....................................................................................................................... 129
Policies Regulating Foreign Trade .................................................................................................................. 129
Enforcement: Wildlife Crime Control Bureau ................................................................................................. 129
10.3. Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) ...................................................................................... 130
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The 13th Conference of the Parties to CMS (CoP13) ....................................................................................... 131

Central Asian Mammals Initiative .................................................................................................................. 131
10.4. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) ............................................................ 131

IUCN Red List or Red Data List or Red Book.................................................................................................... 131
BirdLife International (BI) ............................................................................................................................... 133
10.5. Tiger Conservation and Project Tiger ........................................................................................... 133
Challenges to Tiger Conservation ................................................................................................................... 133
Measures Taken by GOI .................................................................................................................................. 134
Project Tiger (PT) ............................................................................................................................................ 135
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)............................................................................................... 135
Tiger Corridors ................................................................................................................................................ 136
Core and Buffer Zones in Tiger Reserves ........................................................................................................ 138
Tiger Census .................................................................................................................................................... 139
2018 Tiger Census Report (All-India Tiger Estimate) ...................................................................................... 140
10.6. International Efforts Towards Tiger and Snow Leopard Conservation ..................................... 142
The Global Tiger Initiative .............................................................................................................................. 142
St. Petersburg Declaration.............................................................................................................................. 144
TX2 and Tiger Conservation Excellence Award ............................................................................................... 144
Project Snow Leopard ..................................................................................................................................... 145
10.7. Reintroduction of Cheetahs in India ............................................................................................. 145
Cheetah vs Leopard vs Jaguar ........................................................................................................................ 146
Why Kuno NP? ................................................................................................................................................ 146
10.8. Conservation of Lions..................................................................................................................... 148
Asiatic Lion ...................................................................................................................................................... 148
Project Lion ..................................................................................................................................................... 148
10.9. Conservation of Elephants ............................................................................................................. 150
Asian Elephant vs African Elephant and African Forest Elephant vs African Savanna (Bush) Elephant......... 150
Ecological Importance of Elephants ............................................................................................................... 151
Elephant Corridor ........................................................................................................................................... 151
Project Elephant ............................................................................................................................................. 152
Other Intitiatives ............................................................................................................................................. 152
10.10. Conservation of Great One-Horned Rhino ................................................................................... 153
Rhino Species Across the World...................................................................................................................... 153
India’s Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros ......................................................................................................... 153
India Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020 ......................................................................................................................... 154
10.11. Conservation of the Indian Dolphins............................................................................................ 155
Indian Dolphin Species .................................................................................................................................... 155
Ganges River Dolphin Conservation Measures ............................................................................................... 157
10.12. Conservation of India Crocodile Species ...................................................................................... 158
Crocodile vs Alligator vs Gharial ..................................................................................................................... 158
Indian Crocodile Species ................................................................................................................................. 158
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project ............................................................................................................ 160
10.13. Conservation of Turtles.................................................................................................................. 160
Batagur Turtles Species .................................................................................................................................. 161
Nissilonia Turtle Species ................................................................................................................................. 162
Sea Turtle Species ........................................................................................................................................... 164
Sea Turtle Conservation Project ..................................................................................................................... 167
10.14. Conservation of Indian Vultures ................................................................................................... 167
Diclofenac and Indian Vulture Crisis ............................................................................................................... 168
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India Vultures Species ..................................................................................................................................... 168

Major Non-Indian Vulture Species .................................................................................................................. 171
Steps Taken by The Government .................................................................................................................... 172

