Untitled

NEW YORK SCHOOL OF REGIONAL ANESTHESIA
Hadzic’s Peripheral Nerve

Blocks and Anatomy for
Ultrasound-Guided
Regional Anesthesia
Hadzic_FM_00i-xvi.indd 1 14/06/21 10:35 PM

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NEW YORK SCHOOL OF REGIONAL ANESTHESIA
Hadzic’s Peripheral Nerve

Blocks and Anatomy for
Ultrasound-Guided
Regional Anesthesia
THIRD EDITION
Editors
Ana M. Lopez, MD, PhD, DESA
Consultant Anesthesiology, Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg (ZOL), Genk, Belgium
Angela Lucia Balocco, MD
Research Associate NYSORA, The New York School of Regional Anesthesia
Anesthesia Resident, Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg (ZOL), Genk, Belgium
Catherine Vandepitte, MD, PhD
Research Associate NYSORA, The New York School of Regional Anesthesia
Admir Hadzic, MD, PhD
Director NYSORA, The New York School of Regional Anesthesia
Visiting Professor, Department of Anesthesiology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL), Belgium
Honorary Professor, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Doctor Honoris Causa, Karol Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City

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DEDICATION
We dedicate this book to Jerry Vloka, MD, PhD

in recognition of his pioneering contributions to regional anesthesia
and immense inspiration for generations of students
and scholars of anesthesiology.

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9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
CONTENTS
Contributors ix 15. Infraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block 161

Foreword xiii 16. Costoclavicular Brachial Plexus Block 169
Acknowledgments xv 17. Axillary Brachial Plexus Block 177
18. Blocks for Analgesia of the Shoulder:
Phrenic Nerve Sparing Blocks 185
SECTION 1
19. Blocks About the Elbow 195
FOUNDATIONS 20. Wrist Block 205
1. Functional Regional Anesthesia Anatomy 3
2. Local Anesthetics: Clinical Pharmacology
and Selection 33 SECTION 4
3. Equipment for Peripheral Nerve Blocks 47 LOWER EXTREMITY BLOCKS
4. Electrical Nerve Stimulation 57 21. Lumbar Plexus Block 217
5. Optimizing Ultrasound Image 67 22. Fascia Iliaca Block 229
6. Monitoring and Documentation 23. Blocks for Hip Analgesia 239
in Regional Anesthesia 75
24. Femoral Nerve Block 247
7. Indications for Peripheral Nerve Blocks 89
25. Subsartorial Blocks: Saphenous Nerve,
8. Continuous Peripheral Nerve Blocks 101 Adductor Canal, and Femoral
9. Local Anesthetic Systemic Toxicity and Triangle Blocks 255
Allergy to Local Anesthetics 107 26. Lateral Femoral Cutaneous
10. Neurologic Complications of Nerve Block 265
Peripheral Nerve Blocks 117 27. Obturator Nerve Block 271
11. Preparation for Regional Anesthesia and 28. Proximal Sciatic Nerve Block 281
Perioperative Management 123
29. Popliteal Sciatic Block 291
30. Genicular Nerves Block 299
SECTION 2
31. iPACK Block 305
HEAD AND NECK BLOCKS 32. Ankle Block 313
12. Cervical Plexus Block 131
SECTION 5
SECTION 3
TRUNK AND ABDOMINAL
UPPER EXTREMITY BLOCKS WALL BLOCKS
13. Interscalene Brachial Plexus Block 143 33. Intercostal Nerve Block 325
14. Supraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block 153 34. Pectoral Nerves Block 333

viii Contents
35. Serratus Plane Block 341 39. Rectus Sheath Block 379
36. Paravertebral Block 349 40. Quadratus Lumborum Blocks 385
37. Erector Spinae Plane Block 359
38. Transversus Abdominis Plane Blocks 367 Index 395

CONTRIBUTORS
David Alvarez, MD Javier Domenech de la Lastra, MD, DESA

Department of Anesthesiology Department of Anesthesiology
Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge Hospital Clinic de Barcelona
Barcelona, Spain Barcelona, Spain
(Chapter 20) (Chapter 16)
Angela Lucia Balocco, MD Robin De Meirsman, MD

Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg UZ Leuven
Genk, Belgium Leuven, Belgium
(Chapters 9, 11, 19, 31, 35, 37, 38, 39, and 40) (Chapter 34)
Jonas Bruggen, MD Dimitri Dylst, MD

UZ Leuven Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg
Leuven, Belgium Genk, Belgium
Robbert Buck, MD Christopher J. Edwards, MD

UZ Antwerpen Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center
Antwerpen, Belgium Winston Salem, North Carolina
(Chapter 12) United States of America
(Chapter 36)
Eveline Claes, MD
Department of Anesthesiology Gert-Jan Eerdekens, MD
AZ Diest Department of Anesthesiology
Diest, Belgium UZ Leuven
(Chapter 10) Leuven, Belgium
(Chapters 17 and 40)
Tomás Cuñat, MD, DESA
Department of Anesthesiology Victor Frutos, MD
Hospital Clinic de Barcelona Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Clinics
Barcelona, Spain Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol
(Chapter 30) Badalona, Spain
(Chapter 1)
Lotte Cuyx, MD
Department of Anesthesiology Jeff Gadsden, MD
UZ Leuven Department of Anesthesiology
Leuven, Belgium Duke University Hospital
(Chapter 38) Durham, North Carolina
United States of America
Olivier De Fré, MD (Chapter 10)
Anesthesiology Department
AZ Herentals Levin Garip, MD
Herentals, Belgium Department of Anesthesiology
(Chapter 2) UZ Leuven
Leuven, Belgium
(Chapter 2)

x Contributors
Admir Hadzic, MD, PhD Leen Janssen, MD

Director, The New York School of Regional Anesthesia Department of Anesthesiology
New York, United States of America UZ Antwerpen
Department of Anesthesiology Antwerpen, Belgium
Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg (Chapter 5)
Genk, Belgium
(Chapters 3, 4, 10, and 11) Manoj K. Karmakar, MD
Director of Pediatric Anesthesia
Rawad Hamzi, MD Chinese University of Hong Kong
Department of Anesthesia and Pain Management Prince of Wales Hospital
Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center Sha Tin, Hong Kong, China
Winston Salem, North Carolina, (Chapter 21)
(Chapter 33) Bram Keunen, MD
Department of Anesthesiology
Tyler Heijnen, MD Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg
Department of Anesthesiology Genk, Belgium
Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg (Chapter 15)
Genk, Belgium
(Chapter 18)
Samantha Kransingh, FCA, FANZCA
South Canterbury District Health Board
Jelena Heirbaut, MD
Timaru, New Zealand
(Chapters 5 and 22)
UZ Antwerpen
Antwerpen, Belgium
(Chapter 4) Queenayda A. D. Kroon, MD
Department of Anesthesia and Pain Management
Jore Hendrikx, MD University Medical Centre Maastricht
Department of Anesthesiology Maastricht, The Netherlands
UZ Leuven (Chapter 33)
Leuven, Belgium
(Chapter 31) Annelies Langenaeken, MD
Lotte Hendrix, MD UZ Leuven
Department of Anesthesiology Leuven, Belgium
UZ Leuven (Chapter 29)
Leuven, Belgium
(Chapter 13) Raphaël Lapré, MD
Daryl S. Henshaw, MD
AZ Rivierenland
Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Management
Reet, Belgium
Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center
(Chapter 2)
Winston Salem, North Carolina
(Chapter 36) Ana Lopez, MD, PhD
Peter Hulsbosch, MD Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg
Department of Anesthesiology Genk, Belgium
Regionaal Ziekenhuis Heilig Hart (Chapters 1, 11, 12, 16, 18, 20, 21, and 32)
Leuven, Belgium
(Chapter 15) Sofie Louage, MD
J. Douglas Jaffe, MD AZ Glorieux
Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Management Ronse, Belgium
Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center (Chapters 27, 28, and 29)
Winston Salem, North Carolina
(Chapter 33)

Contributors xi
Leander Mancel, MD Filiep Soetens, MD

UZ Leuven AZ Turnhout
Leuven, Belgium Turnhout, Belgium
(Chapter 6) (Chapters 2 and 9)
Berend Marcus, MD Sam Van Boxstael, MD

UZ Leuven Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg
Leuven, Belgium Genk, Belgium
(Chapter 7) (Chapters 24, 25, and 26)
Evi Mellebeek, MD Imré Van Herreweghe, MD

Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg AZ Turnhout
Genk, Belgium Turnhout, Belgium
(Chapter 24) (Chapters 2 and 7)
Felipe Muñoz-Leyva, MD Astrid Van Lantschoot, MD

Department of Anesthesia and Pain Management Department of Anesthesiology
University Health Network, University of Toronto, Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg
Toronto Western Hospital Genk, Belgium
Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Chapters 34 and 35)
(Chapters 9 and 37)
Kathleen Van Loon, MD
Gwendolyne Peeters, MD Department of Anesthesiology
Department of Anesthesiology UZ Leuven
UZ Gent Leuven, Belgium
Gent, Belgium (Chapter 9)
(Chapter 9)
Jill Vanhaeren, MSc
Xavier Sala-Blanch, MD Research Associate
Department of Anesthesiology The New York School of Regional Anesthesia
Hospital Clinic de Barcelona New York, United States of America
Barcelona, Spain (Chapter 39)
(Chapters 1 and 23)
Catherine Vandepitte, MD, PhD
Amar Salti, MD, EDRA Department of Anesthesiology
Department of Anesthesia and Pain Medicine Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg
Sheikh Khalifa Medical City Genk, Belgium
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Chapters 6, 8, 11, 15, 17, 19, and 28)
(Chapter 22 and 27)
Stefanie Vanhoenacker, MD
Ruben Schreurs, MD Department of Anesthesiology
Department of Anesthesiology Sint-Jozefskliniek Izegem
Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg Izegem, Belgium
Genk, Belgium (Chapter 14)
(Chapter 25)
Thibaut Vanneste, MD
Jeroen Smet, MD Department of Anesthesiology
Department of Anesthesiology Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg
UZ Gent Genk, Belgium
Gent, Belgium (Chapters 13, 14, 23, and 30)
(Chapter 3)

xii Contributors
Rob Vervoort, MD Daquan Xu

Department of Anesthesiology Associate Researcher
UZ Leuven The New York School of Regional Anesthesia
Leuven, Belgium New York, United States of America

FOREWORD
The third edition of this standard textbook on ultrasound NYSORA’s Reverse Ultrasound Anatomy™ (RUA) images
nerve blocks is released during a unique period in human his- feature functional anatomy or block techniques with clear
tory. The COVID-19 pandemic and the threats that the disease instructions on the principles and goals of each given tech-
poses to both patients and healthcare workers have substan- nique. These cognitive aids entailed countless hours of work
tially changed perioperative practice. During the pandemic, and collaboration between NYSORA’s creative and edito-
regional anesthesia was established as the preferred method rial teams to develop highly didactic creatives that facilitate
over general anesthesia whenever possible. Nerve blocks pre- understanding of the anatomy, fascial planes, and principles
serve respiratory function and avoid aerosolization during of nerve blockade. RUA helps students memorize sono-
intubation and extubation and, hence, viral transmission to anatomy patterns, which is essential for ultrasound imaging.
other patients and healthcare workers. As an example, the use The knowledge of the sonoanatomy patterns substantially
of nerve blocks as the preferred surgical anesthesia method increases ultrasound proficiency and skills retention. Wher-
during the pandemic allowed many limb surgeries to be car- ever applicable, clinical images of the patient’s position,
ried out with decreased exposure to healthcare workers and ultrasound transducer placement, and anatomical detail are
less burden on post-anesthesia care units (PACUs) and utili- featured. Recent relevant literature was added to the “Sug-
zation of hospital beds. With regional anesthesia, patients can gested Reading” for readers who like to explore the original
leave acute postoperative care facilities faster and avoid admis- sources of the information presented. We chose this approach
sion to the limited hospitalization beds. In our center, using in an effort to provide the most practical, pragmatic informa-
regional anesthesia and nerve blocks as the main anesthetic tion and relieve the content from massive literature citations.
choice allowed elective orthopedic surgery in many patients. Readers should be advised that this book is not meant to be
The use of ultrasound-guided local regional anesthesia (LRA) an encyclopedic listing of all techniques and their variations.
has increased exponentially in the last few years. The traditional Rather, our textbook should be viewed as a compendium of
techniques have been refined and a number of new approaches well-established knowledge, didactically organized for learn-
have been devised to better suit the evolving clinical practice. ing, and transferring knowledge to students of anesthesiology.
Nerve blocks are an essential component of multimodal analge- With this approach, the textbook aims to help standardize, and
sia in enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols. Their implement well-established techniques, indications, pharma-
use enhances analgesia and reduces or eliminates the use of opi- cology, monitoring, and the documentation of nerve blocks.
oids in the postoperative period. Some traditional nerve block Instead of burdening the reader with experimental block tech-
techniques have been substituted by more selective techniques niques with unproven clinical benefit, we aimed to include
to minimize motor block and facilitate early rehabilitation and the most clinically useful nerve block, fascial, and infiltration
recovery. New ultrasound-guided fascial plane techniques, dis- techniques with proven efficacy and clinical applicability.
tal nerve blocks, and selective periarticular injections also are Information about perioperative management and local anes-
increasingly being used to yield a better balance between effi- thetic toxicity treatment was also added, and/or fully revised.
cacy, simplicity, safety, and sensory-motor block ratio. Because patients commonly present with a vague history of
This third edition of NYSORA’s textbook is substantially allergy to local anesthetics, the new edition also features highly
updated and revised to include the many new developments practical algorithms to facilitate decision-making and manage-
in regional anesthesia and trends in clinical practice. The new ment of allergy to local anesthetics.
edition features entirely new artwork, new clinical images, We are confident that this textbook will continue to be one
and new fascial plane and infiltration techniques. All in all, of the primary resources on peripheral nerve blocks in medi-
some 500 new algorithms, illustrations, ultrasound images, cal practices worldwide.
clinical photographs, and cognitive aids were included to
Sincerely,
facilitate learning. In addition to anesthesiologists, the highly
didactic and organized technique descriptions and func- Drs Hadzic, Lopez, Balocco, and Vandepitte
tional anatomy principles will be valuable to all anesthesia
providers, acute and chronic pain specialists, as well as inter- Free access to online videos at www.accessanesthesiology.com.
ventional pain, musculoskeletal medicine, and emergency Search for this title in the library and select “View All Videos”
department physicians. in the Multimedia widget on the landing page of the book.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book would not be possible without the extraordinary football teams; innovators; and above all incredibly skilled
people who contributed their time and talent and undying and passionate surgeons. It has been an absolute pleasure
commitment to create an educational masterpiece. Many building the orthopedic anesthesia service with you. A short
thanks to Drs Ana Lopez (senior editor), Angela Lucia glimpse at the website of the department of orthopedic
Balocco, and Catherine Vandepitte, the third edition editors. surgery at ZOL is sufficient to get a sense that NYSORA-
Their combination of commitment, knowledge, research, EUROPE at ZOL is flanked by true giants of orthopedic sur-
and clinical expertise is apparent on every page of this book. gery (https://www.zol.be/raadplegingen/orthopedie).
Many thanks to the leadership at Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg Thank you to the NYSORA International Team: Pat Pokorny
(ZOL; Genk, Belgium) for their support and for facilitating a (UK), Kusum Dubey (New Delhi), Katherine Hughey-Kubena
creative platform in the hospital’s clinical setting. In particu- (USA), Elvira Karovic, Medina Brajkovic, Ismar Ruznjic (B&H),
lar, many thanks to the medical director, Dr. Griet Vander Nenad Markovic (SER), Jill Vanhaeren, and Greet van Meir
Velpen, and the “can-solve-all” manager, Chantal Desticker. (BE). This is an incredible team of NYSORA’s go-getters.
Without your support, this book, and the creation of our cen- Thank you to NYSORA’s illustrator Ismar Ruznjic for
ter of excellence for regional anesthesia at ZOL, would not be the new-style illustrations and artwork he imparted to this
possible. Thank you to the leadership of the department, espe- edition. Ismar has grown with NYSORA to become one of
cially Rene Heylen, Jan Van Zundert, and Pieter De Vooght; the world’s very best anatomy illustrators.
their vision led to the creation of one of the best regional A big thank you to our designer and 3-D maestro, Nenad
anesthesia centers in the heart of Europe. Thank you to our Markovic, an ultimate perfectionist, whose eye has been con-
regional anesthesia team and block nurses Birgit Lohmar, structively critical to many artistic and stylistic aspects of this
Joelle Caretta, Ine Vanweert, Kristell Broux, Ilse Cardinaels, book, and NYSORA’s content at large.
Sydney Herfs, Elke Janssen, Hüda Erdem, Mohamed Rafiq, Finally, a huge thanks to all the contributors to this book,
Danny Baens, and all the operating nurses in the N-Block at as there have been quite a few. Such a volume, packed with so
the orthopedic surgery unit. much anatomical information, can always have hidden errors.
Many thanks to all top fellows in regional anesthesia. We have relied on our stellar contributors to detect and cor-
These young, bright doctors contribute immense value to rect them wherever possible. However, should the readers
our teaching mission, and carry on the mission of national find any that we have missed that require correction, please
ambassadors of regional anesthesia after graduation. Big forward them to info@nysora.com. We vouch to improve
gratitude to our anesthesia residents who rotate through our upon them and thank you immensely in advance for your
service from their mothership Universities: Leuven (KUL), feedback.
Gent, Antwerp, and others.
Many thanks to all,
Our orthopedic surgery department is by all means one
of the best in Europe and beyond. Made up of ultra high- Editors
achievers; physicians of national, Olympic, and professional

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
1
SECTION
Foundations
Chapter 1 Functional Regional Anesthesia Anatomy 3

Chapter 2 Local Anesthetics: Clinical Pharmacology
and Rational Selection 33
Chapter 3 Equipment for Peripheral Nerve Blocks 47
Chapter 4 Electrical Nerve Stimulation 57
Chapter 5 Optimizing Ultrasound Image 67
Chapter 6 Monitoring and Documentation in Regional Anesthesia 75
Chapter 7 Indications for Peripheral Nerve Blocks 89
Chapter 8 Continuous Peripheral Nerve Blocks 101
Chapter 9 Local Anesthetic Systemic Toxicity
and Allergy to Local Anesthetics 107
Chapter 10 Neurologic Complications of Peripheral Nerve Blocks 117
Chapter 11 Preparation for Regional Anesthesia
and Perioperative Management 123
Hadzic_Ch01_p001-032.indd 1 10/06/21 3:55 PM

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
1 Functional Regional
Anesthesia Anatomy
Knowledge of anatomy is essential for the practice of regional biotechnology may eventually result in development of the
anesthesia and ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia proce- strategies to promote axonal growth and reduce neuronal death.
dures. This chapter provides a concise overview of the essential A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma) with a
functional anatomy necessary for the implementation of tradi- large nucleus. The cell body is attached to several branching
tional and ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia techniques. processes, called dendrites, and a single axon (Figure 1-2).
Figure 1-1 demonstrates the anatomical planes and directions Dendrites receive incoming messages, whereas single axons per
used as a conventional approach throughout the book. neuron conduct outgoing messages. In peripheral nerves, axons
are long and slender; they are often referred to as nerve fibers.
Anatomy of Peripheral Nerves
The neuron is the basic functional unit responsible for nerve
conduction. Neurons are the longest cells in the body, often as
Connective Tissue
long as 1 meter. Most neurons have a limited ability to repair The peripheral nerve is composed of three types of fibers:
after injury. Advances in the understanding of the neurobi- (1) somatosensory or afferent nerves, (2) motor or effer-
ology of nerve regeneration and experimental advances in ent nerves, and (3) autonomic nerves. In a peripheral
FIGURE 1-1. Conventional body planes and directions. Red,

sagittal; orange, sagittal paramedian; green, transverse; and purple,
coronal or axial.

4 SEC TION 1 Foundations
FIGURE 1-2. Composition of the neuron.
nerve (Figure 1-3), individual axons are enveloped in a loose structures filling the space in between them, such as the
and delicate connective tissue, the endoneurium. Groups neurovascular bundles of intermuscular septae. This tissue
of axons are arranged within a bundle (nerve fascicle) sur- contributes to the functional mobility of nerves during joint
rounded by the perineurium. The perineurium imparts and muscular movement.
mechanical strength to the peripheral nerve and functions Of note, the fascicular bundles are not continuous through-
as a diffusion barrier to the fascicle, isolating the endo- out the peripheral nerve but divide and anastomose with one
neurial space and preserving the ionic milieu of the axon. another as frequently as every few millimeters (Figure 1-4).
At each branching point, the perineurium splits with the This arrangement of peripheral nerves helps to explain why
fascicle. The fascicles, in turn, are embedded in loose con- intraneural injections, which disrupt this organization, may
nective tissue called the interfascicular epineurium, which result in disastrous consequences as opposed to clean needle
contains adipose tissue, fibroblasts, mastocytes, blood ves- nerve cuts, which heal more readily. In the vicinity of joints,
sels, and lymphatics. The outer layer surrounding the nerve the fascicles are thinner, more numerous, and are likely sur-
is the epineurium, a denser collagenous tissue that protects rounded by a greater amount of connective tissue, which
the nerve. The paraneurium consists of loose connective reduces the vulnerability of the fascicles to pressure and
tissue that holds a stable relationship between adjacent stretching caused by movement.

Functional Regional Anesthesia Anatomy CHAPTER 1 5
Blood vessels
Axon Perineurium
Schwann cell
Epifascicular epineurium
Endoneurium
Mesoneurium
Spinal nerve
Dorsal root ganglion
Ventral root
FIGURE 1-3. Organization of the peripheral nerve.
Peripheral nerves receive blood supply from the adjacent group of longitudinal capillaries that run within the fascicles
blood vessels running along their course. There are two inde- and endoneurium. Neuronal injury after nerve blockade may
pendent interconnected vascular systems. The extrinsic sys- be due, at least partly, to the pressure or stretch within con-
tem consists of arteries, arterioles, and veins that lie within nective sheaths and the consequent interference with the vas-
the epineurium. The intrinsic vascular system comprises a cular supply to the nerve.

FIGURE 1-4. Diagram of fascicular arrangement in a peripheral nerve.
the dorsal root ganglia and enter the dorsolateral aspect of the
Communication Between the spinal cord to form the dorsal root. The motor fibers arise from
Central Nervous System and neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and pass through
Peripheral Nervous Systems the ventrolateral aspect of the spinal cord to form the ventral
The central nervous system (CNS) communicates with the body root. The dorsal and ventral roots converge in the interverte-
through spinal nerves, which have sensory and motor compo- bral foramen to form the spinal nerves, which then divide into
nents (Figure 1-5). The sensory fibers arise from neurons in dorsal and ventral rami. The dorsal rami innervate muscles,
FIGURE 1-5. Schematic transverse section of thoracic vertebra showing the spine and the origin of
spinal nerves.

FIGURE 1-6. Anatomy of a typical spinal intercostal nerve.
bones, joints, and the skin of the back along the posterior mid- is no C8 vertebra, the C8 nerve passes between the C7 and
line. The ventral rami innervate muscles, bones, joints, and the T1 vertebrae.
skin of the antero-lateral aspect of the neck, thorax, abdomen, In the thoracic region, the T1 nerve passes between the T1
pelvis, and the extremities (Figure 1-6). and T2 vertebrae. This pattern continues down through the
remainder of the spine. The vertebral arch of the fifth sacral
and first coccygeal vertebrae is rudimentary. Because of
this, the vertebral canal opens inferiorly at the sacral hiatus,
Spinal Nerves where the fifth sacral and first coccygeal nerves pass. Roots of
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, spinal nerves must descend through the vertebral canal before
5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Spinal nerves pass exiting the vertebral column through the appropriate inter-
through the vertebral column at the intervertebral foramina vertebral foramen since the inferior end of the spinal cord
(Figure 1-7). The first cervical nerve (C1) passes superior to (conus medullaris) is located at the L1-L2 vertebral level in
the C1 vertebra (atlas). The second cervical nerve (C2) passes adults. Collectively, these roots are called the cauda equina.
between the C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) vertebrae. This pattern Outside the vertebral column, ventral rami from cervi-
continues down the cervical spine; however, because there cal and lumbosacral spinal levels coalesce to form intricate

Thoracic and Abdominal Wall

1 C1
Thoracic Wall
2 C2
3
C3 The intercostal nerves originate from the ventral rami of
Cervical 4
5
C4
C5
the first 11 thoracic spinal nerves (T1-T11). Each intercostal
6 C6 nerve becomes part of the neurovascular bundle of the rib
7
and provides sensory and motor innervations (Figure 1-9).
C7
8 T1
1
2
T2
T3
Except for the first, each intercostal nerve gives off a lateral
3 T4 cutaneous branch that pierces the overlying muscle near the
T5
4
5 T6 midaxillary line. This cutaneous nerve divides into anterior
Thoracic
6 T7
and posterior branches, which supply the adjacent skin. The
7 T8
8 T9 intercostal nerves from the second to the sixth space reach
9 T10 the anterior thoracic wall and pierce the superficial fascia
10
11
T11
near the lateral border of the sternum and divide into medial
T12
12 and lateral cutaneous branches.
L1
1 Most fibers of the anterior ramus of the first thoracic spinal
L2
2
nerve join the brachial plexus for distribution to the upper
L3
limb. The small first intercostal nerve is the lateral branch
Lumbar 3 L4
and supplies only the muscles of the intercostal space, not the
4 L5 overlying skin. In contrast, the lower five intercostal nerves
5 S1
S2
abandon the intercostal space at the costal margin to supply
1
2
S3
S4 the muscles and skin of the abdominal wall.
Sacral 3 S5
4
5
Coccygeal
Anterior Abdominal Wall
The lower six thoracic nerves and the first lumbar nerve
FIGURE 1-7. Spinal nerves. innervate the skin, muscles, and parietal peritoneum of the
anterior abdominal wall. At the costal margin, the seventh
to eleventh thoracic nerves (T7-T11) leave their intercostal
networks called plexuses from which nerves extend into the
spaces and enter the abdominal wall in a fascial plane between
neck, the arms, and the legs.
the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles. The
seventh and eighth intercostal nerves slope upward following
Dermatomes, Myotomes, the contour of the costal margin, ninth runs horizontally, and
the tenth and eleventh have a downward trajectory. Anteri-
and Osteotomes orly, the nerves pierce the rectus abdominis muscle and the
A dermatome is the area of the skin supplied by the dor- anterior layer of the rectus sheath to emerge as anterior cuta-
sal (sensory) root of a specific spinal nerve (Figure 1-8). In neous branches that supply the overlying skin (Figure 1-9).
the trunk, each segment is horizontally disposed, except C1, The subcostal nerve (T12) takes the line of the twelfth rib
which does not have a sensory component. The dermatomes across the posterior abdominal wall. It continues around the
of the limbs from the fifth cervical to the first thoracic nerve flank and terminates similarly to the lower intercostal nerves.
(C5-T1) and from the third lumbar to the second sacral ver- The seventh to twelfth thoracic nerves (T7-T12) give off lat-
tebrae (L3-S2) extend like a series of bands from the midline eral cutaneous nerves, which further divide into anterior and
of the trunk posteriorly into the limbs. Of note, there is con- posterior branches. The anterior branches supply the skin as
siderable overlapping between adjacent dermatomes. far forward as the lateral edge of the rectus abdominis. The
A myotome is the segmental innervation of skeletal mus- posterior branches supply the skin overlying the latissimus
cle by a ventral root of a specific spinal nerve (Figure 1-8). dorsi. The lateral cutaneous branch of the subcostal nerve is
An osteotome is the area of the bone supplied by the sensory distributed to the skin on the side of the buttock.
root of the specific spinal nerve. The iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves, both branches
Distribution of dermatomes, myotomes, and osteotomes of L1, supply the inferior part of the abdominal wall. The ilio-
does not follow the same pattern in some areas, where dif- hypogastric nerve runs above the iliac crest and splits into
ferent nerves supply the innervation of deep and superfi- two terminal branches. The lateral cutaneous branch supplies
cial structures (Figure 1-8). Regardless, the knowledge of the side of the buttock; the anterior cutaneous branch sup-
their distribution is relevant for the application of regional plies the suprapubic region.
anesthesia as a guide to decide which block techniques are The ilioinguinal nerve leaves the intermuscular plane by
appropriate to provide adequate analgesia and anesthesia piercing the internal oblique muscle above the iliac crest.
for specific surgical procedures. It continues between the two oblique muscles to enter the

FIGURE 1-8. Distribution of dermatomes, myotomes, and osteotomes: (A) anterior view and (B) posterior view.

Dorsal root
(sensory root)
Ventral root
(motor root)
Spinal ganglion
Meningeal ramus
Spinal nerve
Dorsal ramus (posterior)

with medial ramus and Sympathetic ganglion
lateral ramus Lateral cutaneous ramus
Ventral cutaneous ramus
Ramus communicans
Ventral ramus
FIGURE 1-9. Course and distribution of an intercostal nerve.
inguinal canal through the spermatic cord. Emerging from periphery of the diaphragm. Inflammation of the peritoneum
the superficial inguinal ring, it gives cutaneous branches to gives rise to pain in the lower thoracic and abdominal wall. In
the skin on the medial side of the root of the thigh, the proxi- contrast, the peritoneum on the central part of the diaphragm
mal part of the penis, and the front of the scrotum in males receives sensory branches from the phrenic nerves (C3, C4,
and the mons pubis and the anterior part of the labium majus and C5), and irritation in this area may produce pain in the
in females. region of the shoulder (the fourth cervical dermatome).
Nerve Supply to the Peritoneum Nerve Plexuses

The lower thoracic and first lumbar nerves innervate the The ventral rami of the cervical, lumbar, and sacral spinal
parietal peritoneum of the abdominal wall. The lower tho- nerves form a neural network known as plexuses. The nerve
racic nerves also innervate the peritoneum that covers the fibers from these spinal segments distribute in different

FIGURE 1-10. Organization of the cervical plexus from roots to terminal nerves.
terminal nerves. The four major nerve plexuses are the cervi- anterior scalene muscle, passes through the superior tho-
cal, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexus. racic aperture, and descends on the walls of the mediasti-
num to innervate the diaphragm (phrenic nerve). Thus, the
cervical plexus has a relevant role in maintaining the respira-
The Cervical Plexus tory function. Superficial branches from the cervical plexus
The cervical plexus originates from the ventral rami of C1 pass around the posterior margin of the sternocleidomas-
to C5, which form three loops (Figure 1-10). Deep motor toid muscle and provide sensory innervation to the skin of
branches originating from these loops innervate the infra- the lateral scalp, neck, clavicle, shoulder, and upper thorax
hyoid and scalene muscles. Fibers from C3 to C5 form the (Figure 1-11). Table 1-1 describes the origin and innerva-
phrenic nerve, which descends on the anterior surface of the tion of each nerve of the cervical plexus.

FIGURE 1-11. Dissection of the superficial branches of the cervical plexus.
TABLE 1-1 Organization and Distribution of the Cervical Plexus

NERVES SPINAL SEGMENTS DISTRIBUTION
Ansa cervicalis (superior and inferior C1-C3 Five of the extrinsic laryngeal muscles (sternothyroid,
branches) sternohyoid, omohyoid, geniohyoid, and thyrohyoid)
by way of cranial nerve XII
Lesser occipital, transverse cervical, C2-C4 Skin of upper chest, shoulder, neck, and ear
supraclavicular, and greater auricular
nerves
Phrenic nerve C3-C5 Diaphragm
Cervical nerves C1-C5 Levator scapulae, scalene muscles, sternocleidomastoid
muscles, and trapezius muscles (with cranial nerve XI)

FIGURE 1-12. Organization of the brachial plexus from roots to terminal nerves.
The Brachial Plexus (C8-T1) trunks (Figure 1-12). At the level of the clavicle,
every trunk gives off an anterior and a posterior division.
The ventral rami of spinal nerves C5-T1 form the brachial These divisions rearrange their fibers to form the lateral,
plexus, which innervates bones, joints, muscles, and the medial, and posterior cords, which in turn give off the
skin of the upper extremity and shoulder girdle. Between peripheral nerves for the upper extremity (Figure 1-13).
the anterior and middle scalene muscles, the roots converge Table 1-2 describes the origin and innervation of each nerve
to form the superior (C5-C6), middle (C7), and inferior of the brachial plexus.

FIGURE 1-13. Dissection of the brachial plexus from the roots in the neck to the axillary fossa.
TABLE 1-2 Anatomy of the Brachial Plexus C5-T1

MYOTOMES
NERVE
(TERMINAL SPINAL MOTOR
BRANCH) NERVES TRUNK CORD MUSCLES RESPONSE SCLEROTOMES DERMATOMES
Long thoracic C5-C7 Serratus Forward
anterior flexion of
the arm and
contraction of
the serratus
anterior
Dorsal C5 Levator scap- Elevation of
scapular ulae, rhom- the scapula
boid muscles
Nerves to C4-C6 Upper Subclavius Sternoclavicular
subclavius joint

TABLE 1-2 Anatomy of the Brachial Plexus C5-T1 (Continued)

MYOTOMES
NERVE
Suprascapular C5-C6 Upper Supra- Abduction Glenohumeral
spinatus, and lateral and acromiocla-
infraspinatus rotation of vicular joints, sub-
the shoulder acromial bursa
Subscapular C5-C6 Upper Posterior Subscapularis, Adduction Deep surface of
(upper and teres major and medial the scapula
lower) rotation of
the shoulder
Thoracodorsal C6-C8 Upper, Posterior Latissimus Extension,
middle, dorsi adduction,
lower and medial
rotation of
the shoulder
Axillary C5-C6 Upper Posterior Deltoid, teres Abduction Glenohumeral Anterior and
minor and lateral anterior and posterior
rotation of acromioclavicular shoulder
the shoulder joints
Radial C5-T1 Upper, Posterior Triceps, Extension of 1st/3rd superior Posterior arm
middle, anconeus, the elbow, humerus, elbow and forearm,
lower brachioradia- wrist, and joint, radius, ulna, dorsal aspect of
lis, extensor fingers, supi- carpus, 1st-3rd the hand (1st-4th
carpi radialis nation of metacarpus and fingers)
longus and the forearm, phalanges
brevis, supina- abduction of
tor, extensor the wrist and
digitorum thumb
communis,
extensor
digiti minimi,
extensor carpi
ulnaris, exten-
sor indicis,
extensor pol-
licis longus
and brevis,
abductor
pollicis
Lateral C5-C7 Upper, Lateral Pectoralis Glenohumeral
pectoral middle minor, pecto- and acromiocla-
ralis major vicular joints
Musculocuta- C5-C6 Upper Lateral Coracobra- Flexion of the Humerus elbow Lateral forearm
neous chialis, biceps elbow and and proximal rim
brachii, supination of radioulnar joints
brachialis the forearm

TABLE 1-2 Anatomy of the Brachial Plexus C5-T1 (Continued)

MYOTOMES
NERVE
Median C6-T1 Upper, Lateral, Elbow: Pro- Flexion of Elbow joint Palmar aspect of
middle, medial nator teres, the wrist (anterior), radius, the hand (1st-4th
lower flexor carpi and 2nd-3rd ulna, 1st-4th fingers) and dor-
radialis, pal- fingers, pro- metacarpus and sal aspect of the
maris longus nation of the phalanges distal half of the
Forearm: forearm 2nd-4th fingers
Flexor
digitorum
superficialis/
profundus,
flexor pol-
licis longus,
pronator
quadratus
Hand: Thenar
muscles, 1st-
2nd lumbrical
muscles
Medial C8-T1 Lower Medial Pectoralis Clavicle
pectoral minor, pecto-
ralis major
Medial T1 Lower Medial Medial aspect of
brachial the arm
cutaneous
Medial C8-T1 Lower Medial Medial aspect of
antebrachial the forearm
cutaneous
Ulnar C8-T1 Middle Medial Flexor carpi Flexion of the Elbow joint, ulna Medial aspect of
ulnaris, flexor wrist and 4th- and medial aspect the hand, 4th-5th
digitorum 5th fingers, of the wrist, hand finger
profundus adduction of and 4th-5th
and interos- the thumb fingers
seous (4th-
5th fingers),
muscles of
the hypothe-
nar eminence,
adductor
pollicis, flexor
pollicis brevis

FIGURE 1-14. Organization of the lumbar plexus from roots to terminal nerves.
The Lumbar Plexus in the posterior abdominal wall between the psoas major
and quadratus lumborum muscles. The main branches
The ventral rami of spinal nerves L1-L4 form the lumbar of the lumbar plexus are the iliohypogastric, ilioinguinal,
plexus. They divide into anterior and posterior divisions genitofemoral, lateral femoral cutaneous, obturator, and
that coalesce to form the terminal nerves (Figure 1-14). femoral nerves (Figure 1-15 and Figure 1-16). Table 1-3
The lumbar plexus innervates the skin, muscles, peritoneal describes the origin and innervation of each nerve of the
lining of the lower abdominal wall, and the anteromedial lumbar plexus.
aspect of the lower extremities. The plexus runs caudally

FIGURE 1-15. Dissection of the lumbar plexus in the pelvic cavity.
Lateral femoral cutaneous

nerve
Inguinal ligament
Iliopsoas muscle
Femoral nerve
Tensor fasciae latae
Sartorius muscle
Pectineus muscle
Femoral artery
Femoral vein
Adductor longus muscle
Great saphenous vein
Gracilis muscle
FIGURE 1-16. Dissection of the femoral nerve below the inguinal ligament.

TABLE 1-3 Anatomy of the Lumbar Plexus L1-L4

MYOTOMES
NERVE
BRANCH) NERVES MUSCLES RESPONSE SCLEROTOMES DERMATOMES
Iliohypogastric T12-L1 Abdominal muscles Contraction of the Skin over inferior
(external and internal abdominal wall abdomen and
oblique, transverse (inguinal area) buttocks
abdominis)
Ilioinguinal L1 Internal oblique Contraction of the Skin over superior,
abdominal wall medial thigh, and
(inguinal area) portions of external
genitalia
Genitofemoral L1-L2 Cremaster Elevates the scrotum Anteromedial surface
of thigh and portions
over genitalia
Lateral femoral L2-L3 Anterolateral aspect
cutaneous of thigh
Femoral (anterior/ L2-L4 Sartorius, pectineus Flexion, aduction, Anteromedial aspect
superficial branches): and external rotation of thigh
anterolateral cutane- of the hip
ous, anteromedial
cutaneous
Femoral (posterior L2-L4 Quadriceps Extension of the Ilium, anterior and Anterior surface of
branch): saphe- knee, patellar lateral aspect of thigh, medial surface
nous, nerves to the femur, superior artic- of leg, and foot
quadriceps ular aspect of tibia;
hip and knee joints
Obturator L2-L4 Adductors of thigh Adduction of the Ischium, pubis, medial Medial surface of
(adductors magnus, thigh, external rota- aspect of femur; hip thigh
brevis, and longus); tion of the hip and knee joints
gracilis, obturator
externus
The Sacral Plexus between the greater trochanter and ischial tuberosity in the
gluteal area (Figure 1-18). In the proximal thigh, the nerve
The ventral rami of spinal nerves L4-L5 and S1-S4 form lies behind the lesser trochanter of the femur and is covered
the sacral plexus, which innervates the buttocks, perineum, superficially by the long head of the biceps femoris muscle.
posterior aspect of the thigh, and the whole leg below the The two components of the sciatic nerve diverge into two
knee, except the sensory territory of the saphenous nerve recognizable nerves as it approaches the popliteal fossa: the
(Figure 1-17). The main nerve is the sciatic nerve that leaves common peroneal and the tibial nerves. Table 1-4 describes
the pelvis through the greater sciatic foramen and travels the origin and innervation of each nerve of the sacral plexus.

FIGURE 1-17. Organization of the sacral plexus from roots to terminal nerves.
better understanding of the neuronal components that need

Innervation of the Major Joints to be anesthetized to achieve anesthesia for or analgesia after
Much of the practice of peripheral nerve blocks involves joint surgery. Table 1-5 summarizes the innervation and
orthopedic and joint surgery. Consequently, knowledge of kinetic function of the major muscle groups of the upper
the sensory innervation of major joints is important for a and lower extremities.

Gluteus maximus muscle
Superior gluteal
artery and nerve
Tendon of piriform muscle
Sacrotuberous ligament
Pudendal nerve
Sciatic nerve
Inferior gluteal nerve
Posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve
Ischial tuberosity
FIGURE 1-18. Dissection of the sciatic nerve at the pelvic outlet.
TABLE 1-4 Anatomy of the Sacral Plexus L4-S4

NERVE
(TERMINAL SPINAL MOTOR MOTOR RESPONSE TO
BRANCH) NERVES INNERVATION NEUROSTIMULATION DERMATOMES SCLEROTOMES
Gluteal (superior/ L4-S2 Abductors of thigh Contraction of the Medial and supe-
inferior) (gluteus minimus, buttocks and external rior aspect of the
gluteus medius, and rotation of the hip buttocks
tensor fasciae latae) and
extensor of thigh
(gluteus maximus)
Posterior femoral S1-S3 Skin of perineum
cutaneous and posterior
surface of thigh
and leg

TABLE 1-4 Anatomy of the Sacral Plexus L4-S4 (Continued)

NERVE
(TERMINAL SPINAL MOTOR MOTOR RESPONSE TO
BRANCH) NERVES INNERVATION NEUROSTIMULATION DERMATOMES SCLEROTOMES
Sciatic Gluteal Three of the hamstrings Extension of hip, flexion Hip joint; ischium,
level (semitendinosus and of knee posterior aspect
semimembranosus long of the femur
head of biceps femoris);
adductor magnus (with
obturator nerve)
Tibial L4-S3 Flexor of knee and Flexion of the knee, plan- Posterior aspect Knee, ankle, and
plantar flexors of ankle tar flexion of the foot and of leg, plantar all foot joints;
(popliteus, gastrocne- toes, inversion of the foot aspect of foot tibia, fibula, and
mius, soleus plantaris, plantar aspect of
and tibialis posterior the foot
muscles and long head
of biceps femoris mus-
cle); flexors of toes
Common L4-S2 Biceps femoris muscle Flexion of the knee, dorsi Anterior surface Knee, ankle, and
peroneal (short head); fibularis flexion of the foot and aspect of leg and all foot joints;
(brevis and longus) and toes, eversion of the foot dorsal aspect of proximal tibia and
tibialis anterior muscles; foot; skin over fibula and dorsal
extensors of toes lateral portion aspect of the foot
of foot (through
the sural nerve)
Pudendal S2-S4 Muscles of perineum, Motor contraction of the External genitalia,
including urogenital dia- muscles involved lower third of
phragm and external anal the urethra and
and urethral sphincter vagina, skin of the
muscles; skeletal muscles anal circumfer-
(bulbospongiosus, ischio- ence, caudal third
cavernosus muscles) of the rectum
Nerve to the qua- L4-L5 Quadratus femoris, infe- Adduction and external Hip joint
dratus femoris and rior gemellus rotation of the hip
inferior gemellus
Nerve to obtura- L5-S1 Superior gemellus, Abduction of the hip
tori and superior obturator internus
gemellus
Nerve to piriformis S1-S2 Piriformis Abduction and lateral
rotation of the hip
Nerves to coccyg- S3-S4 Coccygeus, levator ani Motor contraction of the
eus and levator ani muscles involved

TABLE 1-5 Summary of Movement by Joint

UPPER EXTREMITY
Shoulder (Glenohumeral) Joint
Flexion Biceps brachii—long head Musculocutaneous nerve
Coracobrachialis
Deltoid Axillary nerve
Pectoralis major Medial and lateral pectoral nerve
Extension Triceps brachii—long head Radial nerve
Latissimus dorsi Thoracodorsal nerve
Adduction Latissimus dorsi Thoracodorsal nerve
Pectoralis major Medial and lateral pectoral nerves
Teres major Lower subscapular nerve
Subscapularis Upper and lower subscapular nerve
Abduction Supraspinatus Suprascapular nerve
Medial rotation Pectoralis major Medial and lateral pectoral nerve
Latissimus dorsi Thoracodorsal nerve
Teres major Lower subscapular nerve
Subscapularis Upper and lower subscapular nerves
Lateral rotation Teres minor Axillary nerve
Infraspinatus Suprascapular nerve
Elbow (Humeroulnar, Humeroradial) Joint
Flexion Brachialis Musculocutaneous
Biceps brachii—long and short heads
Flexor carpi radialis Median nerve
Extension Triceps brachii—long lateral, medial head Radial nerve
Anconeus
Radioulnar Joints
Supination Biceps brachii—long and short head Musculocutaneous
Supinator Radial nerve
Pronation Pronator teres Median nerve
Pronator quadratus
Wrist (Radiocarpal, Ulnocarpal) Joint
Flexion Flexor carpi radialis Median nerve
Palmaris longus
Flexors of fingers listed below
Flexor carpi ulnaris Ulnar nerve
Extension Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis Radial nerve
Extensors of fingers listed below
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Carpometacarpal Joints
Opposition Opponen pollicis Median nerve
Opponens digiti minimi Ulnar nerve

TABLE 1-5 Summary of Movement by Joint (Continued)

UPPER EXTREMITY
Metacarpophalangeal Joints
Flexion Flexor digitorum superficialis Median nerve
Flexor digitorum profundus Median and ulnar nerves
Flexor pollicis longus and brevis Median nerve
Interosseus Ulnar nerve
Lumbricals Median and ulnar nerves
Extension Extensor digitorum communis Radial nerve
Extensor indicis
Extensor digiti minimi
Adduction Palmar interosseous Ulnar nerve
Abductor pollicis
Abduction Dorsal interosseous Ulnar nerve
Abductor digiti minimi
Abductor pollicis longus Radial nerve
Abductor pollicis brevis Median nerve
Interphalangeal Joints
Flexion Flexor digitorum superficialis Median nerve
Flexor digitorum profundus Median and ulnar nerves
Flexor pollicis longus and brevis Median nerve
Extension Extensor digitorum communis Radial nerve
Extensor indicis
Extensor digiti minimi
Lumbricals (index, middle fingers) Median nerve
Lumbricals (ring, little fingers) Ulnar nerve
Interosseous muscles
LOWER EXTREMITY
Hip (Acetabulofemoral) Joint
Flexion Iliacus/psoas major Femoral nerve
Pectineus
Rectus femoris
Sartorius
Adductor magnus Obturator nerve
Adductor longus and brevis
Tensor fascia lata Superior gluteal nerve
Extension Biceps femoris—long head Sciatic nerve
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Gluteus maximus Inferior gluteal nerve
Adductor magnus Obturator nerve

TABLE 1-5 Summary of Movement by Joint (Continued)

LOWER EXTREMITY
Hip (Acetabulofemoral) Joint
Adduction Adduct magnus, longus, brevis Obturator nerve
Gracilis
Pectineus Femoral nerve
Abduction Gluteus minimus Superior gluteal nerve
Gluteus medius
Tensor fascia lata
Medial rotation Gluteus minimus Superior gluteal nerve
Gluteus medius
Tensor fascia lata
Lateral rotation Piriformis Nerve to piriformis
Obturator internus Nerve to obturator internus
Superior gemilli Nerve to obturator internus
Inferior gemelli Nerve to quadratus femoris
Quadratus femoris Nerve to quadratus femoris
Sartorius Femoral nerve
Knee (Tibiofemoral) Joint
Flexion Bicep femoris—long and short heads Sciatic nerve
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Popliteus Tibial nerve
Gastrocnemius
Sartorius Femoral nerve
Extension Rectus femoris Femoral nerve
Vastus lateralis
Vastus intermedius
Vastus medialis
Medial rotation Popliteus Tibial nerve
Semimembranosus Sciatic nerve
Semitendinosus
Lateral rotation Biceps femoris Sciatic nerve
Ankle (Talocrural) Joint
Plantar flexion Soleus Tibial nerve
Gastrocnemius
Tibialis posterior
Flexor digitorum longus
Flexor hallucis longus
Peroneus longus and brevis Superficial peroneal nerve
Dorsiflexion Tibialis anterior Deep peroneal nerve
Extensor digitorum
Extensor hallucis longus

Shoulder Joint Elbow Joint

Innervation to the shoulder joints originates from the supe- Branches of all major nerves of the brachial plexus
rior and middle trunks of the brachial plexus that can be that cross the joint, including the musculocutaneous,
blocked at the interscalene level. Most of the shoulder capsule radial, median, and ulnar nerves, supply the elbow joint
is supplied by the axillary and suprascapular nerves, which (Figure 1-20).
can be selectively blocked more distally. (Figure 1-19).
FIGURE 1-19. Innervation of the shoulder joint.
FIGURE 1-20. Innervation of the elbow joint.

Hip Joint Wrist and Hand

Branches from the femoral and obturator nerves from the Most of the terminal branches of the brachial plexus, includ-
lumbar plexus and from the sciatic nerve and the nerve to the ing the radial, median, and ulnar nerves, innervate the wrist
quadratus femoris from the sacral plexus innervate the hip and hand joints (Figure 1-23).
joint (Figure 1-21).
Ankle and Foot
Knee Joint The innervation of the ankle and foot joints is complex and
Branches from the femoral nerve innervate the knee joint ante- involves the terminal branches of the common peroneal (deep
riorly. On its medial side, the nerve receives branches from the and superficial peroneal nerves), tibial (tibial nerve), and fem-
posterior division of the obturator nerve, while both divisions oral nerves (saphenous nerve). An easier view is that the entire
of the sciatic nerve supply its posterior side (Figure 1-22). innervation of the ankle joint originates from the sciatic nerve,
FIGURE 1-21. Innervation of the hip joint.

FIGURE 1-22. Innervation of the knee joint. The origin of the superomedial and superolateral genicular
nerves (from the sciatic nerve or femoral nerve) is controversial.
FIGURE 1-23. Innervation of the wrist.

FIGURE 1-24. Innervation of the ankle.
except for the medial aspect around the medial malleolus, nerve through white rami communicantes to enter the sym-
which is innervated by the saphenous nerve (Figure 1-24). pathetic trunk, which is formed by a series of interconnected
paravertebral ganglia that are adjacent to the vertebral bodies
and extend from the axis (C2 vertebra) to the sacrum. The
Autonomic Component preganglionic fibers synapse on cell bodies of neurons form-
of Spinal Nerves ing the paravertebral ganglia. The axons of paravertebral
ganglia (postganglionic fibers) can remain at the same level
All spinal nerves transmit autonomic sympathetic fibers to or can change level by ascending or descending the trunk.
glands and smooth muscles in the regions they innervate. These fibers pass from the trunk through gray rami com-
No parasympathetic fibers are present in spinal nerves. municantes to spinal nerves. The sympathetic trunk sends a
The sympathetic fibers originate in the spinal cord between gray ramus to all spinal nerves. The sympathetic nerves travel
T1 and L2 and pass from the spinal cord through the ventral along branches of the spinal nerve to the target destination
roots of the T1-L2 spinal nerves. They depart from the spinal (Figure 1-25).

FIGURE 1-25. Organization of the autonomic nervous system.

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of-the-art techniques in treating peripheral nerve injury. Plast Rosse C, Gaddum-Rosse P. Hillinshead’s Textbook of Anatomy.
Reconstr Surg. 2018;141(3):702-710. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven; 1997.
Martini FH, Timmons MJ, Tallitsch RB. Human Anatomy. 7th ed.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; 2011.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
2 Local Anesthetics: Clinical
Pharmacology and Selection
Local anesthetics (LAs) have been used for more than a century the nerve. In the resting state, the nerve membrane is more
to block nociceptive signals. They bind to the specific receptor permeable to K+ ions than to Na+ ions. This results in the con-
sites on the sodium (Na+) channels in nerve cells to interrupt tinuous, slow leakage of K+ ions out of the nerve cell. This
nerve conduction by blocking the entrance of ions across the leakage of cations, in turn, creates a negatively charged inte-
cell membrane. LAs also activate a number of downstream rior relative to the exterior, producing an electric potential
pathways in neurons by G protein-coupled receptors and of –60 to –70 mV across the nerve membrane, also called the
interact with calcium, potassium, and hyperpolarization-gated resting potential (Figure 2-1).
ion channels, ligand-gated channels. The clinical properties of Receptors at the distal ends of sensory nerves act as sen-
the LAs are determined by their chemical and pharmacologic sors and transducers of mechanical, chemical, or thermal
properties with a significant variation in individual patients’ stimuli. The stimuli are then converted into minuscule elec-
responses. The current developments in LAs focus on for- tric currents. For example, a surgical incision releases chemi-
mulations of local anesthetic that prolong the duration of the cal mediators that react with the receptors. The mediators in
action. Formulations of encapsulated slow-release LAs, on- interaction with the nerve membrane near the receptor alter
demand release, and those with a selective nociceptive block the electrical potential across the membrane making it less
are being developed. This chapter discusses the mechanism of negative. When the threshold potential is reached, an action
action of LAs and their clinical use. The prevention and treat- potential occurs, with a sudden increase in the permeability of
ment of toxicity and allergy by LAs are explained in Chapter 9. the nerve membrane to Na+ ions. As a result, there is a rapid
influx of positively charged Na+ ions (Figure 2-2.). This tran-
sient reversal of charge is called depolarization. Depolariza-
tion generates an electrical current that flows to the adjacent
Nerve Conduction segments of the nerve and sequentially depolarizes them.
Nerve conduction is the transmission of an electrochemi- This process of sequential depolarization alongside the nerve
cal signal from one neuron to another. The axon, a prolon- membrane is essential for nerve conduction and is caused
gation of the soma of the neuron, plays an essential role in by the rapid influx of Na+ ions in response to a change in
nerve conduction. Axons can be myelinated or unmyelin- the transmembrane potential. Na+ channels in the nerve are
ated depending on the type of nerve fiber. Myelin is the fatty therefore characterized as “voltage-gated.” These channels are
substance that insulates the nerves and surrounds the axon. protein structures with three subunits, one main α subunit,
The myelin sheath, however, is not continuous. The section and two auxiliary subunits, that penetrate the full depth of
where no myelin is present is called a node of Ranvier. A high the membrane bilayer and are in communication with both
concentration of ion channels at the level of these nodes in the extracellular surface of the nerve membrane and the axo-
myelinated nerve fibers results in high conduction speeds. plasm (interior) of the nerve. The α subunit contains the pore-
The greater the internodal distance, the greater the conduc- forming domain and is responsible for voltage gating and uni-
tion speed. Unmyelinated fibers, lacking the saltatory mecha- directional signal transmission by inactivation of the channel.
nism, conduct more slowly than myelinated fibers. This time-dependent inactivation is called the refractory period.
The propagation of an electrical impulse in nerve conduc- Repolarization takes place after the refractory period and
tion is generated by the rapid movement of small amounts of will restore the electrical balance to the resting potential.
cations, sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+), across the nerve During repolarization, Na+ permeability decreases, while
membrane. The ionic gradient caused by Na+ (high extracel- K+ permeability increases, resulting in an efflux of K+ from
lular; low intracellular) and K+ (high intracellular; low extra- within the cell. Subsequently, both ions are restored to their
cellular) is maintained by a Na+/K+-adenosine triphosphate initial intracellular and extracellular concentrations by the
(ATPase) pump mechanism within the cell membrane of Na+/K+-ATPase pump.
Hadzic_Ch02_p033-046.indd 33 02/06/21 10:35 AM

FIGURE 2-1. Resting membrane potential. The Na+/K+ pump is responsible for maintaining the ionic gradient between
Na+ and K+ ions within the nerve. Typically, the resting membrane potential is between –60 and –70 mV.
The voltage-dependent Na+ channel exists in three states:

Mechanism of Action (1) open, (2) inactivated, and (3) resting. LAs have a higher
of Local Anesthetics affinity with the open and inactivated state of the voltage-
LAs prevent the generation and conduction of nerve dependent Na+ channel than with the resting state. Repeated
impulses by binding to the Na+ channel and inhibiting the depolarization facilitates the encounter of the LA molecule
influx of Na+ into the cell, thereby halting the transmission of with a Na+ channel that is in the activated or open form, as
the advancing wave of depolarization down the length of the opposed to the resting form. A resting nerve is less sensitive
nerve (Figure 2-3). to an LA than a nerve that is repeatedly stimulated. Increas-
The LAs bind, in a reversible and concentration-depen- ing the stimulation frequency causes a decrease in the flow of
dent manner, to the α subunit located on the inner surface of Na+ in the presence of a low dose of LAs.
the Na+ channel. Since the LA molecules cannot pass through
the channel itself to reach the binding site, they need to tra- Structure-Related Clinical Properties
verse the neuronal membrane first, and then enter the chan-
nel from the cytoplasmic side (Figure 2-3). LAs exist in two
of Local Anesthetics
forms: unionized (lipophilic) and ionized (hydrophilic). The LAs are water-soluble salts of lipid-soluble bases that
unionized form permeates more readily the phospholipid behave as weak acid or base depending on the pH of the
membrane, whereas the ionized form is more hydrophilic fluid they are in. The typical structure of an LA consists of
and binds with greater affinity to the open sodium channels. hydrophilic (tertiary amine) and lipophilic (aromatic ring)

Local Anesthetics: Clinical Pharmacology and Selection CHAPTER 2 35
FIGURE 2-2. The working mechanism of action potentials. (A) At rest, the Na+/K+ pump is responsible for maintaining the
ionic gradient between Na+ and K+ ions. The nerve membrane is more permeable to K+ ions than to Na+ ions, resulting in
the leakage of K+ ions out of the intracellular space. This creates a negatively charged interior relative to the exterior, producing
a resting membrane potential of –60 to –70 mV across the nerve membrane. (B) A stimulus generates small electrical currents
causing the membrane potential to become less negative. When the threshold potential is reached, an action potential results
in a sudden increase in the permeability to Na+ ions (voltage-gated Na+ channels open) and a rapid influx of positively
charged Na+ ions into the interior of the neuron, resulting in depolarization (transient reversal of charge). (C) At the peak of the
action potential, the voltage-gated Na+ channels are inactivated, thereby preventing further entry of Na+ ions. Simultaneously,
the voltage-gated K+ channels open and K+ ions leak out of the neuron. This renders the neuron interior negative relative to the
exterior (repolarization). (D) Finally, both ions are restored to their initial intracellular and extracellular concentrations by
the Na+/K+ pump mechanism.

FIGURE 2-3. Mechanism of action of local anesthetics. Local anesthetics work by binding to the α subunit
of the voltage-gated Na+ channels, thus preventing the generation and conduction of nerve impulses.
Subsequently, Na+ ions cannot flow into the cell, thereby halting the transmission of the advancing wave
of depolarization down the length of the nerve. Fraction of local anesthetic molecules are in the ionized
form. LA molecules change from ionized to unionized in a fraction of a second.
domains separated by an intermediate ester or amide linkage 50% of the drug is ionized and 50% is present as a base. The
(Figure 2-4). Each of these components contributes to the pKa is related to pH and the concentrations of the ionized
specific clinical properties of the LA. (cation) and unionized (base), governed by the Henderson-
Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKa + log ([unionized]/
• The amino group determines the pKa of the LA and conveys
[ionized]). If we reorganize the Henderson-Hasselbalch
hydrosolubility, which is important for the binding of the
equation as log ([unionized]/[ionized]) = pH – pKa, it is
LA with the sodium channels. The pKa is the pH at which
evident that a lower pKa increases the amount of the union-
ized form of LA that facilitates crossing the nerve cell
membrane. It follows that the lower the pKa of an LA, the
faster the onset. Of note, the tissue pH also affects the onset
and the duration of LAs. Ischemic or infected tissue with a
low pH will delay the onset of the LA action. This is because
drug penetration of the nerve membrane by the LA requires
the base (unionized) form to pass through the nerve lipid
membrane, and the local tissue pH may affect the balance
between unionized and ionized fractions of LA.
• The aromatic group and its substitutions determine the
lipid solubility (hydrophobicity) of the LA molecule that
is expressed as partition coefficient. Greater lipid solu-
bility enables higher affinity to lipid membranes, which
results in longer permanence in the proximity to the
sites of action (Figure 2-5). Therefore, lipid solubility
increases the potency and duration of their action.
Unfortunately, higher lipid solubility also increases
toxicity, decreasing the therapeutic index. In the clini-
FIGURE 2-4. Structures of commonly used local anesthetics. cal setting, higher lipid solubility does not enhance

FIGURE 2-5. Local anesthetic hydrophobicity, diffusion, and binding. Local anesthetics act by binding to the intracellular
side of voltage-gated Na+ channels (α subunit). The hydrophobicity of a local anesthetic determines how efficiently it diffuses
across the lipid membrane and how tightly it binds to the Na+ channel and therefore governs its potency. (A) Less hydropho-
bic local anesthetics are unable to cross the hydrophobic lipid bilayer efficiently because the local anesthetic is stable in the
extracellular solution. (B) Moderately hydrophobic local anesthetics are the most effective agents. These local anesthetics have
a higher affinity for lipid membranes and greater proximity to the sites of action. (C) Extremely hydrophobic local anesthetics
are absorbed by the neuronal cell membrane and are unlikely to dissociate or diffuse out of the membrane. Therefore, they
remain trapped in the lipid bilayer.
the speed of onset of the LA, despite a faster diffusion

through lipid membranes. This is due to a higher uptake
Site of Injection
by adipose tissue and myelin sheaths. In peripheral nerve blockade, the LA is deposited in the
• The nature of the linking group determines the pharma- vicinity of or around the nerves, typically between the fas-
cokinetic properties of the LA. There are two categories: cial sheaths that contain the nerve. The pattern of the spread
ester LAs that are hydrolyzed rapidly in plasma by pseudo- of the injected solution longitudinally and circumferentially
cholinesterase to the metabolite para-aminobenzoic acid determines the exposure of the nerve surface to the LA.
(PABA), and amide LAs that undergo metabolization in Intraneural or subepineural injections typically result in a
the liver. Exceptions are cocaine, an ester LA that is metab- faster block onset but are not recommended as a safe prac-
olized in the liver by carboxylesterase, and articaine, an tice. These injections increase the risk of neurologic injury
amide LA that is hydrolyzed by plasma carboxylesterase. due to mechanical needle-nerve injury, the risk of intraneural
hematoma, or the risk of LA neurotoxicity.
Pharmacologic Properties
of Local Anesthetics Nerve Factors
In general, the greater the molecular weight of LA molecules
Anatomical Characteristics of Nerve Fibers
and lipophilicity and the protein binding, the longer the Nerve anatomy, with its surrounding connective tissues, pres-
duration of action, potency, and toxicity of the LA. However, ents barriers to the diffusion and the action of LAs. Periph-
the reverse is true with regards to the speed of onset. Addi- eral nerves have three connective tissue sheaths. A mixed
tional factors that influence LA action are dose, intrinsic peripheral nerve consists of individual nerves surrounded by
vasoactivity, physical characteristics of the tissue surround- an investing epineurium. The epineurium is collagenous and
ing the nerve, and formulation of the LA. For instance, envelops a multitude of nerve fascicles separated by adipose
extended-release formulations produce a delayed onset but and other connective tissues, and nutrient blood vessels. The
extended duration. outermost epineurium surrounds the peripheral nerve and
Simplified, block duration is determined largely by three provides mechanical support during flexing and stretching.
factors: (1) lipid solubility, (2) vascularity of the tissue, and The perineurium encloses a bundle of nerve fibers called fas-
(3) the presence of vasoconstrictors. Of the three, the most cicle and acts as an endothelial-like structure, while impart-
important factor influencing the conduction block duration ing mechanical strength to the nerve. Inside the perineurium,
is the lipid solubility of the LA. individual nerve fibers are embedded in the endoneurium,

a loose connective tissue made up of glial cells, fibroblasts, diffuses inward alongside the concentration gradient to block
and capillaries. the centrally located fibers. Smaller doses and/or concen-
When an LA is deposited in proximity to a peripheral trations of LAs predominantly block the smaller and more
nerve, it diffuses from the outer mantle toward the core of susceptible nerves in the outer mantle.
the nerve along a concentration gradient. Consequently,
nerve fibers located in the outer mantle of the mixed nerve Differential Sensitivity of
are blocked first (Figure 2-6). The outside fibers are typi-
cally distributed to more proximal anatomic structures than
Nerve Fibers to Local Anesthetics
the fibers situated near the core of the nerve. As a result, the Different nerve fibers differ not only by myelin thickness
block evolves from proximal structures to distal structures and size but also by different patterns of electrophysiological
(the core often consists of motor fibers). The LA eventually properties and ion channel composition. Two general rules
FIGURE 2-6. The structure and organization of the peripheral nerve.

FIGURE 2-7. Classification of nerve fibers and differential rate of nerve blockade.
apply regarding the susceptibility of nerve fibers to LAs. First, patients with atypical plasma pseudocholinesterase (uncom-
smaller nerve fibers are more susceptible to the action of LAs mon; incidence for homozygosity 1:2 000-4 000). The metab-
than large fibers (Figure 2-7). Smaller fibers are preferentially olism (hydrolysis) of ester-linked LAs leads to the formation
blocked because a shorter length of the axon is required to of para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), which is known to cause
halt the conduction completely. Second, myelinated fibers allergic reactions. A history of an allergic reaction to LAs is
are more easily blocked than unmyelinated fibers. In general, often due to the presence of PABA derived from an ester-
nerve fibers with a cross-sectional diameter greater than 1 μm linked LA. Of note, although rare, allergic reactions can also
are myelinated. develop from amide-linked LAs; however, this is more likely
Clinically, the differential speed of the nerve conduction due to the PABA as a preservative, which is commonly added
block and recovery may differ, depending on the site of injec- to multiple-dose vials.
tion (spinal, epidural, or peripheral nerve) and the type and
concentration of LA used. In general, the sensation of pain is 2-Chloroprocaine
usually the first modality to disappear, followed by the loss of
sensations to cold, warmth, touch, deep pressure, and, finally, 2-Chloroprocaine is an amino ester introduced in 1952 and
loss of motor function. is the most rapidly metabolized LA. Because of its rapid
breakdown in plasma (<1 minute), it has a very low poten-
tial for systemic toxicity. The chloroprocaine preservatives,
Types of Local Anesthetics sodium bisulfite, and disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate
(EDTA) used in the past were reported to cause neurologic
LAs are broadly divided into two categories: esters and symptoms, which precluded its use for spinal anesthesia until
amides. Other than metabolization pathways, the physico- recently. Newer 2-chloroprocaine formulations are preser-
chemical properties of both amino esters and amino amides vative-free preparations and are often used for short-acting
are similar and mainly determined by their dissociation con- spinal anesthesia.
stant, lipophilic makeup, and spatial arrangement of the mol- A 3% 2-chloroprocaine solution is a good choice in periph-
ecule (Table 2-1). eral nerve blocks (PNBs) for surgical anesthesia of short
duration or for patients having a relatively minor surgery, not
resulting in postoperative pain (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome,
Ester-Linked Local Anesthetics knee arthroscopy, muscle biopsy, shoulder dislocation treat-
ment). PNBs with chloroprocaine (2%-3%) are characterized
Ester-linked LAs are hydrolyzed at the ester linkage in by fast onset and short duration of action (60-90 minutes).
plasma by pseudocholinesterase. The rate of hydrolysis of
ester-linked LAs depends on the type and location of the sub-
stitution in the aromatic ring. For example, 2-chloroprocaine
Cocaine
is hydrolyzed about four times faster than procaine, which Cocaine occurs naturally in the leaves of the coca shrub and
in turn is hydrolyzed about four times faster than tetracaine. is an ester of benzoic acid. Cocaine blocks the nerve conduc-
The rate of hydrolysis of all ester-linked LAs may be slower in tion and causes local vasoconstriction due to inhibition of the

TABLE 2-1 Physicochemical Properties of Clinically Used Local Anesthetics

PERCENT IONIZED PARTITION COEFFICIENT PERCENT OF
LOCAL ANESTHETIC pK a (AT pH 7.4) ( LIPID SOLUBILITY) PROTEIN BINDING
Amides
Bupivacainea 8.1 83 3 420 95
Etidocaine 7.7 66 7 317 94
Lidocaine 7.9 76 366 64
Mepivacaine 7.6 61 130 77
Prilocaine 7.9 76 129 55
Ropivacaine 8.1 83 775 94
Esters
Chloroprocaine 8.7 95 810 N/A
Procaine 8.9 97 100 6
Tetracaine 8.5 93 5 822 94
a
Levobupivacaine has the same physicochemical properties as a racemate. N/A, not available.
Data from Liu SS. Local anesthetics and analgesia. In: Ashburn MA, Rice LJ, eds. The Management of Pain. New York: Churchill Livingstone;
1997:141.
Adapted from Barash PG, Cullen BF, Stoelting RK, Cahalan MK, Stock MC, Ortega R, et al. Clinical Anesthesia, 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA:
Wolters Kluwer; 2017.
norepinephrine reuptake locally. Its toxicity and potential for hepatic clearance of these anesthetics. Consequently, factors
abuse preclude its wider clinical use. Its euphoric properties that decrease hepatic blood flow or hepatic drug extraction both
are primarily due to inhibition of catecholamine uptake, par- result in an increased elimination half-life. Renal clearance of
ticularly dopamine, at central nervous system (CNS) synapses. unchanged LAs is a minor route of elimination, accounting for
only 3% to 5% of the total drug administered.
Procaine
Lidocaine
Procaine, an amino ester, was the first synthetic LA. Procaine
is characterized by low potency, slow onset, and short dura- Introduced in 1948, lidocaine remains one of the most widely
tion of action. Procaine is used less frequently today since used LAs. Lidocaine is absorbed rapidly after parenteral
more effective (and hypoallergenic) alternatives such as lido- administration, and from the gastrointestinal and respiratory
caine exist. Like other LAs (such as mepivacaine and prilo- tracts after topical administration. The high concentration
caine), procaine is a vasodilator. of lidocaine (5%) has been related to transient neurologic
symptoms (TNS) in intrathecal use for spinal anesthesia. A
concentration of 1.5% or 2%, with or without the addition of
Tetracaine epinephrine, is most commonly used for surgical anesthesia
Tetracaine, a long-acting amino ester, was introduced in 1932. in PNBs. Diluted concentrations are often used for diagnostic
It is much more potent and has a longer duration of action blocks in pain management.
than the aforementioned esters procaine or 2-chloroprocaine.
Tetracaine has a slower onset in comparison to other com- Mepivacaine
monly used ester-linked LAs and is more toxic. Due to its slow
onset and potential for toxicity, it is rarely used for PNBs. Mepivacaine, introduced in 1957, has pharmacologic proper-
ties similar to those of lidocaine. Although it was suggested
that mepivacaine is more toxic to neonates (and as such is not
used in obstetric anesthesia), its therapeutic index in adults
Amide-Linked Local Anesthetics is similar to that of lidocaine. Its onset of action is similar to
Amide-linked LAs are metabolized in the liver by a dealkaliza- that of lidocaine, but with a slightly longer duration of action
tion reaction in which an ethyl group is cleaved from the tertiary than lidocaine. Nerve blocks with 2% mepivacaine result in
amine. The hepatic blood flow and liver function determine the an intermediate-duration blockade (3-6 hours).

Prilocaine 2-chloroprocaine. Ropivacaine is less lipophilic than bupiva-

caine and may penetrate less across large myelinated motor
Prilocaine is an LA of intermediate duration with a phar- fibers, possibly resulting in less motor block. However, this is
macologic profile similar to that of lidocaine, except that it not obvious clinically. Regardless, because of its slightly better
does not cause vasodilatation. It also has a larger distribu- CNS toxicity and cardiotoxic profile, ropivacaine has gained
tion volume, which reduces its CNS toxicity. It is unique popularity and almost replaced bupivacaine in some centers.
among amide LAs for its ability to induce methemoglobin- As the ultrasound guidance during regional anesthesia has
emia. The development of methemoglobinemia depends on decreased the minimum dose of LA for a successful block,
the total dose administered (usually requires 8 mg/kg) and is and therefore the risk of toxicity, bupivacaine and levobupi-
caused by its effect on the metabolism of the aromatic ring vacaine are making a comeback and are increasingly more
to o-toluidine and does not have significant consequences in used as the long-acting LAs of choice where long-duration
healthy patients. It can be treated by intravenous (IV) admin- analgesia is sought.
istration of methylene blue (1-2 mg/kg). Prilocaine is used
infrequently for PNBs but is increasingly more often used for
spinal anesthesia, particularly for fast-track surgery.
Additives to Local Anesthetics
Clinicians have been using a variety of adjuvants to LAs to
Bupivacaine
prolong nerve blocks. Although the risk of neurotoxicity is
Since its introduction in 1963, bupivacaine has been one relatively small, the advantages of these adjuvants in clinical
of the most widely used LAs in regional anesthesia, both in trials have not been consistent, posing questions of clinical
neuraxial and PNBs. Its structure is similar to that of lido- benefits. The most common additives include epinephrine,
caine, except that the amine-containing group is butyl- clonidine, dexmedetomidine, opioids, and dexamethasone.
piperidine. Bupivacaine is characterized by a slower onset
and long duration of conduction blockade that can result in
anesthesia and analgesia of >24 hours in some nerve blocks
Vasoconstrictors
(e.g., sciatic and ankle block). The addition of a vasoconstric- The addition of a vasoconstrictor to an LA delays its vascu-
tor (e.g., epinephrine 1:300,000) can prolong the block dura- lar absorption by the surrounding tissues and increases the
tion up to 30%. Bupivacaine is more cardiotoxic than lidocaine, duration of the LA contact with nerves. The net effect is the
and the cardiotoxicity is cumulative with all LAs. Its cardio- prolongation of the blockade by 30% to 50% and a decrease
toxicity partly may be mediated centrally, as direct injection of in the systemic absorption of the LA. These effects vary sig-
small quantities of bupivacaine into the medulla can produce nificantly among different types of LAs and individual nerve
malignant ventricular arrhythmias. Bupivacaine-induced car- blocks. The prolongation of the block is greater with LAs
diotoxicity can be resistant to treatment. Because of its toxicity that have greater vasodilatory properties (e.g., bupivacaine)
profile, large doses of bupivacaine should be avoided. than with ropivacaine, which has a slight vasoconstricting
effect. Epinephrine is the most commonly used vasoconstric-
tor in PNBs with concentrations ranging from 1:400,000 to
Levobupivacaine
1:200,000 (2.5-3.3 μg/mL) (Figure 2-8).
Levobupivacaine contains a single enantiomer of bupiva- Epinephrine can also serve as a marker of intrave-
caine hydrochloride (S sinister, levo). The S-enantiomer, like nous injection of LA. An increase in heart rate of 10 bpm
most LAs with a chiral center, has a lower toxicity profile or higher and/or an increase in systolic blood pressure of
than the R-enantiomer. The available studies of levobupiva- 15 mmHg or higher after a dose of 10 to 15 μg epinephrine
caine suggest that conduction block properties are similar to should raise a suspicion of intravascular injection. Note: These
bupivacaine. Therefore, levobupivacaine is perceived as an “intravascular marker” properties of epinephrine are less rel-
alternative to bupivacaine with a somewhat more favorable evant with smaller volumes of LA used during ultrasound-
cardiovascular toxicity profile. guided nerve blocks.
Ropivacaine Opioids
Ropivacaine is a long-lasting LA (S-enantiomer of 1-propyl-2ʹ, The injection of opioids into the epidural or subarachnoid
6ʹ-pipecolocylidide). It has a somewhat slower uptake than space to manage acute or chronic pain is based on the pres-
bupivacaine, resulting in lower blood levels for a given dose. ence of opioid receptors in the substantia gelatinosa of the
Ropivacaine is also slightly less potent than bupivacaine spinal cord. The intrathecal addition of an opioid enhances
when used in the same concentration. However, in concen- the neuraxial block and prolongs analgesia. However, opioids
trations of 0.5% and higher, it produces a dense block with are not as effective in peripheral nerves. Perhaps the best-
a shorter duration than that of bupivacaine (typically up to studied opioid is buprenorphine, a partial μ-opiate receptor
12 hours). In concentrations of 0.75% to 1%, the onset of the agonist. Buprenorphine acts on κ- and δ-opioid receptors,
blockade is rapid and close to that of 1.5% mepivacaine or 3% and also possesses voltage-gated sodium channel-blocking

FIGURE 2-8. Addition of epinephrine to the mixtures of local anesthetics to decrease LA absorption and increase the duration
of action.
properties. Older reports indicated that buprenorphine not been reported when clonidine is used with PNBs, its cir-
might be used instead of LAs to provide postoperative anal- culatory effects may complicate resuscitation in a setting of
gesia. While it can prolong the sensory-motor block by a few local anesthetic systemic toxicity.
hours, and even provide some degree of transmission block
on its own, a significant increase in nausea and vomiting lim- Dexmedetomidine
its its clinical use.
In contrast to clonidine, dexmedetomidine is more effective
and a more specific α2 agonist. It can prolong both motor and
Clonidine
sensory block by approximately 4 hours beyond the duration
Clonidine is a centrally acting selective α2-adrenergic ago- of the LA. Commonly reported side effects are bradycardia,
nist. It is most commonly used as an antihypertensive drug hypotension, and sedation, but normally these episodes are
because it reduces the sympathetic CNS output. Preservative- transient and do not require intervention. The optimal dose
free clonidine, administered into the epidural or subarach- of dexmedetomidine has not been determined, but it seems
noid space (150-450 μg), produces dose-dependent analgesia to be between 50 and 100 μg.
via supraspinal and spinal adrenergic receptors. Unlike opi-
oids, clonidine does not produce a depression of ventila-
tion, pruritus, nausea, or vomiting. Clonidine also has direct
Dexamethasone
inhibitory effects on peripheral nerve conduction (A and C Dexamethasone is the best studied, most effective, and prob-
nerve fibers), and may also prolong the duration of the sen- ably the most widely used adjuvant for prolonging block
sory-motor block by 1.5 to 2 hours. There appears to be no duration with the lowest risk of side effects. Its precise
benefit to using clonidine in continuous perineural infusions. mechanism of action is not known. However, the addition of
The side effects of clonidine, however, notably sedation, dexamethasone to an LA may increase the block duration by
orthostatic hypotension, and disbalance, may be limiting. 4 hours or more. This prolongation may be accompanied by a
Although life-threatening hypotension or bradycardia has prolonged motor block. Of note, intravenous administration

TABLE 2-2 Selecting Local Anesthetics for Peripheral Nerve Blocks

AVERAGE ONSET AVERAGE DURATION OF AVERAGE DURATION OF
LOCAL ANESTHETIC (MINUTES) ANESTHESIA (HOURS) ANALGESIA (HOURS)
3% Chloroprocaine 6-12 0.5-1
2% Lidocaine + epinephrine 10-20 2-5 3-8
1.5% Mepivacaine + 10-20 2-5 3-8
epinephrine
0.5% Ropivacaine 13-30 4-8 5-12
0.75% Ropivacaine 10-15 5-10 6-24
0.5% Bupivacaine or levobu- 15-30 5-15 6-30
pivacaine + epinephrine
may be equally effective, yet simpler to administer. Typically duration, such as differences in the perineural vascularity,
4 to 10 mg of dexamethasone is used perineurally or intra- which influences the LA absorption and uptake.
venously. Although frequently used, perineural injection of Patients with anticipated pain lasting longer than 24 hours
dexamethasone is an off-label indication. should be considered for perineural infusion of LAs through
a catheter or combination of bupivacaine and liposome bupi-
vacaine, where indicated.
Other Adjuvants Table 2-2 shows the commonly used LAs, with their
Other pharmacologic agents like magnesium, neostigmine, expected onset and duration of actions. As mentioned previ-
anti-inflammatory agents, etc., also have been used in the ously, these numbers do not apply to all scenarios, nerves, or
perineural space with mixed results. In the older literature, plexuses, but can be used as a rough comparative guide to aid
the addition of sodium bicarbonate was suggested to decrease in decision making.
the latency of onset and pain on the injection of mepivacaine Table 2-3 shows the maximum doses (with and without
and lidocaine. However, the newer LA formulations have a epinephrine) of the commonly used LAs.
pH closer to the tissue pH; consequently, sodium bicarbonate
is not often used any longer.
Mixing Local Anesthetics
Mixing LAs (e.g., lidocaine and bupivacaine) is often done
Selecting Local Anesthetics for in clinical practice with the aim to shorten the onset and
Peripheral Nerve Blocks prolong the duration of a block. Unfortunately, when LAs
are mixed, their onset, duration, and potency become less
The choice of LA is most commonly based on the desired
duration of the block, e.g., duration of the surgical procedure,
and the anticipated level and duration of postoperative pain.
For example, the creation of an arteriovenous fistula is a rela- TABLE 2-3 aximum Doses of Local
M
tively short operation with minor postoperative pain. There- Anesthetic
fore, the selection of a short-acting agent (e.g., lidocaine or
mepivacaine) provides excellent intraoperative anesthesia MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
with a low systemic risk profile and without the unnecessary DOSE WITHOUT DOSE WITH
long duration of the insensate extremity postoperatively. In LOCAL EPINEPHRINE EPINEPHRINE
an opposite example, a rotator cuff repair is associated with ANESTHETIC (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
significant and sustained postoperative pain. Therefore, a Chloroprocaine 11 14
better choice for analgesia is a long-acting LA such as bupiva-
caine or ropivacaine. Bupivacaine provides the longest block Lidocaine 5 7
duration of the currently available LAs. Mepivacaine 5 7
The onset and duration for a given LA vary according to Prilocaine 6-7 8
the nerve or plexus to be blocked. For example, 0.5% ropi-
vacaine in the brachial plexus can provide 10 to 12 hours of Ropivacaine 3 -
analgesia. The same volume, dose, and concentration for the Levobupivacaine 2 3
sciatic nerve may provide a significantly longer block (e.g.,
Bupivacaine 2 3-4
30%-50% longer). As discussed, multiple factors influence

predictable. As an example from the literature, combining other agents (e.g., lidocaine) because other local anesthetics
mepivacaine 1.5% with bupivacaine 0.5% does not offer a compete with bupivacaine for the liposomes. Consequently,
meaningful clinical advantage over each drug alone. Onset mixing Exparel with non-bupivacaine local anesthetics may
times for each drug injected individually or their mixture result in displacement of bupivacaine from the liposomes.
were similar, whereas the duration of the combination was Most clinical experience with liposome bupivacaine has been
shorter than bupivacaine alone. Therefore, if a long duration in the surgical site and wounqueryd infiltrations, where the
of block is desired, a long-acting drug alone will provide the formulation can provide analgesia beyond 72 hours after
best conditions. In addition, mixing LAs also carries a risk of surgery. However, since its approval for use in interscalene
drug error. Many nerve block goals can be met using a single brachial plexus block, there is a growing evidence and clini-
agent, i.e., one short, intermediate, or long-acting LA. cal experience that Exparel provides meaningful analgesia for
several days, particularly when mixed with bupivacaine.
Extended-Release Formulations Compared to standard bupivacaine alone, the combina-
tion of bupivacaine and liposome bupivacaine improves
of Local Anesthetics postoperative analgesia with interscalene block through-
The current research on LAs focuses mainly on formula- out the first postoperative week, even in the setting of full
tions that can extend the duration of action of these medi- multimodal analgesia. Recent reviews and meta-analyses
cations through a slow, continuous release over a period of have questioned the clinically relevant efficacy of liposome
time. Liposomal, sucrose, and collagen-based systems are bupivacaine over bupivacaine in perineural applications.
among the most studied slow-release delivery mechanisms However, liposome bupivacaine must be added to bupi-
for LAs. There are good reasons for the quest for extended- vacaine to realize the benefits of bupivacaine. Important
release or delayed-release LAs, such as a prolonged duration in consideration of choosing liposome bupivacaine for
of action, or lowering the risk of local and systemic toxic- approved nerve blocks is to select indications in which the
ity, as the quantity and concentration of the free LA being nerve block technique provides a sensory block to the entire
released are small. The new formulations may largely replace region of interest. As an example, an interscalene block or
the perineural catheters, and their problems of tip migration, femoral nerve block, in patients having major shoulder or
displacement, cumbersome and costly management, and risk patellar (knee) surgery, provides excellent analgesia with
of infection. bupivacaine; adding liposome bupivacaine to bupiva-
At the time of this book-writing, Exparel (Pacira Pharma- caine extends the analgesia benefits of these blocks beyond
ceuticals, Inc.; US) or liposome bupivacaine is the only cur- the bupivacaine alone. Of note, liposome bupivacaine is
rently approved delayed-release LA for clinical use. Exparel unable to provide surgical anesthesia due to the insuffi-
is approved for surgical site infiltration and interscalene bra- cient amount of active substance, free-bupivacaine being
chial plexus block in USA. In EU, Exparel was also approved released for a surgical block. However, the weaker, pri-
for femoral nerve block. Liposomes are multivesicular struc- marily sensory block with liposome bupivacaine is favored
tures that contain an aqueous core surrounded by a phos- for analgesia over the dense, surgical block obtained with
pholipid bilayer. The onset time and duration of liposome traditional LAs. Other indications for perineural or neur-
bupivacaine is dependent on the degradation of the vesicles axial administration of liposome bupivacaine are currently
and its release from this liposomal delivery formulation. In being researched and are likely to follow since liposome
essence, multivesicular liposomes are made of a myriad of bupivacaine has a documented safety profile.
cavities that can be filled with various pharmacologic agents. Other slow-release drugs in development are sucrose
Their large size creates a medication depot, which gradually and collagen-based controlled release systems. SABER-
discharges the LA (or other content) with natural liposome bupivacaine (DURECT Corporation, Inc.; US) consists of
membrane breakdown. First proposed as a medication carrier sucrose acetate isobutyrate (SAIB), bupivacaine, and a sol-
in 1965, multivesicular liposomes have been used to encap- vent. After infiltration, the SAIB starts to dissolve and release
sulate pharmaceuticals as diverse as ibuprofen, neostigmine, bupivacaine without delay in onset, resulting in approximately
chemotherapeutics, and opioids. In 2004, liposome morphine 72 hours of analgesia. XaraColl (Innocoll Pharmaceuticals,
(DepoDur; Pacira Pharmaceuticals; US) became the first Inc.; Ireland), a collagen-based matrix impregnated with
liposome-encased medication to be approved for postopera- bupivacaine, is implanted during the surgery and starts to
tive analgesia by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. release bupivacaine immediately. Resorption of the matrix
Subsequently, this formulation was approved for infiltra- will prolong the duration of analgesia over 72 hours.
tion analgesia and some nerve block procedures both in the Extended-release formulations will likely be integrated into
United States and the European Union. many multimodal analgesia protocols, and further decrease
Although it can be used without additives, liposome bupi- the need for postoperative opioids. Future studies are needed
vacaine is often combined with standard bupivacaine (hydro- to provide additional guidance for the indications and modes
chloride bupivacaine) to enhance the onset of the block as of use of liposome bupivacaine and other upcoming delayed-
the free bupivacaine is gradually released for a sustained release formulations. In the meantime, the addition of lipo-
blockade. Liposomal bupivacaine should not be mixed with some to bupivacaine in the approved perineural indications

is probably the best method to prolong nerve block analgesia Guay J. The epidural test dose: a review. Anesth Analg. 2006;102(3):
in most acute-pain service settings. 921-929.
Hadzic A, Minkowitz HS, Melson TI, et al. Liposome bupivacaine
femoral nerve block for postsurgical analgesia after total knee
arthroplasty. Anesthesiology. 2016;124:1372-1383.
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Athar M, Ahmed S, Ali S, Siddiqi O. Levobupivacaine: a safer caine concentrations and effects of epinephrine after superficial
alternative. J Curr Res Sci Med. 2016;2:3-9. cervical plexus blockade in patients undergoing carotid endar-
Balocco AL, Van Zundert PGE, Gan SS, Gan TJ, Hadzic A. terectomy. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 1999;3:703-706.
Extended release bupivacaine formulations for postoperative Hilgier M. Alkalinization of bupivacaine for brachial plexus block.
analgesia: an update. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2018;31:636-642. Reg Anesth. 1985;10:59-61.
Bajwa SJS, Kaur J. Clinical profile of levobupivacaine in regional Kasten GW, Martin ST. Bupivacaine cardiovascular toxicity: com-
anesthesia: a systematic review. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. parison of treatment with bretylium and lidocaine. Anesth
2013;29:530-539. Analg. 1985;64:911-916.
Blanch SA, Lopez AM, Carazo J, et al. Intraneural injection during Kim S, Turker MS, Chi EY, Sela S, Martin GM. Preparation
nerve stimulator-guided sciatic nerve block at the popliteal of multivesicular liposomes. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1983;728:
fossa. Br J Anaesth. 2009;102:855-861. 339-348.
Braid BP, Scott DB. The systemic absorption of local analgesic drugs. Kosel J, Bobik P, Tomczyk M. Buprenorphine —the unique opioid
Br J Anaesth. 1965;37:394. adjuvant in regional anesthesia. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol.
Butterworth JF, Strichartz GR. The molecular mechanisms by 2016;9:375-383.
which LAs produce impulse blockade: a review. Anesthesiology. Manassero A, Fanelli A. Prilocaine hydrochloride 2% hyperbaric
1990;72:711-734. solution for intrathecal injection: a clinical review. Local Reg
Casati A, Magistris L, Fanelli G, et al. Small-dose clonidine prolongs Anesth. 2017;10:15-24.
postoperative analgesia after sciatic-femoral nerve block with Ragsdale DR, McPhee JC, Scheuer T, et al. Molecular determinants
0.75% ropivacaine for foot surgery. Anesth Analg. 2000;91:388. of state-dependent block of Na+ channels by local anesthetics.
Clarkson CW, Hondeghem LM. Mechanism for bupivacaine depres- Science. 1994;265:1724-1728.
sion of cardiac conduction: fast block of sodium channels during Raymond SA, Gissen AJ. Mechanism of differential nerve block. In:
the action potential with slow recovery from block during dias- Strichartz GR, ed. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology.
tole. Anesthesiology. 1985;62:396-405. Vol 81. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag; 1987:95-164.
Courtney KR, Strichartz GR. Structural elements which determine Reiz S, Haggmark S, Johansson G, et al. Cardiotoxicity of ropiva-
local anesthetic activity. In: Strichartz GR, ed. Handbook of caine—a new amide local anesthetic agent. Acta Anaesthesiol
Experimental Pharmacology. Vol 81. Berlin, Germany: Springer- Scand. 1989;33:93-98.
Verlag; 1987:53-94. Santos AC, Arthur GR, Padderson H, et al. Systemic toxicity
Cousins MJ, Bridenbaugh PO, eds. Neural Blockade in Clinical of ropivacaine during bovine pregnancy. Anesthesiology. 1994;75:
Anesthesia and Management of Pain. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: 137-141.
Lippincott; 1995. Singelyn FJ, Gouvernuer JM, Robert A. A minimum dose of cloni-
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opioids. Anesthesiology. 1984;61:276-310. and analgesia after axillary brachial plexus block. Anesth Analg.
DiFazio CA, Rowlingson JC. Additives to local anesthetic 1996;83:1046.
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Anesth Pain Med. 2021. Epub ahead of print. for interscalene brachial plexus block in patients having major
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dexmedetomidine is more effective than clonidine when Viscusi ER, Martin G, Hartrick CT, Singla N, Manvelian G.
added to local anesthetic for supraclavicular brachial plexus Forty-eight hours of postoperative pain relief after total hip
block: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anesth Analg. arthroplasty with a novel, extended-release epidural morphine
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9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
3 Equipment for Peripheral
Nerve Blocks
injection or rapid absorption into the systemic circulation is

Introduction uncommon but potentially a life-threatening complication.
Regional anesthesia equipment has undergone recent tech- Likewise, premedication, often beneficial for patient comfort
nological advances. The practice of regional anesthesia has and acceptance of regional anesthesia procedures, may result
been substantially modernized with the introduction of ultra- in respiratory depression, hypoventilation, and hypoxia.
sound (US), better needles, catheter systems, and ultrasound Patients often present with comorbidities and clinical con-
monitoring of needle advancement and injection pressure. ditions that require monitoring during and after the block
procedure and would go unnoticed without proper monitor-
ing (e.g., arrhythmias, hypertension, hypoxemia). For these
reasons, patients receiving PNBs should always have vascular
Induction and Block Room access and be appropriately monitored. Routine cardiorespi-
Regional anesthesia is ideally performed in a designated area ratory monitoring should consist of pulse oximetry, nonin-
with access to the equipment for the time-efficient and safe vasive blood pressure, and electrocardiography. Respiratory
practice of peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs). Adequate space, rate and mental status should also be monitored. LA toxic-
proper lighting, equipment, drugs, and material to perform ity has a biphasic pattern and should be anticipated dur-
blocks are essential. Full patient monitoring, source of oxy- ing the injection, immediately after the injection, and again
gen, equipment for emergency airway management and pos- 10 to 30 minutes after the injection. Signs and symptoms of
itive-pressure ventilation, and access to emergency drugs are toxicity occurring during or shortly after the completion of
all necessary (Figure 3-1). When performing the block, an the injection are due to an intravascular injection or chan-
assistant trained in regional anesthesia is useful to prepare neling of LAs to the systemic circulation (1-2 minutes). In
and handle equipment and help with the procedure. the absence of intravascular injection, the typical absorp-
tion rate of LAs after injection peaks at approximately 10 to
30 minutes after the performance of a PNB; therefore,
patients should be continuously and closely monitored for at
TIPS least 60 minutes for signs of LA toxicity.
Routine patient monitoring during the administration

of nerve blocks:
• Pulse oximetry
• Noninvasive blood pressure
• Electrocardiography
• Capnography
• Mental status (verbal contact)
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Monitoring

During Application of Regional Anesthesia
Patients receiving regional anesthesia should be monitored FIGURE 3-1. Typical block room setup. Shown are monitor-
with the same degree of vigilance as patients receiving general ing, oxygen source, suction apparatus, ultrasound machine,
anesthesia. Local anesthetic (LA) toxicity due to intravascular and nerve block cart with equipment.

FIGURE 3-3. Nerve block cart content organized in a logi-

cal manner to ensure quick and easy access to supplies.
FIGURE 3-2. Typical nerve block cart.
Peripheral Nerve Block Trays

Regional Anesthesia Equipment Storage Cart Commercially available, specialized nerve block trays are best
A regional anesthesia cart should be portable to enable trans- for the time-efficient practice of PNBs. An all-purpose tray
port to the point of care. The anesthesia cart should also be that can be adapted to a variety of blocks may be the most
well stocked with all the necessary equipment and supplies, practical, given the wide array of needles and catheters that
which should be well labeled and readily identifiable so that may be needed for specific procedures. Appropriate needles,
practitioners can perform PNBs effectively, safely, and effi- catheters, and other specialized equipment are simply opened
ciently (Figures 3-2 and 3-3). and added to the block tray as required (Figure 3-4).
Different drawers should be organized logically to ensure
quick and easy access (Table 3-1). One drawer should be des-
ignated for emergency equipment and should include laryn-
Nerve Block Needles
goscopes with an assortment of commonly used blades, stylets, Needles vary with regards to the tip design, length, gauge,
endotracheal tubes, and airways of various sizes. Immediately and the presence or absence of electrical insulation or other
available emergency medications should include atropine, specialized treatment of the needles (e.g., etching to enhance
ephedrine, phenylephrine, propofol, succinylcholine, and US visualization). Needle choice depends on the block being
intralipid 20% (Table 3-2). The latter can alternatively be performed, the size of the patient, and the preference of
stored in a nearby drug cart or drug-dispensing system that is the clinician.
immediately available and close to the block room. This way, Nerve injury can be caused by direct nerve penetration
it can be quickly prepared in case of LA toxicity. It is recom- or forceful mechanical needle-nerve contact and the conse-
mended to include an emergency flowchart in a visible and quent trauma. Therefore, the bevel of the needle can have an
accessible place to treat LA toxicity. impact on the extent of damage on needle insertion close to
TABLE 3-1 Suggested Organization of the Nerve Block Cart

DRAWER CONTAINING ELEMENTS
Emergency equipment Laryngoscopes, assorted blades, Magill forceps, stylets, endotracheal tubes, laryngeal
mask airways of assorted sizes, nasal airways, oral airways, oxygen masks
Medications Sterile saline, propofol, long- and short-acting local anesthetics, emergency medications,
syringe labels
Needles Stimulating needles, non-stimulating catheters, spinal needles
General equipment Syringes of assorted sizes, electrocardiogram leads, pressure monitors, skin adhesive and
catheter securing systems, alcohol swabs, clear occlusive dressing, tape, lubricating gel,
sterile gloves
Sterile sets Sets that include sterile drapes, sponges, transducer covers

Equipment for Peripheral Nerve Blocks CHAPTER 3 49
TABLE 3-2 Suggested Emergency Drugs Required During Local Anesthetic Systemic Toxicity
DRUG SUGGESTED DOSE (70 kg ADULT)
Intralipid 20% Bolus
• 100 mL over 2-3 min if patient >70 kg
• 1.5 mL/kg over 2-3 min if patient <70 kg
Infusion
• 200–250 mL over 15-20 min if patient >70 kg
• 0.25 mL/kg/min if patient <70 kg (ideal body weight)
If circulatory stability is not achieved, consider a new bolus or
increasing infusion to 0.5 mL/kg/min.
Seizure control:
Midazolam 2-10 mg IV
Propofol* 1 mg/kg IV
Muscle relaxant (succinylcholine) 1-2 mg/kg IV
If cardiac arrest occurs:
Epinephrine ≤1 µg/kg (small initial doses are preferred)
Amiodarone (if ventricular arrhythmias develop)
Atropine 0.2-0.4 mg IV increments
Ephedrine 5-10 mg IV
Phenylephrine 50-200 µg IV
*Propofol can stop seizures but large doses can further depress the cardiac function; therefore, propofol should be avoided or used cautiously.
a nerve (Figure 3-5). Short beveled (45°) needles may have Needle tip design can also directly affect the practitioner’s
the advantage of reducing nerve damage caused by cutting or ability to perceive tissue planes using a tactile sense during
penetrating the nerve. Long beveled (14°-15°) needles have the procedure. Tuohy and short bevel noncutting needles
been shown to be more likely to penetrate perineurium and encounter more resistance by the tissues and enhance the tac-
cause fascicular injury than short beveled needles, especially tile feedback as the needle traverses different types of tissues.
when oriented transversely to the nerve fibers. The most As an example, the passage of a short bevel needle through a
commonly used needles have an intermediate bevel angle fascial plane is often perceived as a palpable “click,” or “loss
(30°), which appears to be a reasonable balance. of resistance.” This tactile needle feedback is useful in supple-
menting or confirming the information obtained by US mon-
itoring. Long bevel “cutting” needles do not provide much
tactile information while traversing different tissues. Finally,
pencil-point needles may be associated with less tissue trauma
than short bevel needles. However, their use in the practice of
PNBs, where frequent changes of the angle of needle insertion
FIGURE 3-4. Example of a custom nerve block tray: syringes (1),

disinfection swabs (2), fenestrated procedure drape (3),
nerve block needle with extension tubing (4), injection pressure
monitors (5), ultrasound gel (6), ultrasound transducer cover (7),
medication basin (8), and tray for disinfectant (9). FIGURE 3-5. Common needle tip bevel designs.

are necessary, is not practical due to the excessive resistance handling and manipulation. Ideally, needles should have
by the tissues during needle advancement. depth markings on their shaft to allow monitoring for the
The length of the needle should be selected according to depth of placement at all times.
the type of block being performed (Table 3-3). A short needle
may not reach its target. Long needles have a higher risk of Needle Gauge
causing injury due to increased difficulty in their maneu- The gauge refers to the inner diameter of the needle expressed
verability and the possibility of being inserted too deeply. as a fraction of an inch; thus the larger the gauge, the smaller
The needle length often needs to be longer by 2 to 3 cm for the needle diameter and vice versa. The choice of the needle
ultrasound-guided blocks because needles are inserted fur- gauge depends on the depth of the block and whether a contin-
ther from the target to visualize the course of the needle on uous catheter is placed. Steinfeldt et al. demonstrated a positive
the image. The correct needle length will allow for optimal correlation between the needle gauge and the degree of nerve
damage after intentional nerve perforation. Large diameter
needles (20-22 gauge) increase tissue trauma and patient dis-
comfort but are best used for deeper blocks, where the larger
TABLE 3-3 Block Technique and diameter helps avoid bending of the shaft and maintains con-
Recommended Needle trol of the needle path. In contrast, thinner needles (25 and
Length 26 gauge) bend more easily, making them more difficult
to steer as they penetrate deep tissue planes and easier to be
RECOMMENDED inserted intraneural. The smaller diameter needles have more
BLOCK TECHNIQUE NEEDLE LENGTH internal resistance, making it more difficult to gauge injection
Cervical plexus block 30-40 mm pressure and reliably aspirate to rule out intravascular place-
ment. When placing a perineural catheter, the needle diam-
Wrist block
eter must be large enough to allow the passage of the catheter.
Ankle block Consequently, 17- to 19-gauge needles are most commonly
Interscalene, supraclavicular, 50 mm used with an 18-gauge catheter for continuous catheters.
and axillary brachial plexus
block “Echogenic” Needles and
Fascia iliaca block
Tip Tracking Systems
Femoral nerve block Visualization of the needle tip is one of the more challeng-
ing aspects of performing an ultrasound-guided PNB. To
Popliteal block enhance needle visualization, specialized needle designs have
Shoulder block 50-100 mm been developed. Some designs incorporate coating with a bio-
compatible polymer that traps microbubbles of air, thus cre-
Costoclavicular and infracla-
ating specular reflectors of air. Another design has improved
vicular brachial plexus block
needle visibility by etching the surface of the needle tip or
Erector spinae plane block shaft to enhance the reflection of US back to the transducer.
Pectoralis and serratus plane The technology to improve needle tip visualization continues
blocks to evolve. Examples of recent innovations are systems based
on tip sensors, electromagnetic guidance, the magnetization
Transversus abdominis plane of needles, and complex image processing algorithms to track
block the needle trajectory. These technologies have great potential
Adductor canal block in training and education and may improve the performance
Obturator nerve block of deep blocks. Whichever needle is chosen, the ability to
track the needle path and needle-nerve relationship in real-
Thoracic paravertebral block 80-100 mm time should contribute to the safety.
Lumbar paravertebral block
Lumbar plexus block
Ultrasound Machines
Quadratus lumborum block
US allows visualization of the anatomic structures, approach-
iPACK block ing needle, and spread of LA. Ease of use, image quality,
Proximal sciatic nerve block ergonomic design, portability, and cost are all important
(posterior approach) considerations when choosing an US machine. A number
of newer, more portable US machines can be mounted on
Proximal sciatic nerve block 100-150 mm
a swivel in settings where there is limited space to perform a
(anterior approach)
block. The US technology is continually and rapidly evolving,

FIGURE 3-6. Examples of different ultrasound machine

models. FIGURE 3-7. Time-out transducer cover.
with an increasing focus on its application in regional anes-

thesia and point of care. Newer machine designs also have covers and sterile gel should be routinely used. A variety of
higher resolution and frame refreshment rates, and increas- sterile US transducer covers are available. Some come in sets
ingly more often incorporate automated needle-detection with sterile US gel and rubber bands to pull the transducer
algorithms, tissue-pattern recognition, and needle-tracking covers tightly over the transducers to facilitate imaging.
technologies (Figure 3-6). Transducer covers may include removable indicia to remind
clinicians to perform the one last time-out (checklist) at the
point of care (Figure 3-7).
Sterility
Infections due to PNBs are uncommon and largely prevent-
able. Strict adherence to sterile techniques is mandatory
Injection Pressure Monitoring
in the practice of regional anesthesia. A report of a fatality Intrafascicular injections during the performance of PNBs
due to an infectious complication of a PNB underscores the may be associated with high injection pressures during
importance of sterile techniques. Cuvillon et al. found that the injection of the LA. Such injections may lead to nerve
57% of femoral catheters demonstrated bacterial coloniza- injury and neurologic deficits in animal models. For that
tion, although only 3 of 208 showed signs suggestive of infec- reason, assessment of resistance to injection is routinely
tion (i.e., shivering and fever) that subsided after catheter done in clinical practice to reduce the risk of intraneural
removal. Bergman et al. documented one infectious compli- injections and constitutes suggested routine documentation
cation of 405 axillary catheters placed, reflecting the relative of the PNB procedure. Traditionally, anesthesiologists have
rarity of such events. However, several case reports reflect the relied on a subjective “syringe feel,” that is, the feeling of
severity of infections caused by indwelling catheters, includ- increased resistance on injection. However, studies demon-
ing a case of psoas abscess complicating a femoral catheter strate that while practitioners can readily perceive a change
placement and acute cellulitis and mediastinitis following in resistance or pressure (e.g., loss of resistance during epi-
placement of a continuous interscalene catheter. These cases dural block), gauging the absolute pressure when injecting
illustrate the importance of adherence to aseptic techniques a nerve block is challenging. This is because the operator
in all phases of the procedure, catheter insertion, and man- does not have a reference point of resistance (before and
agement, as well as administration of LAs. after), but must assess the opening pressure before the
The hands of healthcare workers are the most common injection occurs. An inline injection pressure manometer
vehicles for the transfer of microorganisms from one patient to can be placed between the syringe and injection tubing with
another. Studies show that although soap and water may remove the needle to objectively quantify and monitor the injec-
bacteria, only alcohol-based antiseptics, povidone-iodine, and tion pressure (Figure 3-8). Injection pressures greater than
chlorhexidine provide adequate disinfection. Sterile gloves and 15 psi may be associated with intraneural needle place-
techniques should be used throughout the procedure. ment and intrafascicular injections. Alternatively, an air-
compression test in the syringe is used to avoid injection
using pressure greater than 20 psi (Figure 3-9). In actual
Transducer Covers and Gel clinical practice, injection with pressures <15 psi estab-
Contaminated US probes and transmission gel are potential lishes a wider margin of safety in reducing the risk of an
vectors of nosocomial infections. Thus, sterile US transducer intrafascicular injection or too forceful spread of the LAs.

Several inline injection pressure monitors and indicators

are now commercially available.
Continuous Nerve Catheters

For the practice of continuous PN infusions, a wide range
of needles and catheter types are available. Two main types
of catheters are the stimulating catheters, which can provide
stimulation through the catheter itself, and the nonstimulat-
ing catheters, which do not allow this option. Although it
would appear logical that the confirmation of the catheter
placement using electrolocalization should result in greater
consistency of catheter placement and higher success rate,
the data on any advantages of stimulating catheters over
nonstimulating catheters remain conflicting. Whatever the
FIGURE 3-8. Injection pressure monitor (BSmart, Concert design, the use of nonstimulating catheters is preferred under
Medical USA). A color-coded piston moves during the block US guidance. The use of US is an objective method to verify
performance to indicate pressure during injection. catheter location. The position of a nonstimulating catheter
FIGURE 3-9. Injection pressure technique designed by Tsui. Left syringe:

Uncompressed, containing 10 mL of air and 10 mL of local anesthetic. Right
syringe: Air compressed by 50% results in exerted pressure of 760 mmHg
(approximately 15 psi).