10.15. Other National Efforts ................................................................................................................... 173
Project Hangul (Kashmiri Stag)....................................................................................................................... 173
Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats ................................................................................................ 173
Animal Welfare Board of India ....................................................................................................................... 174
National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) 2017-2031 ......................................................................................... 175
National Action Plan for Conservation of Migratory Birds (2018-2023) ........................................................ 176
Green Good Deeds Initiative ........................................................................................................................... 176
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) ........................................................................................................ 176
10.16. International Effor.......................................................................................................................... 177
World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) .......................................................................................................... 177
International Whaling Commission (IWC) ...................................................................................................... 178
11. India State of Forest Report 2021 ............................................................................................................. 179
11.1. Forest Survey of India (FSI)............................................................................................................ 179
11.2. Major Terms/Definitions in ISFR ................................................................................................... 179
11.3. Status of India’s Forest Resources in 2021 (ISFR 2021) .............................................................. 181
Forest and Tree Cover of India ........................................................................................................................ 181
Forest Cover .................................................................................................................................................... 181
Recorded Forest Area (RFA) ............................................................................................................................ 183
Tree Cover ....................................................................................................................................................... 185
Tress Outside Forests (TOF) ............................................................................................................................ 185
Fire Proneness................................................................................................................................................. 185
Mangrove Cover ............................................................................................................................................. 187
Criticism of FSI’s approach and ISFR ............................................................................................................... 187
11.4. National Forest Inventory.............................................................................................................. 188
Growing Stock................................................................................................................................................. 188
Bamboo Resources of the Country ................................................................................................................. 189
11.5. Forest Types of India ...................................................................................................................... 191
Carbon Stock in India's Forests ....................................................................................................................... 192
11.6. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 ................................................................................... 194
Forest Area of Top 5 Countries In 2020 .......................................................................................................... 195
GFRA and India ............................................................................................................................................... 195
11.7. National Forest Policy 1988 .......................................................................................................... 195
Other Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 196
Draft National Forest Policy 2018 .................................................................................................................. 196
11.8. Afforestation Programmes ............................................................................................................ 196
National Afforestation Programme (NAP) ..................................................................................................... 197
Compensatory Afforestation (CA)................................................................................................................... 198
Green Credit Scheme ...................................................................................................................................... 199
Aerial Seeding for Reforestation..................................................................................................................... 200
12. Air Pollution: Causes and Air Pollutants.................................................................................................. 202
12.1. Pollution .......................................................................................................................................... 202
Air Pollution .................................................................................................................................................... 202
Major Causes of Air Pollution ......................................................................................................................... 202
Classification of Air Pollutants ........................................................................................................................ 206
12.2. Air Pollutants .................................................................................................................................. 207
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Particulate Pollutants ..................................................................................................................................... 207

Fly ash ............................................................................................................................................................. 207
Nanoparticles (NPs) ........................................................................................................................................ 208

Black Carbon (Soot) and Himalayan Glaciers ................................................................................................. 210
Carbon Monoxide (CO) ................................................................................................................................... 210
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ...................................................................................................................................... 211
Ozone (O3)....................................................................................................................................................... 212
Stratospheric Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) .......................................................................................... 213
Nitrogen Oxides (Oxides of Nitrogen) (NOx) ................................................................................................... 214
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) ...................................................................................................................................... 215
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) ............................................................................................................... 216
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) ............................................................................................................... 217
Benzene .......................................................................................................................................................... 217
Minor Air Pollutants ....................................................................................................................................... 218
12.3. Radioactive Pollution..................................................................................................................... 219
Accidents at Nuclear Power Plants ................................................................................................................. 219
Safe Disposal of Nuclear Wastes .................................................................................................................... 220
Non-Ionizing Radiation ................................................................................................................................... 220
Ionising Radiation ........................................................................................................................................... 221
13. Air Pollution: Effects and Control Measures ............................................................................................ 224
13.1. Effects of Air Pollution ................................................................................................................... 224
Smog (Smoke + Fog) ....................................................................................................................................... 224
Acid Rain – Acidification ................................................................................................................................. 225
Ocean Acidification ......................................................................................................................................... 228
Aerosols and their Impact on Monsoon Rainfall ............................................................................................ 230
Ozone Depletion ............................................................................................................................................. 235
Effects on Health ............................................................................................................................................ 239
13.2. Prevention and Control of Air Pollution ...................................................................................... 240
Control of Industrial Pollution......................................................................................................................... 240
Pollution Index to Control Industrial Pollution................................................................................................ 241
Coal Gasification ............................................................................................................................................. 242
Measures to Control Vehicular Pollution in India ........................................................................................... 242
National Clean Air Program (NCAP) ............................................................................................................... 245
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme ................................................................................................. 246
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) ......................................................................................... 246
SAFAR System for Monitoring Air Pollutants .................................................................................................. 247
National Air Quality Index (AQI) ..................................................................................................................... 248
Measures to Control Air Pollution in NCR ....................................................................................................... 249
Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) by Gujarat................................................................................................... 251
Other Measures .............................................................................................................................................. 252
13.3. Measures to Regulate Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)........................................................ 252
Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol .................................................................................................... 252
Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol 2016............................................................................................... 254
The Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) Rules ................................................................................................ 255
14. Water Pollution: Causes, Effects & Control Measures............................................................................. 256
14.1. Water Pollution .............................................................................................................................. 256
Measuring Pollution Load in Water ................................................................................................................ 256
14.2. Causes of Water Pollution ............................................................................................................. 257
Industrial Wastes ............................................................................................................................................ 257
Thermal and Radiation Pollution .................................................................................................................... 257
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Mining............................................................................................................................................................. 257
Groundwater and Drinking Water Contamination ......................................................................................... 258
Sewage Water ................................................................................................................................................ 261

Agricultural Sources ........................................................................................................................................ 262
Invasive Aquatic Species ................................................................................................................................. 262
Pollution in River Ganga ................................................................................................................................. 263
Marine Pollution: Oil Spills and Plastic ........................................................................................................... 263
14.3. Effects of Water Pollution ............................................................................................................. 264
Effects on the Human Health.......................................................................................................................... 264
Effects on the Environment ............................................................................................................................ 264
Effects on Aquatic Ecosystem ......................................................................................................................... 265
Eutrophication and Ageing of Lakes ............................................................................................................... 265
Eutrophication and Algal Blooms ................................................................................................................... 266
Eutrophication and Dead Zones ..................................................................................................................... 267
Blue Tide ......................................................................................................................................................... 268
14.4. Water Pollution Control Measures ............................................................................................... 268
Bioremediation ............................................................................................................................................... 268
Riparian buffers for Mitigation of Eutrophication .......................................................................................... 270
Sewage Water Treatment for Domestic Use .................................................................................................. 270
Bio-Toilets ....................................................................................................................................................... 272
14.5. Water Pollution Control Measures in India and Indian River Systems ..................................... 274
Major River Conservation Initiatives .............................................................................................................. 275
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)........................................................................................................................ 277
National Water Quality Monitoring Programme ........................................................................................... 278
14.6. Measures to Curb Marine Pollution .............................................................................................. 279
Convention on Dumping of Wastes at Sea ..................................................................................................... 279
The United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ........................................................................ 280
International Maritime Organization (IMO) ................................................................................................... 281
15. Plastic Pollution, Solid, Hazardous and E-Waste .................................................................................... 283
15.1. Plastic Pollution ............................................................................................................................. 283
Microplastics, Microbeads & Nanoplastics .................................................................................................... 283
Major Plastics in Use ...................................................................................................................................... 285
Effects of Plastic Waste .................................................................................................................................. 286
Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 ........................................................................................................ 287
NITI Aayog’s Report on Alternatives to Plastics ............................................................................................. 288
15.2. Solid Wastes.................................................................................................................................... 289
Sources of Soil Wastes .................................................................................................................................... 289
Treatment & Disposal of Solid Waste ............................................................................................................. 290
15.3. Measures to Manage Solid Waste ................................................................................................. 293
Solid Waste Management Rules (2016) ......................................................................................................... 293
Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2016 ...................................................................... 295
Other Measures .............................................................................................................................................. 295
15.4. Hazardous Waste ........................................................................................................................... 296
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).............................................................................................................. 296
15.5. Regulating Hazardous Waste ....................................................................................................... 300
Stockholm Convention on POPs ...................................................................................................................... 300
Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste .......................................................................................................... 300
Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent ........................................................................................ 301
Joint meetings of Basel, Rotterdam, and Stockholm Conventions ................................................................. 302
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Hong Kong Convention on Recycling of Ships................................................................................................. 302

15.6. Regulatory Measures by India....................................................................................................... 303
Recycling of Ships Act, 2019 ........................................................................................................................... 303

Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2016....................................................................... 303
Steel Scrap Recycling Policy ............................................................................................................................ 304
15.7. Heavy Metals .................................................................................................................................. 307
Lead ................................................................................................................................................................ 308
Mercury .......................................................................................................................................................... 308
Cadmium ........................................................................................................................................................ 310
Chromium ....................................................................................................................................................... 310
Other Heavy Metals ........................................................................................................................................ 310
15.8. Electronic waste (E-Waste) ............................................................................................................ 312
E-Waste Generation and Recycling ................................................................................................................ 313
15.9. E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 ............................................................................................... 314
16. Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs) ............................................................................................................ 317
16.1. Highly Polluting Industries (HPIs) in India ................................................................................. 317
Grossly Polluting Industries (GPIs) .................................................................................................................. 317
Industrial Emissions and Effluents Monitoring ............................................................................................... 317
16.2. Pollutants From HPIs ..................................................................................................................... 318
Thermal Power Plants (TPP) ........................................................................................................................... 318
Iron and Steel Industry.................................................................................................................................... 318
Cement Industry ............................................................................................................................................. 320
Copper Smelting Industry ............................................................................................................................... 320
Zinc/Lead Smelting Industry ........................................................................................................................... 323
Aluminium Smelting Industry ......................................................................................................................... 323
Petroleum Refining & Petrochemicals ............................................................................................................ 324
Fertilizer Industry ............................................................................................................................................ 325
Distilleries ....................................................................................................................................................... 326
Paper and Pulp Industry ................................................................................................................................. 326
Caustic Soda ................................................................................................................................................... 326
Tannery ........................................................................................................................................................... 327
Sugar Industry................................................................................................................................................. 327
17. Land Degradation ....................................................................................................................................... 329
17.1. Major Causes for Land Degradation ............................................................................................. 329
Deforestation .................................................................................................................................................. 329
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity ........................................................................................................................ 330
Desertification ................................................................................................................................................ 331
Waterlogging .................................................................................................................................................. 332
Faulty Methods of Agriculture ........................................................................................................................ 332
Wind Erosion................................................................................................................................................... 332
Water Erosion ................................................................................................................................................. 333
Sea Erosion in India......................................................................................................................................... 335
Desertification Setting in Across a Quarter Of India....................................................................................... 337
17.2. Addressing Land Degradation and Desertification .................................................................... 339
Soil Conservation ............................................................................................................................................ 340
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) ................................................................... 344
UNCCD Global Land Outlook Report............................................................................................................... 347
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) initiative ................................................................................................. 348
18. Climate Change – Causes, Impacts & Mitigation .................................................................................... 349
ix
18.1. Climate Change (CC) and Global Warming................................................................................. 349