FIGURE 3-10. Nonstimulating catheter set, including nonstimu-

lating catheter, extension tubing, clamp-style catheter connector,
2-in stimulating Tuohy needle, 4-in stimulating Tuohy needle,
and label.
tip should be confirmed by its direct visualization with US, Infusion Pumps
and by injecting boluses of LA or saline through the catheter
while visualizing the correct perineural spread of the injectate PN catheters can be attached to portable infusion pumps to
(Figure 3-10). ensure reliable delivery of LA. The pumps can be either elasto-
meric or electronic. Elastomeric pumps use a nonmechanical
balloon mechanism to infuse LAs and consist of an elastomeric
Securing Perineural Catheters membrane within a protective shell. The pressure generated
Securing the perineural catheter is essential in preventing on the fluid when the balloon is stretched is determined by
its failure. Catheter failure can be classified as primary or the material of the elastomer (e.g., latex, silicon, or isoprene
secondary. Primary failure is defined as a catheter mis- rubber) and its shape. These pump sets typically contain an
placement during the initial ultrasound-guided insertion. elastomeric pump with a fill port, a clamp, an air-eliminating
Secondary failure is defined as the failure of a catheter filter, a variable controller, a flow rate dial, a rate-changing key,
to provide analgesia after a period of effective analgesia. and a lockable cover. Most electronic pumps have a capacity of
Secondary failure can result from catheter displacement, 400 mL of LA, and the anesthesiologist can easily program the
leakage, disconnection, or infusion pump malfunction. concentration, rate, and volume. These pumps are lightweight,
Both primary and secondary failures lead to unanticipated typically come with carrying cases, and do not impose any
breakthrough pain. limitations on mobility for the patient. One study found that
Dislodgement of a catheter is relatively common and leads the elastomeric pumps were as effective as electronic pumps
to ineffective analgesia and requires reinsertion of the cath- in providing analgesia following ambulatory orthopedic sur-
eter. There are a variety of methods and devices for securing gery; however, the elastomeric pumps led to higher patient
indwelling continuous catheters, most of which incorporate satisfaction scores due to fewer technical problems. However,
some means of fixing the device and/or catheter to the skin underfilling the elastomeric pump results in a faster flow rate,
via adhesive tape on one side of the device. whereas overfilling results in a slower rate. The elastomeric
Some practitioners tunnel the indwelling catheters to pump flow rate is also affected by changes in temperature that
secure them better; the effectiveness of tunneling a catheter affect the solution viscosity. The patient should be given emer-
to prevent dislodgement has not been well documented. The gency contact information and be informed of the signs and
benefits of tunneling should be weighed against the potential symptoms of excessive LA absorption. Typically the catheter
for dislodging the catheter in the process of needle insertion. remains in place for 2 to 3 days postoperatively, and the patient
Application of topical skin adhesive to the puncture site that is guided by a healthcare worker through the self-removal of
the catheter passes through can help to secure the catheter the catheter at home over the phone.
and prevent LA leakage because the puncture sites produced
by catheters have a larger diameter than the catheters them-
selves. The catheter should be covered with a transparent,
Nerve Stimulators
sterile occlusive dressing to allow daily inspection of the cath- The advent of nerve stimulation allowed advances in the per-
eter exit site. This allows for monitoring of catheter migra- formance of regional anesthesia. Nerve stimulators substan-
tion and early signs of infection. tially vary in their functionality, which is why practitioners

should be familiar with the model used in their practice. Gitman M, Fettiplace MR, Weinberg GL, Neal JM, Barrington MJ.
Ideally, the current output of a nerve stimulator should not Local anesthetic systemic toxicity: a narrative literature review
and clinical update on prevention, diagnosis, and management.
change as the needle is being advanced through various resis-
Plast Reconstr Surg. 2019;144:783-795.
tances (impedance) encountered from the tissue, needle, Grant CRK, Fredrickson MJ. Regional anaesthesia elastomeric
and connectors. Impedance is a measure of the resistance to pump performance after a single use and subsequent refill: a
the flow of alternating current through tissue, and there is laboratory study. Anaesthesia. 2009;64:770-775.
an inverse relationship between impedance (resistance) and Hadzic A, Dilberovic F, Shah S, et al. Combination of intraneural injec-
tion and high injection pressure leads to fascicular injury and neu-
current thresholds necessary to elicit a motor response. Mod-
rologic deficits in dogs. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2004;29:417-423.
ern models deliver a constant current output in the presence Hauritz RW, Hannig KE, Balocco AL, et al. Peripheral nerve catheters:
of varied resistance. Some models include settings of stimu- a critical review of the efficacy. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol.
lating frequency, pulse-width, and current delivered (mA). 2019; doi:10.1016/j.bpa.2019.07.015.
Nerve stimulators are described in greater detail in Chapter 4. Hayek SM, Ritchey RM, Sessler D, et al. Continuous femoral nerve
analgesia after unilateral total knee arthroplasty: stimulating ver-
sus non-stimulating catheters. Anesth Analg. 2006;103:1565-1570.
Hebard S, Hocking G. Echogenic technology can improve needle
SUGGESTED READINGS visibility during ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia.
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2011;36:185-189.
Adam F, Jaziri S, Chauvin M. Psoas abscess complicating femoral Hebl J. The importance and implications of aseptic techniques dur-
nerve block catheter. Anesthesiology. 2003;99:230-231. ing regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006;31:311-323.
Barrington MJ, Olive DJ, McCutcheon CA, et al. Stimulating cath- Hebl JR, Horlocker TT. You’re not as clean as you think! The role of
eters for continuous femoral nerve blockade after total knee asepsis in reducing infectious complications related to regional
arthroplasty: a randomized, controlled, double-blinded trial. anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2003;28:1-4.
Anesth Analg. 2008;106:1316-1321. Hebl JR, Neal JM. Infectious complications: a new practice advi-
Belkin NL. The surgical mask: are new tests relevant for OR practice? sory. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006;31:289-290.
AORN J. 2009;89:883-891. Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ. Regional anesthesia in the immunocom-
Bergman BD, Hebl JR, Kent J, Horlocker TT. Neurologic complica- promised patient. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006;31:334-345.
tions of 405 consecutive continuous axillary catheters. Anesth Jack NTM, Liem EB, Vonhögen LH. Use of a stimulating cath-
Analg. 2003;96:247-252. eter for total knee replacement surgery: preliminary results.
Bigeleisen PE, Hess A, Zhu R, Krediet A. Modeling, production, Br J Anaesth. 2005;95:250-254.
and testing of an echogenic needle for ultrasound-guided nerve Morin AM, Eberhart LHJ, Behnke HKE, et al. Does femoral nerve
blocks. J Ultrasound Med. 2016;35:1319-1323. catheter placement with stimulating catheters improve effective
Boezaart A. Perineural infusion of local anesthetics. Anesthesiology. placement? A randomized, controlled, and observer-blinded
2006;104:872-880. trial. Anesth Analg. 2005;100:1503-1510.
Boyce JM, Pittet D. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care Morin AM, Kranke P, Wulf H, Stienstra R, Eberhart LHJ. The effect
settings. Recommendations of the healthcare infection control of stimulating versus non-stimulating catheter techniques
practices advisory committee. 2002. for continuous regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Capdevila X, Jaber S, Pesonen P, Borgeat A, Eledjam J-J. Acute neck 2010;35:194-199.
cellulitis and mediastinitis complicating a continuous intersca- Neal JM, Barrington MJ, Fettiplace MR, et al. The third American
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Capdevila X, Macaire P, Aknin P, Dadure C, Bernard N, Lopez S. sory on local anesthetic systemic toxicity: executive summary
Patient-controlled perineural analgesia after ambulatory ortho- 2017. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2018;43:113-123.
pedic surgery: a comparison of electronic versus elastomeric Nseir S, Pronnier P, Soubrier S, et al. Fatal streptococcal necrotiz-
pumps. Anesth Analg. 2003;96:414-417. ing fasciitis as a complication of axillary brachial plexus block.
Casati A, Fanelli G, Koscielniak-Nielsen Z, et al. Using stimulating Br J Anaesth. 2004;92:427-429.
catheters for continuous sciatic nerve block shortens onset time Paqueron X, Narchi P, Mazoit J-X, Singelyn F, Bénichou A, Macaire
of surgical block and minimizes postoperative consumption P. A randomized, observer-blinded determination of the median
of pain medication after hallux valgus repair as compared effective volume of local anesthetic required to anesthetize
with conventional non-stimulating catheters. Anesth Analg. the sciatic nerve in the popliteal fossa for stimulating and
2005;101:1192-1197. non-stimulating perineural catheters. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Clendenen SR, Robards CB, Wang RD, Greengrass RA. Case 2009;34:290-295.
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Cuvillon P, Ripart J, Lalourcey L, et al. The continuous femoral Pham-Dang C, Kick O, Collet T, Gouin F, Pinaud M. Continuous
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Rice ASC, McMahonc SB. Peripheral nerve injury caused by Selander D, Dhunér K-G, Lundborg G. Peripheral nerve injury due
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9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
4 Electrical Nerve Stimulation
Introduction Impedance and Constant-Current Source

With the growing use of ultrasound (US) in the practice of During PNS, the electrical circuit consists of the nerve stimu-
regional anesthesia, peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) con- lator, nerve block needle, needle tip design, patient’s tissue
tinues to be useful to monitor needle-nerve relationship to characteristics, skin, skin-electrode (grounding electrode), and
decrease the risk of nerve trauma. This chapter reviews electri- cables. This circuit has a complex resistance (impedance) in liv-
cal nerve stimulation and its role in the practice of peripheral ing tissue because of the capacitance of the tissue, intravascular
nerve blocks (PNBs). fluids, electrode-to-skin interface, and needle tip. The needle
design and electrode-to-skin connection contribute a great
deal to the overall impedance. The first largely depends on the
Basics of Electrical Peripheral geometry and insulation (conductive area), while the latter var-
ies considerably among individuals (e.g., skin type, hydration
Nerve Stimulation status) and can be influenced by the quality of the electrocar-
Voltage, Current, and Resistance diogram (ECG) electrode material. Modern nerve stimulators
are a constant-current source and automatically adjust to the
Voltage (U) is the difference in electrical potential between
varying impedance by increasing or decreasing the output volt-
two points carrying different amounts of positive and nega-
age to keep the set current (mA) constant. They compensate for
tive charges, measured in volts (V) or millivolts (mV). Voltage
the wide range of impedances that may exist among patients.
can be compared to the fill level of a water tank, which deter-
mines the pressure at the bottom outlet (Figure 4-1A).
Current (I) is the measure of the flow of a positive or nega- Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field,
tive charge, expressed in amperes (A) or milliamperes (mA). and Current Density
The current can be compared to the amount of flow of water.
Current density is a measure of the distribution of current
The electrical resistance (R) is the obstacle to the flow of
flow, defined as current per cross-sectional area. Accord-
electric current, measured in ohms (Ω) or kilo-ohms (kΩ). In
ing to Coulomb’s law, the strength of the electric field, and
other words, resistance limits the flow of current at a given
therefore the corresponding current density (J), in relation
voltage (see Ohm’s law).
to the distance from the current source is given by
Ohm’s Law J(r) = k × I0/r2
Ohm’s law describes the relationship between voltage, cur- where k is Coulomb’s constant, I0 is the initial current, and r
rent, and resistance according to the following equation: is the distance from the current source. This means that the
current (or charge) that reaches the nerve decreases by a fac-
U [V] = R [Ω] × I [A]
tor of 4 if the distance to the nerve is doubled, or conversely,
or conversely, it increases by a factor of 4 if the distance is divided in half
(ideal conditions assumed). Coulomb’s law is used as a basis
I [A] = U[V] / R [Ω] for estimating the needle-nerve distance. The shorter the
needle-nerve distance, the less current is required to obtain
This means that, at a given voltage, the intensity of the a motor response after nerve stimulation. Although this rela-
electrical current is dependent on the resistance between the tionship is quite complex, it is generally accepted that the
two electrodes (in patients, the resistance of the skin and tis- appearance of a motor response at 0.5 mA or less indicates
sues between the grounding electrode and needle). Figure 4-1 needle-nerve contact or intraneural needle placement.
(Ohm’s law) illustrates Ohm’s law and the functional prin- Figure 4-2 shows the basic anatomic structure of myelin-
ciple of a constant-current source. ated Aα fibers (motor) and unmyelinated C fibers (pain)

FIGURE 4-1. Ohm’s law and the functional principle of a constant-current source.
(A) Low-resistance R1 requires voltage U1 to achieve desired current I1. (B) High-resistance
R2 = 2 × R1 causes current I to decrease to I2 = I1/2 if voltage U remains constant (U2 = U1).
(C) Constant-current source automatically increases output voltage to U3 = 2 × U1 to compen-
sate for higher-resistance R2; therefore, current I increases to the desired level of I3 = I1.
schematically. Figure 4-3 shows the relationship between The total electrical charge (Q) applied to a nerve equals the
different stimuli and the triggering of the action potential in product of the current intensity or amplitude (stimulus
motor and pain fibers, respectively. strength; I) and pulse duration (pulse width; t) of the current:
Q = I × t. As such, both sufficient strength (I) and duration (t)
are required to cause depolarization.
How Nerve Stimulation Works
Nerve stimulators used in regional anesthesia deliver a pulsed,
Threshold Level, Rheobase, and Chronaxie
square-wave current to rapidly depolarize the nerve and sub- A certain minimum current intensity is necessary at a
sequently produce an action potential (i.e., motor response). given pulse duration to reach the threshold level of
Nerve fiber (axon) with insulation (myelin sheath), that is, motor fiber (Aα fibers)
Node of Ranvier Schematic anatomic structure of nerve fibers
Nerve fiber (axon) without insulation, that is, pain fiber (C fibers)
Nerve membrane
Nerve membrane
Myelin sheath Chronaxie ~0.1 ms

Chronaxie ~0.1 ms Low speed of impulse propagation (continuous spread of excitation)
High speed of impulse propagation (saltatoric spread of excitation)
A B
FIGURE 4-2. Schematic anatomic structures of nerve fibers. (A) Nerve fiber (axon) with insulation (myelin sheath), (Aα fibers).
(B) Nerve fiber (axon) without insulation (C fiber).

Electrical Nerve Stimulation CHAPTER 4 59
FIGURE 4-3. (A) Action potential, threshold level, and stimulus. Motor fibers have a short chronaxie because of the relatively
low capacitance of their myelinated membrane (only the area of the nodes of Ranvier count); therefore, it takes only a short
time to depolarize the membrane up to the threshold level. (B) Action potential, threshold level, and stimulus. Pain fibers have
a long chronaxie because of the higher capacitance of their nonmyelinated membrane (the entire area of the membrane
counts); therefore, it takes a longer time to depolarize the membrane up to the threshold level. Short impulses (as indicated by
the vertical dotted line) cannot depolarize the membrane below the threshold level.
neuronal excitation. Current intensity (IThreshold) depends on stimulate (i.e., depolarize) the nerve at double the rheobase
three variables: rheobase (IRheobase), chronaxie (C), and pulse current. Electrical pulses with the duration of chronaxie are
duration (t) and can be expressed by the following relationship: most effective (at relatively low amplitudes) to elicit action
potentials. Chronaxie values are dependent on the proper-
IRheobase ties of nerve fibers, such as axon diameter, myelination, and
IThreshold =
1 − e − t/c distance between nodes of Ranvier. Myelinated Aα motor fibers
are large in diameter, whereas unmyelinated C-type pain fibers
where c is the time constant of the nerve membrane related are smaller. PNS uses these differences to preferentially activate
to chronaxie. motor fibers at short pulse durations (e.g., 0.1 ms) and rela-
Rheobase (in amperes) is the minimum threshold cur- tively low current amplitudes while avoiding the stimulation of
rent required to stimulate (i.e., depolarize) the nerve at infi- C-type pain fibers. Typical chronaxie figures are 50 to 100 μs
nitely long pulse durations. In other words, a current below (Aα fibers), 170 μs (Aδ fibers), and 400 μs or greater (C fibers).
rheobase will not generate a motor response. Chronaxie Figure 4-4 (rheobase and chronaxie) illustrates the relationship
(in milliseconds) is the minimum pulse duration necessary to of the rheobase to chronaxie for motor versus pain nerve fibers.
Stimulus
amplitude
[mA] 4.0 Low speed
pain fiber
(2)
3.0
High speed
2.0 motor fiber Chronaxie
(1)
Chronaxie (1) 2 × Rheobase

1.0
2 ë Rheobase
Rheobase (1)
Rheobase (1)
0
Stimulus
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 duration [ms]
tc (1) tc (2)
FIGURE 4-4. Comparison of threshold curves, chronaxie, and rheobase level

of motor (high-speed) and pain (low-speed) fibers.

Needle-to-Nerve Distance (high specificity). Unfortunately, this response may not

always be present (low sensitivity). In addition, multiple
The following formula describes the current–distance injection techniques during PNBs decrease PNS sensitiv-
relationship: ity due to the partial nerve blockade that occurs with these
injections. Likewise, PNS is not reliable and should not be
IThreshold (r) = I0 + kr2
used in patients receiving neuromuscular blocking agents
(relaxants).
where IThreshold is the threshold current for excitation of the
The obvious disadvantages of PNS include the need for
neuron, I0 is an offset, k the current-distance constant, and
equipment (nerve stimulator and insulated needles), equip-
r the needle-to-nerve distance. Thus, the threshold current
ment maintenance, and multitasking during the nerve block
increases with the squared distance. Hence, as the needle
procedure. The operator has to monitor the patient, physi-
moves closer to the nerve, less current is required to stimu-
ologic parameters, ultrasound imaging, response to nerve
late the nerve and subsequently evoke a motor response. The
stimulation, and functionality of the nerve stimulator.
needle-to-nerve distance is estimated with this principle,
using a constant-current source.
Nerve Stimulation and Interference with
The Role of Nerve Stimulation in Conjunction Pacemakers and Defibrillators
with Ultrasound-Guided Nerve Blocks Although highly unlikely, PNS can interfere with pacemak-
When used with US guidance, PNS may detect needle-nerve ers or other implanted electronic devices. For that reason,
contact should the operator miss the needle-nerve relation- in patients with a pacemaker or defibrillator, use the lowest
ship on US. Unexpected motor response during needle practical current intensity and duration and low-frequency
advancement may alert the operator that the needle is in PNS settings (e.g., 1 Hz). Placing the nerve stimulator elec-
the immediate vicinity of the nerve and, therefore, prevent trode away from the pacemaker components (i.e., pulse
further needle advancement and consequent mechanical generator and lead system) decreases the possibility that
needle-nerve injury. The motor response to PNS is objec- the PNS current traverses those components. The absence
tive and less user-dependent than the interpretation of US of case reports suggests that defibrillation systems probably
images or a patient’s (subjective) response of pain following do not have to be disabled during PNS with low stimulus
needle-nerve contact (paresthesia). Nerve stimulation can intensity and frequency. American Society of Anesthesiolo-
also be used to confirm that the structure imaged by US is the gists monitoring should be routinely used during PNBs in all
nerve being sought when the ultrasound image is not clear. patients, regardless of whether or not they have implanted
Figure 4-5 provides an algorithm for using nerve stimulation electronic devices.
as a monitoring tool during ultrasound-guided blocks.
Limitations of Peripheral Nerve Stimulation Stimulating Needles

A motor response at a current intensity of ≤0.5 mA may indi- In noninsulated needles, the current disperses in all direc-
cate needle-nerve contact or intraneural needle placement tions along the shaft of the needle, requiring a larger cur-
rent intensity to stimulate the nerve. On the other hand,
insulated needles promote stimulation close to the injec-
CLINICAL PEARLS tion point at the needle tip and are therefore the industry
standard.
PNS needles should have the following characteristics:
• The occurrence of a motor response at at a very low
current intensity (i.e., <0.5 mA; 0.1 ms) may indicate • A fully insulated needle hub and shaft to avoid current
needle-nerve contact or intraneural needle place- leakage
ment, and further needle advancement should be • Depth markings for easy identification and documentation
stopped. of the needle insertion depth
• PNS is not reliable in patients receiving muscle
Figure 4-6 shows a comparison of the electrical character-
relaxants.
istics of noninsulated and insulated needles with uncoated
• The presence of spinal or epidural anesthesia does bevel (Figure 4-6A) and fully coated needles with the needle
not affect the reliability of PNS. tip exposed only (Figure 4-6B). A noninsulated needle has
• Multiple injection techniques increase the mini- no ability to determine the needle-nerve relationship once
mum current intensity necessary to elicit a motor the needle tip has passed the nerve. Therefore, spatial dis-
response and decrease the sensitivity of PNS to crimination near the nerve is more precise in needles with
detect needle-nerve contact. insulated shaft and exposed tip (Figure 4-6B) compared to
needles without insulation (Figure 4-6A).

Nerve stimulator
0.5 mA, 0.1 ms,
2 Hz
Advance needle
toward nerve
or plexus
Adequate needle • Needle placement

placement observed not clear by
with ultrasound ultrasound
• Imaging difficult
NO NO
MR MR
MR MR
Withdraw/Reposition
Not necessary to • Increase current to 1.5 mA
needle to ensure
look for MR • Adjust needle placement by ultrasound
NO MR at 0.5 mA(1)
1-2 mL injuction of local anesthetic results in

(1) Data from several studies suggest that twitch
adequate spread in desired tissue plane,
opening injection pressure normal(2) (evoked motor response)at <0.2 mA (0.1 ms) may
indicate intraneural needle placement or
needle-nerve contact (Anesth Analg 2005;
101:1844-1846, Anesthesiology 2009;110:1235-1243)
(2)
Based on data both in animal models and clinical
Complete trials where opening injection pressure required to
injection inject into fascicles or at needle-nerve contact
exceeded 15 psi (Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2007;
51:101-107, RAPM 2012;37:525-529, Anesthesiology
2014;120:1246-1253)
FIGURE 4-5. An algorithm for the use of nerve stimulation with ultrasound-guided nerve
blocks where the nerve stimulator is used primarily as a safety monitoring tool, rather than
a nerve localization tool. The stimulator is set at 0.5 mA (0.1 ms), and the current is rarely
adjusted. The motor response is not sought, but when obtained, needle advancement is
halted. The needle can be slightly withdrawn from the nerve until the response stops. A
small amount of injectate can be used to determine the needle tip location while avoiding
an opening pressure greater than 15 psi. MR, motor response.
• Before starting the procedure, check for the proper func-

Clinical Use of Peripheral Nerve tioning of the nerve stimulator and the connecting cables.
Stimulation
• Select between 0.1 and 0.3 ms of pulse duration for most
Setup and Checking the Equipment purposes.
The following are a few important aspects for successful • With US guidance, select the current as 0.5 mA; it is rarely
electro-localization of the peripheral nerves using PNS: necessary to change the current as motor response with US
guidance is not sought.
• Use only a nerve stimulator specifically manufactured for
• Use insulated nerve stimulation needles.
nerve blocks.

FIGURE 4-6. (A) Threshold amplitude achieved with an uncoated needle and coated needle with an uncoated bevel.
(B) Threshold amplitude achieved with a fully coated needle and pinpoint electrode.
• Use high-quality skin electrodes with a low impedance. potential. The return electrode location is not important
Some lower-priced ECG electrodes can have too high an because it can be placed anywhere on the skin when using a
impedance/resistance. constant-current output nerve stimulator.
Basic Settings and Implications Using Peripheral Nerve Stimulation

• Current intensity or amplitude (stimulus strength): Use as a Localization Tool Without
low current intensity nerve stimulation (0.5 mA) with Ultrasound Guidance
ultrasound-guided nerve blocks. It is not necessary to The starting amplitude (i.e., current intensity) used for nerve
change the current intensity during the procedure. stimulation depends on the local practice and the projected
• Pulse duration (pulse width): Between 0.1 and 1.0 ms. skin-nerve depth. An amplitude of 1 mA is often chosen
Motor nerves are stimulated more easily with a current of to start in most cases for superficial nerves. For deeper nerves,
shorter duration (0.1 ms), while sensory nerves require a it may be necessary to increase the initial current amplitude
longer stimulus duration (1.0 ms). between 1.5 and 3 mA until a motor response is elicited at
• Stimulus frequency (number of current pulses delivered a safe distance from the nerve. Too high current intensity,
from the nerve stimulator in 1 second): Between 1 and however, can lead to direct muscle stimulation or discomfort
3 Hz (meaning 1 to 3 pulses per second). At 1 Hz, the nee- for the patient, both of which are undesirable.
dle must be advanced slowly to allow time for the delivered After obtaining the sought-after muscle response, the cur-
pulse to evoke a motor response, whereas at 2 Hz the needle rent intensity amplitude is gradually reduced, and the needle
can be advanced at twice the speed. Furthermore, using the is slowly advanced further. Too rapid advancement may miss
2 Hz frequency allows more frequent feedback as the oper- a response between two stimuli. Advancement of the needle
ator is advancing the needle, allowing more efficient and and current reduction are continued until the desired motor
faster manipulation of the needle to the nerve. Therefore, response is achieved with a current of 0.2 to 0.5 mA. When
the best compromise is 2 Hz, which should be the default. the motor twitch is lost during needle advancement, increase
the stimulus intensity first to regain the muscle twitch rather
than move the needle blindly. Once the needle is positioned
Electrode Localization to obtain a motor response at around 0.3 mA (0.1 ms),
Electrical polarity is the directional flow of electrons (i.e., cur- 1-2 mL of local anesthetic (LA) is injected as a test dose, which
rent) from a negative to a positive pole (i.e., electrode). The abolishes the motor response. Solutions conducting electric-
stimulating needle and return electrode are the electrodes used ity, such as saline and LAs, increase the conductive area at the
during PNS. The orientation of these electrodes, negative and needle tip, thereby reducing current density. In other words,
positive, affects the current necessary to elicit a motor response. to elicit an action potential (i.e., motor response) at the same
The negative electrode (cathode) should be connected to the distance, a higher threshold current is required. Injection of
needle, while the positive electrode (anode) should be attached dextrose 5% in water, a less conductive solution, lowers the
to the patient’s skin. Current flowing from the needle acting as conductive area at the needle tip and, thus, increases current
cathode alters the resting membrane potential of cells nearby, density, does not lead to loss of the muscle twitch, and can
leading to nerve depolarization and the generation of an action also be used to confirm the needle position.

Remember that the absence of the motor response with a intrafascicular needle placement. For this reason, if the motor
stimulating current of up to 1.5 mA does not rule out intra- response is still present at 0.2 mA or less (0.1 ms), the needle
neural needle placement (low sensitivity). However, the should be slightly withdrawn to avoid the risk of intrafascicu-
presence of a motor response with a low intensity current lar injection. Figure 4-7 depicts the principle of the needle-to-
(≤0.2 mA, 0.1 ms) occurs only with intraneural and, possibly, nerve approach and its relation to the stimulation.
Completely insulated needle Dielectric material Completely insulated needle Dielectric material
Needle tip more distant Metal Needle tip closer to nerve Metal
from nerve Tissue High stimulus current Tissue
High stimulus current Nerve Nerve
A B
Completely insulated needle Dielectric material

Metal
Needle tip closer to nerve
Tissue
Low stimulus current Nerve
FIGURE 4-7. (A) An example of the needle placed at a distance to the nerve and high stimulus current eliciting a weak motor
response. (B) Stimulation needle close to the nerve and high stimulus current eliciting a strong motor response. (C) Stimulation
needle close to the nerve and low (near-threshold) stimulus current eliciting a weak motor response.

TABLE 4-1 ommon Problems Encountered During Electro-localization of Peripheral

C
Nerves and Corrective Action
PROBLEM SOLUTION
Nerve stimulator does not work at all Check and replace battery; refer to stimulator operator’s manual
Nerve stimulator suddenly stops working Check and replace battery
No motor response is achieved despite the • Check connectors, skin electrode, cables, and stimulation needle for an
appropriate needle placement interrupted circuit or too high impedance
• Check and make sure that current is flowing − no disconnect indicator on
the stimulator
• Check the setting of amplitude (mA) and impulse duration
• Check stimulator setting (some stimulators have a test mode or pause
mode, which prevents current delivery)
Motor response disappears and cannot be • Check for the causes listed previously
regained even after increasing stimulus • Can be caused by injection of local anesthetic
amplitude and duration
To prevent or minimize patient discomfort during the nerve Ertmer M, Klotz E, Birnbaum J. The concept of protective nerve
location procedure, it is recommended to avoid using high stimulation for ultrasound guided nerve blocks. Med Hypotheses.
2017;107:72-73.
stimulating currents. Again, the needle should be advanced
Gadsden JC, Choi JJ, Lin E, Robinson A. Opening injection pressure
slowly while observing the motor response. Too fast needle consistently detects needle-nerve contact during ultrasound-
advancement may risk that the best needle position, produc- guided interscalene brachial plexus block. Anesthesiology.
ing a good near-threshold motor response, may be missed. 2014;120:1246-1253.
Gadsden J, Latmore M, Levine DM, Robinson A. High opening
injection pressure is associated with needle-nerve and needle-
CLINICAL PEARLS fascia contact during femoral nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain
Med. 2016;41:50-55.
Hadzic A, Vloka JD, Claudio RE, Thys DM, Santos AC. Electrical
• When a motor response is unexpectedly elicited nerve localization: effects of cutaneous electrode placement and
with 0.5 mA during ultrasound-guided PNS, stop duration of the stimulus on motor response. Anesthesiology.
needle advancement and determine the needle tip 2004;100:1526-1530.
Jochum D, Iohom G, Diarra DP, Loughnane F, Dupré LJ, Bouaziz H.
location using the following maneuvers: An objective assessment of nerve stimulators used for peripheral
°° Re-focus and improve the image. nerve blockade. Anaesthesia. 2006;61:557-564.
Kaiser H. Periphere elektrische Nervenstimulation. In: Niesel HC,
°° Slightly shake the needle to facilitate its detection Van Aken H, eds. Regionalanästhesie, Lokalanästhesie, Regionale
on ultrasound. Schmerztherapie. 2nd ed. Stuttgart, Germany: Thieme; 2002.
Kaiser H, Neuburger M. How close is close enough—how close is
°° Inject a small amount of injectate while avoiding
safe enough? Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2002;27:227-228.
an opening injection pressure >15 psi.
Klein SM, Melton MS, Grill WM, Nielsen KC. Peripheral nerve
stimulation in regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
2012;37:383-392.
Luedi MM, Upadek V, Vogt AP, Steinfeldt T, Eichenberger U,
Troubleshooting Sauter AR. A Swiss nationwide survey shows that dual guid-
ance is the preferred approach for peripheral nerve blocks.
Table 4-1 lists the most common problems encountered dur-
Sci Rep. 2019;9:1-8.
ing nerve stimulation and the corrective action. McKay RE, Rozner MA. Preventing pacemaker problems with nerve
stimulators. J Assoc Anaesth Gt Britain Irel. 2008;63:554-557.
Melnyk V, Ibinson JW, Kentor ML, Orebaugh SL. Updated retro-
SUGGESTED READINGS spective single-center comparative analysis of peripheral nerve
block complications using landmark peripheral nerve stimula-
Bomberg H, Wetjen L, Wagenpfeil S, et al. Risks and benefits of tion versus ultrasound guidance as a primary means of nerve
ultrasound, nerve stimulation, and their combination for guid- localization. J Ultrasound Med. 2018;37:2477-2488.
ing peripheral nerve blocks: a retrospective registry analysis. Neuburger M, Rotzinger M, Kaiser H. Electric nerve stimulation
Anesth Analg. 2018;127:1035-1043. in relation to impulse strength. A quantitative study of the
Dalrymple P, Chelliah S. Electrical nerve locators. Contin Educ distance of the electrode point to the nerve. Acta Anaesthesiol
Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2006;6:32-36. Scand. 2007;51:942-948.
Denny NM, Barber N, Sildown DJ. Evaluation of an insulated Tsui BC, Guenther C, Emery D, Finucane B. Determining epidural
Tuohy needle system for the placement of interscalene brachial catheter location using nerve stimulation with radiological
plexus catheters. Anaesthesia. 2003;58:554-557. confirmation. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2000;25:306-309.

Tsui BC, Gupta S, Finucane B. Confirmation of epidural catheter place- Venkatraghavan L, Chinnapa V, Peng P, Brull R. Non-cardiac
ment using nerve stimulation. Can J Anesth. 1998;45:640-644. implantable electrical devices: brief review and implications for
Tsui BC, Kropelin B. The electrophysiological effect of dextrose 5% anesthesiologists. Can J Anesth. 2009;56:320-326.
in water on single-shot peripheral nerve stimulation. Anesth Wang ZX, Zhang DL, Liu XW, Li Y, Zhang XX, Li RH. Efficacy of
Analg. 2005;100:1837-1839. ultrasound and nerve stimulation guidance in peripheral nerve
Ueshima H, Hiroshi O. Ultrasound and nerve stimulator guidance block: a systematic review and meta-analysis. IUBMB Life.
decreases the use of local anesthetic for 1st injection in pectoral 2017;69:720-734.
nerve blocks. J Clin Anesth. 2018;48:21. Zhang XH, Li YJ, He WQ, et al. Combined ultrasound and nerve
Urmey WF, Grossi P. Percutaneous electrode guidance. A non-invasive stimulator-guided deep nerve block may decrease the rate of
technique for prelocation of peripheral nerves to facilitate periph- local anesthetics systemic toxicity: a randomized clinical trial.
eral plexus or nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2002;27:261-267. BMC Anesthesiol. 2019;19:1-9.
Urmey WF, Grossi P. Percutaneous electrode guidance and subcu-
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9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
5 Optimizing Ultrasound Image
the difference between conventional and compound imaging

Introduction applied to visualize the radial nerve proximal to the elbow.
Optimization of the ultrasound (US) image is important to The contrast resolution between the muscle and the nerve
improve the visualization of the relevant anatomy during US- is increased in comparison with conventional imaging.
guided peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs). Because a nerve block Compound imaging is automatically deactivated with the
is an injection of local anesthetic (LA) into a tissue space that use of color Doppler, which cannot be applied with multiple
contains the nerve, it is often more practical and easier to angles of insonation.
identify the interfascial tissue space containing the nerve than Tissue harmonic imaging (THI) combines the informa-
the nerve(s) to be blocked. Optimizing the US image requires tion from harmonic frequencies, which are multiples of the
knowledge of how the US machine operates and adequate primary frequency, generated by US beam transmission
training in image acquisition. In this chapter, we describe through tissue. As such, THI suppresses scattering signals
standardized scanning steps, including the selection of sono- from tissue interfaces, thereby improving the axial resolu-
graphic modes, adjustment of function keys, essential trans- tion and boundary detection. An example of its advantage
ducer maneuvers, and interpretation of artifacts to optimize is in obese patients where the anatomical structures may
the US view and guide the needle toward the target. be situated deeper. All modern US manufacturers incorpo-
rate THI as the default mode, because of the better resolu-
tion images, improved tissue penetration, better detection of
Ultrasound Machine Settings tissue interfaces, and margin enhancement compared with
Conventional, compound, and tissue harmonic imaging (THI) conventional sonography.
are common sonographic imaging and signal processing The following function keys on an US machine are
modes used for medical diagnostics, which can all be utilized essential to achieve the best possible resolution during the
to visualize the relevant anatomy during regional anesthesia. performance of PNBs:
Conventional imaging is generated from a single angle
beam at a primary frequency designated by the transducer. 1. Transducer frequency: US frequency determines the axial
Compound imaging acquires several overlapping frames resolution or the ability of the US to distinguish two sepa-
from different frequencies or angles. Figure 5-1 demonstrates rate points along the axis of the US beam. Frequency and
A B
FIGURE 5-1. Ultrasound image of the radial nerve at the elbow with (A) conventional
and (B) compound imaging.

depth, however, are interdependent and important in improve the image quality for use in most regional anes-
decision-making. The first step is to select the transducer thesia techniques (Figure 5-2).
with the optimal frequency range to visualize the target 2. Depth of imaging: The depth controls increase or decrease
nerves at a certain depth. The second step is to adjust the the image field by predetermined depth increments.
best frequency within each transducer range according Increasing the depth reduces the resolution of the image;
to the depth of the nerve. Some US machines display the therefore, the minimum required depth setting typically
full range of the transducer frequency, while others dis- provides a better image (Figure 5-3). The depth at which
play several range options (e.g., high, middle, and low). peripheral nerves and fascial planes are located varies
US energy is attenuated and eventually absorbed by the greatly and also depends on the width of overlying sub-
imaged tissues. The higher the US frequency, the more cutaneous tissue. Table 5-1 shows the recommended ini-
rapid the absorption, and the less distance sound propa- tial depth and transducer settings for common regional
gation. Therefore, lower frequency allows for better tissue anesthesia blocks. The US machine manufacturers often
penetration and better imaging for deep tissues but lower incorporate software algorithms that optimize the resolu-
image quality for superficial structures. Higher frequen- tion in the center of the image. This simplifies the use of
cies have better resolution and image quality but shallower the equipment and allows the visualization of other ana-
penetration. Consequently, high frequency can be used tomical structures in the vicinity of the nerve or target
only for superficial blocks (structures). Of note, increasing point. For that reason, whenever possible the target nerve
the imaging frequency has a ceiling plateau with regards to or fascial plane should be positioned at the center of the
image quality. Frequencies beyond 18 MHz do not further US screen.
A B C
FIGURE 5-2. Examples of images with different transducer frequencies: (A) ulnar nerve, 13 MHz; (B) infraclavicular brachilal
plexus, 10 MHz; and (C) sciatic nerve, 5 MHz.
A B C
FIGURE 5-3. Images of the brachial plexus in the interscalene space with different depth settings: (A) insufficient, (B) correct,
and (C) excessive.

Optimizing Ultrasound Image CHAPTER 5 69
TABLE 5-1 uggested Optimal Imaging Depth and Frequency for Common Fascial Plane
S
and Peripheral Nerve Blocks
FIELD DEPTH (cm) TRANSDUCER BLOCK TYPE
<2.0 High frequency Cervical plexus, wrist, elbow, and ankle
2.0-3.0 High frequency Interscalene, supraclavicular, axillary brachial plexus block, pectoralis
and serratus, fascia iliaca
3.0-4.0 High frequency Femoral nerve, TAP block, erector spinae
3.0-5.0 High or low frequency Infraclavicular, adductor canal, popliteal, subgluteal sciatic nerve blocks
7.0-10.0 Low frequency Pudendal, gluteal sciatic nerve, lumbar plexus blocks, quadratus lumborum
>10.0 Low frequency Anterior approach to sciatic nerve, celiac ganglion block
3. Focus: The width of the US beam determines the lateral more than two focus zones can yield better image quality
resolution or the ability of the US system to distinguish two than multiple focal zones. This is because using multiple
points in the transverse plane (perpendicular to the axis focus zones decreases the frame refreshment rate. This in
of the US beam). The lateral resolution is maximal at the return decreases the temporal resolution.
focal zone, where the beam width is at its narrowest. The 4. Gain: Gain is the amplification of US signals returning
number and position of the focal zones can be adjusted by to the transducer after the reflection from the tissues at
modifying the US pulse. By choosing a higher frequency various depths. On US images, these signals are repre-
transducer (for shallow depths, typically 4-5 cm) and focus- sented with white (bright) dots on the screen. The gain of
ing the US beam at the level of the target (focal zone), the these reflected signals can be adjusted as an overall gain
spatial resolution can be enhanced (Figure 5-4). Although (Figure 5-5) or at the desired depth (time-gain compen-
many machines allow multiple focus zones, selecting no sation, TGC) (Figure 5-6). The TGC compensates for
A B
FIGURE 5-4. Focus adjustment (white arrow). (A) Imaging focus positioned at the level of
the femoral nerve and (B) focus below the femoral nerve.
A B C
FIGURE 5-5. Effects of overall gain adjustments: (A) insufficient, (B) correct, and (C) excessive.

FIGURE 5-6. Effects of time-gain compensation adjustments on the view of the femoral
nerve. Optimal (left) and suboptimal time-gain compensation (right).
the attenuation (loss) of the signals as they reflect from b. Use power Doppler, as it is more sensitive than color
and travel back through the tissues. Adjusting the TGC Doppler for detecting blood flow. Power Doppler sim-
allows a more even, or selective, gain level at the desired ply detects the flow, rather than its speed and direction,
depth of imaging. For simplicity, portable US systems which are less important for application in regional
made for point of care use often have an overall gain anesthesia where the goal is to detect and avoid the
without TGC functionality. For imaging the peripheral vasculature.
nerves, the optimal gain is typically the gain at which the c. Adjust the gate to limit the size of the sample volume
best contrast is obtained between the nerves and adja- in the axial direction. For greater sensitivity, the sam-
cent muscle and connective tissues. Excessive or inad- ple volume should be small to overlay only the area of
equate gain causes blurring of tissue boundaries and interest. This excludes distractive signals from adjacent
loss of contrast. Incorrect TGC settings may accentuate tissues and improves the temporal resolution by allow-
artifacts and result in inferior image quality that inter- ing a greater frame refreshment rate.
feres with image interpretation. Increasing gain below
d. Note that applying excessive pressure to the transducer
the focus works well to improve the image of both the
during imaging may collapse small- and medium-sized
target of interest as well as the anatomical structures at
vessels and prevent their detection with Doppler imaging.
a greater depth. Technicians can obtain a more desir-
able image by using TGC with selectively applied gain
for different depths.
Ultrasound Artifacts
5. Doppler imaging: Doppler mode is used to detect vascular
structures in the vicinity of the targeted nerves and along US artifacts occur commonly and are an intrinsic part of US
the needle path. Color Doppler can also be used to identify imaging. By definition, an US artifact is any image aberration
the LA spread during the injection. To optimize the view that does not represent the correct anatomic structures. Most
of small vessels it is recommended to apply the following artifacts are undesirable, and operators must learn how to
adjustments (Figure 5-7): recognize them when using US to practice regional anesthe-
sia. The six most common artifacts in the practice of regional
a. Decrease the scale of Doppler velocity that is best set
anesthesia are the following:
between 15 and 35 cm/s to reduce aliasing of color
Doppler imaging and color artifacts. Aliasing is the 1. Anisotropy is seen as a change of the echogenicity of tissue
inability to record the direction and velocity of flow at different angles of insonation. Anisotropy is a property
accurately. of some fibrillar tissues, such as tendons and nerves, that
A B C
FIGURE 5-7. Examples of Doppler imaging of the small median artery: (A) high-flow color Doppler, (B) low-flow color Doppler,
and (C) power Doppler.

A B
FIGURE 5-8. Anisotropy or changes of the tissue echogenicity at different angles of

insonation. (A) Reduced echogenicity and (B) optimized echogenicity to visualize the
median nerve at the forearm.
A B
FIGURE 5-9. Examples of acoustic shadow with (A) deep to bone structures (B) deep to calcifications.
reflect most US waves in the same direction. The echo-

genicity is maximal when the US beam is perpendicular
to the fibers, when the transducer receives most of the
reflected waves and is progressively reduced as the angle
of deviation increases, when most US waves are reflected
away from the transducer (Figure 5-8).
2. Acoustic shadowing is the attenuation of US signals by
structures that impede, absorb, or reflect US energy, such
as bone, calcifications, or air. The result is a weak or absent
echo image, which appears as a shadow below a bright,
hyperechoic interface. Acoustic shadowing facilitates the
diagnosis of calcifications, such as gallstones, scar tis-
sues, or a presence of air. In regional anesthesia, acoustic
shadowing is used to identify bony landmarks but may
interfere with nerve visualization. Changing the scanning
angle, alignment, or imaging plane to find an acoustic
window is the best strategy to avoid shadowing when it
interferes with imaging (Figure 5-9).
3. Acoustic enhancement or posterior enhancement mani-
fests as an increase in echogenicity deep to a structure that
transmits the sound better than the surrounding soft tis-
sues (e.g., a fluid-filled structure such as a blood vessel or
a cyst). This artifact occurs because the echo signals are
overamplified, disproportionally to other echo signals at
the same depth. Changing the angle or plane of imaging FIGURE 5-10. Example of a posterior enhancement:
helps to decrease or eliminate enhancement artifacts when (A) below the subclavian artery and (B) below the femoral
necessary. Correcting TGC can also be used to decrease artery. BP, brachial plexus; FA, femoral artery; FN, femoral
enhancement artifacts (Figure 5-10). nerve; FV, femoral vein; SCA, subclavian artery.

FIGURE 5-11. Reverberation of the needle during an

axillary block.
4. Reverberation may occur between two highly reflective

parallel interfaces or between the transducer and a strong
reflector in parallel. Instead of the beam reflecting off a sin-
gle surface and producing a strong echo that returns to the
transducer, the US beam is reflected between the interfaces
repeatedly. Reverberation is displayed as parallel, equally
spaced, bright linear echoes that decrease in intensity with
an increase in depth, deeper to the strong reflector. Because
reverberation echoes take longer to return to the transducer,
they appear to occur at increasing depth. Slightly changing FIGURE 5-13. Propagation velocity error. “Bayonet effect”
the scanning direction or decreasing the US frequency can of the needle approaching the sciatic nerve at the popliteal
attenuate or eliminate reverberation artifacts (Figure 5-11). fossa. CPN, common peroneal nerve; TN, tibial nerve.
5. Mirror image artifact results from a highly reflective lin-
ear boundary that acts like an acoustic “mirror.” A struc- the actual velocity of US propagation in soft tissue com-
ture located on one side of the interface repeats also on the pared with the calibrated speed, which is assumed to be a
other side at an equal distance. The transducer receives constant velocity of 1540 m/s set by the US system. Conse-
both direct echoes from the object and indirect echoes from quently, a reflector is erroneously displaced on the image
the mirror (Figure 5-12). The duplicated artifactual image closer to the transducer by the error in distance calcula-
is less bright and deeper than the real image because indi- tions (Figure 5-13).
rect echoes transmit a longer distance and their energy is The inherent artifacts in the process of scanning cannot
attenuated in that way. Changing the scanning direction always be entirely eliminated. However, recognizing and
may decrease the artifact. understanding US artifacts help the operator to avoid misin-
6. Propagation velocity error is seen as a displacement or terpretation of images and use the machine settings to con-
discontinuity of an interface caused by the difference of trol and limit their effect on image quality.
A B
FIGURE 5-12. Ultrasound image of the subclavian artery at the supraclavicular level that
shows an example of a mirror image (MI) above and below the pleura. BP, brachial plexus;
SA, subclavian artery.

needle is slightly shaken up to differentiate the needle reflection

Needle Insertion Techniques from that of the surrounding tissue. One common technique is,
The two most common needle insertion techniques are the once the needle tip reflection encounters the US beam super-
in-plane and out-of-plane techniques (Figure 5-14). ficially to the target, the needle is then further advanced in a
With the in-plane technique, the needle is placed in the steeper angle under the continuous view of the tip toward the
plane of the US beam. As a result, the needle shaft can be target. Also, the transducer can be aligned (sliding) with the
monitored throughout the procedure in the longitudinal advancing needle tip reflection as the needle is being inserted
view in real-time as the needle is advanced toward the target until the target is reached. The operator should stop needle
nerve. When the needle tip is not seen on the image, needle advancement when the needle trajectory is lost visually and
advancement is stopped. The best course of action to bring align the transducer to identify the needle. A small amount of
the needle in-plane is alignment (sliding). Although tilting injectate (“hydrodissection”) can be used to estimate the needle
or rotating the transducer can also align the US beam with tip position.
the needle, these maneuvers may result in a compromise in
the image of the relevant anatomy. In addition, a subtle, fast
needle shake and/or injection of a small amount of injectate
may help detect the needle tip location.
Catheter Visualization
The out-of-plane technique involves needle insertion per- Continuous PNBs are a common practice. Visualization of
pendicular or at an oblique angle to the transducer. The needle the catheter position can be challenging. Introducing the
shaft is imaged in a cross-sectional plane and is often identi- catheter in-plane at a short distance from the needle tip
fied as a bright white reflection in the image. Visualization of (e.g., 2 cm past the needle tip) can allow direct visualiza-
the needle tip with an out-of-plane technique, requires a high tion of the catheter tip (Figure 5-15). However, inserting
degree of skill. To track the needle with this technique, the the catheter deeper (e.g., 3-5 cm beyond the needle tip) or
FIGURE 5-14. In-plane and out-of-plane needle insertion techniques and their corresponding appearance
in an ultrasound image.

New Needle Tracking Technology

The use of guides attached to the transducer to mechanically
guide the needle toward the target helps to align the needle
and the US beam and may be useful to control the needle path.
Recently, a variety of more advanced technologies have been
introduced to facilitate the view of the needle tip during pro-
cedures. These include the modification of the needle tip,
electromagnetism, magnetization of the needle tip, optical
tracking, augmented reality, needle detection software, three-
dimensional US, and robot assistance. These technologies
FIGURE 5-15. Catheter insertion in-plane for interscalene may ultimately substantially facilitate the accuracy of inter-
brachial plexus block. BP, brachial plexus. ventional point of care US in the years to come.
out-of-plane results in the needle, nerve, and catheter being

in different planes from the US beam, which challenges the SUGGESTED READINGS
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consistently detects needle-nerve contact during ultrasound-
reflection of the catheter. guided interscalene brachial plexus block. Anesthesiology.
2. The position of the catheter tip can be detected by observ- 2014;120:1246-1253.
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imaging. Ultrason Imaging. 1998;20:81-102.
ter. The use of color Doppler may also help to visualize
NYSORA YouTube Chanel. How to Improve US Image in 15 Seconds!
the spread (Figure 5-16). Visualization of the spread of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DlQULVSlhL0&t=32s.
injectate is the most convenient and important method to Accessed May 2021.
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6 Monitoring and Documentation
in Regional Anesthesia
Introduction Epinephrine as a Monitor of

Intravascular Injection
Just like in patients having general anesthesia, the practice
of regional anesthesia requires comprehensive, organized Some clinicians use epinephrine in the LA as a pharmaco-
preoperative assessment, patient education, preparation. logic monitor to improve detection of an intravascular injec-
Likewise, monitoring, and documentation of respiratory tion and contribute to the safety during PNBs. Intravenous
and cardiovascular parameters during the administration of injection of 10 to 15 μg epinephrine increases the systolic
regional anesthesia (e.g., oximetry, capnography, electrocar- blood pressure more than 15 mmHg, even in premedicated
diography) for safety and guidance in therapeutic decision- patients or patients treated with β-blockers. This increase
making. In regional anesthesia, several needle and injection in blood pressure may help early detection of intravascular
monitoring systems have become available to decrease the injection and prompt discontinuation of the injection. Epi-
risk of nerve injury, local anesthetic (LA) toxicity, and inad- nephrine also decreases the absorption of the LA in perineu-
vertent needle injury to adjacent structures. ral tissues or in local infiltration. This may decrease the peak
The first part of this chapter describes needle and injection plasma level of LA and lower the risk for systemic toxicity.
monitoring and the rationale for their use. The latter section Concerns regarding vasoconstriction and nerve ischemia
focuses on the documentation of nerve block procedures or with the addition of epinephrine have not been substanti-
medical record-keeping of the objective information obtained ated. Concentrations of 2.5 μg/mL (1:400,000) actually may
by the monitors. Objective and robust documentation of how increase intraneural blood flow due to the predominance of
a nerve block is performed provides useful database informa-
tion to inform on the matters of safety and efficacy and may
have medicolegal implications.
SECTION I: MONITORING
Available Means for Monitoring

Needle-Nerve Relationships
Monitors, as used in medical practice, are devices that
assess a specific physiologic state, provide objective data,
allow for trending of the provided information, and can
warn the clinician of impending harm. In this chapter, we
discuss the currently available clinical monitors, such as
ultrasonography, nerve stimulation, and injection pressure,
and remark on some emerging technology. Each monitor
has its advantages and limitations, and each can be used in
an additive, complementary fashion (Figure 6-1) to mini-
mize the potential for patient injury, rather than relying
only on the information provided by a single monitor alone.
Evidence-based information suggests that a combination of FIGURE 6-1. Three modes of monitoring peripheral nerve
monitors is likely to enhance the safety of peripheral nerve blocks for patient injury. The overlapping area of all three
blocks (PNBs). (blue area) represents the safest means of performing a block.

the β-effect of the drug in small doses. All in all, epineph- an example, before the introduction of US, the supraclavicu-
rine may enhance safety during the administration of larger lar block was rarely used to anesthetize the brachial plexus
doses of LAs without increasing the risk of nerve ischemia for fear of causing a pneumothorax due to the proximity of
and neuropathy. the pleura and chest cavity. Likewise, the ability to visualize
tissue fasciae has allowed the development of new interven-
tional regional analgesia procedures. However, US depends
on the skill of the user and the quality of the image. Conse-
Ultrasound Monitoring quently, complications such as intravascular injections, nerve
Ultrasound (US) has revolutionized the practice of regional injury, or pneumothorax can still occur.
anesthesia and transformed the subspecialty from an art The ability to determine the distance from the skin to the
practiced by a few to a reproducible medical discipline. US target and the use of needles with ultrasound-detectable depth
provides real-time needle-target guidance and injection mon- markings (Figure 6-2) confers an additional safety margin by
itoring, resulting in a quicker and more accurate procedure. warning the clinician of a “stop distance,” a depth beyond which
US makes it possible to accurately deposit additional injec- the operator should stop advancing the needle and reassess.
tions of LA into tissue spaces for reproducible nerve block Real-time monitoring of the LA distribution is another
anesthesia or analgesia. US also makes nerve blocks feasible advantage of US (Figure 6-3). For example, if tissue expan-
for patients in whom an evoked motor response (EMR) using sion with injection does not occur in the therapeutic area, the
nerve stimulation could not be elicited. needle tip may have to be adjusted. Subsequently, the opera-
US guidance aids in visualizing and avoiding adjacent tor can reassess the needle tip location and adjust accordingly.
structures of importance thereby improving PNB safety. As This can be particularly useful in vascular areas, as the lack
FIGURE 6-2. Needles with 1 cm depth markings (or 0.5 cm markings on short length needles) and etched surface help to
visualize and control the insertion depth.
FIGURE 6-3. A supraclavicular brachial plexus block showing plexus (arrows) adjacent to the
subclavian artery, (A) before and (B) after deposition of 10 mL of local anesthetic (dotted outline).

Monitoring and Documentation in Regional Anesthesia CHAPTER 6 77
of LA visualization may be due to intravascular needle place- response at a very low current (i.e., <0.2 mA) is associated with
ment. US monitoring can detect intra-arterial needle tip place- intraneural needle tip placement and intraneural inflamma-
ment, typically presenting as a “blush” in the arterial lumen. tion after injection in this condition (Table 6-1). Voelckel et
The use of US guidance for PNBs has decreased the risk of al. reported that nerve tissue showed no signs of an inflamma-
severe local anesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST). An analysis of tory process after injection of LA at currents between 0.3 and
a large, multicenter registry of PNBs (>25,000 PNBs) showed 0.5 mA. Injections at less than 0.2 mA resulted in lymphocytic
a reduction of >65% for the risk of LAST when using US guid- and granulocytic infiltration in 50% of the nerves. In a similar
ance. One of the reasons for the lower risk of LAST with US study, Tsai et al. investigated the effect of nerve distance on
is the reduction of the LA volumes and doses to accomplish the required current. While a range of currents was recorded
the blocks. Numerous reports documented a reduction in for a variety of distances, a motor response at less than 0.2 mA
the volume required to achieve a successful nerve block, as was only obtained with intraneural needle tip placement.
compared to pre-ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia tech- Bigeleisen et al. studied 55 patients scheduled for upper
niques. For instance, brachial plexus blocks can be performed limb surgery, receiving ultrasound-guided supraclavicular
with as little as <10 mL of LA, without a sacrifice in the effec- brachial plexus blocks. The authors determined the minimum
tiveness of anesthesia or analgesia. Furthermore, severe LAST current threshold for a motor response inside and outside the
is less likely to result from accidental injection of 7 mL of 0.5% first encountered trunk. They reported a median minimum
ropivacaine in an adult of average size, for example. In addi- stimulation threshold of 0.60 mA outside the nerve and 0.3
tion, observation of the needle path on US, avoidance of intra- mA inside the nerve. EMRs were not observed with stimula-
vascular placement, and confirmation of the LA spread in the tion currents of 0.2 mA or less outside the nerve, whereas
tissues all decrease the risk of LAST. 36% of patients had an EMR twitch at currents less than 0.2
Unfortunately, the use of US guidance during PNBs has not mA with intraneural needle placement.
decreased the risk of nerve injury. The reason for this discrep- Wiesmann et al. applied an electrical current to the bra-
ancy is multifactorial. The ability to discern the needle-nerve chial plexus of pigs at three different positions (i.e., intraneu-
relationship is anatomy- and operator-dependent. Studies ral, with the needle contacting the epineurium, and at 1 mm
suggest that practitioners miss intraneural needle placement from the nerve) while varying the pulse duration (i.e., 0.1,
and injection in 1 or 2 out of 10 injections. The resolution 0.3, and 1.0 msec). The minimum threshold current to elicit
of an US image may also not be adequate to recognize intra- a motor response was identical between the intraneural and
neural or intrafascicular injections. However, it may already needle-nerve contact positions, and both were significantly
be too late to prevent the injury when the gross swelling of lower than the position 1 mm away. Pulse duration did not
the nerve following an intraneural injection is detected. This affect the minimal threshold current. The authors concluded
is because even a small amount of LA (e.g., 0.1-0.5 mL) can that a motor response at less than 0.2 mA, irrespective of pulse
result in neurologic injury if injected into the fascicle. duration, indicated either intraneural or needle-nerve contact.
This is important because, in the absence of epineurium punc-
ture, even forceful needle-nerve (epineurium) contact results
Nerve Stimulation in inflammation and potential nerve injury. Likewise, Gads-
Nerve stimulation replaced paresthesia as the primary means den demonstrated that current intensity of 0.5 mA (0.1 msec)
of nerve localization in the 1980s. Nevertheless, motor detects needle-nerve contact in >70% of instances.
response to nerve stimulation may be absent even when the Taken together, the available data suggest that a “low cur-
needle is in contact with the nerve with current intensities rent” sensitivity to elicit an EMR is approximately 75% in a
of 1.0 mA or higher. In some instances, even with intraneu- potentially dangerous needle-nerve relationship (intraneural
ral needle placement, an EMR can be obtained with only a or epineural placement). However, the specificity of the EMR
current intensity of >1 mA. As such, nerve stimulation has when present at less than 0.5 mA nears 100%. In other words,
relatively low sensitivity (i.e., approximately 70%). Nonethe- the needle tip is always intraneural or intimately related to
less, when a motor response is present with 0.5 mA or less, the epineurium when a motor response is elicited by a low-
it is always indicative of a very close needle-nerve distance, intensity stimulating current. Therefore, the utility of the
nerve contact, or an intraneural needle placement (i.e., 100% nerve stimulator is obvious. The unexpected appearance of
specificity). Multiple factors conspire to decrease the sensi- an EMR at 0.5 mA indicates an intimate needle-nerve rela-
tivity of nerve stimulation to detect needle-nerve contact: tionship (e.g., needle-nerve contact) and may allow the oper-
(1) The electrical current may not flow toward the nerve and ator to stop needle advancement before entering the nerve.
may shunt away from the nerve alongside the path of least Extraneural deposition of LA constitutes a safer practice
resistance to exit via the (return) skin-electrode, even when because the injection of LA into the nerve carries a high risk
the needle is near the nerve; (2) the variability in the organi- of injury. While unquestionably useful, ultrasonography is far
zation of the motor and sensory fibers of nerves. from an infallible monitor of the needle-nerve relationship.
However, the electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves is Therefore, the addition of electrical monitoring of the needle
not obsolete in an era of US guidance. Data from several ani- tip position is useful for safety, particularly in patients with
mal and human studies suggest that the presence of a motor challenging US anatomy when imaging proves to be difficult,

TABLE 6-1 Studies of Nerve Stimulation Current and Needle-Tip Position

STUDY SUBJECT METHOD FINDINGS
Voelckel et al. (2005) Pigs (n = 10) • Bilateral posterior sciatic nerve blocks • Normal, healthy appearance of nerve
• Two groups: (1) injection after EMR at in high current group
0.3 0.5 mA; and (2) injection after EMR • 50% of nerves in low current group
at <0.2 mA showed evidence of lymphocyte and
• Sciatic nerves were harvested 6 h postin- polymorphic granulocyte sub-, peri-,
jection for histologic analysis and intraneurally
• One specimen in low current group
showed gross disruption of perineu-
rium and multiple nerve fibers
Tsai et al. (2008) Pigs (n = 20) • General anesthesia • Sciatic nerve twitches were only
• Bilateral exposure of sciatic nerves obtained at 0.1 cm or closer
• Current applied with needle at various • Wide range of currents required to
distances from 2 cm away to intraneural elicit motor response
• Two blinded observers agreed on • Only when intraneural did a motor
minimal current required to obtain response result from current <0.2 mA
hoof twitch
• 40 attempts at each distance
Bigeleisen et al. (2009) Patients for • Supraclavicular block • Median minimal current threshold
hand/wrist • Minimum current (mA) recorded: outside the nerve was 0.60 ± 0.37 mA
surgery (n = 55) (1) with needle outside nerve trunk (but • Median minimal current threshold
contacting nerve); and (2) inside trunk inside the nerve was 0.30 ± 0.19 mA
• “Intraneural” position sonographically • No EMR observed at any time with
confirmed with 5 mL injection of local <0.2 mA when needle placement
anesthetic outside nerve
Wiesmann et al. (2014) Pigs (n = 6 • Open brachial plexus model • Current intensity cannot distinguish
• Stimulation at three positions: between intraneural and needle
intraneural, needle nerve contact, nerve contact
and 1 mm away from nerve • Motor response <0.2 mA (irrespective
• Three pulse durations tested (0.1, 0.3, of pulse duration) indicated intraneural
and 1 ms) or needle nerve contact
EMR, evoked motor response.
or when the image quality is poor. Overall, nerve stimulation disruption of the nerve architecture). The implication is that
adds little to the cost of a nerve block procedure in terms of injection into a low-compliance compartment, such as within
time or cost but can add a meaningful safety electrophysio- perineurium-bound fascicles, requires a high OIP before the
logic confirmation of the anatomical image shown on US (e.g., injection can be initiated. Therefore, detection of high injec-
“Is that the median or ulnar nerve?”). For these reasons, nerve tion pressure before injection can help to avoid injection into
stimulation should be used routinely in conjunction with US the fascicle or other low compliant tissues.
as a valuable additional monitor of the needle tip position. An intraneural needle tip position was also associated with
high OIPs in human cadavers. Orebaugh et al. placed needles
into cadavers’ cervical roots using US and quantified the pres-
Injection Pressure Monitoring sure for a 5 mL injection of ropivacaine and ink over 15 sec.
Intrafascicular injection of lidocaine in canine sciatic nerves In contrast to the control needles placed outside the roots
was associated with a high OIP (>20 psi), followed by a return of (peak pressure <20 psi), the intraneural injections resulted in
injection pressure tracing to normal (i.e., <5 psi) after fascicular a mean peak pressure of 49 psi (range 37-66 psi). Similarly,
rupture. In contrast, perineural and intraneural extrafascicular Krol et al. performed ultrasound-guided intraneural and
injections yielded low OIPs. The limbs in which sciatic nerve perineural injections in fresh human cadavers in more distal
injections were associated with high OIPs experienced clinical nerves (i.e., median, ulnar, and radial nerves). They reported
signs of neuropathy (e.g., muscle wasting, weakness) as well as that intraneural OIPs were more than 15 psi, while extraneu-
histological evidence of neurologic injury (e.g., inflammation, ral OIPs were less than 10 psi.