How do we know about past CC events?........................................................................................................ 350
Greenhouse effect .......................................................................................................................................... 351

18.2. Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) ............................................................................................................. 352
Global Warming Potential & Lifetime of GHGs .............................................................................................. 352
Carbon Dioxide ............................................................................................................................................... 353
Ozone .............................................................................................................................................................. 353
Water Vapour ................................................................................................................................................. 354
Methane (CH4) ................................................................................................................................................ 354
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) ........................................................................................................................................ 355
Black Carbon (Soot) ........................................................................................................................................ 356
Fluorinated Gases ........................................................................................................................................... 356
Carbon Monoxide ........................................................................................................................................... 357
18.3. Carbon Footprint ............................................................................................................................ 357
Carbon Footprint of various Sectors ............................................................................................................... 357
State Wise Carbon Emissions in India ............................................................................................................. 359
18.4. Climate Sensitivity ......................................................................................................................... 359
Feedbacks Drive Uncertainty .......................................................................................................................... 359
18.5. Current State of Emissions............................................................................................................. 360
IEA World Energy Outlook 2021 Report ......................................................................................................... 361
Climate Change Performance Index ............................................................................................................... 361
Environmental Performance Index (EPI) ......................................................................................................... 362
18.6. Impact of Global Warming............................................................................................................ 363
Increased Frequency and Severity of Heat Waves.......................................................................................... 363
Urban Heat Islands ......................................................................................................................................... 364
Marine Heat Waves ........................................................................................................................................ 365
Increased Incidence of Wildfires ..................................................................................................................... 366
Shrinking Cryosphere ...................................................................................................................................... 368
Arctic (or polar) Amplification (PA)................................................................................................................. 370
Sea Level Change ............................................................................................................................................ 371
Regional Sea Level Rise (SLR) .......................................................................................................................... 374
Tropical Cyclones are Becoming More Severe ................................................................................................ 376
Deterioration of Carbon sinks ......................................................................................................................... 377
Climate Migrants ............................................................................................................................................ 378
Other Impacts ................................................................................................................................................. 379
18.7. Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching ..................................................................................... 380
Coral Reefs ...................................................................................................................................................... 380
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth .................................................................................................................. 381
Corals and Zooxanthellae ............................................................................................................................... 381
Causes for Coral Bleaching ............................................................................................................................. 382
Australia’s Great Barrier Reef ......................................................................................................................... 383
Biorock Technology for Coral Restoration ...................................................................................................... 385
18.8. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) ................................................................. 386
IPCC Reports ................................................................................................................................................... 386
IPCC Special Reports ....................................................................................................................................... 389
IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) ...................................... 390
18.9. Climate Change Mitigation Measures .......................................................................................... 391
Clean coal technology to reduce CO2 Emissions ............................................................................................. 391
Carbon Capture and Storage .......................................................................................................................... 391
Carbon Sink and Carbon Sequestration .......................................................................................................... 392
x
Geoengineering to Fight Climate Change....................................................................................................... 394

Transition Away from Coal ............................................................................................................................. 396
Climate Smart Cities ....................................................................................................................................... 398