In studies by Gadsden et al., needle-nerve contact dur- Unfortunately, the use of “hand feel” to avoid a high injec-
ing interscalene brachial plexus and femoral blocks were tion pressure is not reliable. Studies of experienced practi-
associated with an OIP greater than 15 psi in 16 patients tioners, blinded to the injection pressure, who performed
undergoing shoulder surgery. The flow of injectate did mock injections using standard equipment, revealed wide
not commence at pressures of less than 15 psi when there variations in applied pressure, some grossly exceeding the
was needle-nerve contact or just before needle entry established safety thresholds. Similarly, anesthesiologists
into the roots of the brachial plexus. In 97% of subjects, performed poorly when asked to distinguish between intra-
halting the injection when the required OIP reached 15 psi neural injection and injection into other tissues (e.g., muscle
avoided injection in this hazardous needle position. In or tendon) in an animal model. As such, using an objective
contrast, a needle position 1 mm away from the nerve was and quantifiable method is the only reproducible way to
associated with a flow initiation at OIPs less than 15 psi. monitor the OIP.
Therefore, an OIP greater than 15 psi, as a monitor of nee- While the practice of injection pressure monitoring dur-
dle-nerve contact, was far more sensitive than a minimum ing PNBs is relatively new, there are several monitoring
threshold current of either 0.5 or 0.2 mA, or occurrence of options. Tsui et al. described a “compressed air injection
paresthesia. technique” by which 10 mL of air is drawn into the syringe
These data suggest that when the pressure in the syringe- along with the LA. Holding the syringe upright allows only
tubing-needle system approaches 15 psi without the ability the gas portion of the syringe contents to compress to half
to commence the flow of injectate, this high OIP may signal of its original volume (i.e., 5 mL) and avoids a maximum
a dangerous needle-nerve relationship or needle placement threshold of 1 atm (or 14.7 psi) (Figure 6-4). This is based
in the wrong tissue plane. Therefore, when the opening pres- on Boyle’s law, which states that pressure × volume must be
sure approaches 15 psi, the clinician should halt the injection constant. A pressure of 20 psi or less is considered to be a safe
and reevaluate the needle position. threshold for initiating injection during PNBs. Boyle’s law
FIGURE 6-4. The compressed air injection technique. A 10 mL bubble of air

is placed in the syringe filled with local anesthetic, which is then inverted.
Compression of that bubble in a closed system to half of its original volume
(i.e., 5 mL) will increase the pressure in the system by 1 atm (i.e., 14.7 psi).

has also been employed in another simple apparatus, using a This method offers the advantage that the assistant perform-
four-way stopcock and a 1 mL air-filled syringe. If the fluid ing the injection can monitor and communicate the attained
meniscus reaches the halfway point in the 1 mL syringe (i.e., pressures and objectively document the injection pressure
0.5 mL) during the initiation of injection, this indicates a during a PNB procedure. Other designs include a pres-
doubling of the pressure in the system (i.e., another atm sure limiter within the syringe tubing system (NerveGuard,
or 14.7 psi). These are both inexpensive and ubiquitously Pajunk GmbH) and various automated injection pumps with
available ways to limit high OIP during PNBs. Practical lim- built-in pressure monitoring systems.
itations include the need to either hold the syringe upright Importantly, the opening pressure (pressure at which the
or to periodically turn off the stopcock to the 1 mL syringe flow begins) is independent of the size of the syringe, tub-
when aspirating to avoid the introduction of air in the injec- ing, needle, and injection speed (Pascal’s law) (Figure 6-6).
tion tubing. Although fast injection speed may result in higher injection
Another option to monitor injection pressure is the use pressures, the opening pressure at which the flow begins is
of in-line, disposable pressure manometers manufactured independent of the injection speed or size of the fluid passages
explicitly for this purpose. These devices bridge the syringe for standard syringe-tubing-needle sizes (i.e., 18-25 gauge).
and needle tubing and allow the clinician to continuously Nevertheless, when the injection begins, these factors will
monitor the pressure in the syringe-tubing-needle system influence the attained injection pressure. Therefore, slow,
via a spring-loaded piston. Markings on the piston’s shaft steady injection speed (i.e., 10-15 mL/min) is suggested for
delineate three different pressure thresholds: less than 15 psi, all nerve block procedures. The OIP becomes relevant with
between 15 and 20 psi, and more than 20 psi (Figure 6-5). every consequent needle reposition and injection.
FIGURE 6-5. An example of a commercially available in-line pressure manometer (B-Smart, B. Braun Medical, Bethlehem, PA). As
seen in (A-C), respectively, the monitor displays pressure ranges in color on the movable piston: 0-15 psi (white), 15-20 psi (yellow),
and more than 20 psi (orange). In clinical use, the exact opening injection pressure is less important than the prevention of exceeding
the range of opening injection pressure associated with fascicular injury (>15 psi). Practically, this is avoided by aborting the injection
with the appearance of any color on the piston throughout the injection cycle (>15 psi). At the time of this publication, several
additional injection pressure monitoring systems have been introduced (NerveGuard by Pajunk, Safira by Medovate).

Opening pressure
18-24 Gauge needle
FIGURE 6-6. Opening injection pressure (pressure at which the flow begins) is
independent of the size of the syringe, tubing, and needle or injection speed,
and is equal throughout the injection system (Pascal’s law).
Pressure monitoring is important for several aspects of complementary set of objective data for greater consistency
patient safety and comfort during the practice of PNBs. Gads- and safety. Figure 6-7 is a flowchart outlining how these
den et al. demonstrated that 60% of patients receiving high- monitors are used in our practice.
pressure lumbar plexus blocks (>20 psi) developed a bilateral
epidural block and a high thoracic epidural block. Similarly,
Gautier et al. showed that when volunteers were random- SECTION II: DOCUMENTATION
ized to low (<15 psi) versus high (>20 psi) injection pressures
during interscalene brachial plexus blocks, cervical epidural
spread occurred in 11% of high-pressure injections (vs. 0% in Block Procedure Notes
the low-pressure group). In addition, all subjects requested to Documentation of nerve block procedures has lagged behind
halt the injection due to discomfort during the high-pressure the documentation of general anesthesia. The increas-
condition, but not during the low-pressure injection. ing regulatory and billing requirements mandate efforts to
improve the documentation for PNBs. Examples of PNB
documentation forms that incorporate all of the monitoring
Summary elements mentioned previously in this chapter are shown in
Regional anesthesia has made a transition from an art to a Figures 6-8 and 6-9. These can be adopted and modified to
reproducible clinical discipline. The standardization of the suit individual practices. Institutions attempting to formulate
monitoring of PNBs with ultrasonography, neurostimula- their procedure notes should consider several features of these
tion, and injection pressure monitoring together provides a forms (Table 6-2).

Nerve stimulator
0.5 mA, 0.1 ms,
2 Hz
Advance needle
toward nerve
or plexus

NO NO
MR MR
MR MR
Withdraw/Reposition
needle to ensure
NO MR at 0.5 mA(1)
1-2 mL injuction of local anesthetic results in

(1)
adequate spread in desired tissue plane, Data from several studies suggest that twitch
opening injection pressure normal(2) (evoked motor response)at <0.2 mA (0.1 ms) may
101:1844-1846, Anesthesiology 2009;110:1235-1243)
(2) Based on data both in animal models and clinical
2014;120:1246-1253)
FIGURE 6-7. Flowchart depicting the order of correctly monitoring nerve block procedures by
combining ultrasound, nerve stimulation, and injection pressure monitoring (triple monitoring).
MR, motor response.
Paper records are increasingly being replaced with elec- Another useful aspect of PNB documentation is the
tronic medical record-keeping systems. Block documentation recording of an US image or video clip to be stored either as
is simple with computerized systems as the block variables a hard copy in the patient’s chart or as a digital copy in the
can be selected quickly from a list by indicating relevant doc- electronic health record or separate secure hard drive. Any
umentation items. Moreover, any narrative element can be hard copies should have a patient identification, the date, and
rapidly typed using a keyboard. any pertinent findings highlighted with a marker, such as LA

FIGURE 6-8. Example of a block documentation form.

FIGURE 6-9. Screenshot from a block documentation page taken from an electronic medical record.
TABLE 6-2 Useful Features of a Peripheral Nerve Block Procedure Note

SUGGESTED PERIPHERAL
NERVE BLOCK PROCEDURE NOTE EXAMPLES
Details that guide the practioner to meet a given standard of care A space to indicate the use of additives
A compromise between time-efficiency and individualization Information provided with ticking boxes and blank line
spaces for descriptions as needed
Documentation to safeguard against common medicolegal Patient’s level of sedation during procedure
challenges
Documentation of compliance with regulatory agencies Tick boxes with indication of the laterality
(e.g., Joint Commission)
Details to facilitate billing Language required by insurance carriers indicating
when block was “requested by surgeon”

FIGURE 6-10. Essential elements of documentation of peripheral nerve block procedures used at NYSORA-Europe CREER
(Center for Research, Education, and Enhanced Recovery From Orthopedic Surgery) at ZOL (Ziekenhuis Oost-Limburg),
Genk, Belgium.
spread around the nerve. Figure 6-10 illustrates additional • Offer a copy of the form to the patient. This has been
examples of practical implementation of the documentation shown to aid in the recall of consent-related information.
of regional anesthesia procedures.
Checklists
Informed Consent Checklists have been introduced as a solution for patient
Documentation of informed consent is an important aspect of safety and a number of other quality issues in health care.
the practice of regional anesthesia. Practice patterns vary widely They are considered to be an inexpensive and simple
on this issue, and specific written consent for nerve block pro- method to avoid common human errors, applicable across
cedures is often not obtained. However, the written documen- a wide range of processes. Although checklists are routinely
tation of this process can be important for several reasons: used in medicine to prevent mishaps and errors, continu-
ing publications of case reports describing the occurrences
• Patients are often distracted and anxious on the day of of wrong-side (also called wrong-site) procedures illustrate
surgery and may not remember the details of a discus- that there is no simple solution to this problem and that
sion with their anesthesiologist. A written record of the checklists alone are not a cure-all solution. The checklists in
informed consent process improves patients’ recall of risks health care are intended specifically to improve communica-
and benefits. tion and teamwork (e.g., a discussion of patient risk factors)
• A written consent establishes that a discussion of risks and accomplishment of straightforward categorical checks
and benefits occurred between the patient and physician. (e.g., hands washed, informed consent obtained). However,
• A specific document for regional anesthesia can be tai- the successful completion of procedure-related checklists
lored to include all common and severe risks; this allows requires training in their implementation in a multidisci-
the physician to explain them to the patient as a matter of plinary environment.
routine and reduce the chance of omitting important risks.
The following tips can be utilized to maximize the consent Time-Out
process: A time-out should be completed before needle insertion for
each new block site if the position is changed or separated
• Be brief. A simple, short explanation helps recall of the
in time or performed by another team. Practitioners should
risks and benefits more than lengthy paragraphs.
verify the patient’s identity, planned surgical procedure and
• Include not only severe and major risks but also benefits site, whether informed consent was obtained, and laterality
and expected results of the proposed regional anesthetic of the block site before performing the nerve block. How-
procedure. It is difficult for patients to make an informed ever, the most common culprit in clinical practice is forget-
choice if only risks are discussed. ting to implement the checklist or time-out. Subsequently,
• Use the consent process as a means to educate the patient wrong-side procedures continue to occur at the point of
simultaneously. care. NYSORA has developed a “time-out” US transducer

Chan VWS, Brull R, McCartney CJL, Xu D, Abbas S, Shannon P.

An ultrasonographic and histological study of intraneural
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Gadsden JC, Lindenmuth DM, Hadzic A, Xu D, Somasundarum L,
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Gauss A, Tugtekin I, Georgieff M, Dinse-Lambracht A, Keipke D,
FIGURE 6-11. An example of the probe cover with the Gorsewski G. Incidence of clinically symptomatic pneumotho-
rax in ultrasound-guided infraclavicular and supraclavicular
removable reminder to perform the checklist before the point
brachial plexus block. Anaesthesia. 2014;69:327-336.
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contrast in the interscalene space in healthy volunteers. Anesth
Analg. 2015;120:1138-1141.
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requires removal of the “STOP” sticker before the transducer of informed consent prior to epidural analgesia for labor and
can be applied. delivery. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2000;9:168-173.
Guinard JP, Mulroy MF, Carpenter RL, Knopes KD. Test doses: opti-
mal epinephrine content with and without acute beta-adrenergic
NYSORA’s RAPT Checklist blockade. Anesthesiology. 1990;73:386-392.
Hadzic A, Dilberovic F, Shah S, et al. Combination of intraneu-
Apply the RAPT method before every LA injection to rule ral injection and high injection pressure leads to fascicular
out a motor response (R; absent at 0.5 mA) to nerve stimu- injury and neurologic deficits in dogs. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
lation; and confirm negative aspiration (A) and low OIP 2004;29:417-423.
Hara K, Sakura S, Yokokawa N, Tadenuma S. Incidence and effects
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SUGGESTED READINGS Karmakar MK, Ho AM-H, Law BK, Wong ASY, Shafer SL, Gin T.
Arterial and venous pharmacokinetics of ropivacaine with and
Balocco AL, Kransingh S, Lopez A, et al. Wrong-side nerve blocks and without epinephrine after thoracic paravertebral block.
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9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
7 Indications for Peripheral
Nerve Blocks
functional monitoring is important, distal peripheral nerve

Introduction blocks that are devoid of motor block can be very useful to
Peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs) are an important component monitor and ensure the desired functional outcome.
in multimodal strategies for acute pain management. PNBs Hemidiaphragmatic paralysis is one of the most common,
can be used as a sole anesthetic modality or as an adjunct to transient adverse effects of proximal brachial plexus techniques,
neuraxial or general anesthesia. The use of regional anesthe- such as interscalene or supraclavicular blocks. It causes a tran-
sia confers many well documented clinical benefits. The wide sient decline in respiratory function of approximately 20%,
availability of point-of-care ultrasound in clinical practice and which is caused by the spread of local anesthetic under the
the ubiquitous use of rapid recovery protocols increased the cervical fascia and toward the phrenic nerve, and/or proximal
indications and utility of PNBs. A number of new regional spread of the LA towards C3-C5. Alternative approaches to
anesthesia techniques have been introduced to facilitate early proximal brachial plexus blocks should be selected in patients
mobilization after surgery. The newer techniques tend to with severe pre existing respiratory dysfunction who could not
target specific distal sensory branches to decrease motor tolerate such a decline in respiratory function.
blockade. As an example, several truncal fascial plane blocks
have been proposed as an alternative to epidural analgesia to
avoid unwanted effects after thoracic and abdominal proce- Lower Extremity Blocks
dures (e.g., postural hypotension, motor weakness).
The proper choice of nerve blocks for specific procedures Achieving complete anesthesia of the lower extremity
is essential for success. This chapter aims to provide guid- with nerve blocks is more challenging than with the upper
ance in decision-making for common clinical indications. extremity. This is because the innervation for the lower
Contraindications to PNBs are discussed in Table 7-1. extremity is provided by both lumbar and the sacral plexuses.
Perioperative management protocols for patients having Therefore, a combination of blocks is often required for
orthopedic surgical procedures are listed as an example for complete anesthesia or analgesia. Table 7-3 lists common
clinical context.
TABLE 7-1 Contraindications to

Upper Extremity Blocks Peripheral Nerve Blocks
Regional anesthesia can be used as the main anesthesia and
ABSOLUTE RELATIVE
analgesia modality for many surgical procedures on the
upper extremity because the brachial plexus innervates the Patient refusal Uncooperative or agitated
entire upper extremity. The level (proximal-distal) at which patient
the brachial plexus is blocked can be tailored to the specific Documented allergy to Vague history of allergy to
surgeries from the cervical roots to the distal peripheral multiple local anesthetics local anesthetic (typically
nerves. Table 7-2 lists common nerve block procedures and dental procedure)
their indications.
Choosing a PNB technique for the upper extremity Nerve/plexus trauma or History of neurologic deficits
requires consideration of the intraoperative and periopera- evolving neuropathy along the block distribution
tive needs germane to the surgical procedure. For example, Coagulopathy with deep Coagulopathy or use of
the anatomical site of the planned surgical procedure, the blocks, especially blocks anticoagulants for peripheral
need, and position of the tourniquet (arm or forearm) deter- close to the neuraxis perivascular blocks
mines selection of the regional anesthesia technique with the Infection at the site of
optimal sensory-motor block. Likewise, for tendon repair or injection
other functional restoration surgery where intraoperative

TABLE 7-2 Common Upper Extremity Blocks and Their Indications

PERIPHERAL
NERVE BLOCK INDICATIONS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Interscalene brachial • Shoulder surgery • Distal spread toward the • Hemidiaphragmatic paraly-
plexus block • Frozen shoulder supraclavicular nerves sis due to spread toward
mobilization • May spare the lower trunk the phrenic nerve
• Upper arm and humerus and partially preserve the • Complex plexus architecture
surgery mobility of the hand carries a higher risk
of transient neuropathies
compared to more distal
blocks
• Spares the lower trunk,
therefore not recom-
mended for surgery at the
elbow and below
• Side effects: Horner syn-
drome, recurrent laryngeal
nerve block
Supraclavicular brachial • Shoulder surgery (if the • Anesthesia of the whole • Hemidiaphragmatic paraly-
plexus block upper trunk is blocked) arm including the shoulder sis due to rostral spread
• Surgery of the arm, forearm, with a single block of the local anesthetic
and hand • Fast onset toward the phrenic nerve
(volume-dependent)
• Risk of pneumothorax and
vascular puncture
Shoulder block (suprascapular • Shoulder surgery • Phrenic nerve-sparing block • Adequate US imaging may
nerve + axillary nerve block) • Frozen shoulder • Effective analgesia to the be challenging in obese
mobilization anterior and posterior patients
shoulder capsule • The pectoral, musculocu-
taneous, and subscapular
nerves are not covered
Costoclavicular block • Shoulder surgery • Consistent block of the • Adequate US imaging may
(suprascapular block may three cords of the brachial be challenging in obese
be also needed) plexus patients
• Surgery of the arm • Phrenic nerve-sparing block • Requires a greater degree
(intercostobrachialis block of expertise
may be needed)
• Surgery of the forearm
and hand
Infraclavicular brachial • Surgery of the arm distal • Convenient for catheter • Adequate US imaging may
plexus block to the axilla placement be challenging in obese
• Less incidence of phrenic patients
nerve block • Deep block
• Less risk of pneumothorax • Requires a higher volume
than with supraclavicular of LA to block the three
approaches cords of the brachial plexus
• Intercostobrachial nerve
block may be needed

Indications for Peripheral Nerve Blocks CHAPTER 7 91
TABLE 7-2 Common Upper Extremity Blocks and Their Indications (Continued)
PERIPHERAL
Axillary brachial plexus block Surgery on the arm, elbow, • Superficial block • Requires abduction of the
or below • Compressible area in case arm to access the axilla
of anticoagulation • Requires more than one
• Suitable for bilateral blocks injection
• Higher infection risk
Median, ulnar, and radial Forearm, hand, and wrist • Preserves the function of • Separate blocks of each
nerve block (at the level surgery the elbow nerve required
of the elbow) • Selective nerve blocks are • Requires changes in arm
possible positioning to block the
• Superficial blocks radial, median, and ulnar
• Requires less LA dose and nerves
volume in comparison with • For complete anesthesia
other brachial plexus blocks of the forearm, additional
cutaneous nerve blocks
may be necessary
• Not suitable if the
procedure requires arm
tourniquet
Wrist block (distal block Hand surgery • Motor sparing (wrist and • Multiple needle insertions
of the median, ulnar, partially that of the fingers) needed
and radial nerves) • Allows functional intraop- • Cutaneous infiltration is
erative monitoring needed for incisions at the
• Superficial block level of the wrist
• Low volume of LA
• Fast onset
Abbreviations: LA, local anesthetic; US, ultrasound.
lower extremity blocks and practical considerations for complete and consistent surgical anesthesia and often pro-
their selection. longed postoperative analgesia.
Many surgical interventions involving the hip and knee
joints are performed under neuraxial anesthesia, combined
with nerve blocks for postoperative analgesia. This approach
Thoracic and Abdominal Wall Blocks
combines the best of the two worlds, where spinal anesthesia Ultrasound guidance increased the accuracy of thoracic and
is associated with better outcomes compared to general anes- abdominal landmark-based techniques, such as intercostal
thesia, whereas motor-sparing specific nerve blocks facilitate and paravertebral blocks. The use of ultrasound allows objec-
early mobilization and recovery. As an example, an ankle tive and precise identification of fascial planes, which led to
block has become a technique of choice in enhanced recov- the development of a number of new, fascial plane analgesia
ery after surgery (ERAS) protocols for ankle and foot surgery techniques. As a result, the use of truncal blocks is growing in
and is increasingly performed by blocking distal branches of multimodal analgesia protocols, particularly in patients hav-
the sciatic and saphenous nerves selectively. This provides ing thoracic and abdominal procedures (Table 7-4).

TABLE 7-3 Common Lower Extremity Blocks and Their Indications

PERIPHERAL
Lumbar plexus block • Postoperative analgesia for • Blocks all branches of the • Deep block, close to the
hip or knee surgery lumbar plexus innervating neuraxis, and technically
• Combined with a proximal the anterior aspect of the complex
sciatic nerve block: surgical hip, knee, and thigh • Risk/benefit ratio must be
anesthesia for procedures • Can be combined easily carefully considered
on the hip, thigh, and knee with spinal anesthesia with • Potential complications:
patients in the lateral or epidural spread, vascular
sitting position puncture, toxicity of LA, and
peritoneal or renal puncture
Fascia iliaca block • Analgesia for hip fractures • Consistent block of femoral • Requires high volumes of LA
and hip surgery and lateral femoral cutane- • Results in motor block with
• Analgesia for procedures ous nerves quadriceps weakness
on the anterior thigh • Superficial and technically
easy to perform
• Low risk for direct nerve
injury
Hip pericapsular block • Analgesia for primary hip • Targets sensory branches • Quality and duration
replacement or hip fractures innervating the anterior of analgesia inferior to
capsule of the hip joint that of fascia iliaca
• Preserves hip and quadri- • Risk of intra-articular
ceps function allowing early injection
mobilization • More evidence is needed to
• Technically easy to perform, define technical aspects of
with no need to identify the block (minimum effec-
the nerves tive volume, injection site
with respect to the psoas
tendon, etc.)
• Insufficient evidence of
efficacy
Femoral nerve block • Analgesia for hip fractures • Superficial block • Results in motor block with
• Postoperative analgesia for • Consistent analgesia. quadriceps paresis
hip or knee surgery
• Surgical anesthesia for
superficial procedures of the
anterior thigh, quadriceps
tendon, and patella
• Analgesia for tourniquet
pain on the thigh
Femoral triangle/adductor • Analgesia for knee surgery • Reduces motor block • Risk of partial quadriceps
canal block • Anesthesia and analgesia for associated with a femoral weakness (volume- and
procedures on the medial nerve block spread-dependent)
side of ankle/foot • Provides effective analgesia
of the anteromedial side of
the knee

TABLE 7-3 Common Lower Extremity Blocks and Their Indications (Continued)
PERIPHERAL
Genicular nerves block • Analgesia for the knee • Selective sensory block of • Incomplete analgesia
the knee without motor • Requires multiple injections
block around the knee
• Unpredictable spread
• Insufficient evidence of
efficacy
Posterior (transgluteal or • Surgical anesthesia for pro- • Complete block of the sci- • Deep blocks; adequate US
subgluteal sciatic block) cedures on the posterior atic nerve and the posterior imaging may be challenging
thigh and below the knee cutaneous nerve of the • Uncomfortable for patients
• Supplementary analgesia for thigh with the transgluteal • Requires lateral /prone
procedures on the hip and approach position
knee • Unilateral anesthesia • Extensive motor block
of the lower extremity in (knee, foot, and ankle)
combination with a femoral • Posterior cutaneous nerve of
nerve block the thigh not blocked with
the subgluteal approach
Anterior sciatic block • Supplementary analgesia • No need for lateral/prone • Deep block; adequate US
for procedures involving the position for block placement imaging may be challenging
posterior aspect of the knee • Convenient to combine • Uncomfortable for patients
• Anesthesia for procedures with femoral block
on the lower limb below
the knee
Popliteal sciatic nerve block • Surgical anesthesia for pro- • Single injection • Motor block below the knee
cedures on the leg below • Complete anesthesia/ (ankle and foot)
the knee, foot, and ankle analgesia below the knee
• Supplementary analgesia in combination with the
for procedures involving saphenous nerve block
the posterior aspect of • Superficial block, technically
the knee easy to perform
• Preserves the function of
the knee compared to
proximal sciatic blocks
• Can be done in the supine,
oblique, and prone positions
iPACK • Analgesia for the posterior • Selective sensory block of • Long needle trajectory
compartment of the knee the posterior knee without • US imaging of popliteal
motor block vessels and the sciatic nerve
can be difficult in obese
patients
Ankle block • Foot and toe surgery • Superficial location of the • Multiple injections needed
nerves around the ankle that can be uncomfortable
• Preserves the function of for the patient
the ankle allowing early
ambulation without
walking aids
Abbreviations: LA, local anesthetic; US, ultrasound.

TABLE 7-4 Common Thoracic and Abdominal Wall Blocks and Their Indications
PERIPHERAL
Paravertebral block • Analgesia for breast, tho- • Complete unilateral block • Deep block close to the
racic, and upper abdominal of the anterior and posterior neuraxis and pleura
surgery divisions of the targeted • Technically challenging
• Analgesia for rib fractures spinal nerve(s) • Risk for complications:
• Sympathetic chain block pneumothorax, epidural
spread, vascular puncture
• Multiple level punctures
may be required
Intercostal nerve block Analgesia for breast, • Complete block of a • Requires multiple injections
thoracic, and upper abdomi- segmental spinal nerve • Risk of pneumothorax
nal surgery (anterior and lateral • Risk of LA systemic toxicity
branches) with injections in multiple
• Landmarks are easy to find levels
• Abdominal visceral pain is
not covered
Pectoralis plane (Pecs) block • Surgical anesthesia for small • Superficial fascial plane • Does not include the
breast surgery and axillary block, technically easy to anterior branch of
lymph node dissection perform the intercostal nerve
• Supplementary analgesia • Can be performed in the • Unpredictable metameric
for breast surgery and sur- supine position extension of the block
gery on the anterolateral • Reduced risk of
thoracic wall pneumothorax
Serratus plane block • Supplementary analgesia • Superficial fascial plane • Does not block the anterior
for breast, thoracic, block cutaneous branch of the
or cardiac surgery • Reduced risk of intercostal nerve
• Analgesia for rib fractures pneumothorax • Variable metameric exten-
sion of the block
• Not adequate for posterior
rib fractures
Erector spinae block • Analgesia for rib fractures • Paraspinal fascial plane • Mechanism of action
• Supplementary analgesia block, technically easy unclear
for thoracic and upper to perform • Insufficient evidence sup-
abdominal surgeries • Effective analgesia of the porting efficacy for proce-
posterior thoracic wall dures on the anterolateral
thoracoabdominal wall and
lower extremities
• Injection in multiple levels
or a high volume of LA may
be required
Transversus abdominis plane • Supplementary analgesia • Superficial plane block • Variable metameric exten-
(TAP) block for abdominal procedures • Easy to perform in the sion of the block
supine position • Multiple injections and a
• The upper, middle, and high volume of LA may be
lower abdominal wall can required depending on
be specifically blocked with the areas of the abdominal
different approaches wall to be blocked

TABLE 7-4 Common Thoracic and Abdominal Wall Blocks and Their Indications (Continued)
PERIPHERAL NERVE
BLOCK INDICATIONS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Rectus sheath block • Supplementary analgesia • Superficial fascial plane • Variable metameric extent
for midline or periumbilical block of the block
abdominal incisions • Reliable block of the • Requires bilateral injections
perforating anterior for effective midline analgesia
cutaneous branches • Duration, extent, and quality
of the thoracoabdominal of analgesia can vary
nerves • Risk of puncture of the
epigastric vessels can lead
to hematoma formation in
the rectus sheath.
Quadratus lumborum block • Analgesia for the antero- • Block of the anterior rami • Variable metameric extent
(QLB 1,2, TQLB) lateral abdominal wall and of spinal nerves supplying of the block
parietal peritoneum the abdominal wall • Duration, extent, and quality
• Some variations of the • Different approaches of analgesia can vary
block aim to provide result in different analgesic • Adequate ultrasound
analgesia for lower patterns images are often
extremity procedures challenging to obtain
(most commonly with
deep variations of the
block, i.e., TQLB)
• Risk of kidney, liver, and/or
spleen injury
Rational and realistic selection of thoracoabdominal

block techniques for specific surgical indications based on
Perioperative Management Protocols
evidence or institutional experience is essential for clinically Effective analgesia is best accomplished with periopera-
relevant analgesia. The site of the surgery is the most rel- tive management pathways, designed to provide standard-
evant consideration as it determines the area required for ized and, wherever available, evidence-based care. Protocols
analgesia (posterior, lateral, or anterior wall) as well as the should consider patient and surgical factors as well as prac-
number of dermatomal levels that need to be covered by tical aspects such as departmental and hospital policies.
the analgesic intervention. Additional factors that should Efficient communication among the multidisciplinary team
be considered include any presence and location of drains members (i.e., surgeons, anesthesia practitioners nursing
and dressings and the need for the patient positioning for staff, physical therapy) is key to establish and evaluate the
the analgesic procedure. Bilateral multilevel blocks require effectiveness of such pathways. The protocols for the common
attention with regard to the total dose of LA. The frequent major orthopedic procedures outlined in this section are a
publications of novel fascial plane injections and their few examples that are based on the current recommendations
numerous modifications require careful consideration, expe- and accepted clinical practices in perioperative management
rience and scrutiny with regards to the efficacy, duration, (Figures 7-1 and 7-2).
and risk/benefit ratio of the different approaches. This is Table 7-5 lists some common surgical procedures with the
because the mechanism of action and realistic analgesic PNBs that are suitable for anesthesia and analgesia, as well as
benefit of some new techniques have not been established. other common analgesic options.

Preoperative goals Fasting Hip Arthroplasty

(Ideally 3-4 weeks before surgery) Clear fluids up to 2 h before surgery Preoperative Management
(Consider carbohydrate load)
Patient education and engagement
in pain management
Optimize medical and physical
Arrival to Preoperative checklist ASA monitoring and
conditions
block room and informed consent premedication (a)
Detect and correct anemia
according to patient blood
management protocol
Spinal anesthesia No Contraindications for Yes General anesthesia
(a) Premedication spinal anesthesia? (b)
Patient position:
• S-Ketamine (5 mg/mL) 5 mg Sitting or lateral decubitus
• Midazolam (1 mg/mL) 1-3 mg
Fast-track
(b) Contraindications for Block technique
Hyperbaric bupivacaine
spinal anesthesia
0.5% 8-10 mg
Absolute:
• Patient refusal Non fast-track
• Infection at planned injection Isobaric bupivacaine Non fast-track (d)
Fast-track (c)
site 0.5% 10-12 mg
• Coagulopathy
• Allergy to local anesthetics
Pericapsular hip block + lateral Fascia iliaca block
Relative:
femoral cutaneous nerve block (Suprainguinal)
• Uncooperative patient
• Pre-existing neurologic
injuries Local anesthetic Volume Local anesthetic Volume
• Pre-existing spinal Bupivacaine 0.5% 10+3 mL Bupivacaine 0.25% 25-30 mL
instrumentation
• Fixed cardiac output states
(e.g., Aortic stenosis, mitral Monitoring Equipment
stenosis) • Nerve stimulation @ 0.5 mA, • Linear (or curved) transducer
• Anatomical abnormalities 2 Hz, 0.1 ms • Needle 22G × 50-100 mm
of the spine • Injection pressure monitoring
• Ultrasound
(c) Fast-track (ambulation within Patient position
3 h after surgery) Supine
• ASA I-II
• Primary hip replacement
• Active lifestyle
(d) Non Fast-track
• ASA III-IV
• Limited ambulation (e.g.,
large BMI)
• Revision hip replacement
• Bilateral hip replacement
Hip Arthroplasty Postoperative Management

Intraoperative Management
Patient transfer to PACU
(a) ASA monitoring

Patient transfer to OR • O2 pulse oximetry Pain assessment
• ECG
• Blood pressure monitoring
• Capnometry (CO2) NRS ≥ 4
ASA monitoring (a)
(b) Antibiotic prophylaxis
• Cefazoline 2000 mg IV Morphine titration 2.5 mg
• In case of penicillin-allergy: (only as rescue medication
Clindamycin 600 mg IV – max dose 10 mg)
If spinal anesthesia General anesthesia (c) Blood loss prophylaxis

• Tranexamic acid 1.5 g Re-assess pain
Music therapy (if not contraindicated) after 10-15 min
and/or
(d) Intraoperative multimodal
Propofol TCI
analgesia
(titrate to RASS -2/-3)
• Paracetamol 1 g IV NRS < 4 NRS ≥ 4
• Ketorolac 30 mg IV
(e) Postoperative nausea and
Re-assess and transfer
vomiting prophylaxis
to ward, if stable
• Dexamethasone 4 mg IV
Intraoperative positioning • Ondansetron 4 mg IV
Oral intake
Contraindications of First 24 h
• Supine position • Oral fluids ASAP
• Control and protect pressure tranexamic acid • Food intake 1 h after
Multimodal analgesia
points • Hypersensitivity to TXA fluid intake
• Paracetamol 1 g IV/6 h
• Maintain normothermia • Severe renal impairment
• Ketorolac IV/8 h for 24 h Analgesia regime after oral
and normovolemia • History of seizures
• Dexamethasone 4 mg intake
• History of venous or arterial
IV/24 h • Paracetamol 1 g PO/6 h
thromboembolism or active
• Morphine (only as rescue • Tramadol Retard 100 mg
thromboembolic disease
Antibiotic (b) and medication) PO/12 h
• Vascular or valve endoprotesis
blood loss (c) prophylaxis Switch to oral medication • Tramadol Odis 50 mg
ASAP 5 L/6 h (only if breakthrough
pain: max/4 h)
Antibiotic prophylaxis • Diclofenac 75 mg PO/12 h
Start intraoperative Cefazoline 2 g IV/8 h × 24 h
multimodal analgesia (d) Clindamycin 600 mg IV/8 h
and PONV prophylaxis (e) if penicillin allergic
FIGURE 7-1. Perioperative protocol for hip arthroplasty used at NYSORA’s practice.

Preoperative goals Fasting Knee Arthroplasty

(Ideally 3-4 weeks before surgery) Clear fluids up to 2 h before surgery Preoperative Management
Patient education and engagement
in pain management
conditions
management protocol
spinal anesthesia? (b)
(a) Premedication Patient position:
Local anesthetic: Volume
Block technique
(b) Contraindications for Isobaric bupivacaine
spinal anesthesia 0.5% 10-12 mg
Absolute:
• Patient refusal Adductor canal or
• Infection at planned injection iPACK block
femoral nerve block
site
• Coagulopathy
• Allergy to local anesthetics Local anesthetic Volume Local anesthetic Volume
Relative: Bupivacaine 0.5% 10-15 mL Bupivacaine 0.25% 10-15 mL
• Pre-existing neuropathy Monitoring Equipment
• History of spinal • Nerve stimulation @ 0.5 mA • Linear (or curved) transducer
instrumentation • Injection pressure monitoring • Needle 22G × 50-100 mm
• Fixed cardiac output states • Ultrasound
(e.g., aortic stenosis, mitral
stenosis) Patient position
• Spinal stenosis Supine
Knee Arthroplasty Postoperative Management

(a) ASA monitoring

Patient transfer to OR • O2 pulse oximetry Pain assessment
• ECG
• Blood pressure monitoring
• Capnometry (CO2) NRS ≥ 4
ASA monitoring (a)
• Cefazoline 2000 mg IV Morphine titration 2.5 mg
• In case of penicillin-allergy: (only as rescue medication
Clindamycin 600 mg IV – max dose 10 mg)
If spinal anesthesia General anesthesia (c) Blood loss prophylaxis

• Tranexamic acid 1.5 g Re-assess pain
Music therapy (if not contraindicated) after 10-15 min
and/or
(d) Intraoperative multimodal
Propofol TCI
analgesia
(titrate to RASS -2/-3)
• Paracetamol 1 g IV NRS < 4 NRS ≥ 4
• Ketorolac 30 mg IV
(e) Postoperative nausea and
Start morphine PCA
vomiting prophylaxis
(for 48 h)
• Dexamethasone 4 mg IV
Intraoperative positioning • Ondansetron 4 mg IV
Contraindications of Re-assess and consider
• Supine position
tranexamic acid transfer to room
• Control and protect pressure
points • Hypersensitivity to TXA
• Severe renal impairment Oral intake Management in the first
• Maintain normothermia
• History of seizures • Fluids allowed after 3 24 h
and normovolemia
• History of venous or arterial postoperative hours Multimodal analgesia
thromboembolism or active • Oral intake allowed after • Paracetamol 1 g IV/6 h
thromboembolic disease 1 h of fluid intake and • Ketorolac IV/8 h for 24 h
Antibiotic (b) and • Vascular or valve endoprotesis according to patient • Dexamethasone 4 mg
blood loss (c) prophylaxis tolerance (start as soon IV/24 h
as possible) • Morphine PCA regime
Analgesia regime after oral (no basal rate,
intake on-demand bolus only)
Start intraoperative
• Paracetamol 1 g PO/6 h Switch to oral medication
multimodal analgesia (d)
• Tramadol Retard 100 mg according to tolerance
and PONV prophylaxis (e)
PO/12 h
• Tramadol Odis 50 mg Antibiotic prophylaxis
5 L/6 h (only if breakthrough Cefazoline 2 g IV/8 h × 24 h
pain: max/4 h) Clindamycin 600 mg IV/8 h
• Diclofenac 75 mg PO/12 h if history of penicillin
(NSAID) allergy
FIGURE 7-2. Perioperative protocol for knee arthroplasty used at Nysora’s practice.

TABLE 7-5 Summary of Block Indications for Common Surgical Procedures

ANATOMICAL AREA COMMON PROCEDURES BLOCK TYPE
Shoulder Total shoulder prosthesis • Interscalene block (single shot or catheter)
Frozen shoulder mobilization • Supraclavicular block
Rotator cuff repair • Shoulder block
• Costoclavicular block
Elbow Fractures • Supraclavicular block
Tendon repair • Costoclavicular block
• Infraclavicular block
• Axillary block
• +/– Cutaneous infiltration
Forearm Fractures • Supraclavicular block
Protheses • Infraclavicular block
Osteotomies • Costoclavicular block
• Axillary block
Wrist Carpal tunnel • Supraclavicular block
Hand Tendon repair • Axillary block
Prostheses • Selective peripheral nerve block at the level
Fractures of the elbow
Hand Carpal tunnel • Axillary block
Fingers Trigger finger • Selective peripheral nerve blocks at the level
of the forearm
• +/– Local infiltration
Thorax Mastectomy • Paravertebral block
Thoracotomy • Intercostal block
Device implantation • PECS block
Rib fractures • Serratus anterior block
• Erector spinae block
Abdomen Abdominal procedures • Transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block
Gynecological procedures • Quadratus lumborum (QLB) block
• Rectus sheath block
Hip Total hip • Fascia iliaca block
Hip fracture • Pericapsular hip block
Hip revision • Lumbar plexus block
Knee Total knee • Femoral nerve block
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) • Femoral triangle/adductor canal block
• Genicular nerves block
• iPACK
Ankle Arthrodesis • Popliteal block (single shot or catheter)
Arthroscopy • +/– Saphenous nerve block
Fractures
Tendon repair
Forefoot Hallux valgus • Popliteal block
Toes • +/– Saphenous nerve block
• Ankle block

SUGGESTED READINGS Hussain N, Ferreri TG, Prusick PJ, et al. Adductor canal block
versus femoral canal block for total knee arthroplasty:
Abdallah FW, Brull R, Joshi GP. Pain management for ambulatory a meta-analysis: What does the evidence suggest? Reg Anesth
arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: Pain Med. 2016;41:314-20.
evidence-based recommendations from the society for Kohring JM, Orgain NG. Multimodal analgesia in foot and ankle
ambulatory anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2019;128:631-40. surgery. Orthop Clin North Am. 2017;48:495-505.
Alain D, Philippe M, Clément C, Olivier R, Coppens S. Ultrasound- Korwin-Kochanowska K, Potié A, El-Boghdadly K, Rawal N,
guided ankle block: history revisited. Best Pract Res Clin Joshi G, Albrecht E. PROSPECT guideline for hallux valgus
Anaesthesiol. 2019;33:79-93. repair surgery: a systematic review and procedure-specific
Albrecht E, Chin KJ. Advances in regional anaesthesia and acute pain postoperative pain management recommendations. Reg Anesth
management: a narrative review. Anaesthesia. 2020;75:e101-10. Pain Med. 2020;45:702-8.
Albrecht E, Mermoud J, Fournier N, Kern C, Kirkham KR. Morrison C, Brown B, Lin DY, Jaarsma R, Kroon H. Analgesia and
A systematic review of ultrasound-guided methods for anesthesia using the pericapsular nerve group block in hip sur-
brachial plexus blockade. Anaesthesia. 2016;71:213-27. gery and hip fracture: a scoping review. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Børglum J, Gögenür I, Bendtsen TF. Abdominal wall blocks in 2020:1-7. doi:10.1136/rapm-2020-101826
adults. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2016;29:638-43. Park SK, Lee SY, Kim WH, Park HS, Lim YJ, Bahk JH. Comparison
El-Boghdadly K, Madjdpour C, Chin KJ. Thoracic paravertebral of supraclavicular and infraclavicular brachial plexus block: a
blocks in abdominal surgery —a systematic review of random- systemic review of randomized controlled trials. Anesth Analg.
ized controlled trials. Br J Anaesth. 2016;117:297-308. 2017;124:636-44.
Feigl GC, Litz RJ, Marhofer P. Anatomy of the brachial plexus and Polshin V, Petro J, Wachtendorf LJ, et al. Effect of peripheral nerve
its implications for daily clinical practice: regional anesthesia is blocks on postanesthesia care unit length of stay in patients
applied anatomy. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2020;45:620-7. undergoing ambulatory surgery: a retrospective cohort study.
Grape S, Kirkham KR, Baeriswyl M, Albrecht E. The analgesic effi- Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2021. doi:10.1136/rapm-2020-102231
cacy of sciatic nerve block in addition to femoral nerve block Steenberg J, Møller AM. Systematic review of the effects of fascia
in patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty: a systematic iliaca compartment block on hip fracture patients before
review and meta-analysis. Anaesthesia. 2016;71:1198-209. operation. Br J Anaesth. 2018;120:1368-80.
Guay J, Parker MJ, Griffiths R, Kopp S. Peripheral nerve Tran DQH, Elgueta MF, Aliste J, Finlayson RJ. Diaphragm-sparing
blocks for hip fractures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017; nerve blocks for shoulder surgery. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
5(5):CD001159. 2017;42:32-8.
Hussain N, Ghazaleh G, Ragina N, Banfield L, Laffey JG, Warfield DJ Jr, Barre S, Adhikary SD. Current understanding of the
Abdallah FW. Suprascapular and interscalene block shoulder fascial plane blocks for analgesia of the chest wall: techniques
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9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
8 Continuous Peripheral
Nerve Blocks
Guzeldemir reported using US to place an axillary brachial

Introduction plexus catheter. By the late 1990s, ambulatory CPNBs gained
The analgesic efficacy of single-injection peripheral nerve popularity. Relatively small, light, and inexpensive portable infu-
blocks (PNBs) is limited to 8 to 24 hours. A longer duration sion pumps permitted infusion of local anesthetics through the
of analgesia is often desirable, but the options are limited. perineurally placed catheters in hospital and outpatient settings.
For the interscalene brachial plexus block, liposome bupiva- Equipment for continuous perineural infusion has evolved
caine (Exparel) has been approved by the US Food and Drug from a simple cork stabilizing a delivery needle, to a catheter
Administration (FDA) as single-injection analgesia for up to sheath advanced over a needle stylet, to epidural-type cath-
72 hours. As of April 2021, Exparel is now also approved in eters threaded through stimulating needles. Stimulating
EU for interscalane and femoral nerve blocks as well. A longer catheters were introduced in an attempt to improve the
duration of analgesia can also be accomplished with a contin- accuracy of the placement of the catheter tip, although this
uous infusion of local anesthetic (LA) via a perineurally placed technology has been largely phased out with the wider use of
catheter. This method requires a high degree of skill and man- ultrasound to document the catheter tip placement and local
agement, but the equipment is usually available worldwide. anesthetic spread.
Continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) are utilized for Whatever the technique or method of insertion, catheters
a wide variety of indications, most typically for anesthesia are always placed within a tissue space that contains the
or analgesia in an increasing number of clinical indications, plexus or nerve(s) of interest (Figure 8-1). Patient selection
also as fascial sheath catheters (e.g., pectoralis, erector spinae
infusions). The majority of reported applications of CPNBs
relate to the treatment of perioperative pain. While there are
reports on their new applications, many of the increasing
numbers of proposed catheter infusions lack clear evidence-
based information on their efficacy.
History and Background of

Continuous Peripheral Nerve Blocks
The practice of continuous perineural analgesia has devel-
oped in parallel with technological advances over nearly
70 years’ time. Methods for identification of the catheter
target have included anatomic landmarks, paresthesias, elec-
trical stimulation, fluoroscopy, and ultrasound (US). Con-
tinuous peripheral nerve blockade was described as early as
1946 by Ansbro. A series of patients having upper extremity
surgeries received a cork-stabilized needle at the supraclavic-
ular level of the brachial plexus. Other early reports include a
similar practice in 1950 by Humphries. In 1951, Sarnoff et al.
reported placement of a polyethylene tube advanced through
an insulated needle placed adjacent to a peripheral nerve
using electrical stimulation. By 1995, continuous perineu- FIGURE 8-1. The general concept of catheter insertion:
ral catheters were being inserted using multiple modalities. After successful needle placement into the tissue plane that
Pham-Dang et al. described fluoroscopy-guided catheter contains the nerve, the catheter is inserted through the nee-
placement adjacent to the brachial plexus within the axilla. dle tip for infusion and/or boluses of local anesthetic.

for perineural catheters has also evolved from hospitalized catheter may also be valuable in patients who do not toler-
patients only to perineural infusions on outpatient basis at ate other analgesic regimens. Frequently reported indications
patients’ homes to facilitate earlier discharge from the hospital. are in patients with vascular pathology and include sympa-
Continuous techniques are nowadays used in a wide variety thectomy/vasodilation after vascular accidents or embolism,
of patient populations, ranging from pediatric, pregnant, digit replantation, limb salvage, and treatment of the Rayn-
geriatric patients, to otherwise healthy ambulatory patients aud phenomenon. In the combat trauma setting, continuous
to critically ill. perineural infusions have been described during transport
Klein et al. at Duke University were among the first inves- to a treatment center. Continuous infusions have also been
tigators to objectively quantify the benefits of LA infusion. described for chronic painful conditions such as phantom
In a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study of limb pain, complex regional pain syndrome, cancer pain,
patients having open shoulder surgery, an interscalene cath- preoperative pain control, and trigeminal neuralgia.
eter was placed under electrical stimulation guidance and
the patients received a postoperative infusion of either ropi-
vacaine 0.2% or normal saline at 10 mL/h via a disposable Contraindications
elastomeric pump for up to 23 hours. Pain scores were lower Contraindications to CPNB include infection at the catheter
in the ropivacaine infusion group, averaging 1 (of 10) com- insertion site and allergy to LAs. Additional relative contra-
pared with 3 for subjects receiving perineural saline. Their indications are coagulopathy, preexisting neuropathy, need
results suggested benefit conferred by continuous perineu- for postoperative neurovascular examination, risk of falls,
ral infusion in the hospital postoperative setting. A report and inability to follow instructions for the infusion at home.
of a series of 70 outpatient catheter infusions by Rawal in Additional contraindications may be specific to the catheter
1998 sparked an interest in outpatient catheters. Data from location, for example, diaphragmatic paresis with intersca-
multiple follow-up, randomized, controlled studies involv- lene and supraclavicular catheters.
ing CPNBs in the outpatient setting subsequently affirmed
their efficacy. Consequently, outpatient catheters became a
common practice. Catheter Insertion and Management
Whatever the technique of insertion, catheters are always
placed within a tissue space that contains the plexus or
Patient Selection for Continuous nerve(s) of interest (see Figure 8-1). US guidance facilitates
Peripheral Nerve Blocks catheter placement and, especially, confirmation of the cathe-
ter location in the therapeutic location by detecting the spread
Indications of the local anesthetic injection in the therapeutic space.
Perineural catheters are typically indicated for management Several types of catheters are available for perineural use.
of acute perioperative pain of greater than 12 to 24 hours’ Two main designs are stimulating and nonstimulating cath-
duration that is expected to be difficult to control by tra- eters (Figure 8-2). A stimulating catheter conducts an electri-
ditional methods such as systemic analgesics. A perineural cal current to its tip, for confirmation of its location when US
A B
FIGURE 8-2. Examples of two perineural catheter designs: (A) an insulated needle and
stimulating catheter (StimuCath, Teleflex/Arrow, Reading, PA) and (B) an uninsulated
needle and nonstimulating catheter (FlexBlock, Teleflex/Arrow, Reading, PA).

Continuous Peripheral Nerve Blocks CHAPTER 8 103
documented earlier achievement of joint mobilization goals,

TABLE 8-1 Management Strategies higher patient satisfaction, and earlier discharge from the
and Local Anesthetics for hospital. However, the use of the catheter should not exclude
Most Catheters the concurrent multi-modal analgesia regimens. This is
because many surgical sites such as the knee or hip are inner-
Management Strategies vated by multiple nerves; thus even with a functional CPNB,
1. Bolus 5-10 mL multimodal analgesia is required.
2. Continuous infusion 5 mL/h The location of the catheter and surgical site will influence
the degree of the analgesia and opioid-sparing benefit. Cov-
3. Patient-controlled bolus 5 mL/qh erage of the entire surgical site within the sensory distribu-
Common Local Anesthetics tion of the target nerve typically provides the most complete
analgesia. For this reason, shoulder (interscalene catheter)
1. Bupivacaine 0.075-0.125%
and foot procedures (popliteal sciatic catheter) are particu-
2. Ropivacaine 0.1-0.2% larly amenable to regional anesthesia. Infraclavicular cathe-
ters have also been validated by randomized controlled trials.
However, providing adequate analgesia at this location often
is not used or available. Nonstimulating catheters are typi- requires a relatively high dose of LA, which may lead to an
cally advanced either “blindly” or under US monitoring. insensate arm or fingers.
The insertion of a perineural catheter under US guid-
ance consists of five steps:
1. Placement of the needle in the perineural (therapeutic) Risks
space When compared to single-injection blocks, continuous tech-
2. Injection of LA to confirm the location of the needle tip niques appear to have a similar frequency of complications.
and “open the space” for the catheter Most of the side-effects and complications are relatively minor
and include hematoma formation, infection, or neurologic
3. Insertion of the catheter about 5 cm beyond the catheter tip
injury. Also, catheters may be unintentionally inserted into
4. Injection of LA to confirm the therapeutic location of the the intravascular, epidural, intrathecal, or intraneural spaces.
catheter tip Although infectious complications are not common, catheter
5. Securing the catheter to prevent withdrawal colonization is common and occurs in 29% to 58% of patients.
Neurologic complications are a rare but serious complication
While it is important to insert the catheter deep enough
of any regional technique. It is difficult to attribute the con-
to prevent its withdrawal, too deep insertion of a catheter
tribution of the surgical procedure, patient positioning, the
may increase the risk of catheter knotting requiring surgical
single-injection block, or the catheter/infusion. The inci-
excision. Most reports of difficulties with catheter removal
dence of transient neurologic symptoms after a continuous
are reported with stimulating catheters. This is because the
technique has been reported from 0% to 1.4%. Long-last-
coiled wire tip may be prone to fibrin fixation to the tis-
ing (greater than 6 weeks) neurologic symptoms have been
sues, resulting in adhesion. The risk of catheter knotting
reported at a rate of 0.2% in one large study of 3500 catheters.
may be higher with insertion deeper than 5 cm beyond the
Catheters may unintentionally dislodge, occlude,
needle tip.
break, or be retained and difficult to remove. Catheter
Common catheter management strategies are outlined in
dislodgement from the therapeutic location is relatively
Table 8-1. More recently, an automatic, pump-programmed
common, and the most limiting factor to their clini-
bolus of LAs has been introduced. Such programmed injec-
cal utility. The dislodgement is dependent on the inser-
tions are suggested to reduce the need for patient participa-
tion site (superficial location more common), insertion
tion and the need to activate the bolus function. Essential to
technique, and length of the indwelling catheter in the
the understanding of the need for a bolus is the fact that the
therapeutic space. A recent study in healthy volunteers
catheter location cannot be controlled and can change during
reported that up to 25% of femoral catheters may dislodge
the treatment. Therefore, the use of a bolus function is for
from their original intended location. Troubleshooting
the purpose of assuring that the LA reaches the target nerves
of catheters with suspected dislodgement is explained in
through the tissue planes with a large volume even when the
Figure 8-3.
catheter is not in an ideal therapeutic position.
Generally, catheter failure can be classified as: (1) primary
failure where the catheter is not placed in the therapeutic posi-
tion during the procedure, or (2) secondary failure where the
Benefits properly placed catheter eventually dislodges and migrates
Well-documented benefits from perineural catheters are from the therapeutic position.
mostly related to better analgesia and opioid sparing, Falls can occur, especially with CPNBs of the lower extrem-
which decreases opioid adverse effects. Studies have also ity, so prevention strategies are required. A pooled analysis of

FIGURE 8-3. Management of a catheter with suspected dislodgement. LA, local anesthetic; PCRA, patient-controlled
regional analgesia.

Continuous Peripheral Nerve Blocks CHAPTER 8 105
several studies suggests an increased association of falls with Guzeldemir ME, Ustunsoz B. Ultrasonographic guidance in placing
continuous femoral/psoas compartment blocks after knee or a catheter for continuous axillary brachial plexus block.
Anesth Analg. 1995;81:882-883.
hip arthroplasty.
Hauritz RW, Hannig KE, Balocco AL, et al. Peripheral nerve catheters:
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2019;33:325-339.
SUMMARY Humphries S. Brachial plexus block; report on 350 cases. BMJ.
1950;21:163.
A CPNB or perineural LA infusion is an effective and well Ilfeld BM, Duke KB, Donohue MC. The association between
established method to extend the effects of a single-injection lower extremity continuous peripheral nerve blocks and
patient falls after knee and hip arthroplasty. Anesth Analg.
technique by the placement of a perineural catheter and LA 2010;111:1552-1554.
infusion. Accurate indications and careful patient selection Ilfeld BM, Fredrickson MJ, Mariano ER. Ultrasound-guided perineu-
and education are crucial for both inpatient and ambulatory ral catheter insertion: three approaches but few illuminating data.
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concentration and dose on continuous infraclavicular nerve
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improving analgesia and opioid-sparing effects. The adverse study. Anesth Analg. 2009;108:345-350.
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plications are rarely reported. phantom limb pain with ambulatory continuous peripheral
It is likely that the use of the catheters in the future will be nerve blocks: a pilot study. Pain Med. 2013;14(6):935-942.
Ilfeld BM, Morey TE, Enneking FK. Infraclavicular perineural local
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Local Anesthetic Systemic
9 Toxicity and Allergy
to Local Anesthetics
where the injection is made. Clearly, higher doses of LA will

Introduction yield higher plasma levels of LAs, independent of where the
Local anesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST) and allergy to local injection takes place.
anesthetics (LAs) are potentially life-threatening complica- LAs exert their inhibitory action on nerve conduction
tions of regional anesthesia. by inhibiting the movement of ions through voltage-gated
The most common causes of LAST are the administration ionotropic channels at the level of the cell membrane (refer
of an excessive dose of LAs, accidental intravascular injec- to Chapter 2). The primary therapeutic target of LAs is the
tions, and the rapid absorption from tissue injection sites. voltage-gated sodium channel where inhibition alters the
Fortunately, incidence of LAST has decreased in recent years. transmission of sensory and motor signals in axons. In addi-
This can be attributed to the use of ultrasound (US) to moni- tion to the voltage-gated sodium channel, LAs also inhibit
tor the administration of nerve blocks, lower doses of LAs voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, K+ channels, the Na-K ATPase,
with ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia, and the imple- and other channels and enzymes. This inhibition occurs
mentation of safety checklists. It is estimated that approxi- from the intracellular side and requires LAs to cross the
mately 1.8/1000 of the patients receiving a peripheral nerve lipid bilayer first as unbound, non-ionized free molecules.
block (PNB) may develop LAST. However, in one report, no At lower concentrations, LAs block protein kinase signaling
severe cardiac toxicity was reported in 12,666 patients who induced by tumor necrosis factor α. At higher concentra-
received an ultrasound-guided PNB. tions, LAs can inhibit other channels, enzymes, and recep-
Allergy to LAs is uncommon. Most symptoms after LA tors, including the carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase in the
injection are misintrepreted as an allergic reaction. Sympa- mitochondria.
thetic stimulation, vasovagal syncope, or even LAST may Cardiovascular toxicity is likely caused by the combi-
be confused for an allergic reaction. True allergy occurs in nation of electrophysiologic and contractile dysfunction.
less than 1% of all LA adverse reactions and is an immune- Bupivacaine is lipophilic and has a greater affinity for the
mediated response triggered by the LA molecule and/or its voltage-gated sodium channels, resulting in its uniquely high
preservative compounds (metabisulphite or methylparaben). cardiotoxic profile. With bupivacaine, toxicity can occur at
Both allergic and nonallergic adverse reactions require appro- lower serum concentrations because it can accumulate in the
priate treatment. mitochondria and cardiac tissue at a ratio of about 6:1 (or
This chapter will focus on the prevention, mechanisms, and greater) relative to plasma.
treatment of LAST and allergy to LAs. The chapter includes
also a practical algorithm for the evaluation and management
of patients with suspected allergy to LAs. Special Populations and the Risk of
Local Anesthetic Systemic Toxicity
In this section, we discuss the populations at higher risk of
Mechanisms of LAST LAST, underlying pathophysiology, and suggested dosing
LAs are generally safe and effective in therapeutic doses for modifications.
tissue infiltration, fascial planes, or near a nerve/plexus of
nerves. However, supratherapeutic plasma levels of LAs can
result in LAST. High plasma concentration of LAs can be the
Newborns
result of accidental venous/arterial puncture, intravascular LA molecules unbound to plasma proteins diffuse freely
injection, or rapid vascular absorption from the injection site. through membranes and are responsible for the toxic effect
Plasma levels of LAs are proportional to the rate of systemic of LAs. Therefore, low plasma protein level states (i.e., mal-
absorption from the site of therapy. The rate of absorption nutrition, or patients with lower levels of alpha-1-acid gly-
varies among tissues, and it is often determined by the size of coprotein such as infants) are at higher risk for LAST. The
the absorptive surface and vascularization of the tissue planes elimination half-life of amide LAs in neonates is prolonged

by two- to three-fold. Compared to adults, newborns may Renal Disease

not completely metabolize some LAs and have a higher
unchanged drug excretion in urine. LAs and their metabolites are excreted primarily by the kid-
For example, in premature neonates, 43% of mepivacaine neys. A decline in renal function may alter LA pharmacoki-
is excreted unchanged in the urine, compared to 3.5% in netic profile. Although renal excretion of lidocaine is a minor
adults. Lidocaine also has a prolonged elimination half-life part of its elimination, renal failure also indirectly influ-
in neonates; 20% of lidocaine is excreted unchanged in the ences LA disposition kinetics. Ropivacaine and its metabo-
urine (4% in adults). This is due to the immature hepatic lites, 3-hydroxyropivacaine and pipecoloxylidide, are mainly
enzyme system unable to fully metabolize mepivacaine and excreted in urine, leading to reduced plasmatic clearance of
lidocaine in the newborn. A dose reduction of 15% in infants ropivacaine. Enhanced LA absorption and increased bind-
below 4 months of age receiving large doses of LAs is there- ing to serum α1-AG along with reduced urinary excretion of
fore recommended. the metabolites also increase total plasma concentrations in
patients with renal failure. Patients who are also uremic with
metabolic acidosis may have higher free lidocaine and bupi-
Elderly Patients
vacaine plasma concentrations.
Aging is associated with many physiological changes in tis-
sues and organ systems, affecting the metabolism and phar-
macokinetic profile of LAs. Neuronal sensitivity is increased,
Liver Disease
resulting from an age-dependent decline in neuron popula- Hepatic dysfunction decreases the clearance of aminoamide
tion within the spinal cord and a slower conduction velocity LAs. After intravenous (IV) administration, ropivacaine has
in the peripheral nerves. been found to have a 60% lower clearance in liver transplanta-
Elderly patients have a higher proportion of body fat tion candidates. Interestingly, these patients may have lower
with decreases in total body water, muscle, and lean body peak plasma concentrations of LAs than their healthy coun-
mass. As a result, lipophilic drugs have a higher volume terparts due to an increased Vd. Hepatic insufficiency does
of distribution (Vd). The implications of these changes not appear to affect the peak ropivacaine plasma concentra-
in body composition are extensive re distribution and a tion after single-shot regional anesthesia techniques. There-
longer elimination half-life of lipophilic drugs. A greater fore, a reduction in LA doses for single-shot techniques does
pharmacological effect, especially after repeated or con- not appear to be necessary. However, steady-state plasma rop-
tinuous dosing, is expected. These changes in patients with ivacaine concentrations are more than doubled in end-stage
advanced age make them prone to unexpectedly higher liver disease, and the half-life is significantly prolonged (up
peak drug concentrations following rapid bolus injections to four times that of healthy subjects). Despite larger volumes
or infusions. of distribution for lidocaine, mean plasma clearance has been
Elderly patients may also have low albumin concentra- found to be reduced and slower phase half-life appears longer
tions and suboptimal nutritional states. Alpha 1-acid gly- in advanced alcoholic liver disease patients. Caution should
coprotein (α1-AG) is the most important plasma protein be exerted when using intermittent bolus/infusions of LAs for
involved with the binding of circulating weak bases such as continuous regional anesthesia in end-stage liver disease. A
LAs. In contrast, acidic drugs more likely bind to albumin reduction of up to 10% to 50% is recommended to decrease
in serum; however, albumin has a greater binding capacity the accumulation of LAs and its metabolites in the blood.
than α-1AG. At lower LA plasma concentrations, α1-AG is
the main binding protein, whereas albumin plays the major
binding role at high concentrations, such as would be with
Heart Failure
cardiovascular system (CVS) toxicity. Therefore, hypoalbu- Patients with heart failure are at increased risk for LAST due to
minemia in the elderly reduces the plasma binding capacity reduced hepatic perfusion, reduced clearance, and elevated LA
of highly protein-bound LAs such as bupivacaine. Unlike tissue concentrations due to the slower circulation time. Not
albumin, α1-AG concentration is normally not affected by surprisingly, higher LA plasma levels, reduced Vd, and reduc-
advanced age. In addition, a decline in glomerular filtration tion in plasma clearance of IV lidocaine has been reported.
rate (GFR) and renal function with age is an important fac- Hepatic dysfunction due to passive congestion/increased cen-
tor in pharmacokinetics. As a consequence, metabolites that tral venous pressure is common in patients with right-sided
are primarily eliminated via the renal system have a longer heart failure; congestive hepatomegaly may further impair
half-life and reach higher peak levels. liver function. Moreover, decreased albumin synthesis and
A reduction of hepatic blood flow and a steady decline hypoalbuminemia increase the free fraction of LAs in plasma.
in liver weight and enzyme activity are also common in Patients with heart failure have a higher risk of LA-toxicity-
the elderly. Age-related effects on phase I reactions reduce related arrhythmias partly as a result of action potential pro-
the metabolic rate of many drugs, such as amide LAs, that longation along with altered calcium and potassium channel
depend on the liver for elimination. The aforementioned function. The choice of less-cardiotoxic LAs where possible is
changes warrant a reduction in 10% to 20% of LA doses in recommended. The dosages used for repeated doses or con-
the elderly. tinuous infusion of LAs should be reduced by 10% to 20%.

Local Anesthetic Systemic Toxicity and Allergy to Local Anesthetics CHAPTER 9 109
Pregnancy depression that can progress to coma and respiratory arrest.

It is important to understand that the aforementioned symp-
Physiological changes during pregnancy account for an toms can be present in any combination and can progress
increased risk of LAST. Pregnancy is associated with hor- very rapidly. Almost 40% of LAST cases present as a sudden,
monally mediated increased sensitivity of Na+ channels to rapid-onset seizure, progressing to cardiac arrest. With large
LA blockade. Increased cardiac output in pregnancy can LA doses or direct intravascular injection, the CNS symp-
alter systemic uptake of LAs from the injection sites. Epi- toms may be absent and the first manifestation could be CVS
dural venous plexus engorgement may increase the risk of toxicity (11%).
an intravascular needle or catheter placement. Vascular CVS toxicity during LAST is characterized by cardiac
puncture occurs in as many as 15% of epidural anesthet- conduction anomalies, cardiac contractility impairment,
ics in parturients. Pregnancy-related decreases in protein and a reduction in systemic vascular resistance. Early-onset
binding corresponding to decreases in α-1-glycoprotein electrocardiographic alterations include PR and QTc pro-
and albumin increase the free fraction of LAs progressively longation. Alterations in QRS (bundle branch blocks) and
throughout gestation and may further increase the sensi- ST intervals can also be observed, with/without refrac-
tivity of LAs in the parturient, especially in the third tri- tory brady/tachyarrhythmias. Depression of spontaneous
mester. Increased levels of beta-estradiol and progesterone pacemaker activity can rapidly lead to high-degree AV
increase the risk of cardiotoxicity of LAs through altera- blocks or even asystole. Cardiogenic shock and refractory
tions in the rate of depolarization. Increased susceptibility hypotension may ensue as a result of cardiac contractility
to LAST due to the aforementioned changes during preg- impairment and vasomotor control disturbances, caused by
nancy warrants a risk-benefit evaluation and dose reduc- peripheral vascular ion-channel alterations. Early cardio-
tion for high volume blocks. vascular toxicity at low concentrations may increase sys-
temic vascular resistance and hypertension, although with
higher concentrations a significant decrease in systemic
Symptoms and Diagnosis vascular resistance is predominant.
To effectively diagnose and treat an event of LA toxicity, it is
important to maintain a high degree of suspicion during the
performance of any procedure that involves the use of LAs.
Prevention
Likewise, noninvasive blood pressure, electrocardiography, Prevention is the most important aspect and should include
and pulse oximetry should be used to monitor all patients the systematic implementation of a checklist for each
during and after completing any regional anesthetic proce- regional anesthesia procedure. At NYSORA we use the mne-
dure. An episode of LAST can occur immediately at the time monic RAPT as the checklist for safety during the block pro-
of injection (accidental intravascular injection) or up to an cedure: Response (motor), Aspiration, Pressure (low), and
hour after it (due to delayed tissue absorption). When large Total LA volume injected. These steps, when combined, may
volumes or toxic doses of LAs have been used, monitoring increase the safety of nerve block techniques. Additionally,
must be continued for at least 30 to 45 minutes after the injec- it is important to be mindful of the high-risk population
tion. Additionally, in patients who present any signs of LAST, for LAST.
prolonged monitoring (2-6 hours) is recommended because
cardiovascular depression due to LAs can persist or recur
Limiting Intravascular Injection
after treatment.
Another fundamental recommendation for the diagnosis
and Systemic Uptake
of LAST is to maintain frequent communication with the Current recommendations to reduce the risk of LAST are
patient for early detection of toxicity symptoms (perioral summarized in Table 9-1. US guidance during PNBs has
paresthesia, metallic taste, tinnitus, or altered mental status). significantly decreased the risk of LAST by monitoring the
The central nervous system (CNS) is more sensitive to LA deposition of the LA and allowing a reduction in the volume
toxicity than the CVS . Consequently, the CNS symptoms of LA used. In addition, US is used to identify and avoid vas-
typically precede the CVS symptoms. LAs affect the balance cular structures during block performance.
between inhibitory and excitatory pathways in the CNS, Epinephrine is used as a marker for intravascular injec-
leading to variable neurological signs/symptoms. Rapid tion and to reduce peak plasma levels of LAs. An IV injec-
blockade of the voltage-gated sodium channels of inhibitory tion of 10 to 15 μg epinephrine produces detectable changes
cortical neurons in the CNS occurs first and accounts for in heart rate and blood pressure. An increase in heart rate
the excitatory manifestations initially characterizing LAST. greater than 10 beats per minute is suggestive for intravas-
Neurological symptoms include seizures (68%), agitation cular injection which should prompt the clinician to halt the
(11%), or loss of consciousness (7%). Many patients report injection. Using epinephrine in LA solutions can be par-
prodromal symptoms such as perioral paresthesia, metal- ticularly useful with fascial plane blocks that require larger
lic taste, and tinnitus. As plasma levels increase, excitatory volumes and doses of LAs (i.e., pectoralis or transversus
cortical neuron blockade occurs, leading to overall CNS abdominis plane blocks).

TABLE 9-1 Recommendations for Decreasing the Risk of LAST

Use ultrasound guidance for regional anesthesia procedures The injection should be paused when the spread of the local
where the equipment is available. anesthetic is not detected on ultrasound, as it may indicate
an intravascular injection.
Use the lowest effective dose of local anesthetics.
When performing large volume blocks (e.g., truncal blocks), lower the concentrations of local anesthetics and calculate
the dose based on the lean body weight.
Inject local anesthetic incrementally and use NYSORA’s Administer local anesthetic in 3-5 mL aliquots, pausing
mnemonic RAPT to prompt attention to aspiration and 15-30 seconds between each injection to re-ensure RAPT
total local anesthetic volume injected. checklist:
• Motor Response absent
• Aspiration negative for blood
• Opening injection Pressure <15 psi
• Be aware of the Total volume needed
Consider using epinephrine-containing local anesthetic Intravascular injection of epinephrine 10-15 μg/mL in adults
mixtures (i.e., if large volumes of local anesthetics will produces an increase in heart rate (≥10 beat/min) or increase
be used). in systolic blood pressure (≥15 mm Hg). Note: Assumes
the absence of β-blockade, active labor, advanced age,
or general/neuraxial anesthesia.
Be extra cautious (conservative) with the local anesthetic dose in patients with high risk of LAST (e.g., elderly, ill, lean body mass).
Be aware of the additive nature of local anesthetic toxicity when redosing.
Include local anesthetic dosing parameters as part of the pre-incisional surgical pause.
output by CPR is also important for lipid emulsion therapy

Management to reach the brain and heart.
As with most crisis scenarios in perioperative medicine, air- Early treatment of LAST with an intravascular infusion of
way management and oxygenation are paramount in the a 20% lipid emulsion is suggested to reduce peak levels of LAs
management of LAST (Figure 9-1). Oxygen administration and decrease the chance of progression to cardiovascular col-
should be started early because hypoxia potentiates LA toxic- lapse. Lipid emulsion therapy should be started at the very
ity. Likewise, to ensure oxygenation and prevent respiratory first sign of arrhythmia, prolonged seizures, or rapid clini-
acidosis, airway management is crucial. Seizures should be cal deterioration. The doses and administration of the lipid
rapidly controlled with the administration of a first-line agent emulsion therapy are described in the LAST management
such as a benzodiazepine. A small dose of propofol, titrated to algorithm shown in Figure 9-1.
avoid hypotension, is also acceptable. Muscle relaxants may
be used for intubation and to stop the muscle contractions of
the convulsions. Convulsions cause metabolic acidosis and LAST-Specific Cardiopulmonary
hypoxemia and increase LA toxicity.
Block of inotropic and cardiac conduction ion channels
Resuscitation
by LAs can result in cardiovascular collapse, which should LAST is a medical emergency that must be managed some-
be addressed promptly after securing oxygenation and ven- what differently from conventional CPR because toxic
tilation. The impending cardiovascular collapse can initially cardiomyopathy is pathophysiologically different from
manifest as worsening tachycardia, bradycardia, or new heart other causes of cardiovascular system collapse. During
block. If the progression continues to cardiac arrest, cardio- LAST-specific CPR, the initial priority is immediate air-
pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) with chest compressions way management to prevent hypoxia and respiratory and
should immediately start, because the reduction of toxic tis- metabolic acidosis, which potentiate and increase toxicity.
sue concentrations of LAs in the brain and heart is dependent Secondly, taking into account that potentiation mecha-
on cerebral and coronary blood flow. Maintaining cardiac nisms are related to an increased free fraction of LAs and/or

SYMPTOMS of LAST following local anesthetic injection
• Tinnitus • Bradycardia
• Sudden altered mental status • Conduction block
• Loss of consciousness • Asystole
• Seizures • Ventricular tachyarrhythmias
Stop injection and call for help
Support the airway

Start lipid emulsion therapy Prevent: hypoxia,
hypercapnia, and acidosis.
• Ventilate with 100% oxygen
• Avoid hyperventilation
• Secure airway
>70 kg <70 kg
Start cardiovascular support

Bolus 100 mL Bolus 1.5 mL/kg
• Treat hypotension and bradycardia
over 2-3 min over 2-3 min
• Reduce epinephrine boluses
<1 µg/kg
• DO NOT GIVE:
Continue infusion of
Continue infusion of vasopressin, beta-blockers,
0.25 mL/kg/min
200-250 mL calcium channel blocker,
(using ideal body
over 15-20 min or lidocaine
weight)
And/or
STOP the seizures

Re-assess • Benzodiazepines
If patient remains unstable: administer 1.5 mL/kg • DO NOT give propofol in
again once or twice and increase double the large doses (hypotension)
infusion rate. Maximum dose is 12 mL/kg.
FIGURE 9-1. Algorithm for the management of local anesthetic systemic toxicity.
worsening of the cardiac function, successful treatment When indicated, epinephrine may be used but in smaller
seeks to effectively moderate or reverse the mechanisms doses (≤1 μg/kg) than in a generic CPR to avoid impaired
underlying the LA toxicity. This means reducing the free pulmonary gas exchange and increased afterload. Also, lido-
LA concentration below a threshold that corresponds to ion caine should be avoided as antiarrhythmic therapy in LAST.
channel blocking concentrations. The importance of effec- Instead, amiodarone is the first choice for ventricular fibrilla-
tive CPR in this setting is then to ensure that coronary per- tion/pulseless ventricular tachycardia that is unresponsive to
fusion is sufficient to reduce LA tissue levels and ensure the CPR, defibrillation, and vasopressor therapy. Procainamide
maximum benefit of lipid infusion. is not recommended for the treatment of stable, wide-QRS

tachycardia. Vasopressin is not recommended for use as it Type IV reactions are the most common type of allergic
has been associated with adverse outcomes and pulmonary reaction mediated by LAs. This involves cellular immunity
hemorrhage in animal models. Likewise, calcium channel where T cells are sensitized to the LAs during the first expo-
blockers and beta-blockers should also be avoided. sure, and no antibodies are produced. The second exposure
LAST may require prolonged CPR because LAST is a to the LAs will make the T-lymphocytes release lymphokines
reversible cause of cardiac arrest when proper management is that induce inflammatory reactions and activate macro-
followed. Depending on availability, venoarterial extracorpo- phages to release inflammatory mediators. This process will
real membrane oxygenation during cardiac arrest (including result in contact dermatitis.
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and cardiopulmo- As described in Chapter 2, LAs can be classified, based
nary bypass) may be indicated in cases of refractory cardiac on their chemical structure, as esters or amides. The
arrest to decrease the levels of LAs through redistribution, p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a metabolite formed during the
metabolism, and elimination. degradation process of ester LAs in plasma, has strong aller-
genic properties, and, therefore, esters (i.e., chloroprocaine
and tetracaine) are more likely to cause allergic reactions than
Lipid Therapy: Mechanism amides. However, preservative compounds such as methyl-
Intravascular lipid infusion may work through scaveng- paraben used in amides and esters, have structural similarities
ing and non scavenging effects. Scavenging effects occur to para-aminobenzoic acid and can elicit allergic reactions.
after the initial IV administration of a large lipid emulsion Sulfites, stabilizing agents used in the presence of vasocon-
therapy bolus, which creates a lipid-soluble compartment stricting additives, can also trigger hypersensitivity reactions.
in the blood. This compartment provides a medium for the When an allergic reaction to LAs is detected, it is important
redistribution of lipophilic LAs from the sensitive-to-toxicity to test for cross-reactivity with the other type of LAs (ester or
organs, such as the brain, heart, and kidney, to organs that amide). True cross-reactivity between esters and amides does
serve as storage and metabolizers (i.e., muscle, adipose tissue, not exist and is therefore related to preservative compounds or
liver). This mechanism has been considered by some authors stabilizing agents.
as a dynamic or “shuttle” effect (lipid sink).
The non scavenging effects relate to the direct hemody-
namic effects of lipid infusion therapy through actions on Symptoms and Diagnosis
the vasculature and heart. For example, lipid emulsion and As previously mentioned, the clinical presentation of an
elevated free fatty acids increase blood pressure by vasocon- allergy to LAs can vary depending on the type of allergic reac-
striction of the smooth muscle of the peripheral vasculature. tion that develops (type I or type IV). Likewise, the severity
Additionally, there is an important volume effect (dilution of the symptomatology can be classified into different grades
and preload), direct cardiovascular benefits, and activation of (from I-IV) or according to their onset time, which will fur-
cardioprotective pathways. ther guide management (Table 9-2).
Type I allergic reactions can occur with generalized urti-
caria and/or anaphylactic symptoms that will appear within
Allergy to Local Anesthetics seconds to 1 hour after the administration of the LA. Symp-
toms can be divided into various grades (I to IV) depend-
Mechanisms ing on the severity of the presentation, which may include
Less than 1% of all adverse reactions where LAs are admin- pruritus, urticaria, bronchospasm, wheezing, angioedema,
istered can actually be attributed to allergy to LAs. Epineph- rhinitis, hypotension, and cardiovascular collapse due to dis-
rine-driven sympathetic effects, LAST, vasovagal syncope, tributive shock. Type IV reactions manifest as allergic con-
and psychogenic reactions are frequently confused with an tact dermatitis that will present as local swelling at the site
allergic reaction by patients and healthcare practitioners. of administration 24 to 72 hours after injection. The affected
True allergic reactions to LAs are most commonly the type area that was in direct contact with the LA may develop an
I and type IV responses. A type I allergic reaction is a gen- eczematous and pruritic rash with blistering, swelling, and
eralized hypersensitivity reaction where the first exposure peeling of the skin.
to the LA (allergenic agent) causes immunoglobulin E (lgE) Allergic reactions to other eliciting allergens used dur-
antibody production from B cells and no allergic symptoms ing the procedure (e.g., latex, antibiotics, nonsteroidal anti-
occur (the sensitizing dose). The IgE antibodies then bind inflammatory drugs, povidone, or chlorhexidine) also need
to basophils and mast cells, and when the allergenic agent is to be considered. Symptoms related to epinephrine-driven
administered for the second time, the binding of the aller- sympathetic effects, LAST, vasovagal syncope, or psychogenic
genic agent to the IgE complex will immediately result in reactions may mimic symptoms of allergic reactions, which
degranulation of vasoactive substances from basophils and can make the diagnosis difficult. The next paragraph will
mast cells. focus on these misleading symptoms for diagnostic purposes.

TABLE 9-2 Clinical Presentation of an Allergy to Local Anesthetics

By Symptoms (Four Degrees of Severity):
Grade I Mucocutaneous symptoms: erythema, urticaria, angioedema
Grade II Non-life-threatening symptoms:
mucocutaneous symptoms ± hypotension, tachycardia ± mild bronchospasm
Grade III Life-threatening symptoms: mucocutaneous symptoms (laryngeal edema)
± cardiovascular collapse ± bronchospasm
Grade IV Cardiac/respiratory arrest
By Time:
Acute/rapid onset • Urticaria
(immune reaction type I) • Anaphylaxis (urticaria, angioedema, bronchospasm, hypotension)
→Affected tissues are NOT contiguous with LA injection site.
Delayed • Contact dermatitis
(immune reaction type IV) • Swelling
→At site of LA injection.
Symptoms and diagnosis of LAST are extensively discussed incremental concentrations of LA. Wheal and flare, acute
earlier in this chapter. LAST symptoms usually present as rash, wheezing, decreased blood pressure, and/or decrease in
a result of interactions with the CNS (perioral paresthesia, pulmonary function within 20 minutes after administration
metallic taste, tinnitus, or altered mental status) and the car- are considered positive for challenge tests. For positive test-
diovascular system (hypotension, arrhythmias). More severe ing, other LAs should be evaluated in search of safe alterna-
presentations of LAST are seizures, depression of the CNS, tives for future procedures to be performed under regional
respiratory arrest, and cardiovascular collapse. Epinephrine is anesthesia. If the LA contains preservative compounds and
frequently added to the LA to extend the duration of the block the test is positive, a compound-free solution should be
and is the most common cause of nonallergic symptoms such included to trace if the reaction is caused by the LA itself or
as tachycardia, hypertension, and palpitations when injected by the preservative compounds.
intravascularly. Stressed patients can also release endogenic For diagnosing psychogenic reactions, clinicians may per-
epinephrine with similar outcomes. Psychogenic reactions form a reverse challenge test. Here, the clinician explicitly
are anxiety driven and can involve catecholamine release and tells the patient that he or she is injecting a placebo while
hyperventilation (dyspnea, tachypnea, paresthesia of the dig- actually injecting the LA; if no symptoms are present, the
its or mouth, dizziness, palpitations, tachycardia, and nausea). adverse effects can be psychogenic in origin.
Vasovagal syncopes can be elicited by pain, unpleasant experi- Epicutaneous or patch tests are used to determine the pres-
ences, or anxiety. They will happen as a result of sympathetic ence of LA-related contact dermatitis or type IV reactions.
imbalance (bradycardia, hypotension, nausea, sweating, or Different substances are applied to the skin for 48 hours to
loss of consciousness). determine which substances cause allergic reactions.
A correct anamnesis is essential for the correct diagno-
sis of an allergy or for deciding on further diagnostic test-
ing (Figure 9-2). Positive anamnesis for allergic reactions
Management
implies the need for further testing procedures. Initially, Because it is difficult to determine the exact cause of the
skin prick testing and intradermal testing will be performed. symptoms at the time of presentation (i.e., differentiate
Positive skin tests should be interpreted as possible allergy, between LAST, vasovagal syncope, or allergic reactions), treat-
however, false-positive results are likely for intradermal ment should be primarily supportive (Figure 9-3). It should
tests and therefore some practitioners will prefer to immedi- be kept in mind that type I allergic reactions are the most
ately perform subcutaneous challenge tests. A negative skin severe and that timely administration of epinephrine is crucial.
test always needs further subcutaneous challenge tests with Epinephrine doses can be guided according to the severity of

1. Obtain detail history to rule

out allergy-like symptoms
unrelated to LA
• Epinephrine physiologic reaction

(tachycardia, hypertension)
• Vasovagal reaction (bradycardia,
hypotension)
• Psychogenic (anxiety)
• LAST
2. Rule out possible serious

allergic reaction
• Urticaria on other places than

injection site
• Angio-edema
• Respiratory symptoms (wheezing)
• Severe rash
3. Differentiate between
urgent vs. elective procedures
requiring regional anesthesia:
Urgent surgery Elective surgery
Documented or reported
previous allergy/ Reported allergy by Documented allergy
symptoms to LA? patient testing
Allergy-like symptoms Amide or ester LA? Use

Misleading symptoms Proceed with regional excluded? another type of LA
excluded? anesthesia or switch to GA
Contact allergy
Refer for allergy screening: screening if type not
Known allergy for a Go back to steps • Use alternative LA clearly documented
specific LA? 1 and 2 • If positive for all, then
GA
Use a different type Allergic

of LA reaction
Non-systemic Severe or unknown

symptoms (e.g., rash) systemic symptoms
Avoid regional
Use lidocaine
anesthesia
FIGURE 9-2. Evaluation of the patient with history of allergy to local anesthetics.

Stop injection and call for help
Airway support Volume expansion

ventilation with (elevation of Pharmacology Sampling
100% oxygen the legs)
Bronchospasm Epinephrine* Testing for immediate reactions

1. β2-Agonists: Salbutamol Grade I: No epinephrine
(Ventolin®): 8-10 puffs/15-30* Grade II: 5-10 µg epinephrine IV • Mast cell tryptase sampling:
2. Steroids, anti-cholinergic Grade III: 50-100 µg epinephrine IV 60-120 min
(Atrovent®), Mg++ Grade IV: 1 mg epinephrine IV (+ CPR) • Baseline after 1-2 days
3. Epinephrine: 2nd line
Repeat dose administration every Follow-up

1-2 min continuous infusion: Postoperative testing and
0.05-0.1 µg/kg/min referral for allergy consult
skin test after 4-6 weeks
Antihistaminics/Steroids
1. H1-antihistaminics: Promethazine
50 mg IM/slow IV (Phenergan®)
2. H2-antihistaminics: Ranitidine
50 mg IV (Zantac®)
3. Steroids: Hydrocortisone 200 mg
IV (Solucortel®)
Tranexamic acid (Exacyl®)

500-1000 mg
*Degrees of severity are described in Table 9-2.
FIGURE 9-3. Management of an allergic reaction to local anesthetics.
the symptoms (grades I-IV). Other pharmacologic treatments Christie LE, Picard J, Weinberg GL. Local anaesthetic systemic
are described in the literature but should not be considered in toxicity. BJA Educ. 2015;15:136 -142.
Di Gregorio G, Neal JM, Rosenquist RW, Weinberg GL. Clinical
the acute phase.
presentation of local anesthetic systemic toxicity: a review of pub-
lished cases, 1979 to 2009. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35:181-187.
Di Gregorio G, Schwartz D, Ripper R, et al. Lipid emulsion is supe-
rior to vasopressin in a rodent model of resuscitation from
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Alvarez AM, Mukherjee D. Liver abnormalities in cardiac diseases Dillane D, Finucane BT. Local anesthetic systemic toxicity. Can J
and heart failure. Int J Angiol. 2011;20:135-142. Anesth. 2010;57:368-380.
Balestrieri P, Ferguson II JE. Management of a parturient with a his- Eggleston ST, Lush LW. Understanding allergic reactions to local
tory of local anesthetic allergy. Anesth Analg. 2003;96:1489-1490. anesthetics. Ann Pharmacother. 1996;30:851.
Berkun Y, Ben-Zvi A, Levy Y, Galili D, Shalit M. Evaluation of adverse El-Boghdadly K, Pawa A, Chin KJ. Local anesthetic systemic toxicity:
reactions to local anesthetics: experience with 236 patients. current perspectives. Local Reg Anesth. 2018;11:35-44.
Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2003;91:342-345. Fettiplace MR, Pichurko A, Ripper R, et al. Cardiac depression
Bern S, Weinberg G. Local anesthetic toxicity and lipid resuscita- induced by cocaine or cocaethylene is alleviated by lipid emul-
tion in pregnancy. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2011;24:262-267. sion more effectively than by sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin.
Bhole MV, Manson AL, Seneviratne SL, Misbah SA. IgE-mediated Acad Emerg Med. 2015;22:508-517.
allergy to local anaesthetics: separating fact from perception: a Fettiplace MR, Weinberg G. The mechanisms underlying lipid
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Harper NJN, Cook TM, Garcez T, et al. Anaesthesia, surgery, and Pere P, Salonen M, Jokinen M, Rosenberg PH, Neuvonen PJ, Haasio J.
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Hiller N, Mirtschink P, Merkel C, et al. Myocardial accumulation Ring J, Franz R, Brockow K. Anaphylactic reactions to local anes-
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10 Neurologic Complications of
Peripheral Nerve Blocks
nerve stretching or its compression. With this injury,

Introduction axons and supporting connective tissue of importance to
Nerve injury is a potentially serious complication of periph- the nerve function (i.e., endoneurium, perineurium, and
eral nerve (PN) blocks, which can lead to permanent disabil- epineurium) remain intact. The prognosis is favorable,
ity. Fortunately, many neurologic deficits are reversible. This with complete recovery of nerve function in a few weeks
chapter will outline mechanisms, clinical course, and treat- to months.
ment of patients with neurologic injury after nerve blocks. • Axonotmesis: Axonal injury associated with fascicular
disruption, crush, or toxic injury. Damage to the endoneu-
rium and perineurium occurs. Recovery may be prolonged
Classification and and incomplete, depending on the extent (partial or com-
Mechanisms of Injury plete) of perineurium disruption.
Perhaps the most practical classification of neurologic injury • Neurotmesis: The complete transection of the nerve.
is that of Seddon. The classification proposes three types of These injuries typically require surgical intervention and
PN injury, ranging from mild to severe (Figure 10-1). the prognosis is poorer.
• Neuropraxia: The mildest of the three types, it consists of Most nerve injuries are mixed, with different fascicles
damage to the myelin sheath. A common clinical exam- exhibiting different degrees of injuries. Often all three differ-
ple is transient nerve dysfunction that may occur after ent degrees of injury will be present in different fascicles.
FIGURE 10-1. Seddon’s classification of nerve injury.

The mechanisms of PN block-related injury fall into one summarizes the commonly cited etiologies and their respec-
of four broad categories: tive confounding factors, making it difficult to discern block-
related injury from the preexisting (subclinical) neuropathy
• Mechanical or traumatic injury: Includes compression,
or perioperative injury.
stretching, laceration, or injection injury. The leading cause
of block-related nerve injury is an injection into a fascicle,
causing a direct needle and injection trauma, rupture of the
perineurium, and loss of the protective environment within Practical Management of
the fascicle with consequent myelin and axonal degeneration. Postoperative Neuropathy
• Vascular injury: Damage to the nerve vasculature dur- A postoperative neurologic deficit that outlasts the expected
ing nerve blocks can result in local or diffuse ischemia. It duration of the PN block may occur even with all monitoring
occurs when there is direct vascular injury, acute occlusion utilized. Fortunately, the vast majority of neurologic deficits
of the arteries, or hemorrhage within a nerve sheath. resolve spontaneously. Patient reassurance is important while
• Chemical injury: Results from tissue toxicity of injected processes that may be evolving (i.e., compartment syndrome)
solution (e.g., local anesthetic [LA], alcohol, or phenol) or its or are repairable (i.e., surgery-related nerve injury) should be
additives. The toxic solution may be injected directly into the ruled out. Figure 10-2 displays a practical approach to the man-
nerve or adjacent tissues, which causes an acute inflammatory agement of patients with neurologic deficits after PN blocks.
reaction or chronic fibrosis that indirectly involves the nerve. These principles should be kept in mind when managing a
postoperative neuropathy:
• Inflammatory injury: Nonspecific inflammatory responses
targeting PNs can occur either remote from the site of the • Good communication before, during, and after the proce-
surgery or within the operative area. Distinguishing inflam- dure is essential. This is important both for patient care
mation from other causes of PN injury may be difficult. and from a medicolegal standpoint.
• Approximately 95% of postoperative sensory changes will
resolve within 4 to 6 weeks, and most of these will occur
Risk Factors during the first week.
The etiology of PN injury is difficult to discern in many • Early diagnosis of postoperative PN injury can be chal-
instances. The injury is often multifactorial. Possible etiolo- lenging due to:
gies include mechanical needle-nerve trauma, intraneural °° Residual sedation and or PN block
hematoma, perineural and intraneural inflammation, and
°° Postoperative pain that limits the examination
neurotoxicity of the injectate (both LAs and adjuvants).
Confounding factors that may play a role in nerve injury or °° Casts, dressings, splints, and slings
delay the diagnostic include pre-existing neuropathies (e.g., °° Movement restrictions
diabetes mellitus), intraoperative injury, tourniquet pressure, • Prolonged tourniquets, casting, excessive intraoperative
and compression from postoperative casting. Table 10-1 traction, or a misplaced surgical clip can all cause neuropa-
thies. Therefore, the early involvement of the surgical team
and a multidisciplinary approach are also important.
TABLE 10-1 echanisms of Peripheral
M • In general, the presence, or persistence, of a motor defi-
Nerve Injury and Their cit may be associated with a less favorable outcome and
Respective Confounding warrants early consultation with a neurologist and/or
Factors neurosurgeon.
• A neurologic deficit that is progressing, severe, or com-
CONFOUNDING plete should be seen immediately by a neurologist and a
MECHANISM OF INJURY FACTORS neurosurgeon.
Mechanical trauma from Pre-existing neuropathies
Referral for electrophysiologic testing may be indicated
the needle
when the symptoms are not purely sensory or when neu-
Nerve edema or hematoma Surgical manipulation ropathy is long-lasting. It is recommended to perform the
Pressure effects of the Prolonged tourniquet following:
LA injectate pressure • Electromyography (EMG): This is undertaken to deter-
Neurotoxicity of the injected Compression from postop- mine which muscle units are affected by a denervation
compression erative casting lesion. Small needle electrodes are placed in various
muscles, and the pattern of electrical activity, both at rest
Post nerve block injection Postoperative inflammatory
and with contraction, is analyzed. The test can be used to
inflammation and tissue neuropathy
localize a lesion. The electrical activity pattern can also
scarring
determine a time frame for the injury. In other words, it

Neurologic Complications of Peripheral Nerve Blocks CHAPTER 10 119
Speak to patient directly

about onset, quality, duration
of symptoms
Evaluate for:
Ongoing
• Restrictive casts
emergent
• Compartment syndrome
process?
• Local hematoma
Evaluate for:
• Nerve transection
Surgical
• Excessive traction
cause?
• Long tourniquet time
• Sutures/screws/dips on nerve
Seek immediate Yes Deficit severe,

neurologic and/or complete, or
neurosurgical consultation evolving?
No
Anatomical
distributions?
In the distribution of In common areas of

Difficult to localize or
peripheral nerve(s) entrapment
multifocal
blocked (e.g., ulnar, peroneal)
No Solely sensory
changes?
Yes
• Consider neurologic • Reassure patient (95% resolution in 4–6 weeks,

consultation for 99% by 1 year).
nerve conduction • Instruct patient to call back if symptoms progress
studies or do not resolve.
FIGURE 10-2. Flowchart of the practical approach of the management of a

patient with a neurologic deficit after a peripheral nerve block.
can determine whether a preexisting injury existed that The optimal timing of electrophysiologic testing depends
may have unmasked and worsened the current, clinically on the indication. When performed 2 to 3 days after the
apparent neuropathy. onset of injury, EMG can also yield information regarding
• Nerve conduction tests: A device similar to the PN stimu- the completeness of the lesion (prognosis), as well as infor-
lator is attached over various nerves in the affected area. mation about the duration of the lesion, which may have
Stimulation of a nerve generates a characteristic wave- medicolegal ramifications, particularly if the lesion is
form, which allows the neurologist to pinpoint a conduc- deemed to predate the nerve block or surgical procedure.
tion block. It can be used to determine the likely level at As such, this can be seen as a “baseline” examination. More
which the injury occurred, which can be used to decipher information is obtained at approximately 4 weeks post-
the possible reversible cause, such as compression by bone injury when the electrophysiologic changes have had an
fragment, etc. opportunity to fully evolve.

However, most patients experience some degree of dis-

Prevention comfort during needle advancement and LA injection,
Preventing nerve injury during the practice of nerve block is making the pain on injection nonspecific. Objective moni-
paramount. Refer to Chapter 6. Below are several practical toring is recommended, instead.
recommendations used in NYSORA teaching. • Stop needle advancement when an evoked motor response
• Avoid blocks in patients with existing neurologic deficit, occurs (0.5 mA; 0.1 ms). A distal motor response at this
unless clear patient benefit is evident. current intensity indicates intimate needle-nerve rela-
tionship, needle-nerve contact, or intraneural needle
• Use triple monitoring: ultrasound (US) guidance (con-
placement.
firm extraneural injection), nerve stimulation (no motor
response at <0.5 mA), and injection pressure monitoring • Neither the presence or absence of paresthesia is entirely
(opening injection pressure <15 psi), and always fully doc- predictive of nerve injury.
ument the procedures (Figure 10-3). • Avoid high opening injection pressure during injection.
• Stop the injection when the patient experiences severe An injection pressure monitor may detect injection into
pain during needle advancement or LA administration. poorly compliant tissue spaces, such as a nerve fascicle.
Nerve stimulator
0.5 mA, 0.1 ms,
2 Hz
Advance needle
toward nerve
or plexus

NO NO
MR MR
MR MR
Withdraw/Reposition
needle to ensure
NO MR at 0.5 mA(1)
1-2 mL injection of local anesthetic results in

(1)
adequate spread in desired tissue plane, Data from several studies suggest that twitch
opening injection pressure normal(2) (evoked motor response) at <0.2 mA (0.1 ms) may
101:1844-1846, Anesthesiology 2009;110:1235-1243)
(2)
Based on data both in animal models and clinical
2014;120:1246-1253)
FIGURE 10-3. Flowchart depicting the order to correctly monitor nerve block procedures by
combining ultrasound, nerve stimulation, and injection pressure monitoring (triple monitoring).
MR, motor response.

Neurologic Complications of Peripheral Nerve Blocks CHAPTER 10 121
• Use US to avoid needle-nerve contact and detect an intra- Lupu CM, Kiehl T, Chan VWS, et al. Nerve expansion seen on
neural injection. Note that by the time that US detects an ultrasound predicts histologic but not functional nerve injury
after intraneural injection in pigs. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
intraneural injection, it may already be too late to prevent
2010;35(2):132-139.
injury (i.e., even a small amount of injectate is sufficient to McCombe K, Bogod D. Regional anaesthesia: risk, consent and
rupture the fascicle and injure the axons). complications. Anaesthesia. 2021;76(Suppl 1):18-26.
Moayeri N, Groen GJ. Differences in quantitative architecture of
sciatic nerve may explain differences in potential vulnerability
to nerve injury, onset time, and minimum effective anesthetic
SUGGESTED READINGS volume. Anesthesiology. 2009;111(5):1128-1134.
Altermatt FR, Cummings TJ, Auten KM, et al. Ultrasonographic Myers RR, Kalichman MW, Reisner LS, Powell HC. Neurotoxicity
appearance of intraneural injections in the porcine model. of local anesthetics: altered perineurial permeability, edema,
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35(2):203-206. and nerve fiber injury. Anesthesiology. 1986;64(1):29-35.
Bigeleisen PE, Moayeri N, Groen GJ. Extraneural versus intraneural O’Flaherty D, McCartney CJL, Ng SC. Nerve injury after peripheral
stimulation thresholds during ultrasound-guided supraclavicu- nerve blockade: current understanding and guidelines. BJA Educ.
lar block. Anesthesiology. 2009;110(6):1235-1243. 2018;18:384-390.
Bigeleisen PE. Nerve puncture and apparent intraneural injection Robards C, Hadzic A, Somasundaram L, et al. Intraneural injection
during ultrasound-guided axillary block does not invariably with low-current stimulation during popliteal sciatic nerve
result in neurologic injury. Anesthesiology. 2006;105(4):779-783. block. Anesth Analg. 2009;109(2):673-677.
Borgeat A, Blumenthal S. Nerve injury and regional anaesthesia. Rodríguez J, Taboada M, Blanco M, et al. Intraneural catheterization
Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2004;17(5):417-421. of the sciatic nerve in humans: a pilot study. Reg Anesth Pain
Brull R, Hadzic A, Reina MA, Barrington MJ. Pathophysiology and Med. 2008;33(4):285-290.
etiology of nerve injury following peripheral nerve blockade. Russon K, Blanco R. Accidental intraneural injection into the mus-
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2015;40:479-490. culocutaneous nerve visualized with ultrasound. Anesth Analg.
Brull R, McCartney CJL, Chan VWS, El-Beheiry H. Neurological 2007;105(5):1504-1505.
complications after regional anesthesia: contemporary esti- Sala-Blanch X, López AM, Carazo J, et al. Intraneural injection dur-
mates of risk. Anesth Analg. 2007;104(4):965-974. ing nerve stimulator-guided sciatic nerve block at the popliteal
Fredrickson MJ. Case report: neurological deficit associated with fossa. Br J Anaesth. 2009;102(6):855-861.
intraneural needle placement without injection. Can J Anaesth. Sala-Blanch X, Pomés J, Matute P, et al. Intraneural injection dur-
2009;56(12):935-938. ing anterior approach for sciatic nerve block. Anesthesiology.
Gold MS. Spinal nerve ligation: what to blame for the pain and why. 2004;101(4):1027-1030.
Pain. 2000;84(2-3):117-120. Sala-Blanch X, Ribalta T, Rivas E, et al. Structural injury to the human
Hadzic A, Dilberovic F, Shah S, et al. Combination of intraneu- sciatic nerve after intraneural needle insertion. Reg Anesth Pain
ral injection and high injection pressure leads to fascicular Med. 2009;34(3):201-205.
injury and neurologic deficits in dogs. Reg Anesth Pain Med. Schafhalter-Zoppoth I, Zeitz ID, Gray AT. Inadvertent femoral
2004;29(5):417-423. nerve impalement and intraneural injection visualized by
Helander EM, Kaye AJ, Eng MR, et al. Regional nerve blocks-best ultrasound. Anesth Analg. 2004;99(2):627-628.
practice strategies for reduction in complications and compre- Seddon HJ. Three types of nerve injury. Brain. 1943;66(4):
hensive review. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2019;23(6):43. 237-288.
Hewson DW, Bedforth NM, Hardman JG. Peripheral nerve injury Selander D, Dhunér KG, Lundborg G. Peripheral nerve injury due
arising in anaesthesia practice. Anaesthesia. 2018;73:51-60. to injection needles used for regional anesthesia. An experi-
Hogan QH. Pathophysiology of peripheral nerve injury during mental study of the acute effects of needle point trauma.
regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;33(5):435-441. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1977;21(3):182-188.
Inglis JT, Leeper JB, Wilson LR, Gandevia SC, Burke D. The devel- Shah S, Hadzic A, Vloka JD, et al. Neurologic complication
opment of conduction block in single human axons following a after anterior sciatic nerve block. Anesth Analg. 2005;100(5):
focal nerve injury. J Physiol (Lond). 1998;513(Pt 1):127-133. 1515-1517.
Iohom G, Lan GB, Diarra DP, et al. Long-term evaluation of Sorenson EJ. Neurological injuries associated with regional anes-
motor function following intraneural injection of ropi- thesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;33(5):442-448.
vacaine using walking track analysis in rats. Br J Anaesth. Steinfeldt T, Nimphius W, Werner T, et al. Nerve injury by needle
2005;94(4):524-529. nerve perforation in regional anaesthesia: does size matter?
Kalichman MW, Moorhouse DF, Powell HC, Myers RR. Relative Br J Anaesth. 2010;104(2):245-253.
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759-760.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
Preparation for Regional
11 Anesthesia and Perioperative
Management
• Confirm the surgical procedure, regional anesthesia pro-

Introduction cedure, and side to be anesthetized.
The practice of regional anesthesia involves a preopera- • Explain to the patient the planned procedure and what to
tive assessment, patient information, adequate preparation, expect post-procedure (i.e., the duration and distribution
objective monitoring of block administration, and moni- of the sensory-motor block).
toring of respiratory and cardiovascular parameters. These
• Apply the standard American Society of Anesthesiologists
activities should be standardized and recorded as standard-
(ASA) monitoring.
ized documentation where applicable.
This chapter describes the suggested steps for the periop- • Initiate intravenous (IV) access.
erative management of patients receiving regional anesthesia. • Position the patient for the planned procedure (refer to the
While the suggestions here apply to all regional anesthetics, techniques chapters).
more detail, uniquely applicable to the specific procedures, • Administer supplementary oxygen.
will be detailed in their respective chapters.
• Administer IV analgesia and anxiolysis as necessary, best
as a routine protocol.
Preanesthetic Evaluation
and Information
• Assess comorbidities relevant for anesthesia and the spe- Equipment and Personnel
cific blocks (e.g., pre-existing neurologic symptoms, respi- • Establish and train a dedicated block room nursing
ratory insufficiency for proximal brachial plexus blocks, personnel team.
coagulation disorders/anticoagulants). • Establish standardized protocols for equipment for each
• Discuss indications and specifics of the regional anesthesia commonly used regional anesthesia procedure.
technique with the patient and obtain informed consent, • Block nurses are essential for regional anesthesia
if applicable. service. Their service functions best also when patient
• Evaluate the anatomical area of regional anesthesia for care, regional anesthesia techniques, equipment, indica-
potential contraindications or limitations that would tions, and perioperative care are standardized within the
require alternative approaches (e.g., scars, infections, entire service.
osteosynthesis material, inability to adequately position or • In addition to the patient preparation, establish and train
expose the area of interest). the nursing team to prepare the equipment for regional
• Apply similar fasting guidelines as for general anesthesia. anesthesia and assist in the block performance:
In the absence of contraindications, allow the intake of
°° Prepare ultrasound (US) machine and position it cor-
clear fluids up to 2 hours prior to the surgical procedure. rectly, standardized ergonomics.
• As opposed to general anesthesia, removal of the den-
°° Help with the general setup of the US machine (transducer,
tures etc., is typically not necessary for patients receiving mode, frequency, time gain compensation, initial depth).
regional anesthesia.
°° Prepare the nerve stimulator with the correct settings.
Patient Preparation °° Prepare the regional anesthesia tray with the proto-
coled medication, needle, injection pressure monitoring
• Ensure patient privacy and comfort. (where used), etc. (See Figure 11-1.)
• Perform a checklist (a) on patient arrival and (b) just °° Prepare sterile gloves, sterile US transducer cover and,
before the intervention. for catheter placement, a sterile gown.

FIGURE 11-2. Arm protected with a blanket to avoid

inadvertent malposition after an interscalene brachial
FIGURE 11-1. Setting for nerve block including a regional plexus block.
anesthesia tray with the protocoled medication, stimulating
needle, injection pressure monitoring, and transducer cover.
• For incomplete blocks, consider administering rescue, or
repeat block, or additional analgesia, sedation, or general
Block Procedure anesthesia.
• Document the block procedure (refer to Chapter 6 for
• Whenever possible, maintain meaningful verbal contact
details on monitoring and documentation).
with the patient while explaining the steps throughout the
procedure.
• Develop a clear instructions protocol for the block nurse to Intraoperative Management
ensure assistance during the block procedure.
• Apply the ASA monitoring.
• Consider using the mnemonic RAPT for monitoring and
reporting during regional anesthesia injection: • Administer supplementary oxygen.
°° Response: Motor response absent at 0.5 mA, 0.1 ms, 2 Hz • Ensure a comfortable position for the patient during
surgery.
°° Aspiration: Negative for blood
• Ensure that the patient’s temperature is maintained by
°° Pressure: Opening injection pressure <15 psi warming (i.e., forced air, warm blankets).
°° Total volume of local anesthetic (LA) administered • Start titrated sedation, as necessary; this is best done using
• Once the injection is completed, ensure that the blocked a protocoled approach (e.g., target-controlled infusion
extremity is protected (Figure 11-2). [TCI] of propofol).
• Designate one single person for the responsibility of safely • Protect the patient’s ears from the operating room (OR)
removing sharp objects from the block tray to avoid acci- noise with earplugs, blankets, and/or headphones with
dental needle sticks to the personnel. music. This can substantially add to the patient’s comfort
• Assess the sensory and motor block before the surgical and experience of the perioperative care, as well as decrease
procedure (Figure 11-3). the need for intraoperative sedation (Figure 11-4).