Transition to Green Economy ......................................................................................................................... 402
19. International Environmental Conventions, NGOs and Laws .................................................................. 404
19.2. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972) ............................................... 404
Stockholm Declaration ................................................................................................................................... 404
19.3. UN Environment Programme (UNEP) .......................................................................................... 405
Agencies Established/Implemented by UNEP ................................................................................................. 405
Global Environment Facility (GEF) .................................................................................................................. 405
19.4. UNCED/Earth Summit, Rio De Janeiro ......................................................................................... 407
Landmark Agreements ................................................................................................................................... 408
High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) .................................................................... 408
19.5. The History of SDGs ....................................................................................................................... 408
Brundtland Commission ................................................................................................................................. 408
UNCED or Earth Summit 1992, Rio De Janeiro Brazil ..................................................................................... 408
Post UNCED .................................................................................................................................................... 409
Rio+10 (2002) or Earth Summit 2002 ............................................................................................................. 409
Rio+20 (2012) or Earth Summit 2012 ............................................................................................................. 410
UN Agenda 2030 – Sustainable Development Goals ...................................................................................... 411
19.6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) ................................... 416
Conferences of the Parties (COP) to UNFCCC ................................................................................................. 416
Criticisms of the UNFCCC ................................................................................................................................ 417
19.7. Kyoto Protocol (COP 3; UNFCCC 1997) ........................................................................................ 417
Common but Differentiated Responsibilities .................................................................................................. 417
Doha Amendment to Kyoto Protocol .............................................................................................................. 420
Flexible Market Mechanisms Under Kyoto Protocol ...................................................................................... 420
Criticism of the Kyoto Protocol ....................................................................................................................... 422
Proposed: Carbon Tax as An Alternative to Carbon Trading .......................................................................... 423
19.8. UNFCCC Summits Post Kyoto ........................................................................................................ 425
Summits Before 2015 Paris Summit ............................................................................................................... 425
Summits Post 2015 Paris Summit ................................................................................................................... 427
19.9. Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) ............................................................ 428
The main points of contention on INDCs ........................................................................................................ 429
India’s INDC objectives ................................................................................................................................... 429
Money required to meet India’s INDC ............................................................................................................ 430
19.10. Paris CCC 2015 (COP 21; CMP 11) ................................................................................................ 430
Paris Agreement ............................................................................................................................................. 431
Climate Neutral Now ...................................................................................................................................... 431
China-U.S. Deal on Emission Cuts ................................................................................................................... 432
Net Zero Emissions and Carbon Neutrality ..................................................................................................... 432
How Can Net Zero Emissions Be Achieved? .................................................................................................... 434
European Green New Deal ............................................................................................................................. 435
India’s Objection to Net Zero .......................................................................................................................... 435
UNEP Emissions Gap Report ........................................................................................................................... 436
19.11. COP 26 ............................................................................................................................................. 436
The Glasgow Climate Pact .............................................................................................................................. 437
Carbon Markets .............................................................................................................................................. 437
xi
Major Outcomes of COP26 ............................................................................................................................. 437

India at COP26 ................................................................................................................................................ 443
Leader’s Declaration on Forests and Land Use............................................................................................... 443

LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) ...................................................................................................................... 443
19.12. COP27 .............................................................................................................................................. 444
Global Shield Against Climate Risks Initiative................................................................................................. 444
Illegal Wildlife Trade (IWT) and Climate Change ........................................................................................... 445
Long-Term Low-Emission Development Strategy ........................................................................................... 445
Loss and Damage Fund................................................................................................................................... 446
Methane Alert and Response System (MARS) ................................................................................................ 447
Carbon Border Tax .......................................................................................................................................... 447
19.13. Others .............................................................................................................................................. 448
UN-REDD and REDD+...................................................................................................................................... 448
Forest Carbon Partnership Facility ................................................................................................................. 449
Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) .......................................................................................................... 449
Other Minor Initiatives ................................................................................................................................... 450
20. National Environmental Legislation ........................................................................................................ 454
20.1. Pollution Related Laws .................................................................................................................. 454
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and Amendment, 1988 .................................. 454
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and amendment, 1987 ........................................ 455
20.2. Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 .......................................................................................... 455
Major Provisions of the EPA Act ..................................................................................................................... 456
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ........................................................................................................ 457
20.3. Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 ................................................................................................ 464
Amendments .................................................................................................................................................. 464
Six Schedules for Species ................................................................................................................................ 465
Delineation of Powers..................................................................................................................................... 466
Central Zoo Authority (CZA) ............................................................................................................................ 467
National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) ............................................................................................................... 468
Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Bill, 2022 ................................................................................................. 469
20.4. Forest Rights and Forest Conservation ......................................................................................... 470
Indian Forest Act 1927 (IFA, 1927) ................................................................................................................. 470
Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 (FCA, 1980) ................................................................................................... 472
Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA 2006) ................................................................................................................ 472
Critical Wildlife Habitats (CWH) ..................................................................................................................... 474
20.5. Biodiversity Act 2002 ..................................................................................................................... 476
Biological Diversity Amendment Bill 2021 ...................................................................................................... 477
20.6. National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 .............................................................................................. 477
Development vs Conservation ........................................................................................................................ 479
20.7. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules........................................................................................... 480
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules 2011 ..................................................................................................... 481
CRZ Rules 2019 ............................................................................................................................................... 481
Draft Integrated Coastal Zone Management ................................................................................................. 482
Activities Permitted in the CRZ of Certain Beaches ........................................................................................ 483
Issues with the way the CRZ rules are executed ............................................................................................. 485
20.8. Rules for Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells 1989 ....... 486
20.9. Protection Against Chemical Disasters ........................................................................................ 487
Strict vs Absolute Liability Principle ................................................................................................................ 488
xii
Issue: Lack of Accountability and Burden of Proof on Victims........................................................................ 488