Preparation for Regional Anesthesia and Perioperative Management CHAPTER 11 125
FIGURE 11-3. Example of the standardized sensory and motor evaluation for block completeness. Expected block
distribution after an axillary block.
FIGURE 11-4. Example of an intraoperative setting, including standard monitoring, titrated sedation, supplementary
oxygen, noise protection, and warming system.

• Establish a routine protocol for intraoperative administra- • Provide the essential postoperative care information
tion of fluids. (situation, background, assessment, recommendation
• Develop and apply a standardized multimodal analgesia [SBAR]) to the nurses continuing the patient care.
protocol for all common surgical procedures (Figure 11-5). • Reinforce the verbal and/or written information to the
patient about the care of the blocked extremity.
• Ensure adequate instructions for postoperative analgesia
Postoperative Management after the block resolution.
• Accompany the patient during the transport from the OR
to the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) or day surgery unit.
Preoperative goals Fasting Knee Arthroplasty

(Ideally 3-4 weeks before surgery) Clear fluids up to 2 hours before surgery Preoperative Management
Patient education and
engagement in pain management
conditions
management protocol
spinal anesthesia? (b)
(a) Premedication Patient position:
Local anesthetic: Volume
Block technique
(b) Contraindications for Isobaric bupivacaine
spinal anesthesia 0.5% 10-12 mg
Absolute:
• Patient refusal Adductor canal or
• Infection at planned injection Ipack block
femoral nerve block
site
• Coagulopathy
Local anesthetic: Volume Local anesthetic: Volume
• Allergy to local anesthetics
Bupivacaine 0.5% 10-15 mL Bupivacaine 0.25% 10-15 mL
Relative:
• Pre-existing neuropathy Monitoring Equipment
• History of spinal • Nerve stimulation @0.5 mA • Linear (or curved) transducer
instrumentation • Injection pressure monitoring • Needle 22G x 50-100 mm
• Fixed cardiac output states • Ultrasound
(e.g., Aortic stenosis, mitral Patient position
stenosis) Supine
• Spinal stenosis
FIGURE 11-5. Example of a standardized perioperative protocol for a common surgical procedure (e.g., knee arthroplasty).

Preparation for Regional Anesthesia and Perioperative Management CHAPTER 11 127
Knee Arthroplasty Postoperative Management

Patient transfer to OR Pain assessment
NRS ≥4
ASA monitoring (a)
Morphine titration 2.5 mg

(only as rescue
medication—max
dose 10 mg)
If spinal anesthesia General anesthesia

Re-assess pain
Music therapy (a) ASA monitoring after 10-15 min
and/or • O2 pulse oximetry
Propofol TCI • ECG
(titrate to RASS -2/-3) • Blood pressure monitoring
• Capnometry (CO2) NRS <4 NRS ≥4

• Cefazoline 2000 mg IV Start morphine PCA
• In case of penicillin-allergy: (for 48 h)
Clindamycin 600 mg IV
(c) Blood loss prophylaxis Re-assess and consider

• Tranexamic acid 1.5 g transfer to room
Intraoperative positioning (if not contraindicated)
Oral intake Management in the first
• Supine position (d) Intraoperative multimodal
• Fluids allowed after 3 24 hours
• Control and protect pressure analgesia
postoperative hours
points • Paracetamol 1 g IV Multimodal analgesia
• Oral intake allowed after
• Maintain normothermia • Ketorolac 30 mg IV • Paracetamol 1 g IV/6 h
1 h of fluid intake and
and normovolemia • Ketorolac IV/8 h for 24 h
(e) Postoperative nausea and according to patient
• Dexamethasone 4 mg
vomiting prophylaxis tolerance (start as soon
IV/24 h
• Dexamethasone 4 mg IV as possible)
• Morphine PCA regime
• Ondansetron 4 mg IV
Analgesia regime after oral (no basal rate,
Antibiotic (b) and Contraindications of intake on-demand bolus only)
blood loss (c) prophylaxis tranexamic acid • Paracetamol 1 g PO/6 h Switch to oral medication
• Hypersensitivity to TXA • Tramadol Retard 100 mg according to tolerance
• Severe renal impairment PO/12 h
• History of seizures • Tramadol Odis 50 mg Antibiotic prophylaxis
• History of venous or arterial 5 L/6 h (only if breakthrough Cefazoline 2 g IV/8 h x 24 h
Start intraoperative thromboembolism or active pain: max/4 h) Clindamycin 600 mg IV/8 h
multimodal analgesia (d) thromboembolic disease • Diclofenac 75 mg PO/12 h if history of penicillin
and PONV prophylaxis (e) • Vascular or valve endoprotesis (NSAID) allergy
FIGURE 11-5. (Continued)
SUGGESTED READINGS Henshaw DS, Turner JD, Dobson SW, et al. Preprocedural checklist
for regional anesthesia: impact on the incidence of wrong-site
Balocco AL, Kransingh S, Lopez A, et al. Wrong-side nerve blocks nerve blockade (an 8-year perspective). Reg Anesth Pain Med.
and the use of checklists: part 1. Anesthesiol News. 2019;24-31. 2019;44(2):201-205.
Benhamou D, Auroy Y, Amalberti R. Safety during regional Lo LWT, Suh J, Chen JY, et al. Early postoperative pain after
anesthesia: what do we know and how can we improve our total knee arthroplasty is associated with subsequent poorer
practice? Regional Anesthesia & Pain Medicine. 2010;35:1-3. functional outcomes and lower satisfaction. J Arthroplasty.
Brahmbhatt, A., Barrington, M.J. Quality assurance in 2021;25:S0883-5403.
regional anesthesia: current status and future directions. Russell RA, Burke K, Gattis K. Implementing a regional anesthesia
Curr Anesthesiol Rep. 2013;3:215-222. block nurse team in the perianesthesia care unit increases
Hade AD, Okano S, Pelecanos A, Chin A. Factors associated with patient safety and perioperative efficiency. J Perianesth Nurs.
low levels of patient satisfaction following peripheral nerve 2013;28(1):3-10.
block. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2021;30:31.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
2
SECTION
Head and Neck Blocks
Chapter 12 Cervical Plexus Block 131

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
12 Cervical Plexus Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the branches of the cervical plexus (C2-C4).
• Indications: Anesthesia and/or analgesia for carotid surgery, thyroid and superficial neck surgery, treatment
of cervical muscle spasm, and analgesia for clavicle fracture
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread around the branches of the cervical plexus
• Local anesthetic volume: 5 to 8 mL
Although the terminology and description of the cervical

General Considerations fasciae can be inconsistent, there are three common approaches
The cervical plexus block is a well-established technique to block the cervical plexus (Figure 12-1).
that traditionally has been performed using external 1. Deep injection technique: LA can be deposited at the
anatomical landmarks before the introduction of ultra- C2-C4 paravertebral space, deep to the prevertebral fascia,
sound (US). to block the entire plexus. Note: This technique is more
FIGURE 12-1. Cross-sectional anatomy of the cervical plexus at the level of C4 and at the level of C6.

132 SEC TION 2 Head and Neck Blocks
accurately termed a paravertebral block of spinal nerves

C2-C4, rather than “deep cervical plexus.”
Anatomy
2. Intermediate technique: LA is injected at the level of the The cervical plexus originates from the anterior rami of
C4 transverse process, between the prevertebral fascia and C1-C4. The anterior ramus of C1 (the suboccipital nerve) is
the investing layer of the deep cervical fascia, to block the a motor nerve that is not blocked as part of any described
superficial branches of the plexus. cervical plexus block technique. Thus, a cervical plexus block
is best defined as a block of the anterior rami of C2 through
3. Superficial technique: At the level of C6, the LA is injected
C4. The anterior branches of C1-C4 of the cervical plexus
subcutaneously and superficially to the deep cervical fas-
combine into three loops from which the deep and super-
cia to block all or specific cutaneous branches.
ficial branches arise (Figure 12-2). The cervical plexus is
A deep injection technique carries a higher risk of connected to the hypoglossal, glossopharyngeal, and vagus
injection into the spinal canal or vertebral artery, or nerves, as well as the sympathetic trunk, contributing to the
blocking the cranial nerves. Therefore, in this chapter, we innervation of muscles and structures relevant to airway con-
describe the intermediate and superficial techniques, which trol, respiratory function, phonation, and swallowing.
are safer and equally effective for most indications. There The deep muscular branches innervate the muscles of the
are few, if any, indications for a cervical plexus block deep neck. The phrenic nerve (C3-C5) provides innervation to the
to the prevertebral fascia. Moreover, bilateral deep injec- diaphragm. The superficial sensory branches are the lesser
tion techniques are not recommended because of potential occipital, greater auricular, transverse cervical, and supracla-
respiratory failure and airway obstruction due to a bilateral vicular nerves, which innervate the skin and superficial struc-
block of the vagus, hypoglossal, and phrenic nerves. tures of the head, neck, and shoulder (Figure 12-3).
The superficial branches of the plexus emerge from the
prevertebral fascia in between the longus capitis and middle
Specific Risks scalene muscle and run along the posterior aspect of the sterno-
cleidomastoid muscle (SCM). Subsequently, branches emerge
The risks include paroxysmal cough, recurrent or phrenic from behind the posterior border of the SCM, approximately
nerve block, dysphagia, dysphonia, Horner syndrome, and at the intersection with the external jugular vein (Erb’s point),
stellate ganglion block. located at the midpoint of the insertions to the mastoid and
clavicle (Figure 12-4).
FIGURE 12-2. Anatomy of the cervical plexus.

Cervical Plexus Block CHAPTER 12 133
FIGURE 12-3. Dermatome distribution of the cervical plexus.
FIGURE 12-4. Dissection of the superficial branches of the cervical plexus exiting at the Erb’s point.

The sensory branches can often be visualized as a col-

Cross-Sectional Anatomy and lection of small, oval, hypoechoic nodules with US.
Ultrasound View Occasionally, the greater auricular nerve is imaged on
Cranially to the C4 transverse process, the cervical plexus the superficial surface of the SCM as a round, hypoechoic
is located within the prevertebral layer of the deep cervical structure (Figure 12-5). At the level of C6-C7, elements
fascia in a groove between the longus capitis and middle of the cervical plexus can be imaged superficially around
scalene muscle. At the level of C4-C5, the plexus is located the posterior border of the SCM or subcutaneously
superficial to the prevertebral fascia overlying the intersca- (e.g., supraclavicular branches) (Figure 12-6).
lene groove, immediately deep to the SCM (Figure 12-1).
FIGURE 12-5. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the cervical plexus at the level of the C4 transverse
process. GaN, greater auricular nerve; SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; LCa, longus capitis muscle;
LCo, longus Colli muscle; MS, middle scalene muscle; LsCa, longissimus capitis muscle; LS, levator
scapulae muscle; SPL, splenius capitis muscle; SECM, semispinalis capitis muscle.
FIGURE 12-6. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the cervical plexus at the level of the C6 transverse
process. CA, carotid artery; IJV, internal jugular vein; SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; ASM, anterior scalene
muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle; LS, levator scapulae muscle; CP, cervical plexus superficial branches.

Local Anesthetic
Because the superficial branches of the cervical plexus are sen-
sory nerves, low concentrations of the LA are adequate (e.g.,
ropivacaine 0.25–0.5%, bupivacaine 0.25%, or lidocaine 1%).
Patient Positioning
The patient is placed in a semi-sitting, supine, or semi-lateral
position with the head extended and rotated to the contralateral
side, to expose the posterior triangle of the neck. If the poste-
rior border of the SCM is difficult to locate, especially in obese
patients, asking the patient to lift the head off the bed facilitates
the identification of its posterior border (Figure 12-8).
FIGURE 12-7. Distribution of anesthesia after a cervical

plexus block. Technique
Initial Transducer Position
Distribution of Anesthesia Place the transducer in a transverse orientation on the lateral
and Analgesia aspect of neck, at the midpoint of the posterior border of the
The superficial block of the cervical plexus results in anesthesia SCM, approximately at the cross-section of the external jugu-
of the skin of the anterolateral neck, the ante-auricular, and lar vein, or at the level of the thyroid cartilage.
retro-auricular areas, as well as the skin overlying and imme-
diately inferior to the clavicle on the chest wall (Figure 12-7).
The intermediate block also anesthetizes the branches to the
Scanning Technique
SCM and the phrenic nerve. Identify the SCM and slide the transducer posteriorly until
the tapering posterior edge is positioned in the middle of
the screen.
Block Preparation Sliding the transducer craneo-caudally will help to iden-
Equipment tify the superficial branches of the cervical plexus as a small
collection of hypoechoic nodules between the scalene mus-
• Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer cles and SCM as they travel posteriorly and superficially
• Needle: 50-mm, 25-gauge, short-bevel, stimulating needle (Figure 12-5).
A B
FIGURE 12-8. (A) Patient position for a cervical plexus block. (B) Patient with head lifted to facilitate identification of the
sternocleidomastoid muscle.

Needle Insertion spread superficial to the scalene muscles, additional injec-

tions may be necessary.
Both in-plane and out-of-plane approaches may be used. For An alternative longitudinal approach may be used for
the intermediate approach, advance the needle through the the intermediate approach; place the transducer in the coro-
skin, platysma, and investing layer of the deep cervical fascia. nal plane over the SCM without the need to visualize the
Place the needle tip adjacent to the branches of the cervical plexus (Figure 12-11). With this technique, the needle tip
plexus between the scalene muscles and SCM (Figures 12-9). is placed in the space between the posterior border of the
For the superficial approach, inject the LA subcutane- SCM and prevertebral fascia. The LA should layer out along
ously at the midpoint of the posterior border of the SCM this space.
(Figure 12-10).
Local Anesthetic Distribution Problem-Solving Tips

Following negative aspiration, inject 1 to 2 mL of LA to con- • Carotid surgery also requires blockade of the glosso-
firm the proper needle tip location and complete the block pharyngeal nerve branches. This can be accomplished
with 5 to 8 mL, limiting medial spread to the carotid sheath. intraoperatively by injecting LA inside the sheath of the
If the injection of LA does not appear to result in a linear carotid artery.
FIGURE 12-9. Cervical plexus block (intermediate approach). Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion
in-plane. GaN, greater auricular nerve; SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; LCa, longus capitis muscle; LCo, longus colli
muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle; LsCa, longissimus capitis muscle; LS, levator scapulae muscle; SPL, splenius capi-
tis muscle; SECM, semispinalis capitis muscle.

FIGURE 12-10. Schematic subcutaneous infiltration to block the superficial

branches of the cervical plexus at Erb’s point.
FIGURE 12-11. Transducer position in a longitudinal

approach to block the superficial branches of the cervical
plexus.

Flowchart
Cervical Plexus Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Semi-sitting with head turned
away from side to be blocked
Transducer position
Ultrasound settings
Transverse over the posterior border of the
• Depth: 1-2 cm
sternocleidomastoid at its midpoint.
• High-frequency linear transducer
Approximately 3-4 cm above the clavicle
Scanning
Superficial branches of the cervical
Scan along the longitudinal axis of the
plexus appear as a linear streak of
neck to visualize the branches of
hypoechoic nodules between the
the cervical plexus running between the
prevertebral fascia and the investing
scalene muscles and the posterior border
layer of deep cervical fascia
of the sternocleidomastoid muscle
Adjust the tilt of the probe to see the

Superficial
scalene muscles, the interscalene No
cervical plexus
space, and the posterior border of
identified?
the sternocleidomastoid muscle
No
Insert needle in-plane from

Scalene posterior to anterior toward the
muscles and plexus superficial to the scalene
prevertebral fascia muscles. After negative aspiration,
identified? inject 1-2 mL of LA to confirm
needle tip placement
The superficial cervical plexus

has a highly variable distribution
and anatomic position; therefore,
it is essentially a “field” block
Injection
results in a layering
Reposition the needle No spread of LA between the
and inject 1-2 mL of LA sternocleidomastoid and
the scalene
muscles?
Inject 5-8 mL of LA to
complete the block

SUGGESTED READINGS Pandit JJ, Satya-Krishna R, Gration P. Superficial or deep cervical

plexus block for carotid endarterectomy: a systematic review of
Calderon AL, Zetlaoui P, Benatir F, et al. Ultrasound-guided inter- complications. Br J Anaesth. 2007;99:159-169.
mediate cervical plexus block for carotid endarterectomy using Perisanidis C, Saranteas T, Kostopanagiotou G. Ultrasound-guided
a new anterior approach: a two-centre prospective observational combined intermediate and deep cervical plexus nerve block
study. Anaesthesia. 2015;70:445-451. for regional anaesthesia in oral and maxillofacial surgery.
Choquet O, Dadure C, Capdevila X. Ultrasound-guided deep or Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2013;42:29945724.
intermediate cervical plexus block: the target should be the Sandeman DJ, Griffiths MJ, Lennox AF. Ultrasound guided deep
posterior cervical space. Anesth Analg. 2010;111:1563-1564. cervical plexus block. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2006;34:240-244.
Dhonneur G, Saidi NE, Merle JC, Asfazadourian H, Ndoko SK, Soeding P, Eizenberg N. Review article: anatomical considerations
Bloc S. Demonstration of the spread of injectate with deep for ultrasound guidance for regional anesthesia of the neck and
cervical plexus block: a case series. Reg Anesth Pain Med. upper limb. Can J Anaesth. 2009;56:518-533.
2007;32:116-119. Telford RJ, Stoneham MD. Correct nomenclature of superficial
Flaherty J, Horn JL, Derby R. Regional anesthesia for vascular surgery. cervical plexus blocks. Br J Anaesth. 2004;92:775.
Anesthesiol Clin. 2014;32:639-659. Tran DQ, Dugani S, Finlayson RJ. A randomized comparison
Guay J. Regional anesthesia for carotid surgery. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. between ultrasound-guided and landmark-based superficial
2008;21:638-644. cervical plexus block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35:539-543.
Kim JS, Ko JS, Bang S, Kim H, Lee SY. Cervical plexus block. Usui Y, Kobayashi T, Kakinuma H, Watanabe K, Kitajima T,
Korean J Anesthesiol. 2018 August;71(4):274-288. Matsuno K. An anatomical basis for blocking of the deep
Nash L, Nicholson HD, Zhang M. Does the investing layer of the cervical plexus and cervical sympathetic tract using an ultrasound-
deep cervical fascia exist? Anesthesiol. 2005;103:962-968. guided technique. Anesth Analg. 2010;110:964-968.
Pandit JJ, Dutta D, Morris JF. Spread of injectate with superficial
cervical plexus block in humans: an anatomical study.
Br J Anaesth. 2003;91:733-735.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
3
SECTION
Upper Extremity Blocks
Chapter 13 Interscalene Brachial Plexus Block 143

Chapter 14 Supraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block 153
Chapter 15 Infraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block 161
Chapter 16 Costoclavicular Brachial Plexus Block 169
Chapter 17 Axillary Brachial Plexus Block 177
Chapter 18 Blocks for Analgesia of the Shoulder:
Phrenic Nerve Sparing Blocks 185
Chapter 19 Blocks About the Elbow 195
Chapter 20 Wrist Block 205

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
13 Interscalene Brachial
Plexus Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Blockade of the brachial plexus at the level of the interscalene space.
• Indications: Anesthesia and analgesia for shoulder, upper arm, and clavicle surgery
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread around the superior and middle trunks of the brachial plexus, between
the anterior and middle scalene muscles
• Local anesthetic: 5 to 15 mL
remains the most common adverse effect of the intersca-

General Considerations lene block despite several modifications of the technique
The interscalene brachial plexus block is a common to decrease its occurrence. Using lower volumes (<10 mL),
regional anesthesia technique for anesthesia and analge- diluted LAs, more distal injection sites, selective superior
sia of the shoulder and upper arm surgery, as it provides trunk block, or a combination of these interventions does
complete blockade of the nerves involved in the innerva- decrease the incidence, but does not consistently avoid
tion of the shoulder (Figure 13-1). Ultrasound (US) guid- block of the phrenic nerve. Therefore, this block should
ance has improved the block’s success and popularity and be used with caution in patients with respiratory insuffi-
reduced the volume of LA required. Ipsilateral phrenic ciency; more distal interventional techniques are recom-
nerve block with consequent hemi-diaphragmatic palsy mended instead. (See Chapter 18.)
FIGURE 13-1. Innervation of the shoulder joint; all neural elements come from the brachial plexus at the interscalene level.

144 SEC TION 3 Upper Extremity Blocks
trunks, divisions, cords, and branches. At the posterior tri-

Specific Risks angle of the neck, the plexus is seen as three trunks (supe-
Procedural injuries of the interscalene brachial plexus have been rior, middle, and inferior) posterior to the carotid artery
reported, including nerve injury of the median, radial, phrenic, and internal jugular vein between the anterior and middle
dorsal scapular, and long thoracic nerves. The recurrent laryn- scalene muscles. The phrenic nerve courses anterior to the
geal nerve may also be blocked with interscalene block, resulting brachial plexus over the surface of the anterior scalene mus-
in airway obstruction in patients with existing vocal cord palsy. cle (Figure 13-3). The dorsal scapular nerve runs down and
Epidural or spinal injection, Horner syndrome, diaphragmatic posterior through the middle scalene muscle, often close
paralysis, and myotoxicity have all been reported. to the long thoracic nerve. Anatomical variations in bra-
chial plexus anatomy are common. As an example, the C5
root often (35%) takes a course over or through the ante-
Anatomy rior scalene muscle rather than the interscalene space. The
The brachial plexus is a nerve network comprised of branches of the thyrocervical trunk (suprascapular artery
the anterior rami from the spinal nerves from C5 to T1 and transverse cervical artery) cross the brachial plexus at
(Figure 13-2). The spinal nerves continue to form roots, variable levels as they travel posteriorly.
FIGURE 13-2. Organization of the brachial plexus from roots to terminal nerves.

Interscalene Brachial Plexus Block CHAPTER 13 145
FIGURE 13-3. Dissection of the brachial plexus.
and can thus be mistaken for two separate roots. The shape
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and and depth of the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae
Ultrasound View allow recognizing each individual root. Due to the pyramidal
The brachial plexus is located between the anterior and shape of the anterior scalene muscle, it is easier to identify the
middle scalene muscles, deep to the sternocleidomastoid interscalene groove at the base of the neck.
muscle (SCM) and the deep cervical (prevertebral) fascia
(Figure 13-4). On US, the brachial plexus is typically visual-
ized at a depth of 1 to 3 cm as hypoechoic round structures that Distribution of Anesthesia
exit the transverse process and rapidly change their appear-
ance and organization from roots to trunks within few centi-
and Analgesia
meters. The fascicles can be seen separating and rearranging The interscalene approach to brachial plexus blockade results
along their course appearing as two to four round structures. in reliable anesthesia of the shoulder, upper arm, and lateral
The C6 nerve root often splits into two hypoechoic bundles two-thirds of the clavicle (Figure 13-5). The supraclavicular
FIGURE 13-4. Cross-section anatomy illustration of the brachial plexus at the level of the C6 vertebra.

FIGURE 13-5. Expected sensory distribution of the interscalene brachial plexus block
(red). The ulnar nerve distribution area (C8-T1) is usually not covered.
branches of the cervical plexus, supplying the skin over the effort, and service to manage. Catheters tend to dislodge from
acromion and clavicle, are often blocked due to the proxi- their therapeutic position and may require replacement.
mal and superficial spread of LA. The volume of LA can
also spread anteriorly and affect the sympathetic trunk, Patient Positioning
resulting in Horner syndrome. The inferior trunk (C8-T1)
is usually spared, unless the injection occurs at the supra- The block is typically performed with the patient in a supine,
clavicular level. semi-sitting, or semi-lateral decubitus position, with the head
facing toward the contralateral side to expose the posterior
triangle of the neck. The position of the head and shoulder
Block Preparation should be adjusted to maximize the space to scan and to allow
the insertion of the needle from the posterolateral aspect of
Equipment the neck (Figure 13-6).
• Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer
• Needle: 50-mm, 22-gauge, short-bevel, insulated stimulat-
ing needle
Local Anesthetic
To provide prolonged analgesia after painful shoulder surgery,
long-lasting LAs and high concentrations are usually used
for single-shot interscalene block (bupivacaine 0.5%, ropiva-
caine 0.5-0.75%). For analgesia beyond 24 hours, liposome
bupivacaine can be added to bupivacaine, resulting in anal-
gesia for 72 hours or more without significant motor block.
Typically, 10 mL of liposome bupivacaine 1.33% is mixed with
5 mL of 0.5% bupivacaine. For continuous blocks, more
diluted concentrations are used of the same drugs, followed
by the infusion or automated bolus. Of note, the use of con- FIGURE 13-6. Ideal patient position for an ultrasound-guided
tinuous interscalene catheters requires substantial expertise, interscalene brachial plexus block.

apply color Doppler to identify arteries and veins in the vicin-

Technique ity of the plexus before deciding the site of the block.
Initial Probe Position
Place the transducer in a sagittal orientation at the supracla- Needle Insertion
vicular fossa to identify the subclavian artery. The brachial
The needle is inserted usually in-plane in a posterior-to-
plexus is seen posterior and superficial to the subclavian
anterior direction, toward the brachial plexus. The needle
artery (Figure 13-7), and from there it can be traced cranially
tip should be directed in between the elements of the bra-
to the desired level.
chial plexus in order to minimize the risk of accidental nerve
An alternative is to place the tranducer in a transverse orien-
injury as the needle enters the interscalene space.
tation on the lateral aspect of the neck just below the level of the
cricoid cartilage to identify the carotid artery deep to the SCM.
Local Anesthetic Distribution
After careful aspiration to rule out intravascular needle place-
Scanning Technique ment, 1 to 2 mL of LA is injected to verify proper needle place-
The transducer is moved slightly posteriorly across the ment (Figure 13-9). Injection of LA should displace the brachial
neck to identify the anterior and middle scalene muscles. plexus away from the needle and result in its spread within the
Tilting the transducer caudally helps identify the round scalene space. When injection of the LA does not displace the
shapes of the brachial plexus emerging in between the scalene plexus or does not result in adequate spread around the trunks,
muscles (Figure 13-8). It is recommended to systematically additional needle repositioning and injections are necessary.
FIGURE 13-7. Transducer position at the supraclavicular fossa and ultrasound image obtained at this level.
SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; SA, subclavian artery; BP, brachial plexus; OHM, omohyoid muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle.

FIGURE 13-8. Transducer position to obtain initial ultrasound view of the brachial plexus at the interscalene groove.
SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; ASM, anterior scalene muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle; LS, levator scapulae muscle;
LCo, longus colli muscle; C7-TP, transverse process of C7.
FIGURE 13-9. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane for an interscalene brachial plexus block. Ideal
local anesthetic spread (blue). ASM, anterior scalene muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle and roots of the brachial plexus;
SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; LCa, longus capitis muscle; VA, vertebral artery; LTN, long thoracic nerve; DSN, dorsal scapular
nerve; C7-TP, transverse process of C7.

in order to complete the injection or to re-adjust the posi-

Problem-Solving Tips tion of the needle.
• The neck is a highly vascular area, and care must be exercised • The lateral-to-medial insertion is often chosen to pre-
to avoid needle placement or injection into the vascular struc- vent injury to the phrenic nerve, which is typically located
tures (vertebral artery, thyrocervical trunk, inferior thyroid anteriorly to the anterior scalene, although one should be
artery, suprascapular artery, and transverse cervical artery). aware that the dorsal scapular nerve and the long thoracic
Use color Doppler imaging before inserting the needle to rule nerve usually course through the middle scalene and could
out any blood vessels that might be in the path of the needle. potentially be injured as well (Figure 13-10).
• Never inject against high resistance because high open- • C6 and C7 commonly split at this level; avoid injecting
ing injection pressure (>15 psi) may indicate needle-nerve between the nerves coming from a single root as this has a
contact or an intrafascicular injection. In addition to the risk of an intraneural injection. It is safer to inject between
mechanical needle and injection injury to the nerve roots, C5 and C6 or between the upper and middle trunk.
intraneural needle placement may result in injection
• When the root of C5 is showing in the anterior scalene,
spread into the spinal canal.
trace the root distally until it enters the interscalene space
• To confirm LA spread into the proper compartment, one for the injection.
can stop the injection after a few mL and trace the disposi-
• Multiple injections should be avoided as they are unneces-
tion of the injectate proximal-distal alongside the plexus.
sary for brachial plexus block and may be associated with a
The transducer is then moved back to visualize the needle
higher risk of complications.
FIGURE 13-10. Ultrasound image showing the long thoracic and dorsal scapular
nerves crossing the middle scalene muscle. SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; ASM,
anterior scalene muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle.

Flowchart
Interscalene Brachial Plexus Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Semi-sitting with head turned
away from the side to be blocked
Transducer position
Ultrasound settings
Transverse over the lateral
• Depth: 3 cm
aspect of the neck,
• Transducer: High frequency
3-4 cm above the clavicle.
Scanning
Slide the transducer cranially/caudally to
identify the anterior and middle scalene
muscles and hypoechoic trunks of
brachial plexus in between
• Position the transducer above
the clavicle
• Identify the brachial plexus lateral
to the pulsating subclavian artery
• Trace the brachial plexus No
proximally 2-3 cm until it is Brachial plexus
visualized between the anterior identified?
and middle scalene muscles
• Adjust the tilt caudally and heeling
posteriorly to improve visualization Yes
of the plexus
Apply color Doppler to identify

arteries and veins before needle insertion
Tip • Insert needle in-plane, from lateral to

Find a nerve-free space in the medial, toward the plexus
brachial plexus sheath between • After negative aspiration inject
C5 and C6, superficial to C5, or 1-2 mL of LA to confirm spread inside
deep to C6 interscalene groove
• Reposition the needle and inject

1-2 mL of LA No Spread is
• Lighten the pressure on the visualized in the
transducer to facilitate visualization scalene space?
of the spread
Apply the “RAPT” method of Yes

communication before injection
of the local anesthetic
Complete the block with
R = Motor Response absent at 0.5 mA 7-15 mL of local anesthetic
A = Aspiration negative
P = Opening injection Pressure
<15 psi
T = Total volume

SUGGESTED READINGS Marhofer P, Harrop-Griffiths W, Willschke H, Kirchmair L.

Fifteen years of ultrasound guidance in regional anaesthesia:
part 2—recent developments in block techniques. Br J Anaesth.
Single-Injection Ultrasound-Guided Interscalene Block 2010;104:673-683.
Albrecht E, Kirkham KR, Taffé P, et al. The maximum effective McNaught A, McHardy P, Awad IT. Posterior interscalene block: an
needle-to-nerve distance for ultrasound-guided interscalene ultrasound-guided case series and overview of history, anatomy
block: an exploratory study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2014;39:56-60. and techniques. Pain Res Manag. 2010;15:219-223.
Avellanet M, Sala-Blanch X, Rodrigo L, Gonzalez-Viejo MA. McNaught A, Shastri U, Carmichael N, et al. Ultrasound reduces
Permanent upper trunk plexopathy after interscalene brachial the minimum effective local anaesthetic volume compared
plexus block. J Clin Monit Comput. 2016;30:51-54. with peripheral nerve stimulation for interscalene block.
Burckett-St Laurent D, Chan V, Chin KJ. Refining the ultrasound- Br J Anaesth. 2011;106:124-130.
guided interscalene brachial plexus block: the superior trunk Natsis K, Totlis T, Didagelos M, Tsakotos G, Vlassis K, Skandalakis P.
approach. Can J Anaesth. 2014;61:1098-1102. Scalenus minimus muscle: overestimated or not? An anatomical
Errando CL, Muñoz-Devesa L, Soldado MA. Bloqueo interescalénico study. Am Surg. 2013;79:372-374.
guiado por ecografía en un paciente con alteraciones anatómicas Orebaugh SL, McFadden K, Skorupan H, Bigeleisen PE.
de la region supraclavicular secundarias a radioterapia y cirugía Subepineurial injection in ultrasound-guided interscalene
[Ultrasound-guided interscalene block in a patient with supra- needle tip placement. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35:450-454.
clavicular anatomical abnormalities due to radiotherapy and Patel MA, Gadsden JC, Nedeljkovic SS, et al. Brachial plexus block
surgery]. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2011;58:312-314. with liposomal bupivacaine for shoulder surgery improves
Falcão LF, Perez MV, de Castro I, Yamashita AM, Tardelli MA, analgesia and reduces opioid consumption: results from a mul-
Amaral JL. Minimum effective volume of 0.5% bupivacaine ticenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Pain Med.
with epinephrine in ultrasound-guided interscalene brachial 2020;21(2):387-400.
plexus block. Br J Anaesth. 2013;110:450-455. Plante T, Rontes O, Bloc S, Delbos A. Spread of local anesthetic during
Fredrickson MJ, Kilfoyle DH. Neurological complication analysis of an ultrasound-guided interscalene block: does the injection site
1000 ultrasound guided peripheral nerve blocks for elective ortho- influence diffusion? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2011;55:664-669.
paedic surgery: a prospective study. Anaesthesia. 2009;64:836-844. Renes SH, van Geffen GJ, Rettig HC, Gielen MJ, Scheffer GJ.
Fritsch G, Hudelmaier M, Danninger T, Brummett C, Bock M, Minimum effective volume of local anesthetic for shoulder anal-
McCoy M. Bilateral loss of neural function after interscalene gesia by ultrasound-guided block at root C7 with assessment of
plexus blockade may be caused by epidural spread of local anes- pulmonary function. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35:529-534.
thetics: a cadaveric study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2013;38:64-68. Roessel T, Wiessner D, Heller AR, Zimmermann T, Koch T, Litz
Gadsden J, Hadzic A, Gandhi K, et al. The effect of mixing 1.5% RJ. High-resolution ultrasound-guided high interscalene
mepivacaine and 0.5% bupivacaine on duration of analgesia plexus block for carotid endarterectomy. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
and latency of block onset in ultrasound-guided interscalene 2007;32:247-253.
block. Anesth Analg. 2011;112:471-476. Soeding P, Eizenberg N. Review article: anatomical considerations
Gautier P, Vandepitte C, Ramquet C, DeCoopman M, Xu D, Hadzic A. for ultrasound guidance for regional anesthesia of the neck and
The minimum effective anesthetic volume of 0.75% ropivacaine upper limb. Can J Anaesth. 2009;56:518-533.
in ultrasound-guided interscalene brachial plexus block. Anesth Spence BC, Beach ML, Gallagher JD, Sites BD. Ultrasound-guided
Analg. 2011;113:951-955. interscalene blocks: understanding where to inject the local
Ihnatsenka B, Boezaart AP. Applied sonoanatomy of the posterior anaesthetic. Anaesthesia. 2011;66:509-514.
triangle of the neck. Int J Shoulder Surg. 2010;4:63-74. Vandepitte C, Kuroda M, Witvrouw R, et al. Addition of liposome
Kim YD, Yu JY, Shim J, Heo HJ, Kim H. Risk of encountering dorsal bupivacaine to bupivacaine HCl versus bupivacaine HCl alone
scapular and long thoracic nerves during ultrasound-guided for interscalene brachial plexus block in patients having major
interscalene brachial plexus block with nerve stimulator. shoulder surgery. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42(3):334-341.
Korean J Pain. 2016 July;29(3):179-184. Zisquit J, Nedeff N. Interscalene block. In: StatPearls [Internet].
Koff MD, Cohen JA, McIntyre JJ, Carr CF, Sites BD. Severe brachial Treasure Island: StatPearls Publishing; 2021.
plexopathy after an ultrasound-guided single-injection nerve
block for total shoulder arthroplasty in a patient with multiple
sclerosis. Anesthesiology. 2008;108:325-328.
Continuous Ultrasound-Guided Interscalene Block
Lang RS, Kentor ML, Vallejo M, Bigeleisen P, Wisniewski SR, Antonakakis JG, Sites BD, Shiffrin J. Ultrasound-guided posterior
Orebaugh SL. The impact of local anesthetic distribution on approach for the placement of a continuous interscalene catheter.
block onset in ultrasound-guided interscalene block. Acta Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34:64-68.
Anaesthesiol Scand. 2012;56:1146-1151. Cuvillon P, Le Sache F, Demattei C, et al Continuous interscalene
Liu SS, Gordon MA, Shaw PM, Wilfred S, Shetty T, YaDeau JT. A pro- brachial plexus nerve block prolongs unilateral diaphragmatic
spective clinical registry of ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia dysfunction. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2016;35(6):383-390.
for ambulatory shoulder surgery. Anesth Analg. 2010;111:617-623. Fredrickson MJ, Ball CM, Dalgleish AJ. Analgesic effectiveness
Liu SS, YaDeau JT, Shaw PM, Wilfred S, Shetty T, Gordon M. Inci- of a continuous versus single-injection interscalene block for
dence of unintentional intraneural injection and post-operative minor arthroscopic shoulder surgery. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
neurological complications with ultrasound-guided interscalene 2010;35:28-33.
and supraclavicular nerve blocks. Anaesthesia. 2011;66:168-174. Fredrickson MJ, Ball CM, Dalgleish AJ. Posterior versus anterolat-
Lu IC, Hsu HT, Soo LY, et al. Ultrasound examination for the opti- eral approach interscalene catheter placement: a prospective
mal head position for interscalene brachial plexus block. randomized trial. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2011;36:125-133.
Acta Anaesthesiol Taiwan. 2007;45:73-78. Fredrickson MJ, Ball CM, Dalgleish AJ, Stewart AW, Short TG.
Madison SJ, Humsi J, Loland VJ, et al. Ultrasound-guided root/trunk A prospective randomized comparison of ultrasound and
(interscalene) block for hand and forearm anesthesia. Reg Anesth neurostimulation as needle end points for interscalene catheter
Pain Med. 2013;38:226-232. placement. Anesth Analg. 2009;108:1695-1700.

Fredrickson MJ, Price DJ. Analgesic effectiveness of ropivacaine Vandepitte C, Gautier P, Xu D, Salviz EA, Hadzic A. Effective
0.2% vs 0.4% via an ultrasound-guided C5–6 root/superior trunk volume of ropivacaine 0.75% through a catheter required
perineural ambulatory catheter. Br J Anaesth. 2009;103:434-439. for interscalene brachial plexus blockade. Anesthesiology.
Mariano ER, Afra R, Loland VJ, et al. Continuous interscalene bra- 2013;118:863-867.
chial plexus block via an ultrasound-guided posterior approach: Vorobeichik L, Brull R, Bowry R, Laffey JG, Abdallah FW. Should
a randomized, triple-masked, placebo-controlled study. Anesth continuous rather than single-injection interscalene block
Analg. 2009;108:1688-1694. be routinely offered for major shoulder surgery? A meta-
Mariano ER, Loland VJ, Ilfeld BM. Interscalene perineural catheter analysis of the analgesic and side-effects profiles. Br J Anaesth.
placement using an ultrasound-guided posterior approach. 2018;120(4):679-692.
Shin HJ, Ahn JH, Jung HI, et al. Feasibility of ultrasound-guided
posterior approach for interscalene catheter placement dur-
ing arthroscopic shoulder surgery. Korean J Anesthesiol.
2011;61:475-481.

14 Supraclavicular Brachial
Plexus Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the brachial plexus at the level of the supraclavicular fossa.
• Indications: Anesthesia and analgesia for procedures on the shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, and hand surgery
• Goal: Injection of the local anesthetic (LA) around the trunks and divisions of the brachial plexus via two separate
injections—one for the lower trunk (10 mL) and one between upper and middle trunk (10 mL)
• Local anesthetic volume: 20 mL
block of this nerve for analgesia of the shoulder without

General Considerations phrenic nerve involvement is possible (see Chapter 18).
The supraclavicular block is a commonly used technique
for surgery of the upper extremity at or distal to the shoul-
der. As the trunks and divisions of the brachial plexus Limitations
travel between the clavicle and the first rib, they are closely The risk of phrenic nerve block is lower than with the inter-
related to each other, therefore, affording supraclavicular scalene block, but cannot be reliably avoided. Therefore, in
block the fast, consistent, and complete block of the arm, patients who cannot tolerate a 20-30% decrease in respiratory
forearm, and hand. Ultrasound (US) guidance has renewed function as it occurs with a phrenic block, an infraclavicular
the interest in the supraclavicular block due to its ability approach to brachial plexus block is a better choice for upper
to visualize the plexus and avoid the vascular structures extremity surgery or analgesia.
and the pleura. More precise needle placement using US
allows better monitoring of the spread of LA and decreases
the risk of complications caused by unintended pleural or Specific Risks
vascular puncture. Different authors debate about the ideal Pneumothorax is an uncommon but potentially life-
position of the needle tip and the number of injections threatening complication because it is typically delayed and
required. For instance, the so-called injection inside the may occur in an unmonitored setting after discharge home. It
“cluster” of neural structures has been reported to result is paramount to monitor the needle advancement at all times.
in a faster onset than one injection deep to the brachial Nerve injury to the plexus due to intraneural needle place-
plexus (“corner pocket”). Some authors advise two sepa- ment, or suprascapular and long thoracic nerve injuries have
rate injections (aiming at deep and superficial structures). also been described. Routine use of US, nerve stimulation,
However, considering that most studies show a similar and injection pressure monitoring is recommended.
success rate and that intracluster injection may carry a
higher risk of intraneural injection, “intracluster” injection
is not recommended.
A selective block of the upper (superior) trunk with low
Anatomy
volume of LA (5 mL) is an alternative to the interscalene From a sagittal orientation in the interscalene space, the bra-
block for shoulder surgery. Also, because the suprascapular chial plexus changes to a transverse orientation as the plexus
nerve departs posteriorly from the upper trunk, a selective approaches the costoclavicular outlet and the scalene muscles

infraclavicular fossa. The suprascapular and transverse cer-

vical arteries (tyrocervical trunk) often course between the
elements of plexus.
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and

Ultrasound View
The brachial plexus and the subclavian artery cross over the
first rib between the insertions of the anterior and middle
scalene muscles, underneath the midpoint of the clavicle.
Brachial plexus elements form an inverted triangular shape
in between the artery (anterior), the rib and middle sca-
lene muscle (inferior-posterior), and the omohyoid mus-
cle (superficial). The dome of the pleura is located caudal
to the artery and the rib. On US, the subclavian artery is
readily apparent as an anechoic round structure, with the
FIGURE 14-1. Anatomy of the brachial plexus at the brachial plexus posterior and superficial to it as a group
supraclavicular level. BP, brachial plexus; BPS, brachial plexus of hypoechoic round structures surrounded by thin lay-
sheath; ASM, anterior scalene muscle; SV, subclavian vein; ers of fascial sheaths. The pleura and the first rib can be
SSA, suprascapular artery; SA, subclavian artery; DSA, dorsal seen as linear hyperechoic structures deep to the subclavian
scapular artery; TCA, transverse cervical artery. artery (Figure 14-2). The rib is more superficial and casts
an acoustic shadow (anechoic image), while the pleura is
seen on both sides of the rib, “sliding” with respiration.
diverge to insert on the first rib. In this short path, the three Crossing blood vessels can be seen in a transverse view, as
trunks give rise to anterior and posterior divisions, appearing hypoechoic nodules, similar to the neural structures, or in
as a compact group of multiple neural structures (Figure 14-1). a longitudinal view crossing in between the plexus; there-
The subclavian artery accompanies the brachial plexus fore, color Doppler is recommended to detect them before
crossing anteromedially and above the first rib to enter the the procedure.
FIGURE 14-2. Ultrasound view and reverse anatomy illustration of the brachial plexus at the supraclavicular level.
SA, subclavian artery; SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; ASM, anterior scalene muscle; UTa, UTp, and UTs, anterior,
posterior, and suprascapular divisions of the upper trunk; MTa and MTp, anterior and posterior divisions of the middle
trunk; LT, lower trunk; OHM, omohyoid muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle.

Supraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block CHAPTER 14 155
FIGURE 14-3. Expected sensory distribution of the supraclavicular brachial plexus block.
Distribution of Anesthesia Patient Positioning

and Analgesia The block can be performed with the patient in the supine,
The supraclavicular brachial plexus block results in anes- semi-sitting, or semi-lateral position. A slight elevation of
thesia of the entire upper extremity, including the shoul- the head of the bed is often more comfortable for the patient
der, provided the suprascapular nerve is enclosed in the and facilitates drainage of the neck veins. The patient’s head
LA spread. However, the skin of the proximal part of the must be turned away from the side to be blocked, the shoul-
medial side of the arm (intercostobrachial nerve, T2) is der relaxed, and the arm positioned alongside the trunk to
not anesthetized (Figure 14-3). When cutaneous incision depress the clavicle slightly and allow better access to the pos-
is needed in this area (e.g., vascular implants), the cutane- terior triangle of the neck (Figure 14-4).
ous fibers of the intercostobrachial nerve can be blocked
by an additional subcutaneous injection at the axilla (see
Chapter 17).
Block Preparation
Equipment
• Needle: 5-cm, 22-gauge, short-bevel, insulated stimulating
needle
Local Anesthetic
A short-acting (lidocaine 2%) or long-acting (bupivacaine
0.5% or ropivacaine 0.5%) according to the desired duration FIGURE 14-4. Patient position to perform a supraclavicular
of the analgesia. brachial plexus block.

and ulnar nerves. Insertion of the needle into the sheath is

Technique often associated with a perceptible loss of resistance. The
Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position needle is then withdrawn and carefully redirected toward
the superficial elements of the brachial plexus to complete
Identify the base of the posterior triangle of the neck (between
the injection between the divisions of the upper and middle
the mid-clavicle, the lateral border of SCM, and the anterior
trunks with an additional 10 mL of LA. Once the needle enters
border of the trapezius muscle).
the fascial plane and after negative aspiration, the spread of
The transducer is positioned in a sagittal oblique
LA is assessed and the position of the needle tip adjusted as
plane immediately proximal and parallel to the clavicle
needed, avoiding unnecessary advancement (Figure 14-6).
(Figure 14-5).

Scanning Technique
For procedures at or below the arm, it is necessary that the
The first goal is to obtain a clear cross-sectional view of the spread of LA includes all elements of the brachial plexus at
subclavian artery, the first rib, and the pleura underneath; this level. For procedures on the shoulder, the spread of LA
this can be achieved by sliding and adjusting the tilt of the should target the upper and middle trunks.
transducer. The elements of the brachial plexus are located
posterior and superficial to the artery, contained within
the brachial plexus sheath, typically at 1 to 2 cm depth. To Problem-Solving Tips
enhance the view of the limits of this space, clockwise trans-
• Visualization: If the subclavian artery is not clearly seen,
ducer rotation and alternating the pressure on the ante-
adjust the tilt of the transducer from sagittal to oblique.
rior or posterior edge of the transducer (heel-toeing) are
Once the artery is defined, the brachial plexus can be
recommended.
defined sliding the transducer craneo-caudally. Finally,
Although recognizing the individual elements is not neces-
scan as lateral as possible to image the first rib deep to the
sary to perform a successful supraclavicular block, the individ-
artery and plexus; the rib functions as a safety “net.”
ual trunks and divisions can be identified following the plexus
craneo-caudally and tilting the transducer (Figure 14-5). The • Avoid needle placement into the vessels: the neck is a
upper trunk is the most superficial structure, arising from highly vascular area, and care must be exercised to avoid
C5-C6 and dividing into three components, the anterior divi- them. Use color Doppler before needle placement and
sion, posterior division, and suprascapular nerve, which can aspirate every 5 mL before injection. The suprascapular
be selectively blocked at this level for analgesia of the shoulder artery is particularly commonly seen crossing the brachial
(see Chapter 18). The middle trunk is the continuation of C7, plexus at this level. Other vessels can be found within the
whereas the lower trunk (C8-T1) is in close relationship with vicinity of the brachial plexus, such as the transverse cervi-
the artery and the first rib. Color Doppler should be routinely cal artery.
used prior to needle insertion to rule out the passage of large • Beware of the suprascapular and long thoracic nerves that
branches of the thyrocervical trunk. can be in the needle path when advancing in-plane from
posterior to anterior. Use nerve stimulator to detect mus-
cular responses of the supraspinatus or serratus anterior
Needle Insertion muscles.
The needle is advanced in-plane, typically from posterior to • Enter the needle at a shallow angle to assure its visual-
anterior, through the omohyoid muscle toward the brachial ization and only then adjust the angle as needed, keep-
plexus. The first injection (10 mL) is deposited between the ing the needle in view as it advances to avoid entering
first rib and the lower trunk to ensure the block of the median the pleura.

FIGURE 14-5. Transducer position and ultrasound image to perform a supraclavicular block. SA, subclavian artery;
LT, lower trunk; MT, middle trunk; UT, upper trunk; MSM, middle scalene muscle; OHM, omohyoid muscle.
FIGURE 14-6. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane for a supraclavicular brachial plexus block. Ideal
LA spread around divisions of the brachial plexus (in blue). The first injection (1) placed in between the first rib and the lower
trunk, and the second (2) between the divisions of the upper and middle trunks. SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle;
ASM, anterior scalene muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle; SA, subclavian artery.

Flowchart
Supraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Semi-sitting with the head turned
away from the side to be blocked
Transducer position
Ultrasound settings
Sagittal oblique plane
• Depth: 3 cm
immediately proximal and
parallel to the clavicle.
Subclavian artery appears as an

anechoic round structure, with Scanning
brachial plexus as a group of Scan craneo-caudally,
hypoechoic round structures. and adjust the tilt of the probe
Pleura and first rib can be seen as to identify the subclavian artery,
linear hyperechoic structures first rib and pleura.
deep to the artery.
Clockwise rotate the probe Subclavian

alternating the pressure on the No artery and elements
anterior or posterior edge of the brachial plexus
[heel-toeing] of the probe. identified?
No
Yes
Artery Apply color Doppler to identify arteries

Yes
and brachial plexus and veins before injection and aspirate
identified? every 2-3 mL during injection.
Yes
Insert the needle in-plane in a posterior to

anterior direction toward the brachial
plexus.
1. lnject 10 mL between the first rib
and lower trunk.
2. Redirect and inject 10 mL between
divisions of the upper and middle trunks.
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plexus block. Br J Anaesth. 2010;104:490-495. Siddiqui U, Perlas A, Chin K, et al. Intertruncal approach to the
Kakazu C, Tokhner V, Li J, Ou R, Simmons E. In the new era supraclavicular brachial plexus, current controversies and
of ultrasound guidance: is pneumothorax from supracla- technical update: a daring discourse. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
vicular block a rare complication of the past? Br J Anaesth. 2020;45(5):377-380.
2014;113:190-191. Snaith R, Dolan J. Preprocedural color probe Doppler scanning
Macfarlane AJ, Perlas A, Chan V, Brull R. Eight ball, corner pocket before ultrasound-guided supraclavicular block. Anesth Pain
ultrasound-guided supraclavicular block: avoiding a scratch. Med. 2010;35:223.
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;33:502-503. Techasuk W, González AP, Bernucci F, Cupido T, Finlayson RJ, Tran
Manickam BP, Oosthuysen SA, Parikh MK. Supraclavicular DQ. A randomized comparison between double- injection and
brachial plexus block-variant relation of brachial plexus targeted intracluster-injection ultrasound-guided supraclavicu-
to subclavian artery on the first rib. Reg Anesth Pain Med. lar brachial plexus block. Anesth Analg. 2014;118:1363-1369.
2009;34:383-384. Tran de QH, Munoz L, Zaouter C, Russo G, Finlayson RJ. A pro-
Morfey D, Brull R. Ultrasound-guided supraclavicular block: what spective, randomized comparison between single- and double
is intraneural? Anesthesiology. 2010;112:250-251. injection, ultrasound-guided supraclavicular brachial plexus
Morfey DH, Brull R. Finding the corner pocket: landmarks block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34:420-424.
in ultrasound-guided supraclavicular block. Anaesthesia. Williams SR, Chouinard P, Arcand G, et al. Ultrasound guidance
2009;64:1381. speeds execution and improves the quality of supraclavicular
block. Anesth Analg. 2003;97:1518-1523.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
15 Infraclavicular Brachial
Plexus Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the brachial plexus at the level of the lateral infraclavicular fossa, deep to the pectoral muscles.
• Indications: Surgery on the arm, elbow, forearm, and hand
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread around the axillary artery next to the medial, posterior, and lateral cords
of the brachial plexus
the needle, and the costoclavicular approach targets the plexus

General Considerations more proximally (see Chapter 16).
The infraclavicular brachial plexus block is a well-established
regional anesthesia technique for procedures below the shoul-
der. The infraclavicular block is devoid of respiratory symptoms
Limitations
that can occur with phrenic nerve palsy with supraclavicular The neurovascular bundle at the lateral infraclavicular fossa
and interscalene blocks. Compared to the axillary block, abduc- in patients with a large amount of adipose tissue or large
tion of the arm is not absolutely necessary; therefore, an infra- pectoral muscles (e.g., obesity or bodybuilders) is positioned
clavicular block may be more suitable in patients with painful much deeper, making adequate imaging difficult. In these
fractures or requiring arm immobilization. An infraclavicular patients, a more proximal (e.g., supraclavicular) or more dis-
block is also suitable for catheter placement because the mus- tal (e.g., axillary) approach to brachial plexus block may be
culature of the chest wall may help to stabilize the catheter, pre- more suitable.
venting its dislodgement compared with the more superficial
location of the interscalene or supraclavicular approaches. Specific Risks
Ultrasound (US) guidance facilitates the technique and
provides more consistent practice by monitoring of the LA Although uncommon, the proximity of the pleural cavity
distribution. Although it is not always possible to reliably theoretically poses the risk of pneumothorax. Injury to and
identify all three cords of the plexus at this position, a suc- dissection of the axillary artery has also been described.
cessful block can be accomplished simply by depositing the
LA around the infraclavicular portion of the axillary artery
around its lateral, posterior, and medial aspects. Anatomical
Anatomy
studies suggest that several factors may negatively affect the The boundaries of the infraclavicular space are the pecto-
success rate of the brachial plexus block at this level due to the ralis minor and major muscles anteriorly, serratus anterior
anatomical variability among the cords and their location in and ribs medially, clavicle and the coracoid process superi-
the infraclavicular fossa. The infraclavicular periarterial space orly, and the humerus laterally. On its descent, the brachial
may also have septae and fascial layers within the neurovascu- plexus organization changes as it progresses into the axilla as
lar bundle that can prevent the spread of LA to all cords of the terminal nerves. The three cords (lateral, medial, posterior)
brachial plexus unless additional needle tip adjustments and enter the axillary fossa clustered lateral to the artery through
injections are done. Recently, several other approaches to the the costoclavicular space, and then they twist to adopt a cir-
infraclavicular plexus have been proposed to circumvent limi- cumferential disposition around the axillary artery on their
tations of the classic lateral sagittal approach. In particular, course deep to the pectoralis major and minor muscles
the retroclavicular approach provides a better visualization of (Figure 15-1). At this level, the organization of the brachial

FIGURE 15-1. Anatomy of the brachial plexus at the infraclavicular fossa. AV, axillary vein;
AA, axillary artery; BP, brachial plexus.
plexus is quite complex due to rearrangement of fascicles and muscle, whereas the axillary vein is seen as a compressible
departure of the terminal nerves. The axillary and musculo- hypoechoic structure medial to it. The cords can often be
cutaneous nerves may leave the brachial plexus at or cranially seen as rounded hyperechoic structures lateral, posterior,
to the coracoid process in 50% of patients, possibly affecting and medial to the artery (Figure 15-3), while the chest wall
the extent of the sensory blockade. and pleura can be identified medially and slightly deeper.
Multiple other, smaller blood vessels are often present as
well in the vicinity of the plexus.
Ultrasound View
Distribution of Anesthesia and
In a sagittal plane of the infraclavicular area just medial to
the coracoid process, the axillary artery, vein, and the bra-
Analgesia
chial plexus are positioned deep to the pectoralis minor The infraclavicular approach to brachial plexus block results
muscle, anterior to the subclavius muscle, and lateral to the in anesthesia of the arm below the shoulder (Figure 15-4).
serratus anterior muscle. The dispositions of the cords at this Although the axillary nerve is also anesthetized with an infra-
level are located on the lateral, posterior, and medial side of clavicular block, anesthesia and analgesia of the shoulder are
the artery, according to their respective names, although not complete. However, selective blockade of the lateral and
there is a great deal of anatomic variation (Figure 15-2). posterior cords in combination with a suprascapular nerve
The ribs and the pleura are deeper and medial to the neuro- block has been proposed as a phrenic nerve-sparing technique
vascular bundle. By placing the US transducer in the sagit- for shoulder surgery (see Chapter 18). Similar to all other tech-
tal orientation and adjusting the tilt, it is possible to obtain niques of the brachial plexus, the infraclavicular block will not
clear views of both pectoralis muscles and their respective anesthetize the medial aspect of the skin of the proximal arm
fasciae. The pulsation of the axillary artery appears in a (intercostobrachial nerve, T2). However, in the infraclavicular
cross-section underneath the fascia of the pectoralis minor area, the intercostobrachial nerve can be selectively blocked

Infraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block CHAPTER 15 163
FIGURE 15-2. Cross-sectional anatomy of the lateral, posterior, and medial cords.
AA, axillary artery; AV, axillary vein; MC, medial cord; LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord.
by infiltrating LA between the pectoralis minor and serratus

anterior at the level of the third rib.
Block Preparation
Equipment
• Needle: 50-100 mm, 22-gauge, short-bevel, stimulating needle
Local Anesthetic
The sagittal paracorachoid approach requires higher volume
(25-30 mL) of LA. Choices are short-acting (lidocaine 2%) or
long-acting (bupivacaine 0.5%, levobupivacaine 0.5%, or ropi-
vacaine 0.5%) according to the desired duration of the analgesia.
Patient Positioning
The patient is placed in the supine position with the head
turned away from the side to be blocked. Abduction of the
arm to 90° stretches the pectoral muscles, accentuates the
FIGURE 15-3. Infraclavicular block, ultrasound image. pectoralis muscles’ fasciae, and brings the neurovascular
AA, axillary artery; AV, axillary vein; MC, medial cord; bundle more superficially, which facilitates visualization of
LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord. the axillary artery and brachial plexus (Figure 15-5).

FIGURE 15-4. Distribution of anesthesia.
primary goal in establishing the landmarks for the block. This

Technique may require adjustment of the depth, keeping in mind that the
Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position axillary artery is typically at a depth of 3 to 5 cm, depending on
the thickness of the patient’s chest wall musculature. To iden-
The coracoid process and the clavicle are the relevant sur-
tify the hyperechoic cords of the brachial plexus on their cor-
face landmarks that can be easily identified by palpating the
responding positions relative to the artery, it is often necessary
bony prominences just medial to the shoulder. For the sagit-
to apply some pressure and tilt the transducer, although not all
tal paracorachoid approach, the transducer is placed over the
cords are always visualized (Figure 15-6). The chest wall may
lateral infraclavicular fossa in a sagittal orientation medial to
be seen in the medial inferior aspect of the image, with the lung
the coracoid process and caudal to the clavicle (Figure 15-6).
and pleura sliding in synchrony with respiratory movement.
Scanning Technique
Needle Approach and Trajectory
Scanning starts by identifying the pectoralis major, the pecto-
ralis minor, and their fasciae by sliding the transducer in a cra- The needle is inserted in-plane from a cephalad-to-caudal
nial and caudal orientation. Visualization of the axillary artery direction, just inferior to the clavicle to pass through the pec-
and vein in a cross-section on the sonographic image is the toralis major and minor muscles, aiming toward the posterior
aspect of the axillary artery (Figure 15-7). When the needle
pierces the fasciae, a loss of resistance is often felt. If a motor
response is elicited with the nerve stimulator, it is usually from
the lateral cord (elbow flexion or finger flexion), because it can
be on the path of the needle. If the needle is further advanced
beneath the artery, a posterior cord motor response may appear
(finger and wrist extension). After careful aspiration and avoid-
ing high opening injection pressure, inject 1 to 2 mL of a LA to
confirm proper needle tip placement and initial spread.

The desirable spread of LA is around the axillary artery, medi-
ally and laterally, reaching all three cords (Figure 15-7). When
a single injection does not appear to result in an adequate
spread, reposition of the needle tip and further injections
(up to 30 mL) under US visualization may be needed to
FIGURE 15-5. Patient position. accomplish a successful block.

FIGURE 15-6. Desired transducer position and ultrasound image. AA, axillary artery; AV, axillary vein; MC, medial cord;
LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord.
FIGURE 15-7. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion (in-plane) in a cephalad-to-caudal direction to place needle tip
post the axillary artery (AA). AV, axillary vein; MC, medial cord; LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord.

FIGURE 15-8. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane from the supraclavicular fossa underneath the
clavicle (retroclavicular approach). AA, axillary artery; AV, axillary vein; MC, medial cord; LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord.
Alternative Techniques Problem-Solving Tips

Over the last 10 years, alternative approaches for US infra- • Rotating the probe to an oblique orientation (slightly
clavicular blocks have been proposed to overcome the dif- moving the caudal end of the transducer medially) helps
ficulties in the visualization of the plexus and the needle to image the neurovascular bundle in a more perpendicu-
advancement due to the deep location of the structures. lar plane, obtaining a cross-sectional image of the artery
and cords.
Retroclavicular Approach • Applying color Doppler before needle insertion helps
to detect vessels in the vicinity of the plexus and the
With the transducer in a sagittal position, the needle is
needle path.
advanced from the supraclavicular fossa, underneath the
clavicle (Figure 15-8). A possible advantage of this approach • Choose a needle of the appropriate length according to
is that the needle insertion is almost parallel to the transducer, the depth of the posterior aspect of the artery. Echogenic
resulting in greater visibility of the needle tip as it approaches needles are best suited when a steeper angle of insertion is
the posterior aspect of the artery. Some anatomical structures presumed as in the infraclavicular approach.
that lie in the path of the traditional infraclavicular block • When the clavicle obstructs the needle entry or advance-
(e.g., cephalic vein, and the acromial branch of the thora- ment, a heel-toeing maneuver (lifting the pressure of
coacromial artery) can be avoided, while others such as the the cephalad end of the transducer in a sagittal plane
suprascapular nerve and vein may be in the needle’s way. and pressing the tissue on the caudal end) facilitates
Additionally, because the needle trajectory is more posterior, needle insertion.
the risk of pneumothorax could be higher. Due to the acoustic • Aspirate every 3 to 5 mL to decrease the risk of intravas-
shadow of the clavicle, needle advancement cannot be moni- cular injection.
tored for the first 3 to 4 cm after needle insertion. More safety
• Make sure that the LA spreads medially around the artery
data is required before suggesting this approach as a standard.
to ensure the block of the medial cord.
The costoclavicular approach is described in Chapter 16.

Flowchart
Infraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine or semi-sitting with
the arm abducted 90°
Transducer position
Ultrasound settings Sagittal orientation over the
• Depth: 1-3 cm infraclavicular fossa, medial to
• Frequency: 12/18-6 MHz the coracoid process, caudal
to the clavicle
The pectoral muscles appear as hypoechoic

Scanning
structures with hyperechoic fascia.
Slide the transducer in a cranial and
The axillary vein and artery appear as anechoic
caudal orientation to indentify the
structures deep to the muscles.
axillary artery deep to the
The hyperechoic cords of the plexus are located
pectoral muscles
lateral, medial, and posterior to the artery.
Slide the transducer medially to find

No Artery and cords
the artery. Apply pressure and tilt the Yes Apply color Doppler to identify
of the brachial plexus
transducer medially to enhance the arteries and veins before injection
identified?
view of the artery and brachial plexus
Insert the needle in-plane in a

cephalad-to-caudal direction, toward
the posterior aspect of the artery.
Inject 1-2 mL of local anesthetic to
confirm needle tip placement.
The spread is
Reposition the needle tip. No visualized around the artery
Additional injection may be needed
reaching the three cords?
to accomplish a successful block.
Yes
Complete the block

with 25-30 mL of local anesthetic
SUGGESTED READINGS Brull R, McCartney CJ, Chan VW. A novel approach to infraclavicular
brachial plexus block: the ultrasound experience. Anesth Analg.
Auyong DB, Gonzales J, Benonis JG. The Houdini clavicle: arm 2004;99:950.
abduction and needle insertion site adjustment improves needle Charbonneau J, Fréchette Y, Sansoucy Y, Echave P. The ultrasound-
visibility for the infraclavicular nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. guided retroclavicular block: a prospective feasibility study.
2010;35:402-406. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2015;40:605-609.
Benkhadra M, Faust A, Fournier R, Aho LS, Girard C, Feigl G. Desgagne M, Le S, Dion N, Brassard J, Nicole PC. A comparison
Possible explanation for failures during infraclavicular block: of a single or triple injection technique for ultrasound-guided
an anatomical observation on Thiel’s embalmed cadavers. infraclavicular block: a prospective randomized controlled
Br J Anaesth. 2012;109:128-129. study. Anesth Analg. 2009;109:668-672.
Brenner D, Mahon P, Iohom G, Cronin M, Flynn CO, Shorten G. Dolan J. Fascial planes inhibiting the spread of local anesthetic
Fascial layers influence the spread of injectate during ultra- during ultrasound-guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block
sound-guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block: a cadaver are not limited to the posterior aspect of the axillary artery.
study. Br J Anaesth. 2018;121:876-882. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34:612-613.

Feigl G, Marhofer P. Comment on ‘Fascial layers influence the spread Ruíz A, Sala X, Bargallo X, Hurtado P, Arguis MJ, Carrera A. The
of injectate during ultrasound-guided infraclavicular brachial influence of arm abduction on the anatomic relations of infra-
plexus block: a cadaver study’ (Br J Anaesth. 2018;121:876e82). clavicular brachial plexus: an ultrasound study. Anesth Analg.
Br J Anaesth. 2019;122:e54-55. 2009;108:364-366.
Flohr-Madsen S, Ytrebø LM, Kregnes S, Wilsgaard T, Klaastad Ø. Sancheti SF, Uppal V, Sandeski R, Kwofie MK, Szerb JJ. A cadaver
Minimum effective volume of ropivacaine 7.5 mg/ml for an study investigating structures encountered by the needle dur-
ultrasound-guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block. ing a retroclavicular approach to infraclavicular brachial plexus
Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2013;57:495-501. block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2018;43:752-755.
Fredrickson MJ, Wolstencroft P, Kejriwal R, Yoon A, Boland MR, Sauter AR, Dodgson MS, Stubhaug A, Halstensen AM, Klaastad Ø.
Chinchanwala S. Single versus triple injection ultrasound-guided Electrical nerve stimulation or ultrasound guidance for lat-
infraclavicular block: confirmation of the effectiveness of the eral sagittal infraclavicular blocks: a randomized, controlled,
single injection technique. Anesth Analg. 2010;111:1325-1327. observer-blinded, comparative study. Anesth Analg. 2008
Gaertner E, Estebe JP, Zamfir A, Cuby C, Macaire P. Infraclavicular Jun;106:1910-1915.
plexus block: multiple injection versus single injection. Reg Songthamwat B, Karmakar MK, Li JW, Samy W, Mok LYH.
Anesth Pain Med. 2002;27:590-594. Ultrasound-guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block
Hebbard P, Royse C. Ultrasound-guided posterior approach to the prospective randomized comparison of the lateral sagit-
infraclavicular brachial plexus. Anaesthesia. 2007;62:2007. tal and costoclavicular approach. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Lecours M, Lévesque S, Dion N, Nadeau MJ, Dionne A, Turgeon AF. 2018;43:825-831.
Complications of single-injection ultrasound-guided infracla- Sutton EM, Bullock WM, Gadsden J. The retroclavicular brachial
vicular block: a cohort study. Can J Anaesth. 2013;60:244-252. plexus block: additional advantages. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Morimoto M, Popovic J, Kim JT, Kiamzon H, MD ADR. Case 2015;40:733-734.
series: septa can influence local anesthetic spread during Taha AM, Yurdi NA, Elahl MI, Abd-Elmaksoud AM. Diaphragm-
infraclavicular brachial plexus blocks. Can J Anaesth. 2007;54: sparing effect of the infraclavicular subomohyoid block vs low
1006-1010. volume interscalene block. A randomized blinded study. Acta
Musso D, Meknas K, Wilsgaard T, Ytrebø LM. A novel combination Anaesthesiol Scand. 2019 May;63(5):653-658.
of peripheral nerve blocks for arthroscopic shoulder surgery. Tran DQH, Bertini P, Zaouter C, Muñoz L, Finlayson RJ.
Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2017;61:1192-1202. A prospective, randomized comparison between single- and
Ootaki C, Hayashi H, Amano M. Ultrasound-guided infracla- double-injection ultrasound-guided infraclavicular brachial
vicular brachial plexus block: an alternative technique to ana- plexus block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35:16-21.
tomical landmark-guided approaches. Reg Anesth Pain Med. Tran DQ, Dugani S, Dyachenko A, Correa JA, Finlayson RJ. Minimum
2000;25:600-604. effective volume of lidocaine for ultrasound-guided infraclavicular
Petrar SD, Seltenrich ME, Head SJ, Schwarz SKW. Hemidiaphragmatic block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2011;36:190-194.
paralysis following ultrasound-guided supraclavicular versus
infraclavicular brachial plexus blockade. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
2015;40:133-138.

16 Costoclavicular Brachial
Plexus Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the brachial plexus at the medial aspect of the infraclavicular fossa, close to the midpoint
of the clavicle.
• Indications: Same as with traditional infraclavicular block—anesthesia and analgesia for the upper extremity,
elbow, forearm, and hand surgeries. Analgesia for shoulder procedures.
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread between the three cords of the brachial plexus
General Considerations Anatomy

The ultrasound (US)-guided brachial plexus block at the The transition from trunks to cords of the brachial plexus
costoclavicular space has been recently described as an alter- occurs at the costoclavicular space, where all the neural
native approach to the traditional infraclavicular block (sagit- elements travel flattened, arranged laterally to the axillary
tal paracoracoid approach deep to the pectoral muscles). Of artery. It is at this level that the lateral and medial pectoral
note, the site of injection is similar to the landmark-based nerves leave the corresponding cords, whereas the subscapu-
“vertical infraclavicular brachial plexus block” (VIB) described lar and thoracodorsal nerves leave the posterior cord. More
by Kilka et al. The compact organization of the brachial plexus distally, the cords separate from each other and surround
at this level, clustered lateral to the artery and more superficial the axillary artery as they travel deep to the pectoral muscles
than in the traditional approach, may be more favorable to (Figure 16-1).
block with a single needle pass. The more cephalad spread of LA
toward the supraclavicular fossa also may reach the trunks of
the brachial plexus and, therefore, provide shoulder analgesia. Cross-Sectional Anatomy and
Few recent studies suggest that the onset of sensory and Ultrasound View
motor block may be somewhat faster compared to the paracora-
coid approach and that lower volumes of LA may be efficacious. The cords of brachial plexus at this location lie between the
subclavius and the anterior serratus muscle, lateral to the
artery, in a consistent relationship to each other. The lat-
Limitations and Specific Risks
eral cord is in the most superficial, the posterior and medial
The cephalic vein and the thoracoacromial artery may be on cords lie lateral and medial respectively sharing a common
the needle’s path. Care must be taken to avoid these vessels sheath. The second rib can be imaged deep to the serratus
during needle advancement. Otherwise, risks are similar as muscle. The axillary vein is located medially to the artery
for infraclavicular block and mostly related to the proximity and deep to the pectoralis major muscle (Figure 16-2).
of the axillary artery, vein, and the pleura.

FIGURE 16-1. Functional anatomy of the brachial plexus for the costoclavicular approach. Note the relationship
of the brachial plexus cords to the proximal axillary artery. BP, brachial plexus; AV, axillary vein; AA, axillary artery.
(20 mL) of the LA may reach to the supraclavicular and the

Distribution of Anesthesia interscalene brachial plexus and result in a complete block
and Analgesia of the shoulder. Larger volumes (35 mL) may even reach the
The costoclavicular approach results in sensory and phrenic nerve. The combination of low-volume costocla-
motor block of the upper extremity and anterior shoul- vicular block with a suprascapular nerve block is an effective
der (Figure 16-3). The cephalad spread of larger volumes alternative for shoulder surgery (see Chapter 18). Like with
FIGURE 16-2. Sonoanatomy and reverse anatomy of the brachial plexus at the costoclavicular level. AA, axillary artery;
AV, axillary vein; MC, medial cord; LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord; R2, second rib.

Costoclavicular Brachial Plexus Block CHAPTER 16 171
FIGURE 16-3. Distribution of anesthesia with the costoclavicular brachial plexus block.
any other brachial plexus block, the skin of the medial side the subclavius muscle and the serratus anterior. The three
of the upper arm is not anesthetized (that is innervated by cords are visualized in a single transverse US scan superficial
the intercostobrachialis [T2]). When required, the skin of and lateral to the artery as a triangular shaped hyperechoic
the medial aspect of the upper arm can be anesthetized by an structure (Figure 16-5). Releasing the pressure on the trans-
additional subcutaneous injection on the medial aspect of the ducer and applying color Doppler is useful to determine the
arm just distal to the axilla. location of the cephalic vein and thoracoacromial artery.
Block Preparation Needle Approach and Trajectory

Equipment The needle is advanced in-plane in a lateral-to-medial direc-
tion, adjusting the angle to reach the space in between the
• Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer three cords (ideally through the gap between the lateral and
• Needle: 50-mm, 22-23 gauge, insulated needle posterior cord). After negative aspiration, 1-2 mL of LA is
injected to confirm the spread in between the three elements
(Figure 16-6). An alternative approach is to advance the
Patient Positioning
The block can be performed with the patient in the supine
or semi-sitting position, and a slight elevation of the head
of the bed may improve the patient’s comfort and exposure
of the anatomy. The patient’s head is turned away from the
side to be blocked, and if possible, the arm is abducted 90° to
facilitate the view of the plexus as it positions the plexus more
superficially (Figure 16-4).
Technique
Scanning Technique
Position the transducer in the medial infraclavicular fossa
parallel and next to the clavicle to identify the axillary artery.
The transducer is then tilted cephalad to image the brachial FIGURE 16-4. Recommended patient position for a
plexus and the artery in a perpendicular orientation between costoclavicular brachial plexus block.

FIGURE 16-5. Transducer position and ultrasound image required for a costoclavicular block. AA, axillary artery; AV, axillary vein;
MC, medial cord; LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord; R2, second rib.
FIGURE 16-6. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion (in-plane) from lateral to medial and desired spread
between the cords. AA, axillary artery; AV, axillary vein; MC, medial cord; LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord; R2, second rib.

FIGURE 16-7. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with an alternative needle insertion (in-plane), from medial to lateral.
AA, axillary artery; AV, axillary vein; MC, medial cord; LC, lateral cord; PC, posterior cord; R2, second rib.
needle in-plane from medial to lateral aiming for the space

between the artery and the lateral cord (Figure 16-7).
Problem-Solving Tips
• During scanning, apply pressure and tilt the transducer
cephalad to optimize the US image and identify all three
Local Anesthetic Distribution cords of the brachial plexus lateral to the axillary artery.
The ideal spread will result in separation of the three cords • 20 mL of LA are adequate for a satisfactory block. Future
by the LA with a single injection. When necessary, the needle research is needed to determine the optimal dose or vol-
tip is advanced further in between the medial and posterior ume of LA required to produce a block at this level.
cords through the sheath that bounds the two elements, to
complete the injection. Studies to date suggest that a volume
between 15 and 20 mL suffices to achieve a consistent spread
and fast onset of the blockade.

Flowchart
Costoclavicular Brachial Plexus Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine or semi-sitting with the arm
abducted 90º
Ultrasound settings Transducer position

• Depth: 3-4 cm Parallel to the clavicle over
• High-frequency linear transducer the infraclavicular fossa
Scanning
The 3 cords are visualized superficial
Tilt the probe cranially to identify
and lateral to the artery as a
the brachial plexus cords lateral to
triangle-shaped hyperechoic
the axillary artery between the subclavius
structure
and serratus anterior muscle
Scan laterally and medially adjusting Artery and

the pressure, tilt, and heeling of No elements of the brachial
the probe to enhance the view plexus identified?
of the artery and brachial plexus
No
Yes
Artery Yes Apply color Doppler to identify

and brachial plexus
arteries and veins before injection
identified?
Yes
Insert the needle in-plane in

a lateral to medial direction between
the lateral and posterior cord,
and inject 1-2 mL of local anesthetic
to confirm needle tip placement
The spread
Reposition the needle
No is visualized between the
tip towards the center of the cluster,
three cords, separating
and inject 1-2 mL of local anesthetic
these elements?
Yes
Complete the block

with 20 mL of local anesthetic

SUGGESTED READINGS Li JW, Songthamwat B, Samy W, Sala-Blanch X, Karmakar MK.

Ultrasound-guided costoclavicular brachial plexus block sono-
Aliste J, Bravo D, Layera S, Fernández D, Jara Á, Maccioni C, et al. anatomy, technique, and block dynamics. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Randomized comparison between interscalene and costocla- 2017;42(2):233-240.
vicular blocks for arthroscopic shoulder surgery. Reg Anesth Nieuwveld D, Mojica V, Herrera AE, Pomés J, Prats A, Sala-Blanch X.
Pain Med. 2019. doi:10.1136/rapm-2018-100055 Medial approach of ultrasound-guided costoclavicular plexus
Karmakar MK, Sala-Blanch X, Songthamwat B, Tsui B. Benefits of block and its effects on regional perfusion. Rev Esp Anestesiol
the costoclavicular space for ultrasound-guided infraclavicular Reanim. 2017;64(4):198-205.
brachial plexus block description of a costoclavicular approach. Sala-Blanch X, Reina MA, Pangthipampai P, Karmakar MK. Anatomic
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2015;40(3):287-288. basis for brachial plexus block at the costoclavicular space: a
Kilka HG, Geiger P, Mehrkens HH. Infraclavicular vertical brachial cadaver anatomic study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2016;41(3):387-391.
plexus blockade. A new method for anesthesia of the upper Sotthisopha T, Elgueta MF, Samerchua A, Leurcharusmee P,
extremity. An anatomical and clinical study. Article in German. Tiyaprasertkul W, Gordon A, et al. Minimum effective volume
Anaesthesist. 1995;44(5):339-344. of lidocaine for ultrasound-guided costoclavicular block.
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42(5):571-574.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
17 Axillary Brachial Plexus Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the terminal nerves of the brachial plexus at the level of the axilla.
• Indications: Elbow, forearm, and hand surgery
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread around the axillary artery next to the median, ulnar, radial, and medial antebrachial
cutaneous nerves. Separate injection often required for the musculocutaneous nerve (between the biceps and
coracobrachialis muscle).
on the humerus (Figure 17-1). The radial nerve originates

General Considerations from the posterior cord, runs posterior to the artery in close
The axillary brachial plexus block is a well-established, widely contact with the conjoint tendon, and turns deep posterior
used regional anesthesia technique for procedures of the to enter the spiral groove of the humerus. The median nerve
upper extremity at and below the elbow. The superficial loca- is formed by fascicles of the medial and lateral cords and it is
tion of the terminal nerves at this level, in the same sheath as located typically anterior and lateral to the artery. The ulnar
the axillary artery, simplifies the technique and reduces the nerve is the continuation of the medial cord and travels along
risk of complications compared with more proximal brachial the medial side of the artery. The musculocutaneous nerve
plexus blocks. Ultrasound (US) monitoring of the LA spread
has improved the success rate of the axillary block, including
the musculocutaneous nerve. This is because the musculo-
cutaneous nerve separates from the neurovascular bundle
proximal to the level of injection and presents numerous
anatomical variations. A perivascular technique, consisting
of two injections anterior and posterior to the artery, results
in a similar success rate and shorter procedural time than the
perineural approach, which relies on identification and injec-
tions next to each individual nerve. However, the latter may
result in faster block onset. The quality of US view and the
relative disposition of the vascular and neural structures will
dictate the best option in each case.
Anatomy
The terminal nerves of the brachial plexus emerge from the FIGURE 17-1. Terminal nerves of the brachial plexus.
cords proximally in the axillary fossa and travel distally toward AA, axillary artery; McN, musculocutaneous nerve; MN, median
the upper extremity surrounding the axillary artery, passing nerve; UN, ulnar nerve; RN, radial nerve; CNA, cutaneous nerve
superficial tand anterior o the insertion of the conjoint tendon of arm; ICBN, intercostobrachial nerve.

arises proximally from the lateral cord and it is located at a

variable distance from the artery in the fascial plane between
Distribution of Anesthesia
the coracobrachialis and the biceps muscles or the body of and Analgesia
the coracobrachialis. The axillary brachial plexus block results in anesthesia of the
upper extremity from the mid-arm down to the hand. Impor-
tantly, the axillary block does not anesthetize the axillary
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and nerve (it departs more proximally from the posterior cord).
Ultrasound View Therefore, the shoulder or skin over the deltoid muscle is not
anesthetized (Figure 17-3). Similar to all other techniques of
The neurovascular bundle is located superficially at the junc- the brachial plexus, the infraclavicular block will not anes-
tion of the arm and the axilla, contained in a triangular space thetize the medial aspect of the skin of the proximal arm
limited by the conjoint tendon (posterior), the biceps mus- (intercostobrachial nerve, T2).
cle (lateral), and the brachial fascia and subcutaneous tissue
(anteromedial). The axillary artery is located approximately
within a centimeter of the skin surface and can be palpated
on the medial aspect of the proximal arm. Accompanying the
Block Preparation
artery there are one or more axillary veins, usually located Equipment
medially. The ulnar, median, and radial nerves are contained
within the neurovascular bundle, surrounding the axil-
lary artery. The medial brachial and antebrachial cutaneous • Needle: 5-cm, 22-23 gauge, short-bevel, stimulating needle
nerves may travel either inside or outside, while the musculo-
cutaneous nerve is frequently located outside. However, dif-
ferent anatomical variations are usually found (Figure 17-2).
Local Anesthetic
On US, the artery and veins are identified in the triangu- Ropivacaine 0.5%, bupivacaine 0.5%, or lidocaine 2% are
lar musculofascial space mentioned above. The three nerves commonly used in axillary block. The minimum volume of
appear as groups of round hyper- or hypoechoic structures LA for a successful block has been reduced with US guidance,
moving around the artery. The musculocutaneous nerve is compared to the traditional technique. Typically, 15 to 20 mL
seen as a hypoechoic oval structure surrounded by a bright in total, 3 to 5 mL per nerve, is adequate. Effective axillary
hyperechoic rim made by the confluence of the fasciae of the brachial plexus blocks have been described even with lower
biceps and coracobrachialis. volumes (<2 mL per nerve).
FIGURE 17-2. Common anatomical variations of the axillary brachial plexus.

Axillary Brachial Plexus Block CHAPTER 17 179
FIGURE 17-3. Distribution of anesthesia with axillary brachial plexus block.
Patient Positioning Technique

The patient is placed in the supine or mild upright posi- Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position
tion with the arm abducted 90° and elbow flexed 90°
(Figure 17-4). A semi-upright position will provide more The transducer is placed perpendicular to the axis of the arm
patient comfort during block placement without com- on the intersection between the anterior axillary fold and the
promising anatomy or needle approach. Likewise, abduc- biceps (Figure 17-5).
tion of the shoulder 90° and extension of the elbow (0°)
may be better tolerated by patients with reduced upper Scanning Technique
extremity mobility. Avoid over-abduction as it may cause
traction on the brachial plexus, rendering it more vulner- The axillary artery and veins are easily identified in the axilla,
able to injury, as well as patient discomfort. The position medially to the biceps and coracobrachialis muscles. The veins
of the shoulder and elbow has been reported to influence may be obliterated by applying pressure on the transducer
the relative position and distance between the nerves in when required. If the conjoint tendon is not clearly visible
the axilla, although this may be clinically irrelevant for the (a bright fascial plane deep to the vessels), slide the transducer
success of the block. a few centimeters proximally. By scanning proximally and dis-
tally along the upper arm, and adjusting the tilt, the median,
ulnar, radial, and musculocutaneous nerves can be identified
around the artery and the musculocutaneous nerve in between
the muscles. The acoustic enhancement artifact deep to the
artery is often misinterpreted as the radial nerve (Figure 17-5).

The needle is inserted, in-plane, from anterolateral-to-poste-
rior direction, and advanced according to the disposition of
the nerves. When the nerves are visualized around the artery,
or not clearly seen, the first injection is made posterior to the
artery. This often lifts up the brachial plexus and facilitates
the visualization of the structures. Thereafter, the needle is
withdrawn and redirected superficially to the artery to block
the median and ulnar nerves. When the three nerves are seen
aligned on the anteromedial side of the artery, a single nee-
FIGURE 17-4. Patient position. dle pass is sufficient to complete the injection (Figure 17-6).

FIGURE 17-5. Transducer position and sonoanatomy for an axillary block. AA, axillary artery; AV, axillary vein;
McN, musculocutaneous nerve; MN, median nerve; UN, ulnar nerve; RN, radial nerve; MbCN, medial brachial cutaneous
nerve; CBM, coracobrachialis muscle.
FIGURE 17-6. Reverse ultrasound anatomy and needle insertions (in-plane) for axillary brachial plexus block. Axillary block
can be accomplished by one to four separate injections, depending on the disposition of the nerves and spread of the local
anesthetic. (A) The block with three needle injections. (B) A single needle pass superficially to the artery with one injection for
the median (MN) and one between the ulnar (UN) and radial (RN) nerves. The musculocutaneous nerve (MCN) often requires
a separate injection.

FIGURE 17-6. (Continued)
Finally, the needle is withdrawn and redirected laterally sufficient for an effective block. Keep in mind that the axil-
toward the fascial plane where the musculocutaneous nerve lary brachial plexus sheath often contains septae that divide
travels and an additional 5 mL of LA are injected next to the the sheath into two or more compartments, requiring sepa-
nerve. Occasionally, the nerve lies in close proximity to rate injections for median-ulnar, and radial nerves. Typically,
the median nerve, inside the brachial plexus sheath, making the total volume of LA (20 mL) is divided into three injec-
the additional injection unnecessary. tions: 7 to 10 mL deep to the artery, 7 to 10 mL superficial to
the artery, and 5 mL in the interfascial plane where the mus-
Local Anesthetic Distribution culocutaneous nerve courses distally. If required, the medial
skin of the upper arm (intercostobrachial nerve T2) can be
Individual nerves can usually be identified and blocked with anesthetized by an additional subcutaneous injection just
3 to 5 mL of LA per nerve, although this is rarely necessary distal to the axilla (Figure 17-7).
because injection of the LA around the axillary artery is

FIGURE 17-7. Skin infiltration distal to the axilla to block the intercostobrachial nerve.
axillary brachial plexus blocks. If no spread is seen on US

Problem-Solving Tips image during the injection of LA, the needle tip is probably
Frequent aspiration and slow administration of LAs are located in one of the axillary veins. When the injection is
critical for decreasing the risk of intravascular injection. not visualized on US, the injection should be halted imme-
Use NYSORA’s RAPT method to decrease the risk of com- diately and the needle is withdrawn slightly. Pressure on
plications. (See Chapter 9.) Cases of systemic toxicity have the transducer should be eased to assess for the presence of
been reported after apparently straightforward US-guided vascular structures.

Flowchart
Axillary Brachial Plexus Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine with the arm abducted
the elbow flexed at 90°

• High-frequency linear Transverse on the medial side of upper
transducer arm at the intersection point of the
• Depth: 3-5 cm pectoralis major with biceps m.
The nerves appear as groups

Scanning
of round hyper- or hypoechoic
Align (slide) the transducer proximally
structures located around the
and adjust the tilt to optimize the view
axillary artery, in a triangular
of the conjoint tendon and axillary vessels
musculofascial space
• Use color Doppler

• Slide the transducer anteriorly No Axillary artery
and posterior while keeping it identified?
perpendicular to the arm
Yes
Step #1
Median, ulnar, and
radial nerves identified?
Not clearly seen Yes
Perivascular Perineural
technique technique
Insert the needle in-plane to

LA spreads around Insert the needle in-plane to
deposit LA posterior (7-10 mL)
the artery and reaches the deposit LA next to each
and anterior (7-10 mL)
MN, UN, RN nerves? individual nerve
to the axillary artery
Reposition the needle tip No Yes Depending on the anatomical

and make additional injections position of the nerves around the
artery, 2 or 3 injections may be
necessary (3-5 mL per nerve).
Step #2
The musculocutaneous
nerve is identified?
NYSORA’s stock US probe
maneuver to identify McN:
• Apply pressure and dynamic
scan proximal and distal from
No Yes
axillary fossa
• The nerve appears as an
elongated, ovoid structure in Insert the needle in-plane and
fascia between the biceps inject 5 mL of LA in the fascial
and coracobrachialis muscles plane next to the McN nerve

SUGGESTED READINGS Remerand F, Laulan J, Palud M, Baud A, Velut S, Fusciardi J. Is the

musculocutaneous nerve really in the coracobrachialis muscle
Bernucci F, Andrea PG, Finlayson RJ, Tran DQH. A prospective, when performing an axillary block? An ultrasound study. Anesth
randomized comparison between perivascular and perineural Analg. 2010;110:1729-1734.
ultrasound-guided axillary brachial plexus block. Reg Anesth Robards C, Clendenen S, Greengrass R. Intravascular injection
Pain Med. 2012;37:473-477. during ultrasound-guided axillary block: negative aspiration
Bloc S, Mercadal L, Garnier T, Huynh D, Komly B, Leclerc P, et al. can be misleading. Anesth Analg. 2008;107:1754-1755.
Shoulder position influences the location of the musculocutane- Satapathy AR, Coventry DM. Axillary brachial plexus block.
ous nerve in the axillary fossa. J Clin Anesth. 2016;33:250-253. Anesthesiol Res Pract. 2011;2011:1-5.
Choi S, McCartney CJL. Evidence base for the use of ultrasound Sen S, Sari S, Kurt I, Cobanoglu M. The use of train of four monitor-
for upper extremity blocks: 2014 update. Reg Anesth Pain Med. ing for clinical evaluation of the axillary brachial plexus block.
2016;41:242-250. J Clin Monit Comput. 2014;28:243-249.
Christophe J, Berthier F, Boillot A, Tatu L, Viennet A, Boichut N, et al. Sevdi MS, Gunday I, Arar C, Colak A, Turan N. Lateral Trendelen-
Assessment of topographic brachial plexus nerves variations at the burg with the injected side down after the block improves the
axilla using ultrasonography. Br J Anaesth. 2009;103:606-612. efficacy of the axillary approach to brachial plexus block.
Conceição DB, Helayel PE, Carvalho FA, Wollmeister J, Oliveira J Anesth. 2014;28:538-543.
Filho GR. Imagens ultrasonográficas do plexo braquial na região Silva MG, Sala-blanch X, Marín R, Espinoza X, Arauz A,
axilar [Ultrasound images of the brachial plexus in the axillary Morros C. Bloqueo axilar ecoguiado: variaciones anatómicas
region]. Rev Bras Anestesiol. 2007;57:684-689. de la disposición de los 4 nervios terminales del plexo braquial
Donnell BO, Riordan J, Ahmad I, Iohom G. A clinical evaluation en relación con la arteria humeral. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim.
of block characteristics using one milliliter 2% lidocaine in 2019;61:15-20.
ultrasound-guided axillary brachial plexus block. Anesth Analg. Strub B, Sonderegger J, Von Campe A, Grünert J, Osterwalder JJ.
2010;111:808-810. What benefits does ultrasound-guided axillary block for
Orebaugh SL, Pennington S. Variant location of the musculocutaneous brachial plexus anaesthesia offer over the conventional
nerve during axillary nerve block. J Clin Anesth. 2006;18:541-544. blind approach in hand surgery? J Hand Surg Am. 2011;
Qin Q, Yang D, Xie H, Zhang L, Wang C. Ultrasound guidance 36:778-786.
improves the success rate of axillary plexus block: a meta- Ustuner E, Ayse Y, Özgencil E, Okten F, Turhan SC. Ultrasound
analysis. Brazilian J Anesthesiol. 2016;66:115-119. anatomy of the brachial plexus nerves in the neurovascular
bundle at the axilla in patients undergoing upper-extremity
block anesthesia. Skeletal Radiol. 2013;42:707-713.

Blocks for Analgesia of the
18 Shoulder: Phrenic Nerve
Sparing Blocks
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Shoulder blocks consist of a selective blockade of the suprascapular nerve in combination with the block of the
axillary nerve or the infraclavicular brachial plexus block.
• Indications: Analgesia of the shoulder in patients with respiratory compromise who cannot withstand >20%
reduction in the forced vital capacity (FVC) and/or where an interscalene block is contraindicated
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) injection for the suprascapular and axillary nerves (or around the lateral and posterior
cords of the brachial plexus)
• Local anesthetic volume: 5 to 10 mL per injection site, depending on the location
This chapter describes several strategies to accomplish anal- Specific Risks and Limitations
gesia to the shoulder joint by blocking distal nerves of the
brachial plexus that supply innervation to the shoulder joint. There are no specific contraindications other than the
Distal blocks preserve the mobility of the arm and hand, and general considerations for regional anesthesia techniques.
diaphragmatic function by sparing the phrenic nerve. There- However, shoulder blocks in obese patients may be chal-
fore, distal blocks can also be used in patients with borderline lenging because adequate ultrasound (US) images of
respiratory function. the suprascapular and axillary nerves may be difficult to
obtain. Anatomical variations of the suprascapular notch
are common and may render US guidance challenging.
General Considerations Consequently, compared to interscalene blocks, shoulder
The selective blockade of the peripheral sensory nerves inner- blocks are less time-efficient and cause a greater degree of
vating the shoulder emerged as an alternative analgesic tech- patient discomfort because they require two punctures. The
nique to the interscalene or supraclavicular brachial plexus limitations and risks of infraclavicular blocks are discussed
blocks to avoid hemidiaphragmatic paresis. The course of the in Chapter 15.
sensory nerves supplying the shoulder joint enables different
injection sites, distant from the trajectory of the phrenic nerve
and different combinations of blocks: Anatomy
• Shoulder block: Selective blocks of the suprascapular and The shoulder joint innervation is complex and involves multi-
the axillary nerves, which innervate most of the shoul- ple branches of the brachial plexus. The suprascapular nerve
der joint (Figure 18-1). Of note, the shoulder block does (C5, C6) is a mixed sensory-motor nerve that originates from
not provide surgical anesthesia like an interscalene block; the upper trunk of the brachial plexus and travels posterolat-
instead, it provides analgesia and decreases opioid con- erally through the posterior triangle of the neck deep to the
sumption after shoulder surgery. omohyoid and trapezius muscles. The nerve passes through
• Block of the suprascapular nerve in combination with an the suprascapular notch underneath the superior transverse
infraclavicular brachial plexus block, selective block of the scapular ligament, while the accompanying artery and vein
lateral and posterior cords, or a costoclavicular block. This pass above the ligament. In the supraspinous fossa, the supra-
combination anesthetizes most components of the bra- scapular nerve runs posteriorly between the surface of the
chial plexus that supply innervation to the shoulder joint bone and the supraspinatus muscle giving off the articular
(Figure 18-1), and therfore, it results in a more complete branches to the acromioclavicular joint and posterior aspect of
analgesia. the shoulder capsule. The nerve then enters the infraspinous

FIGURE 18-1. Innervation of the shoulder joint.
fossa, lateral to the spinoglenoid notch below the lower trans- The subscapular nerve (from the posterior cord), the lat-
verse ligament (Figure 18-2). eral pectoral nerve, and the musculocutaneous nerve (both
The axillary nerve originates from the posterior cord of from the lateral cord) contribute to the innervation of the
the brachial plexus and courses posterior with the posterior anterior aspect of the joint (Figure 18-1).
circumflex humeral artery (Figure 18-3). The nerve turns The phrenic nerve exits from C4 and leaves the bra-
around the neck of the humerus and gives innervation to the chial plexus as it descends the anterior scalene muscle. The
anterior, inferior, lateral, and posterior aspects of the shoul- site of injection and the volume of LAs used in a brachial
der. It also innervates the deltoid and teres minor muscles plexus block can influence the incidence of the phrenic
and the skin over the shoulder. nerve block.
FIGURE 18-2. Superior view of the supraspinatus fossa showing the course of the suprascapular nerve
through the suprascapular and spinoglenoid notch. UT, upper trunk; SA, subclavian artery; OHM, omohy-
oid muscle; SSM, supraspinatus muscle.

Blocks for Analgesia of the Shoulder: Phrenic Nerve Sparing Blocks CHAPTER 18 187
FIGURE 18-3. Posterior view of the suprascapular and axillary nerves showing the distribution of the articular branches to
the shoulder joint.
trunk in a laterodorsal direction, under the omohyoid

Cross-Sectional Anatomy and muscle (Figure 18-4).
Ultrasound View
2. Posterior in the supraspinous fossa: The nerve can be
The suprascapular nerve can be imaged at two different imaged along its course on the floor of the supraspi-
locations: nous fossa (deep to the supraspinatus muscle), from the
1. Anterior in the supraclavicular fossa: The nerve can be entrance through the suprascapular notch to the exit over
identified in most subjects separating from the upper the spinoglenoid notch (Figure 18-5).
FIGURE 18-4. Reverse anatomy of the suprascapular nerve at the supraclavicular fossa showing the nerve’s origin from the
upper trunk. SA, subclavian artery; MSM, middle scalene muscle; UTa and UTp, upper trunk anterior and posterior divisions;
MTa and MTp, middle trunk anterior and posterior divisions; LT, lower trunk; OHM, omohyoid muscle.

FIGURE 18-5. Reverse anatomy of the suprascapular nerve at the supraspinous fossa.
The axillary nerve and posterior circumflex humeral artery

pass through the quadrangular space, made by the long head
of the triceps medially, the teres minor superiorly, the teres and Analgesia
major inferiorly, and the humeral shaft laterally (Figure 18-6). A suprascapular nerve block results in a motor block of the
To review the anatomy of the infraclavicular block, refer to supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles, and a sensory block
Chapters 15 and 16. of the posterior aspect of the shoulder.
FIGURE 18-6. Reverse anatomy of the axillary nerve at the level of the posterior humerus.

The axillary nerve block results in a motor block of the del-

toid muscle (abduction of the shoulder), teres minor, long TECHNIQUES
head of the triceps, and a sensory block of the anterior shoul-
der joint and the skin over the deltoid muscle.
Suprascapular Nerve Block
Anterior Approach,
Block Preparation in the Supraclavicular Fossa
Equipment The transducer is positioned in a sagittal oblique orienta-
• Transducer: High frequency linear transducer tion over the supraclavicular fossa, parallel to the clavicle, to
• Needle: 5 cm (for supraclavicular approach); 5-8 cm (for image the subclavian artery and the brachial plexus at this
suprascapular approach) level (Figure 18-8). Tracing the plexus craniocaudally, it is
often possible to identify the suprascapular nerve as a small
hypoechoic round structure separating from the upper trunk
Local Anesthetic posteriorly. The needle is advanced in-plane from posterior
For shoulder analgesia, long-acting LA is most commonly used to anterior, deep to the omohyoid muscle until the tip is seen
(bupivacaine 0,5%, levobupivacaine 0,5%, ropivacaine 0,5%). in the fascial plane next to the nerve. Injection of 3 to 5 mL
Low volumes of 3 to 5 mL/nerve are used to anesthetize the of LA is sufficient to block the suprascapular nerve at this
supraclavicular and axillary nerves in these locations. location (Figure 18-9). Larger volumes of injectate should be
avoided as they may result in spread to the upper trunk and
the phrenic nerve.
Patient Positioning
For a shoulder block, the patient should be sitting with the
Posterior Approach,
arm adducted and shoulder relaxed (Figure 18-7). To opti-
mize the space for the suprascapular nerve block, ask the
in the Supraspinous Fossa
patient to place the hand on the contralateral shoulder if pos- Place the transducer in a coronal oblique orientation over the
sible. Alternatively, the patient can lie in the lateral position shoulder, parallel to the lateral third of the scapular spine.
with the shoulder to be blocked upwards. For the anterior Tilt the probe anteriorly, while applying pressure, until the
approach to the suprascapular nerve block, the patient is best floor of the supraspinous fossa appears deep to the trapezius
positioned in a supine or semi-lateral position with the head and supraspinatus muscles at approximately 3 to 4 cm depth.
turned away to the contralateral side. The surface of the bone has a concave depression from the
FIGURE 18-7. Patient position.

FIGURE 18-8. Transducer position and ideal ultrasound image for a suprascapular nerve block at the supraclavicular fossa.
SA, subclavian artery; LT, lower trunk; UTa and UTp, upper trunk anterior and posterior divisions; MTa and MTp, middle trunk
anterior and posterior divisions; OHM, omohyoid muscle; MSM, middle scalene muscle.
suprascapular notch (anterior) to the spinoglenoid notch fascia of the supraspinatus muscle and bone contact is felt
(posterior), which contains the suprascapular nerve, artery, next to the vessels (or in the bony concavity if the artery is
and vein (Figure 18-10). The needle is advanced in-plane not visible) (Figure 18-11). The LA should be seen spreading
in a medial-to-lateral direction until the tip pierces the deep deep to the fascia of the supraspinatus muscle.
FIGURE 18-9. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane for a suprascapular nerve block at the
supraclavicular fossa. SA, subclavian artery; MSM, middle scalene muscle; UTa and UTp, upper trunk anterior and posterior
divisions; MTa and MTp, middle trunk anterior and posterior divisions; LT, lower trunk; OHM, omohyoid muscle.

FIGURE 18-10. Transducer position and ideal ultrasound image for a posterior suprascapular nerve block.
the tilt until the posterior circumflex humeral artery is visual-

Axillary Nerve Block ized in the short axis between the teres minor, deltoid, and tri-
Position the US in a sagittal orientation over the posterior ceps muscle, superficial to the bone. The needle tip is advanced
aspect of the upper arm, midway between the acromion and the in-plane or out-of-plane until bone contact is felt next to the
axillary fold. Slide the transducer in a lateromedial direction to artery. After negative aspiration, the LA is deposited in this
image the humerus neck in the long axis (Figure 18-12). Adjust quadrangular space surrounding the artery (Figure 18-13).
FIGURE 18-11. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane from medial to lateral for a suprascapular nerve
block at the supraspinous fossa.

FIGURE 18-12. Transducer position and ideal ultrasound image for an axillary nerve block.
For infraclavicular approaches of the brachial plexus, see of the suprascapular nerve at the supraclavicular fossa.
Chapters 15 and 16. In these cases, the posterior approach is indicated.
• To optimize the view of the suprascapular nerve in
the suprascapular fossa, adjust the tilt and the rotation
Problem-Solving Tips of the probe so that the lateral end of the probe is over
• In some patients, the position of the clavicle to cephalad in the acromion and the posterior (medial) over the scapu-
the neck may impede the identification and selective block lar spine.
FIGURE 18-13. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane to perform an axillary nerve block.

Flowchart
Shoulder Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Sitting, with arm adducted
and shoulder relaxed
Ultrasound settings
• Depth: 3-4 cm
Transducer position
Suprascapular nerve block

Axillary nerve block
(Posterior approach)
Coronal oblique over the shoulder, Sagittal, over the posterior aspect
parallel to the scapular spine of the upper arm
Scanning technique
Tilt anteriorly, while applying Slide the transducer laterally/

pressure to visualize the medially or proximally/distally to
supraspinous fossa deep to visualize the surface of the
the trapezius and supraspinatus humerus and the posterior
muscles circumflex humeral artery
The bony surface of the

The posterior circumflex humeral
supraspinous fossa is visualized
artery is visualized as a small round
as an hyperechoic line with a
anechoic structure between the
concave depression where the
teres minor, deltoid, and triceps
suprascapular nerve, artery, and
muscles
vein travel
TIP: Use color Doppler to identify the arteries routinely before needle insertion
Needle insertion
In-plane from medial to lateral until In-plane or out-of-plane until bone

bone contact is felt next to the contact is felt next to the posterior
suprascapular artery circumflex humeral artery
Apply the “RAPT” method of

R= Motor Response absent at 0.5 mA
A= Aspiration negative
P= Opening injection Pressure <15 psi
T= Total volume
Complete the block with 5-10 mL per

injection site

SUGGESTED READINGS Laumonerie P, Blasco L, Tibbo ME, Bonnevialle N, Labrousse M,

Chaynes P. Sensory innervation of the subacromial bursa by the
Auyong DB, Hanson NA, Joseph RS, Schmidt BE, Slee AE, Yuan SC. distal suprascapular nerve: a new description of its anatomic distri-
Comparison of anterior suprascapular, supraclavicular, and bution. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2019:1-7. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2019.02.016
interscalene nerve block approaches for major outpatient Musso D, Meknas K, Wilsgaard T, Ytrebø LM. A novel combination
arthroscopic shoulder surgery: a randomized, double-blind, of peripheral nerve blocks for arthroscopic shoulder surgery.
noninferiority trial. Anesthesiology. 2018;129:47-57. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2017;61:1192-1202.
Auyong DB, Yuan SC, Choi DS, Pahang JA, Slee AE, Hanson NA. Neuts A, Stessel B, Wouters PF, Dierickx C, Cools W, Ory J-P. Selective
A double-blind randomized comparison of continuous inter- suprascapular and axillary nerve block versus interscalene plexus
scalene, supraclavicular, and suprascapular blocks for total block for pain control after arthroscopic shoulder surgery.
shoulder arthroplasty. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42: Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2018;43:1-7.
302-309. Siegenthaler A, Moriggl B, Mlekusch S, Schliessbach J, Haug M,
Chan C, Peng PWH. Suprascapular nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain Curatolo M. Ultrasound-guided suprascapular nerve block,
Med. 2011;36:358-373. description of a novel supraclavicular approach. Reg Anesth
Kim YA, Yoon KB, Kwon TD, Kim DH, Yoon D. Evaluation of ana- Pain Med. 2012;37:325-328.
tomic landmarks for axillary nerve block in the quadrilateral Tran DQH, Elgueta MF, Aliste J, Finlayson RJ. Diaphragm-sparing
space. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2014;58:567-571. nerve blocks for shoulder surgery. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Laumonerie P, Blasco L, Tibbo ME, Renard Y, Kerezoudis P, 2017;42:32-38.
Chaynes P. Distal suprascapular nerve block do it yourself: Vorster W, Lange CPE, Briët RJP, Labuschagne BCJ, Toit DF du,
cadaveric feasibility study. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2018:1-7. Muller CJF. The sensory branch distribution of the suprascapular
doi:10.1016/j.jse.2018.11.073 nerve: an anatomic study. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2008;17:500-502.

19 Blocks About the Elbow
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Blocks of the terminal branches of the brachial plexus at the level of the elbow.
• Indications: Anesthesia and analgesia for hand and wrist procedures
• Goal: Injection of local anesthetic (LA) into the tissue plane containing the radial, median, and/or ulnar nerves
• Local anesthetic volume: 4 to 5 mL per nerve
nerves. Therefore, additional precautions should be exer-

General Considerations cised to decrease the risk of intraneural injections when using
Distal peripheral nerve blocks of the upper extremity are smaller-gauge, sharp needles (e.g., 25-gauge) for superficial
very useful for hand and wrist procedures, either as a stand- blocks. At the time of this writing, no major manufacturer
alone technique or as a supplement for partial brachial plexus produced small-gauge, adequately sharpened, 30°, stimulat-
blocks. Ultrasound (US) imaging of individual nerves in the ing needles. Note: Full circumferential spread of the LA to
distal upper limb allows for reproducible custom-tailored surround the nerves is not necessary for a successful block,
nerve block anesthesia for a range of clinical indications. although this can increase the onset speed.
Distal nerve blocks are equally suited for hand surgery, like
more proximal approaches to the brachial plexus block, but
with less extensive motor blockade. A combination of a short-
Anatomy
acting proximal brachial plexus block with distal blocks with The Radial Nerve
long-acting LAs also decreases onset time and consistently
prolongs analgesia after painful wrist or hand surgery, without After emerging from the spiral groove on the lateral aspect of
the inconvenience of a long-lasting block of the whole arm. the humerus, the radial nerve passes through the lateral inter-
muscular septum to enter the anterior compartment of the
arm. It continues its path distally between the brachialis and
Limitations brachioradialis muscles along with the radial collateral artery
(Figure 19-1). When the nerve reaches the elbow joint, it
Complete anesthesia of the forearm requires five specific
divides into the superficial (cutaneous) and deep branches. The
nerve blocks. Two of these are cutaneous nerves (cutaneous
superficial branch descends between the brachioradialis and
antebrachial and musculocutaneous nerves) that can be
supinator muscles, lateral to the radial artery. The deep branch
accomplished by subcutaneous infiltrations distal to the
(also known as the posterior interosseous nerve) reaches the
elbow. Separate blocks of five nerves may be less time-efficient,
back of the forearm traveling between the two heads of the
compared to single-injection blocks of the brachial plexus.
supinator muscle. The radial nerve provides innervation to
However, the time efficiency is similar with training. The use
most structures in the posterior forearm and wrist of the fore-
of a tourniquet, either on the arm or forearm, usually requires
arm and wrist.
sedation and/or additional analgesia.
The Median Nerve
Specific Risks
In the arm, the median nerve courses distally between the
Distal peripheral nerve blocks require small-gauge, long- biceps and brachialis muscles in close relationship with
bevel (15°) needles for patient comfort and precision of the brachial artery (Figure 19-2). The position of the nerve
placement into the delicate fascial sheaths enveloping the relative to the artery changes from lateral in the axilla to

FIGURE 19-1. Anatomy of the terminal branches of the brachial plexus at the elbow.
medial in the antecubital fossa. Distally to the level of posterior to the medial intermuscular septum (Figure 19-1).
insertion of the coracobrachialis, the median nerve sepa- At the elbow, the nerve passes behind the medial epicondyle
rates from the artery and courses deep to the pronator teres (through the cubital tunnel) to enter the anterior compart-
muscle. The median nerve innervates the bones, muscles, ment between the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris. The
and skin of the lateral aspect of the palm, including the lat- ulnar nerve provides innervation to the structures on the
eral three digits. medial side of the forearm and hand (Figure 19-2).
The Ulnar Nerve Cutaneous Nerves of the Forearm

The ulnar nerve runs along the posteromedial aspect of the The lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve (a branch of the
humerus over the triceps just deep to the investing fascia and musculocutaneous nerve) runs between the biceps and
FIGURE 19-2. Cross-section above the elbow crease, illustrating the anatomical distribution of
the terminal branches of the brachial plexus.