20.10. Pesticide Regulatory Regime in India .......................................................................................... 489
Pesticides Management Bill 2020 .................................................................................................................. 489

There is a collapse of pesticide regulation...................................................................................................... 490
20.11. India's National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) ....................................................... 491
National Solar Mission (JNNSM) ..................................................................................................................... 493
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency .......................................................................................... 494
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat ....................................................................................................... 495
National Water Mission (NWM) Mission ....................................................................................................... 496
National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE)............................................................ 496
National Mission for A Green India ................................................................................................................ 497
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture ................................................................................................. 498
National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC) .................................................... 499
21. Green Revolution & Sustainable Agricultural Practises ......................................................................... 500
21.1. Green Revolution ............................................................................................................................ 500
India’s First Green Revolution ......................................................................................................................... 500
Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India (BGREI)....................................................................................... 501
Second Green Revolution for Sustainability.................................................................................................... 501
21.2. The Concept of Sustainable Agriculture....................................................................................... 503
Sustainable Practises for Natural Farming & Agriculture in General ............................................................. 504
21.3. Nutrient Management ................................................................................................................... 506
Macronutrients for Plants .............................................................................................................................. 506
Micronutrients for Plants................................................................................................................................ 509
Fertilizer Subsidies and Consequences ........................................................................................................... 509
21.4. Organic Farming ............................................................................................................................ 510
Bio-Fertilizers are a Key Aspect of Organic Farming ...................................................................................... 511
The Present Status of Organic Farming in India ............................................................................................. 514
Initiatives to promote Organic Farming in India ............................................................................................ 514
21.5. Natural Farming ............................................................................................................................. 517
Benefits of Natural Farming ........................................................................................................................... 518
Challenges of Natural Farming ....................................................................................................................... 518
Zero-Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) ............................................................................................................. 518
Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati (BPKP) Scheme for Natural Farming ...................................................... 519
Organic Farming vs. Natural Farming (ZBNF) ................................................................................................ 519
21.6. Modern Agricultural Practices ...................................................................................................... 520
Precision Farming for Productivity and Sustainability .................................................................................... 520
Protected Cultivation of Horticulture Crops ................................................................................................... 522
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) .......................................................................................................... 525
Various Agricultural Activities and Revolutions in Agriculture ....................................................................... 528
22. Sources of Energy, Renewables and Energy Conservation ...................................................................... 530
22.1. Conventional and Non-Conventional Sources of Energy ........................................................... 530
Major Energy Sources ..................................................................................................................................... 530
Cleaner (Alternative) Energy Sources ............................................................................................................. 533
Calorific Value of Various Sources of Energy .................................................................................................. 534
Total Installed Power Capacity in India .......................................................................................................... 535
World Energy Outlook and India Energy Outlook Report 2022 ...................................................................... 537
22.2. Solar Energy .................................................................................................................................... 538
International Solar Alliance (ISA) .................................................................................................................... 540
xiii
One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) ...................................................................................................... 541

Steps taken by India to increase the share of Solar Energy ............................................................................ 542
Issues with Solar Power (in India) ................................................................................................................... 544
22.3. Wind Energy .................................................................................................................................... 545

Major Wind Farms .......................................................................................................................................... 545
Wind vs Solar .................................................................................................................................................. 546
Offshore Wind Energy..................................................................................................................................... 546
Onshore vs Offshore ....................................................................................................................................... 547
Wind Power: Issues and Challenges ............................................................................................................... 547
22.4. Biofuel ............................................................................................................................................. 548
Generations of Biofuel .................................................................................................................................... 548
Advantages of Biofuels ................................................................................................................................... 549
Disadvantages of Biofuels .............................................................................................................................. 552
National Policy on Biofuels 2018 .................................................................................................................... 553
Some Important Biofuels ................................................................................................................................ 555
22.5. Hydrogen Economy ........................................................................................................................ 557
Hydrogen ........................................................................................................................................................ 558
Current Status of Hydrogen Economy in India................................................................................................ 559
Green Hydrogen – Future of Hydrogen Economy ........................................................................................... 560
Hydrogen Fuel Cell .......................................................................................................................................... 560
National Hydrogen Mission ............................................................................................................................ 562
22.6. Challenges Faced by Renewable Energy ...................................................................................... 563
Smart Grid to Address the Challenges ............................................................................................................ 564
Critical Minerals are the Key to Green Transition........................................................................................... 565
22.7. Measures to Boost Renewable Energy .......................................................................................... 567
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency ............................................................................................ 567
Green Bonds for Funding Renewables ............................................................................................................ 567
22.8. Energy Conservation Measures ..................................................................................................... 568
Energy Conservation Act 2001........................................................................................................................ 568
The Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill, 2022 ......................................................................................... 571
23. Water Conservation .................................................................................................................................... 574
23.1. Difference between Water Scarcity, Water stress and Water risk............................................. 574
23.2. India’s Water Situation .................................................................................................................. 575
Per-Capita water situation ............................................................................................................................. 575
India’s groundwater situation ........................................................................................................................ 575
23.3. Measures by the Government ........................................................................................................ 576
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) ............................................................................................................ 577
Central Water Commission (CWC) .................................................................................................................. 578
National Aquifer Mapping & Management Programme (NAMMP) .............................................................. 579
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ATAL JAL)......................................................................................................................... 579
Jal Shakti Abhiyan ........................................................................................................................................... 579
Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) ................................................................................................................................. 580
Jal, Jeevan, Hariyali Mission (JJHM) ............................................................................................................... 581
BIS – Drinking Water Standards ..................................................................................................................... 582
National Hydrology Project (NHP) .................................................................................................................. 583
23.4. Recommended Conservation Measures ........................................................................................ 583
Clean water sanctuaries ................................................................................................................................. 583
Sponge City Concept ....................................................................................................................................... 584
Measures Required for Water Conservation .................................................................................................. 585
23.5. Droughts .......................................................................................................................................... 585
xiv
What is Drought? ........................................................................................................................................... 585

International Efforts for Drought Management ............................................................................................. 586
Drought Management in India ....................................................................................................................... 586

Way forward ................................................................................................................................................... 587
24. Major Species and Their Conservation Status Invasive Species .................................................. 588
24.1. Mammals......................................................................................................................................... 589
Mammals – Critically Endangered (CR) .......................................................................................................... 589
Mammals – Endangered (EN) ......................................................................................................................... 590
Mammals – Vulnerable (VU) .......................................................................................................................... 598
Mammals – Near Threatened (NT) ................................................................................................................. 607
Mammals – Least Concern (LC) ...................................................................................................................... 612
Mammals – Miscellaneous (Misc) .................................................................................................................. 620
24.2. Birds ................................................................................................................................................. 624
Birds – Critically Endangered (CR) .................................................................................................................. 624
Birds – Endangered (EN) ................................................................................................................................. 630
Birds – Vulnerable (VU) .................................................................................................................................. 632
Birds – Near Threatened (NT) ......................................................................................................................... 635
Birds – Least Concern (LC) .............................................................................................................................. 638
24.3. Fish ................................................................................................................................................... 642
Fish – Critically Endangered (CR) .................................................................................................................... 642
Fish – Others ................................................................................................................................................... 643
24.4. Others .............................................................................................................................................. 645
Amphibians ..................................................................................................................................................... 645
Reptiles ........................................................................................................................................................... 646
Spiders ............................................................................................................................................................ 649
Insects ............................................................................................................................................................. 649
Plants .............................................................................................................................................................. 650
24.5. Invasive Species .............................................................................................................................. 656
Invasive Plant Species ..................................................................................................................................... 656
Invasive Fish and Amphibian Species ............................................................................................................. 660
25. Protected Area Network of India .............................................................................................................. 662
25.1. National Parks of India ................................................................................................................. 663
25.2. Tiger Reserves of India ................................................................................................................... 666
Proposed Tiger Reserves ................................................................................................................................. 667
Largest and Smallest National Parks in India ................................................................................................. 668
Largest and Smallest Tiger Reserves in India ................................................................................................. 668
25.3. Description of National Parks, Tiger Reserves & Major Wildlife Sanctuaries ........................ 669
Andaman & Nicobar Islands ........................................................................................................................... 670
Andhra Pradesh .............................................................................................................................................. 671
Arunachal Pradesh ......................................................................................................................................... 674
Assam ............................................................................................................................................................. 676
Bihar ............................................................................................................................................................... 679
Chhattisgarh ................................................................................................................................................... 680
Goa ................................................................................................................................................................. 682
Gujarat............................................................................................................................................................ 683
Haryana .......................................................................................................................................................... 686
Himachal Pradesh ........................................................................................................................................... 686
Jammu & Kashmir........................................................................................................................................... 689
Ladakh ............................................................................................................................................................ 691
xv
Jharkhand ....................................................................................................................................................... 692

Karnataka ....................................................................................................................................................... 693
Kerala.............................................................................................................................................................. 699
Madhya Pradesh............................................................................................................................................. 702
Maharashtra................................................................................................................................................... 706
Manipur .......................................................................................................................................................... 712
Meghalaya ...................................................................................................................................................... 713
Mizoram ......................................................................................................................................................... 713
Nagaland ........................................................................................................................................................ 714
Odisha ............................................................................................................................................................. 714
Punjab ............................................................................................................................................................. 717
Rajasthan ........................................................................................................................................................ 718
Sikkim.............................................................................................................................................................. 721
Tamil Nadu ..................................................................................................................................................... 721
Telangana ....................................................................................................................................................... 725
Tripura ............................................................................................................................................................ 727
Uttar Pradesh ................................................................................................................................................. 727
Uttarakhand ................................................................................................................................................... 730
West Bengal.................................................................................................................................................... 733
25.4. Elephant Reserves of India ............................................................................................................ 735
25.5. Ramsar Sites of India ..................................................................................................................... 741
Statewise Number and Area of Ramsar Sites ................................................................................................. 744
Largest, Smallest and Oldest Ramsar Sites in India ........................................................................................ 745
Description of Ramsar Sites in India ............................................................................................................... 745
25.6. Biosphere Reserves ......................................................................................................................... 754
Biosphere Reserves of India ............................................................................................................................ 754
Salient Flora/Fauna of the Biosphere Reserves of India ................................................................................. 759
Natural World Heritage Sites in India............................................................................................................. 759
25.7. Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS) of India .................................................................................... 760
List of 36 Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS) of India ......................................................................................... 761
25.8. Tiger, Leopard, and Elephant population by state ...................................................................... 765
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PMF IAS® Environment Second Edition

© Manjunath Thamminidi, PMF IAS®

Always Pay attention to an Important Update from PMF IAS !!

PMF IAS Email Newsletter: https://www.pmfias.com/newsletters/

PMF IAS Telegram Channel: https://t.me/pmfias_channel

Grazing food chain............................................................................................................................................ 24

4.2. Food Web ................................................................................................................................................ 26

Ecosystem Services by Seagrass ....................................................................................................................... 65

7. Wetland Ecosystem ....................................................................................................................................... 69

Alien Species Invasions ................................................................................................................................... 101

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO/Transgenic Organisms) ................................................................... 103

The 13th Conference of the Parties to CMS (CoP13) ....................................................................................... 131

10.4. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) ............................................................ 131

India Vultures Species ..................................................................................................................................... 168

Steps Taken by The Government .................................................................................................................... 172

Particulate Pollutants ..................................................................................................................................... 207

Nanoparticles (NPs) ........................................................................................................................................ 208

Sewage Water ................................................................................................................................................ 261

Hong Kong Convention on Recycling of Ships................................................................................................. 302

Recycling of Ships Act, 2019 ........................................................................................................................... 303

18.1. Climate Change (CC) and Global Warming................................................................................. 349

Greenhouse effect .......................................................................................................................................... 351

Geoengineering to Fight Climate Change....................................................................................................... 394

Climate Smart Cities ....................................................................................................................................... 398

Major Outcomes of COP26 ............................................................................................................................. 437

Leader’s Declaration on Forests and Land Use............................................................................................... 443

Issue: Lack of Accountability and Burden of Proof on Victims........................................................................ 488

Pesticides Management Bill 2020 .................................................................................................................. 489

One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) ...................................................................................................... 541

22.3. Wind Energy .................................................................................................................................... 545

What is Drought? ........................................................................................................................................... 585

Drought Management in India ....................................................................................................................... 586

Jharkhand ....................................................................................................................................................... 692

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