Blocks About the Elbow CHAPTER 19 197
FIGURE 19-3. Dorsal and palmar views of the sensory and motor block distribution of the terminal nerves of the brachial
plexus. (A) cutaneous innervation, (B) myotomes, and (C) osteotomes.
the brachialis muscles to exit the fascia on the lateral side of investing fascia and posterior to the medial intermuscular
the elbow close to the cephalic vein (Figure 19-3). septum.
The medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve (a branch of The cutaneous nerves are seen emerging out of the fascia
the medial cord of the brachial plexus) runs superficially on at the lateral, medial, and posterior aspect.
the medial side of the arm. At the medial elbow, the nerve is
located next to the basilic vein (Figure 19-3).
The posterior antebrachial cutaneous nerve (a branch of the
radial nerve) exits the fascia on the posterior side of the elbow and Analgesia
between the lateral epicondyle and olecranon, providing sensory Anesthetizing the radial, median, and/or ulnar nerves pro-
innervation to the posterior aspect of the forearm (Figure 19-2). vides sensory anesthesia and analgesia to the respective
territories of the hand, forearm, and wrist (Figure 19-3).
To achieve a complete block of the forearm, it is neces-
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and sary to anesthetize the superficial nerves supplying the skin
Ultrasound View by a subcutaneous wheal distal to the elbow on the lateral and
medial side (Figure 19-4).
Proximally to the elbow, the radial nerve is located laterally It must be taken into account that the use of a tourniquet,
in the fascial plane between the brachioradialis and brachialis either on the arm or forearm, usually requires sedation
muscles (Figure 19-2). US images of the nerve appear as a and/or additional analgesia.
hyperechoic triangular or oval structure, positioned between
the hypoechoic muscles, superficial to the bone.
The median nerve is located superficially on the medial
side of the biceps tendon and just medial to the artery Block Preparation
(Figure 19-2). When imaged by US, the nerve appears as a Equipment
hyperechoic structure, similar in size to the artery.
The ulnar nerve is located in the posteromedial aspect of • Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer
the elbow (Figure 19-2) and visualized as a hyperechoic oval • Needle: 25-gauge, short-bevel, insulated, stimulating needle
structure superficial to the triceps muscle underneath the (optional)

FIGURE 19-4. Subcutaneous wheal distal to the elbow on the lateral and medial side.
Local Anesthetic Patient Position

A volume of 3 to 5 mL of a short-acting LA (e.g., lidocaine 2%) The patient is positioned in supine, with the arm abducted
around each nerve suffices to provide adequate anesthesia for 90° and resting on a side support or a table. This position
hand and finger procedures. Long-acting LAs could be used allows for easy access to all nerves by flexing or rotating the
to prolong postoperative analgesia. extremity (Figure 19-5).
FIGURE 19-5. Patient position to perform nerve blocks above the elbow.

FIGURE 19-6. Probe position and ultrasound image of the radial nerve (RN) above the elbow.
superficial to the bone surface in the intermuscular fascial

Technique plane (Figure 19-6).
Radial Nerve The needle is inserted in-plane, from anterior or poste-
rior, and advanced through the brachioradialis muscle until
Identify the lateral epicondyle of the elbow and place the
the tip is seen next to the radial nerve. If nerve stimulation is
transducer in a transverse orientation 3 to 4 cm proximal
used, a wrist or finger extension response could be elicited
to it. Scan proximally and distally applying pressure and
(Figure 19-7).
adjusting the tilt of the probe until the nerve is visualized
FIGURE 19-7. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane to block the radial nerve (RN) above the elbow.

FIGURE 19-8. Probe position and ultrasound image of the median nerve (MN) above the elbow. BA, brachial artery.
Median Nerve visualized next to it on the medial side. Color Doppler may
be useful if the artery is not readily apparent (Figure 19-8).
The transducer is positioned in a transverse orientation on The needle is inserted in-plane from either side of the
the antecubital fossa, just proximally to the elbow crease. transducer, although a medial-to-lateral approach is usually
After identifying the brachial artery, the median nerve is more convenient to avoid the artery (Figure 19-9).
FIGURE 19-9. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane to block the median nerve (MN) above the elbow.
BA, brachial artery.

Ulnar Nerve Local Anesthetic Distribution

The transducer is positioned in a transverse orientation proxi- After negative aspiration, 1 to 2 mL of LA is injected. Slight
mal to the medial epicondyle and moved posteriorly to identify adjustments of the needle tip may be necessary to ensure
the ulnar nerve superficial to the triceps muscle (Figure 19-10). an adequate spread into the space that contains the nerves
The needle is inserted in-plane from anterior to posterior before injecting the intended volume. It is not necessary to
and advanced next to the ulnar nerve (Figure 19-11). pursue a circumferential spread around the nerves.
FIGURE 19-10. Probe position and ultrasound image of the ulnar nerve (UN) above the elbow.
FIGURE 19-11. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane to block the ulnar nerve (UN) above the elbow.

The lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm can be • Either in-plane or out-of-plane techniques can be used for
blocked infiltrating 2 to 3 mL of LA around the cephalic all three blocks. Ergonomics often dictate which is the best
vein. The medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm can be approach.
blocked next to the basilic vein. • If distal blocks are to be performed after a proximal bra-
chial plexus block, it is of paramount importance to clearly
visualize the needle tip at all times in order to avoid intra-
Problem-Solving Tips neural injection.
• When in doubt, nerve stimulation (0.5-1.0 mA) can be
used to confirm the localization of each nerve. Flowchart
Blocks About The Elbow Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine, arm abducted 90°,
positioned on procedure table
Ultrasound settings
• Transducer: Linear
• Depth: 1-3 cm
Radial nerve Median nerve Ulnar nerve
Transducer position
Transverse proximal to the Transverse over the antecubital Transverse proximal to the medial
lateral epicondyle fossa, proximal to elbow crease epicondyle
Scanning
Ultrasound anatomy
• Scan proximally/distally while applying transducer
Nerves are visualized as hyperechoic triangular or oval
pressure
structures positioned between the hypoechoic muscles,
• Adjust the tilt to optimize image of nerves
superficial to the bone
• Apply color Doppler if brachial artery
Tips
• LA injection should displace the nerve within fascial
Insert the needle in-plane or out-of-plane until the tip
plane that contains it
of the needle reaches the fascia plane enveloping the
• Additional injections are done only when nerve
nerve. Inject 1-2 mL to confirm correct position
displacement does not occur, indicating that the needle
is not in the proper plane

4-5 mL per nerve

SUGGESTED READINGS McCahon RA, Bedforth NM. Peripheral nerve block at the elbow
and wrist. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care &
Eichenberger U, Stockli S, Marhofer P, et al. Minimal local anesthetic Pain. 2007;7(2):42-44.
volume for peripheral nerve block: a new ultrasound-guided, nerve McCartney CJ, Xu D, Constantinescu C, Abbas S, Chan VW.
dimension-based method. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34:242-246. Ultrasound examination of peripheral nerves in the forearm.
Gray AT, Schafhalter-Zoppoth I. Ultrasound guidance for ulnar nerve Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2007;32:434-439.
block in the forearm. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2003;28:335-339. Schafhalter-Zoppoth I, Gray AT. The musculocutaneous nerve:
Ince I, Aksoy M, Celik M. Can we perform distal nerve block instead ultrasound appearance for peripheral nerve block. Reg Anesth
of brachial plexus nerve block under ultrasound guidance for Pain Med. 2005;30:385-390.
hand surgery? Eurasian J Med. 2016;48(3):167-171. Soberón JR, Bhatt NR, Nossaman BD, Duncan SF, Patterson ME,
Lam NC, Charles M, Mercer D, et al. A triple-masked, randomized Sisco-Wise LE. Distal peripheral nerve blockade for patients
controlled trial comparing ultrasound-guided brachial plexus undergoing hand surgery: a pilot study. Hand (N Y). 2015;10:
and distal peripheral nerve block anesthesia for outpatient hand 197-204.
surgery. Anesthesiol Res Pract. 2014;324083:7. Spence BC, Sites BD, Beach ML. Ultrasound-guided musculocutane-
Lurf M, Leixnering M. Sensory block without a motor block: ous nerve block: a description of a novel technique. Reg Anesth
ultrasound-guided placement if pain catheters in forearm. Pain Med. 2005;30:198-201.
Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2010;54:257-258.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
20 Wrist Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the median and ulnar nerves (and superficial branch of the radial nerve) at the level of the forearm.
• Indications: Hand and finger surgeries not involving the deep structures of the dorsum of the hand and thumb
• Goal: Injection of local anesthetic (LA) within the vicinity of the median, ulnar, and the superficial branch of the
radial nerve (if needed)
General Considerations Specific Risks

The wrist block is a commonly used technique for hand and When using small-gauge (e.g., 25-gauge) needles, special atten-
finger surgeries, in particular for short procedures involv- tion should be given in order to avoid intraneural injection,
ing soft tissues on the palmar side. The main advantage of the even more so when nerve stimulation is not used. Care must be
block is that it provides effective anesthesia (and eventually, taken when performing ulnar and radial nerve blocks, because
long-lasting analgesia) while preserving the mobility of the they are intimately associated with arteries, to avoid inadvertent
wrist. The landmark-based technique relied on the superficial arterial puncture and injection.
location of the nerves running in between the flexor tendons
(median nerve) or next to the artery (ulnar nerve), and was
often complemented with subcutaneous infiltrations according
Anatomy
to the incision site. Ultrasound (US) guidance allows for precise Below the elbow, the median nerve courses toward the
identification of the nerves along their course in the forearm wrist deep to the pronator teres and flexor digitorum
and the most convenient level for a reliable injection within the superficialis muscles. Commonly, there is a communicat-
spaces that contain the nerves. However, the complex innerva- ing branch with the ulnar nerve at this level (anastomosis
tion of the wrist and hand, involving branches of five different of Martin-Gruber). The palmar branch of the median nerve
nerves overlaping between them, is responsible for the variabil- takes off 3 to 8 cm proximally to the wrist crease and exits the
ity observed in the distribution of anesthesia after a wrist block. antebrachial fascia to innervate the skin over the thenar emi-
nence and midpalm. As the muscles taper toward tendons
near the wrist, the nerve assumes an increasingly superficial
Limitations position, between the tendons of the flexor carpi radialis and
The wrist block does not result in a complete block of the hand palmaris longus muscles, until it is located beneath the flexor
and fingers. For instance, the territory of the deep branch of retinaculum in the carpal tunnel (Figure 20-1).
the radial nerve (deep structures on the dorsum of the hand, The ulnar nerve enters the anterior compartment of the
and first-to-third fingers) will not be blocked. To anesthetize forearm between the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris
this area, it is necessary to block the radial nerve proximal to coursing deep to the muscle and its tendon down to the wrist.
the elbow crease (see Chapter 19). Likewise, the skin over the Distally to the mid-forearm, the nerve runs right next to the
wrist crease is not completely anesthetized, as it is also supplied ulnar artery on its medial side. The palmar branch of the ulnar
by the lateral and medial antebrachial cutaneous nerves, the nerve exits 3 to 8 cm proximal to the wrist crease to innervate
superficial branch of the radial nerve, and occasional contribu- the skin over the hypothenar eminence (Figure 20-1).
tion from the interosseous nerves. For carpal tunnel surgery, The radial nerve divides just below the elbow crease into
for instance, a subcutaneous infiltration at the level of the wrist the superficial (sensory) and deep branches. The superficial
crease is necessary to block all these small terminal branches. branch of the radial nerve runs lateral to the radial artery deep

FIGURE 20-1. Anatomy of the median, ulnar, and radial nerves at the mid-forearm.
to the brachioradialis muscle. At mid-forearm, the nerve exits On US, it appears as a triangular or oval hyperechoic structure
the antebrachial fascia between the tendons of the brachiora- in close contact with the artery.
dialis and the extensor carpi radialis muscles to innervate the The thin superficial branch of the radial nerve can be
skin of the dorsum of the hand on its lateral side (Figure 20-2). seen deep to the brachioradialis muscle, lateral to the radial
artery, and superficial to the insertion of the pronator teres
muscle (Figure 20-3). On US, it can be identified as a small
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and hyperechoic oval structure lateral to the radial artery.
Ultrasound View
In a cross-section view at the level of mid-forearm, the
median nerve is located in a fascial plane between the super-
and Analgesia
ficial and deep flexors of the hand. (Figure 20-3). On US, the The wrist block results in anesthesia of the palmar side of the
nerve appears as a triangular hyperechoic structure that can hand and a variable extension on the posterior side, accord-
be differentiated from the hypoechoic muscles. ing to the distribution of the distal nerves. When the sensory
The ulnar nerve is located medially to the ulnar artery, deep branch of the radial nerve is included, the skin over the dor-
to the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle and its tendon (Figure 20-3). sum will also be anesthetized (Figure 20-4).
FIGURE 20-2. Illustration of the distribution of the superficial branch of the radial nerve
in the hand.

Wrist Block CHAPTER 20 207
FIGURE 20-3. Cross-section anatomy at the level of the mid-forearm.
FIGURE 20-4. Anesthesia distribution after a wrist block.

branches of the median and ulnar nerves) (Figure 20-6). With

a slight tilt toward the hand, the median nerve appears as an
oval hyperechoic structure in the fascial plane between the
deep and superficial flexor muscles of the fingers. If neces-
sary, scanning proximally will help to differentiate the nerve
from the tendons of the flexor digitorum superficialis or the
flexor pollicis longus.
The needle is inserted in-plane or out-of-plane toward the
fascial plane that envelopes the nerve; ergonomics often dic-
tates which is more effective (Figure 20-7).
Ulnar Nerve
The transducer should be placed in a transverse orientation
FIGURE 20-5. Patient position. over the anteromedial aspect (ulnar side) of the forearm.
After identifying the ulnar artery, the ulnar nerve will be
imaged as a triangular or oval hyperechoic structure medial
Block Preparation to it (Figure 20-8). The tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris lies
just superficial to them and might be mistaken with the ulnar
Equipment nerve. Scanning proximally-distally will help to identify the
• Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer ulnar nerve: proximally it deviates from the artery; distally it
is close to the artery.
• Needle: 25-gauge, insulated stimulating needle (optional)
The best point of injection is where the artery and nerve
start separating. For the in-plane approach, it is usually more
Local Anesthetic suitable inserting the needle from medial to lateral to avoid
For a wrist block, an injection of 3 to 5 mL of lidocaine 2% arterial puncture (Figure 20-9).
around each nerve should be enough to provide adequate
anesthesia for hand procedures. Longer-acting LAs could be
Superficial Branch of the Radial Nerve
used to prolong the postoperative analgesia.
The transducer is placed in transverse orientation at the
Patient Positioning anterolateral aspect (radial side) of the mid-forearm to iden-
tify the pulsation of the radial artery. The sensory branch of
The wrist block is most easily performed with the patient in the the radial nerve is imaged as a hyperechoic structure lateral
semi-sitting position with the arm abducted resting on a side to the artery and superficial to the radius bone. If the identi-
support and the volar (palmar) surface facing up (Figure 20-5). fication of the nerve at this level proves difficult, it is useful
to trace it from its location above the elbow and follow it
down until it divides into the superficial and deep branches
Technique (Figure 20-10).
The needle can be inserted either in-plane or out-of-plane,
Median Nerve ergonomics often dictates which approach is better for per-
The transducer is positioned in a transverse orientation over forming this block. Likewise, a medial-to-lateral or lateral-to-
the anterior aspect of the mid-forearm (at least 5-10 cm medial needle direction can be used; always choose the best
proximal to the wrist crease to ensure the block of the palmar option to avoid arterial puncture (Figure 20-11).

FIGURE 20-6. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the median nerve (MN) at the level of the mid-forearm. FPL, flexor
pollicis longus muscle; FDS, flexor digitorum superficialis muscle; FDP, flexor digitorum profundus.
FIGURE 20-7. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of the median nerve (MN) at the level of the mid-forearm with needle insertion
out-of-plane. FPL, flexor pollicis longus muscle; FDS, flexor digitorum superficialis muscle; FDP, flexor digitorum profundus.

FIGURE 20-8. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the ulnar nerve (UN) at the level of the mid-forearm. UA, ulnar artery;
FCU, flexor carpi ulnaris; FDP, flexor digitorum profundus muscle; FDS, flexor digitorum superficialis muscle.
FIGURE 20-9. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of the ulnar nerve at the mid-forearm with needle in-plane and local anesthetic
injection in blue. FDS, flexor digitorum superficialis muscle; FDP, flexor digitorum profundus muscle; FPL, flexor pollicis longus.

FIGURE 20-10. Sonoanatomy and transducer position for radial nerve (RN) block at the level of the mid-forearm. FCR, flexor
carpi radialis; MN, median nerve; FPL, flexor pollicis longus; PTM, pronator teres muscle; ECR, extensor carpi radialis.
FIGURE 20-11. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of the superficial branch of the radial nerve (RN) at the level of the mid-forearm
with needle insertion in-plane. FCR, flexor carpi radialis; MN, median nerve; FPL, flexor pollicis longus; PTM, pronator teres
muscle; ECR, extensor carpi radialis.

Local Anesthetic Distribution Problem-Solving Tips

After negative aspiration, inject 1 to 2 mL of LA to confirm • The median nerve exhibits pronounced anisotropy, so
correct needle tip position; spread is visualized in the fascia tilting the transducer slightly will make the nerve appear
plane enveloping the nerve. If not, reposition the needle and alternately brighter (more contrast) or darker (less contrast)
further inject 1 to 2 mL. Multiple injections to achieve cir- with respect to the background.
cumferential spread are usually not necessary.
• When in doubt, nerve stimulation (0.5-1.0 mA) can be
For carpal tunnel surgery, a subcutaneous infiltration at
used to confirm the localization of the correct nerve.
the level of the wrist crease should be performed with 5 mL of
LA. Also, a “K” infiltration can be performed, following first • Either the in-plane or out-of-plane approaches can be used
the wrist crease and then directing the needle to thenar and for all three blocks.
hypothenar eminences. These approaches would block any • It is not necessary to pursue a circumferential spread of
small terminal branches of the brachial plexus that may reach LA around the nerves, but it is essential to confirm that the
the palmar crease (Figure 20-12). injection occurs in the correct fascial plane by scanning up
and down during injection.
FIGURE 20-12. Subcutaneous infiltration (dotted line) at

the level of the wrist crease for carpal tunnel surgery.

Flowchart
Wrist Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Semi-sitting, with arm abducted
resting on a side support and volar
surface facing up
Ultrasound settings
Transducer position
• Transducer:
(5-10 cm proximal to the
High-frequency
wrist crease)
• Depth: 1-3 cm
Super fical branch of

Median nerve Ulnar nerve
radial nerve (optional)
1
Transverse over the anterior
aspect forearm
2
Transverse over the ulnar
side of the forearm
3
Transverse over the radial
side of the forearm
Scanning
Scan proximally/distally while applying
pressure and adjusting the tilt
distally to optimize the image
Ultrasound anatomy
Median nerve: Oval hyperechoic structure located
between the deep and superficial flexor muscles
of the fingers
Ulnar nerve: Triangular or oval hyperechoic
structure medial to the ulnar artery
Super branch of radial nerve: Flat hyperechoic
Tips structure lateral to the radial artery and
• In-plane or out-of-plane superficial to the radius
• Circumferen spread of LA
around the nerves not
necessary, but must confirm
injection in the correct Insert the needle to reach the fascial
fascial plane plane enveloping the nerve and inject
1 mL to confirm correct position
Each block requires

4-5 mL per nerve

SUGGESTED READINGS Lam NC, Charles M, Mercer D, et al. A triple-masked, randomized

controlled trial comparing ultrasound-guided brachial plexus
Bajaj S, Pattamapaspong N, Middleton W, Teefey S. Ultrasound of and distal peripheral nerve block anesthesia for outpatient
the hand and wrist. J Hand Surg Am. 2009;34:759-760. hand surgery. Anesthesiol Res Pract. 2014;2014:324083.
Bianchi S, Martinoli C. Forearm. In: Ultrasound of the Musculoskel- Liebmann O, Price D, Mills C, et al. Feasibility of forearm ultraso-
etal System. 1st ed. New York: Springer Editorial; 2007:409-423. nography-guided nerve blocks of the radial, ulnar, and median
Dufeu N, Marchand-Maillet F, Atchabahian A, Robert N, Ait Yahia nerves for hand procedures in the emergency department.
Y, Milan D. Efficacy and safety of ultrasound-guided distal Ann Emerg Med. 2006;48:558-562.
blocks for analgesia without motor blockade after ambulatory Macaire P, Singelyn F, Narchi P, Paqueron X. Ultrasound- or nerve
hand surgery. J Hand Surg Am. 2014;39:737-743. stimulation-guided wrist blocks for carpal tunnel release:
Heinemeyer O, Reimers CD. Ultrasound of radial, ulnar, median a randomized prospective comparative study. Reg Anesth Pain
and sciatic nerves in healthy subjects and patients with heredi- Med. 2008;33:363-368.
tary motor and sensory neuropathies. Ultrasound Med Biol. McCartney CJL, Xu D, Constantinescu C, et al. Ultrasound exami-
1999;25:481-485. nation of peripheral nerves in the forearm. Reg Anesth Pain
Ince I, Aksoy M, Celik M. Can we perform distal nerve block instead Med. 2007;32:434-439.
of brachial plexus nerve block under ultrasound guidance for Soberón JR, Bhatt NR, Nossaman BD, Duncan SF, Patterson
hand surgery? Eurasian J Med. 2016;48:167-171. ME, Sisco-Wise LE. Distal peripheral nerve blockade for
Kiely PD, O’Farrell D, Riordan J, Harmon D. The use of ultrasound- patients undergoing hand surgery: a pilot study. Hand (NY).
guided hematoma blocks in wrist fractures. J Clin Anesth. 2015;10:197-204.
2009;21:540-542.

4
SECTION
Lower Extremity Blocks
Chapter 21 Lumbar Plexus Block 217

Chapter 22 Fascia Iliaca Block 229
Chapter 23 Blocks for Hip Analgesia 239
Chapter 24 Femoral Nerve Block 247
Chapter 25 Subsartorial Blocks: Saphenous Nerve,
Adductor Canal, and Femoral Triangle Blocks 255
Chapter 26 Lateral Femoral Cutaneous Nerve Block 265
Chapter 27 Obturator Nerve Block 271
Chapter 28 Proximal Sciatic Nerve Block 281
Chapter 29 Popliteal Sciatic Block 291
Chapter 30 Genicular Nerves Block 299
Chapter 31 iPACK Block 305
Chapter 32 Ankle Block 313

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
21 Lumbar Plexus Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the lumbar plexus (femoral, lateral femoral cutaneous, and obturator nerves) at the level of the lumbar
paravertebral space in the psoas muscle compartment.
• Indications: Anesthesia and analgesia for the hip, knee, and lower extremity surgery. Combined with a proximal
sciatic nerve block produces complete anesthesia of the ipsilateral lower extremity
• Goal: Spread of local anesthetic around the lumbar plexus in the psoas muscle compartment
location and the complexity of the sonoanatomy. Consequently,

General Considerations the lumbar plexus block is associated with a relatively high-
The lumbar plexus block is an advanced regional anes- risk failure rate and epidural spread. Given the vascularity of
thesia technique for hip and knee procedures. Its use has the lumbar paravertebral region, LA toxicity and hematomas
decreased over time due to the technique’s complexity and have all been reported.
potential for complications. The main disadvantages of the
lumbar plexus block are the deep location of the neural
elements and their close proximity to the epidural space, Anatomy
lumbar arteries, and the kidneys. Although ultrasound
(US) can be used to help guide needle advancement and The lumbar plexus is formed by the union of the anterior
local anesthetic (LA) spread, this still requires a high degree primary rami of L1, L2, L3, and a part of L4. It also receives
of skill. An assessment of the risk-benefit ratio should be a variable contribution from T12 (subcostal nerve) and L5
made for each patient. The indications for lumbar plexus (Figure 21-1). After exiting the intervertebral foramen, the
blocks are declining in favor of more specific, distal nerve roots of the lumbar plexus enter the lumbar para-
nerve blocks, particularly blocks targeting only the sen- vertebral space, a wedge-shaped compartment between
sory branches to the lower extremity joints. These consid- the anterior and posterior insertions of the psoas muscle.
erations explain the paucity of data on ultrasound-guided The lumbar paravertebral space also contains branches
lumbar plexus block. of the lumbar artery and vein. The roots follow a steep cau-
dal course through the psoas compartment within the poste-
rior third of the psoas muscle, close to the lumbar transverse
Limitations and Complications processes. The terminal nerves originating from the lumbar
Obtaining adequate US images of the psoas compartment plexus course caudally and laterally along the pelvis in a fan-
and tracking the needle can be challenging due to its deep shape distribution (Figure 21-2).

218 SEC TION 4 Lower Extremity Blocks
FIGURE 21-1. Organization of the lumbar plexus.
To obtain a transverse view of the lumbar plexus, a

Cross-Sectional Anatomy and curved US transducer is placed posteriorly, 4 cm later-
Ultrasound View ally to the midline directed slightly medially (transverse
A cross-section at the level of L4-L5 shows the transverse oblique view) and adjusted to insonate the intertransverse
view of the lumbar plexus elements exiting the intervertebral space (Figure 21-4A). The erector spinae and psoas muscles
foramen and advancing into the psoas muscle compartment lie superficially to the spinous process and vertebral body.
(Figure 21-3). The corresponding segmental lumbar artery The lumbar plexus appears as a hyperechoic structure within
courses posterolaterally near the intervertebral foramen the hypoechoic psoas muscle (Figure 21-4B). Alternatively,
and divides into lateral, posterior, and radicular branches. the transducer is placed on the flank, between the iliac crest

Lumbar Plexus Block CHAPTER 21 219
FIGURE 21-2. Anatomy of the lumbar plexus and the posterior abdominal wall.
and the costal border, oriented medially (shamrock view)

(Figure 21-5).
Block Preparation
Equipment
• Transducer: Low-frequency curved transducer
and Analgesia • Needle: 80- to 100-mm, 22-gauge stimulating needle
The lumbar plexus block results in a motor and sensory Local Anesthetic
block of the anterior aspect of the thigh, hip, and knee
(Figure 21-6). Long-lasting LAs (e.g., bupivacaine 0.5% or ropivacaine
0.5%) are commonly used to prolong postoperative analgesia

FIGURE 21-3. Cross-section of the lumbar plexus at the level of L4-L5. RA, rectus abdominis; EO, external oblique muscle;
IO, internal oblique muscle; TA, transversus abdominis muscle; QL, quadratus lumborum muscle; ESP, erector spinae muscle.
A B
FIGURE 21-4. Illustration showing the transducer position to obtain a transverse oblique view of the lumbar plexus (A) and
the corresponding ultrasound image (B). QL, quadratus lumborum; ESP, erector spinae muscles; EO, external oblique;
IO, internal oblique; TA, transversus abdominis muscle.

A B
FIGURE 21-5. Illustration showing the transducer position to obtain a transverse “shamrock” view (A) and the corresponding
ultrasound image (B). QL, quadratus lumborum; ESP, erector spinae muscles; EO, external oblique; IO, internal oblique;
TA, transversus abdominis muscle.
FIGURE 21-6. Sensory and motor block distribution of a lumbar plexus block.

shadow (Figure 21-8). With the curved transducer, the

acoustic shadows show a sonographic pattern known
as the “trident sign.” The psoas muscle is visualized through
the acoustic windows as a thick hypoechoic muscular struc-
ture with hyperechoic striations. The lumbar plexus is seen
as longitudinal hyperechoic structures in the posterior
third of the psoas muscle that can be differentiated from the
intramuscular tendons as it is thicker and takes an oblique
course anteriorly. If the transverse processes are not visu-
alized, the transducer is moved medially and slightly tilted
toward the midline until the trident sign is seen.
2. Transverse
There are two options to perform the block in the trans-
verse orientation:
FIGURE 21-7. Patient position to perform a lumbar plexus
• Transverse oblique view: The transducer is placed 4 cm
block.
laterally to the spinous processes along the intercristal
line, just above the iliac crest and the beam is directed
after joint surgery. The recommended volume is 20 to 25 mL slightly medially (Figure 21-9).
depending on the quality of LA visualization. • Shamrock view: The transducer is placed on the flank
above the iliac crest and oriented medially (Figure 21-10).
Patient Positioning
The target vertebral level for the US scan (L3 or L4) is iden-
Place the patient in the sitting or lateral position with the tified in both cases. From posterior to anterior, the erector
side to be blocked upwards (Figure 21-7). spinae, the quadratus lumborum, and the psoas muscles are
seen as hypoechoic muscular structures around the vertebral
Technique contour. If the transverse process is identified, the transducer
is displaced craniocaudal and tilted to isonate the intertrans-
Landmarks, Initial Probe Transducer Position, verse space at the level of the articular process. The lumbar
and Scanning Techniques paravertebral space is seen between the articular process and
The lumbar plexus block can be performed with the trans- the vertebral body; the lumbar plexus is seen in continuity
ducer in a sagittal or transverse orientation. entering the psoas muscle compartment.
1. Sagittal
The transducer is placed in a sagittal paramedian ori-
entation, 4 cm lateral to the midline to identify the lum- For the sagittal approach, the needle is inserted out-of-plane
bar transverse processes. The transverse process appears or in-plane from the caudal end of the transducer and guided
as a hyperechoic reflection with an anterior acoustic through the acoustic window of the transverse processes of
FIGURE 21-8. Transducer position in a sagittal orientation and the corresponding sonoanatomy of the lumbar plexus.

FIGURE 21-9. Transducer position in a transverse oblique orientation and the corresponding sonoanatomy of the lumbar
plexus. QL, quadratus lumborum; ESP, erector spinae muscles.
FIGURE 21-10. Transducer position in a transverse orientation to obtain a shamrock view and the corresponding sonoanatomy
of the lumbar plexus.
L3 and L4 into the posterior aspect of the psoas major muscle Local Anesthetic Distribution
next to the lumbar plexus (Figure 21-11).
For the transverse approach (Figure 21-12) and shamrock After negative aspiration, 1 to 2 mL of LA is injected to
approach (Figure 21-13), the needle is inserted 4 cm lateral to confirm the correct injection site. The block is completed
the midline and slowly advanced in-plane to the posterior aspect while observing the spread of the injection within the lum-
of the psoas muscle. Correct the direction if needed until the tip bar compartment around the lumbar plexus, which is bet-
is located next to the lumbar plexus in the fascial compartment. ter visualized as it is surrounded by the hypoechoic LA.

FIGURE 21-11. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a lumbar plexus block in a sagittal approach with the needle inserted
out-of-plane.
FIGURE 21-12. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a lumbar plexus block using the transverse oblique approach. QL, quadratus
lumborum; ESP, erector spinae muscles.

FIGURE 21-13. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a lumbar plexus block using the shamrock view. QL, quadratus
lumborum; ESP, erector spinae muscles; EO, external oblique; IO, internal oblique; TA, transversus abdominis muscle.
• US imaging of the psoas muscle may be more challenging

Problem-Solving Tips in older patients due to the lower roots soft tissue image
• Obtaining the optimal view on the transverse process contrast as compared to the younger patients.
requires minor adjustments of the transducer (tilting, • Large body mass index (BMI) makes imaging of the lum-
pressing, and sliding) to insonate the intertransverse space. bar paravertebral anatomy and needle guidance difficult.
• Due to vascularity and deep location, the lumbar plexus • High injection pressures (20 psi) are associated with higher
block is not recommended in patients with coagulopathy
incidence of epidural spread.
or receiving thromboprophylaxis.

Flowchart
Lumbar Plexus Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Sitting or lateral decubitus with the
side to be blocked facing upwards
Initial settings
• Curvilinear transducer Transducer position
• Depth: 6-8 cm Sagittal or Transverse
• Nerve stimulator @ 0.5 mA
• The transverse process

appears as a hyperechoic
• From posterior to anterior,
reflection with an anterior Sagittal Transverse
the ESP, the QL, and the
acoustic shadow which is a Sagittal orientation, 4 cm - Transverse oblique
psoas muscles are seen as
sonographic pattern known lateral to the midline at the level orientation: 4 cm lateral to the
hypoechoic muscular
as the “Trident sign.” of the iliac crest. midline along the intercristal line,
structures around the
• The psoas muscle is just above the iliac crest and
vertebral contour.
visualized as a hypoechoic GOAL: Identify the lumbar facing medially.
• The lumbar plexus is seen
structure containing transverse processes of - Shamrock view: On the
as a separate hyperechoic
hyperechoic striations L2-L3-L4 casting acoustic flank above the iliac crest
structure within a
seen through the acoustic shadows diverging and oriented medially.
hypoechoic space, the
window of the trident. (“Trident sign”).
psoas compartment, in
• The lumbar plexus is seen GOAL: Identify the ESP,
the posterior aspect of
as longitudinal hyperechoic psoas major, QL muscle, and
the psoas muscle.
structures in the posterior the lumbar plexus.
aspect of the psoas muscle.
If the transverse process is
Slide the transducer medially identified instead, slide the
directing the ultrasound No No transducer cranially or
Lumbar transverse Lumbar plexus
beam slightly toward the caudally adjusting the tilt to
processes identified? identified?
midline until the visualize the intertransverse
“Trident sign” is visible. space at the level of the
articular process.
Yes Yes
Advance the needle either out-of-

Advance the needle in-plane 4 cm
plane or in-plane from the caudal
lateral to the midline toward
end of the transducer through the
the posterior aspect of the
acoustic window of the transverse
psoas muscle until the tip is
processes of L3-L4, into the
located next to the lumbar plexus
posterior aspect of the psoas
in the fascial compartment.
muscle next to the lumbar plexus.
Use the RAPT method during • After negative aspiration inject

injection every 3-5 mL 1-2 mL and verify LA spread in
correct plane
R = Motor Response absent at 0.5 mA • Reposition the needle if needed
A = Aspiration (negative) to achieve the desired spread
P = lnjection Pressure <15 psi • Complete the block with
T = Total mL injected 15-20 mL of LA

SUGGESTED READINGS Kirchmair L, Entner T, Kapral S, Mitterschiffthaler G. Ultrasound

guidance for the psoas compartment block: an imaging study.
Aida S, Takahashi H, Shimoji K. Renal subcapsular hematoma after Anesth Analg. 2002;94:706-710.
lumbar plexus block. Anesthesiology. 1996;84:452-455. Klein SM, D’Ercole F, Greengrass RA, Warner DS. Enoxaparin
Bendtsen T, Pedersen E, Haroutounian S, et al. The suprasacral paral- associated with psoas hematoma and lumbar plexopathy after
lel shift vs lumbar plexus blockade with ultrasound guidance in lumbar plexus block. Anesthesiology. 1997;87:1576-1579.
healthy volunteers-A randomised controlled trial. Anaesthesia. Nielsen MV, Bendtsen TF, Børglum J. Superiority of ultrasound-
2014;69:1227-1240. guided shamrock lumbar plexus block. Minerva Anestesiol.
Gadsden JC, Lindenmuth DM, Hadzic A, Xu D, Somasundarum L, 2018;84:115-121.
Flisinski KA. Lumbar plexus block using high-pressure injec- Sato M, Sasakawa T, Izumi Y, Onodera Y, Kunisawa T. Ultrasound-
tion leads to contralateral and epidural spread. Anesthesiology. guided lumbar plexus block using three different techniques:
2008;109:683-688. a comparison of ultrasound image quality. J Anesth. 2018;
Karmakar MK, Ho AM-H, Li X, Kwok WH, Tsang K, Ngan Kee WD. 32:694-701.
Ultrasound-guided lumbar plexus block through the acoustic Sauter AR, Ullensvang K, Niemi G, et al. The shamrock lumbar plexus
window of the lumbar ultrasound trident. Br J Anaesth. block: a dose-finding study. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015;32:764-770.
2008;100:533-537. Weller RS, Gerancher JC, Crews JC, Wade KL. Extensive
Karmakar MK, Li JW, Kwok WH, Hadzic A. Ultrasound-guided retroperitoneal hematoma without neurologic deficit in two
lumbar plexus block using a transverse scan through the lum- patients who underwent lumbar plexus block and were later
bar intertransverse space: a prospective case series. Reg Anesth anticoagulated. Anesthesiology. 2003;98:581-585.
Pain Med. 2015;40:75–81.
Karmakar MK, Li JW, Kwok WH, Soh E, Hadzic A. Sonoanatomy
relevant for lumbar plexus block in volunteers correlated with
cross-sectional anatomic and magnetic resonance images.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
22 Fascia Iliaca Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the nerves of the lumbar plexus under the fascia iliaca at the level of the inguinal ligament (femoral and
lateral femoral cutaneous nerves).
• Indications: Analgesia for hip and femur fractures, analgesia after hip and knee surgery, and procedures on the
anterior thigh
• Goal: Medial, lateral, and cranial spread of local anesthetic (LA) under the fascia iliaca
the spread cannot be entirely controlled, this technique is

General Considerations primarily used for analgesia, not anesthesia.
The fascia iliaca block, also called the fascia iliaca compart-
ment block, is a well-established alternative to lumbar plexus Specific Risks
or femoral nerve blocks to provide analgesia for hip proce-
dures. Its effectiveness in the preoperative pain management Overall complications involving the fascia iliaca compartment
of hip fracture patients has been well-documented, prompt- block are low. Being considered a fascial plane technique,
ing several societies and institutions to recommend its use as intravascular injections or neurologic injury are uncommon
part of the routine multimodal analgesic protocols for this as the injection site is remote from the major neurovascu-
indication. lar structures. The most commonly reported complications
The analgesic efficacy of this technique assumes that injec- include hematomas at the injection point and local anesthetic
tion of the LA beneath the fascia iliaca spreads underneath systemic toxicity (LAST). The plasma levels after an injec-
the fascia and reaches the femoral, lateral femoral cutaneous, tion of 30 mL of 0.25% levobupivacaine are below the toxic
and (eventually) the obturator nerve proximally, although an threshold, even in elderly patients, who are the most com-
obturator nerve block is not consistent. This block has been mon beneficiaries of the technique. However, pneumoperi-
performed for decades using landmarks and loss-of-resistance toneum and bladder puncture have been reported.
technique; however, with the introduction of ultrasound
(US), it became apparent that many of these “blind” injec-
tions do not occur in the proper plane. The fascia iliaca block
Anatomy
has evolved from the infrainguinal “classic” approach to a The fascia iliaca covers the iliacus muscle throughout its
suprainguinal technique with the aim to spread the LA injec- descent from the pelvic crest into the upper thigh and merges
tion cranially, more consistently reaching the lumbar plexus, medially with the fascia overlying the psoas muscle. The fem-
and resulting in analgesic efficacy superior to the infraingui- oral nerve (L2-L4) and the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve
nal approach. (L2-L3) emerge from the lateral border of the psoas major
muscle and travel under the fascia iliaca over the ventral
surface of the iliacus muscle in their intrapelvic and ingui-
Limitations nal course (Figure 22-1). As it descends distal to the inguinal
Although the spread of LA toward the femoral nerve can ligament, the femoral nerve gives off a number of sensory
be confirmed by US, the extent of the LA proximal toward and motor nerves to the quadriceps and sartorius muscles.
the lumbar plexus cannot be monitored or ensured. Because However, the articular branches to the hip joint leave both

FIGURE 22-1. Fascia iliaca anatomy and relation with the femoral, lateral femoral cutaneous, and obturator nerves.
proximal and distal to the inguinal ligament to provide inner- muscle is covered by the sartorius muscle (Figure 22-2). The
vation to the anterolateral surface of the capsule. femoral nerve is located just deep to the fascia iliaca and sepa-
The obturator nerve (L2-L4) emerges from the medial rated from the femoral vessels by the iliopectineal arch. The
border of the psoas muscle and travels posteriorly behind the deep and superficial iliac circumflex arteries course cranially
common iliac arteries toward the obturator foramen. Dur- and laterally superficial to the fascia iliaca at this level.
ing its intrapelvic course, it is separated from the fascia iliaca With the transducer placed perpendicular to the inguinal
compartment by the psoas muscle; therefore, it is not con- ligament, the fascia iliaca is seen as a hyperechoic line cov-
sistently anesthetized by a fascia iliaca block. The articular ering the hypoechoic iliopsoas muscle. The sartorius can be
branches arise before passing the obturator foramen to sup- seen as a superficial triangular shape on the lateral-caudal
ply the inferomedial aspect of the hip capsule (Figure 22-1). side, and the internal oblique muscle is visualized on the
When the accessory obturator nerve is present (10-50%, cranial-medial side. The deep circumflex iliac artery appears
depending on the studies), it leaves the obturator nerve laterally, between this muscle and the fascia iliaca (Figure 22-2).
proximally in the pelvic fossa and crosses over the pubic ramus. With the transducer placed distally to the inguinal ligament,
In those cases, it contributes to the innervation of the antero- the femoral nerve and femoral vessels are readily apparent on
medial aspect of the hip capsule (Figure 22-1). (See Chapter 23 the medial side of the fascia iliaca (Figure 22-2).
for a more detailed description of the hip joint innervation.)
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and and Analgesia
Ultrasound View The distribution of the sensory and motor block depends on
At the level of the inguinal ligament, the iliacus muscle appears the cranial extent of the LA and the nerves involved, although
at its most superficial location. Thus, this location is the most blockade of the femoral and lateral femoral cutaneous nerves is
convenient to access the fascia iliaca compartment. Cranially consistently achieved with both approaches. Depending on the
and medially, the muscle lines the iliac bone and is covered by concentration of LA used, the motor block of the quadriceps
the abdominal wall muscles. Caudally and laterally, the iliopsoas will vary from weakness to complete paralysis (Figure 22-3).

Fascia Iliaca Block CHAPTER 22 231
FIGURE 22-2. Bony landmarks and transducer positions to perform a suprainguinal and infrainguinal
fascia iliaca block.
Block Preparation Patient Positioning

Equipment The patient should be in a supine position, with the bed flat-
tened to maximize access to the inguinal area (Figure 22-4).
• Needle: 50- to 100-mm, 22-gauge, short-bevel, insulated
stimulating needle TECHNIQUES
Local Anesthetic A. Infrainguinal Fascia Iliaca Block

Because this fascial compartment block depends on the
distribution of a high volume of LA (30-40 mL) under-
Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position
neath the fascia, diluted concentrations of long-lasting The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation at the
LAs are most commonly used, such as bupivacaine, femoral crease, distal to the inguinal ligament to identify
levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine at concentrations of the femoral artery, the iliopsoas muscle, and fascia iliaca.
0.2% to 0.3%. Higher concentrations may result in a pro-
longed motor block, numbness, delayed ambulation, and
risk of LAST. Recent data in cadavers and volunteers suggest
Scanning Technique
that a volume of 40 mL is required to reach the obturator Tilting and pressing the transducer help to identify the hyper-
nerve. However, in clinical practice, volumes of 20 to 30 mL echoic fascia iliaca on the surface of the hypoechoic iliopsoas
result in effective analgesia for hip procedures. The muscle. The femoral nerve lies deep to the fascia and lateral
addition of liposome bupivacaine to the mixture should to the artery. The transducer is then moved laterally until the
prolong analgesia for hip surgery, although studies are sartorius muscle is identified by its typical triangular shape
required to confirm this. when compressed by the transducer (Figure 22-5).

FIGURE 22-3. Expected sensory and motor block distribution of a fascia iliaca block.
Needle Approach and Trajectory the fascial plane between the fascia and the iliopsoas muscle
(Figure 22-6).
The needle is inserted in-plane in a lateral-to-medial direc-
tion, often through the sartorius muscle toward the fascia
iliaca. As the needle encounters the fascia iliaca, indented by Local Anesthetic Distribution
the needle, a loss of resistance follows when the needle tip The spread of LA progresses in the medial-lateral and cranial-
pierces the fascial plane. After negative aspiration, 1 to 2 mL caudal direction from the point of injection, separating the
of LA is injected to confirm proper distribution of the LA in fascia from the muscle. When the injection occurs above

visualized with a hyperechoic outline deep to the iliacus

muscle. Superficially to the fascia iliaca, the sartorius mus-
cle is seen lateral and the internal oblique medial (forming
the so-called bowtie or hourglass image) (Figure 22-7).
The deep circumflex iliac artery is identified between the
abdominal muscles and the fascia iliaca, 1 to 2 cm and cra-
nial to the inguinal ligament, as it is an important land-
mark for needle placement.
Alternative Scanning Technique

The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation over the
femoral crease to identify the femoral artery, the iliopsoas
muscle, and the fascia iliaca. The transducer is first moved lat-
erally until the sartorius muscle is identified and then crani-
ally until the AIIS is visualized deep to the iliacus muscle. The
US image is the same as described for the oblique approach
and may be easier to obtain, in particular, in patients who are
obese or cannot be well-positioned.

The needle is inserted in-plane from lateral to medial and
advanced until the tip pierces the fascia iliaca at its most
superficial point, under the inguinal ligament. After con-
firming correct needle position deep to the fascial plane by
injecting 1 to 2 mL of LA, the needle can be advanced more
securely further medially within the space created by the pool
of LA (Figure 22-8).
FIGURE 22-4. Patient position for a fascia iliaca block. Local Anesthetic Distribution
When injected correctly, the spread of the LA results in
the fascia, between the fascia layers (intrafascial injection), or the separation of the fascia iliaca and the iliacus mus-
within the muscle, the needle tip should be repositioned. cle, deep to the muscles of the abdominal wall (internal
oblique and transversus abdominis) and the circumflex
iliac artery, which is often seen displaced anteriorly with
B. Suprainguinal Fascia Iliaca Block the injection.
for a Sagittal Oblique Orientation
The anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) is palpated and the
transducer is placed medial to it in a sagittal oblique orienta- • In obese patients, it is useful to tape away the abdominal
tion perpendicular to the inguinal ligament in a line between redundant tissue to facilitate access to the inguinal area.
the ASIS and the pubic tubercle. • After starting the injection, moving the transducer medi-
ally and tilting to find again the femoral artery may help
Scanning Technique to confirm that the spread of the LA occurs deep to the
fascia iliaca.
From the initial position, slide the transducer caudally
and medially along the inguinal ligament until the trian- • If the spread occurs into the iliacus muscle, the needle is
gular shape of the anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) is withdrawn and directed more superficially.

FIGURE 22-5. Transducer position and ultrasound image of an infrainguinal fascia iliaca block. FA, femoral artery; FN, femoral
nerve; SM, sartorius muscle.
FIGURE 22-6. Reverse ultrasound anatomy for an Infrainguinal fascia iliaca block with needle insertion in-plane. FV, femoral
vein; FA, femoral artery; FN, femoral nerve; GnFN, genitofemoral nerve; LFcN, lateral femoral cutaneous nerve.

FIGURE 22-7. Transducer position and ultrasound image of a suprainguinal fascia iliaca block. IO, internal oblique muscle;
TA, transversus abdominis muscle; DCA, deep circumflex artery; AIIS, anterior inferior iliac spine.
FIGURE 22-8. Suprainguinal fascia iliaca reverse ultrasound anatomy illustration with needle insertion (in-plane).
IO, internal oblique muscle; TA, transversus abdominis muscle; DCA, deep circumflex artery; AIIS, anterior inferior iliac spine.

Flowchart
Suprainguinal Fascia Iliaca Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine with the bed flat
for better access to inguinal area
Ultrasound settings
• Linear transducer Transducer position
• Depth: 2-4 cm Transverse over the femoral crease
Scanning Step 1
Tilt and apply pressure on the
probe to identify the femoral
vessels, nerve, iliopsoas muscle,
and fascia iliaca
Scanning Step 2
Keeping the transducer in a
The fascia iliaca is visualized as transverse orientation slide the
an hyperechoic layer covering the probe laterally until sartorius
iliacus muscle and femoral nerve muscle is seen and then
cranially until the anterior inferior
iliac spine (AllS) comes in the view
No Fascia
Press + tilt the probe to optimize
iliaca, AllS, and
the image of the fascia lliaca sartorius muscle
identified?
Yes
Be aware of the deep circumflex
Insert needle in-plane under the
iliac artery usually located
fascia iliaca and inject 2 mL to
between the fascia iliaca and
confirm proper needle tip
abdominal wall muscles. Color
placement by lifting the fascia
Doppler is recommended before
off the muscle.
needle insertion.
• Ensure that needle crosses all Injectate

No
layers of the fascia iliaca. visualized between
the fascia iliaca and the
• Release the pressure on the
iliopsoas muscle?
transducer while injecting.
Use the RAPT method during

injection every 3-5 mL
Yes
R = Motor Response absent at
0.5 mA
A = Aspiration (negative)
Complete the block by injecting
P = Injection Pressure <15 psi
20-30 mL of Local anesthetic
T = Total mL injected

SUGGESTED READINGS Hebbard P, Ivanusic J, Sha S. Ultrasound-guided supra-inguinal

fascia iliaca block: a cadaveric evaluation of a novel approach.
Behrends M, Yap EN, Zhang AL, Kolodzie K, Kinjo S, Harbell MW. Anaesthesia. 2011;66:300-305.
Preoperative fascia iliaca block does not improve analgesia after Miller BR. Ultrasound-guided fascia iliaca compartment block in
arthroscopic hip surgery, but causes quadriceps muscles pediatric patients using a long-axis, in-plane needle technique:
weakness. Anesthesiology. 2018;129:536-543. a report of three cases. Pediatr Anesth. 2011;21:1261-1264.
Cai L, Song Y, Wang Z, She W, Luo X, Song Y. The efficacy of Mouzopoulos G, Vasiliadis G, Lasanianos N, Nikolaras G, Morakis E,
fascia iliaca compartment block for pain control after hip Kaminaris M. Fascia iliaca block prophylaxis for hip fracture
arthroplasty: a meta-analysis. Int J Surg. 2019. doi:10.1016/j. patients at risk for delirium: a randomized placebo-controlled
ijsu.2018.12.012. [Epub ahead of print] study. J Orthop Traumatol. 2009;10:127-133.
Capdevila X, Biboulet P, Bouregba M, Barthelet Y, Rubenovitch J, Odor PM, Cavalier AG, Reynolds ND, Ang KS, Parrington SJ,
D’Athis F. Comparison of the three-in-one and fascia iliaca Xu H. Safety and pharmacokinetics of levobupivacaine follow-
compartment blocks in adults: clinical and radiographic ing fascia iliaca compartment block in elderly patients. Drugs
analysis. Anesth Analg. 1998;86:1039-1044. Aging. 2019. doi:10.1007/s40266-019-00652-1
Cooper AL, Nagree Y, Goudie A, Watson PR, Arendts G. Ultrasound- Shelley BG, Haldane GJ. Pneumoretroperitoneum as a con-
guided femoral nerve blocks are not superior to ultrasound- sequence of fascia iliaca block. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
guided fascia iliaca blocks for fractured neck of femur. Emerg Med 2006;31:582-592.
Australas. 2019;31(3):393-398. Steenberg J, Møller AM. Systematic review of the effects of fascia
Desmet M, Balocco AL, Van Belleghem V. Fascia iliaca compart- iliaca compartment block on hip fracture patients before
ment blocks: different techniques and review of the literature. operation. Br J Anaesth. 2018;120:1368-1380.
Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2019;33:57-66. Swenson JD, Davis JJ, Stream JO, Crim JR, Burks RT, Greis PE.
Desmet M, Vermeylen K, Van Herreweghe I, Carlier L, Soetens F, Local anesthetic injection deep to the fascia iliaca at the level of
Lambrecht S. A longitudinal supra-inguinal fascia iliaca com- the inguinal ligament: the pattern of distribution and effects on
partment block reduces morphine consumption after total hip the obturator nerve. J Clin Anesth. 2015;27:652-657.
arthroplasty. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42:327-333. Vermeylen K, Desmet M, Leunen I, Soetens F, Neyrinck A,
Dolan J, Williams A, Murney E, Smith M, Kenny GNC. Ultrasound Carens D. Supra-inguinal injection for fascia iliaca compartment
guided fascia iliaca block: a comparison with the loss of resis- block results in more consistent spread towards the lumbar
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Fascia iliaca compartment blockade for acute pain control in hip Vermeylen K, Soetens F, Leunen I, et al. The effect of the vol-
fracture patients. Anesthesiology. 2007;106:773-778. ume of supra-inguinal injected solution on the spread of the
Gasanova I, Alexander JC, Estrera K, Wells J, Sunna M, injectate under the fascia iliaca: a preliminary study. J Anesth.
Minhajuddin A. Ultrasound-guided suprainguinal fascia 2018;32:908-913.
iliaca compartment block versus periarticular infiltration for Weller RS. Does fascia iliaca block result in obturator block?
pain management after total hip arthroplasty: a randomized Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;34:524-530.
controlled trial. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;44:206-211. Yun MJ, Kim YH, Han MK, Kim JH, Hwang JW, Do SH.
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blocks for hip fractures: a Cochrane Review. Anesth Analg. fascia iliaca compartment block. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand.
2018;126(5):1695-1704. 2009;53:1282-1287.
Halaszynski TM. Pain management in the elderly and cognitively Zhang X, Ma J. The efficacy of fascia iliaca compartment block
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Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2009;22:594-599. J Orthop Surg Res. 2019;14:1-10.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
23 Blocks for Hip Analgesia
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
The hip (PENG) block consists of an infiltration of local anesthetic (LA) along the proximal insertion of the anterior
hip capsule, deep to the iliopsoas muscle, to block the sensory branches supplying the hip joint. In addition to the
infiltration, a lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (LFCN) block can be performed for hip surgery.
• Indications: Analgesia after total hip arthroplasty or other hip surgeries resulting in moderate to severe
postoperative pain and chronic hip pain
• Goal: LA spread in the plane between the iliopsoas muscle and anterior capsule of the hip cranially to the
acetabular rim
may reach motor branches of the femoral nerve when using

General Considerations large volumes.
The pericapsular block of the hip aims to provide analgesia
for hip procedures while preserving its motor function to
allow for early postoperative ambulation. Fascia iliaca and Specific Risks
femoral nerve blocks are the most commonly performed The femoral nerve and artery may not be readily visible when
regional anesthesia techniques to treat acute hip pain. How- using curvilinear transducers, increasing the risk of uninten-
ever, they result in motor weakness of the quadriceps muscle, tional puncture. Likewise, the LFCN can be injured inadver-
limiting their utility in enhanced recovery protocols and tently due to its location in the superficial plane deep to the
potentially increasing the risk of falls. As a result of the search fascia lata and lateral to the transducer, close to needle entry.
for alternative interventional analgesia modalities to provide Additionally, when performing a hip block, needle insertion
a selective articular sensory block, several pericapsular infil- could be rather deep, or follow a long path, or both, possi-
tration techniques have been proposed. They all consist of an bly resulting in intra-abdominal (pelvis) and intra-articular
injection of a LA around the acetabulum in the plane between needle placement.
the iliopsoas muscle and the proximal insertion of the ante-
rior hip capsule, but they differ in the transducer orientation,
needle approach, and recommended volumes of LA. Thus, Anatomy
the optimal injection site with respect to the iliopsoas tendon
(lateral, below, or medial) and the resulting implications of The analgesic techniques for hip procedures target the noci-
the injectate’s spread are not well-defined. Initial reports sug- ceptive innervation, predominantly located in the anterior
gest that this block may be effective for analgesia after hip surface of the hip capsule, which is innervated by nerves of
fractures and hip replacement surgeries. the lumbar plexus (Figure 23-1).
• Femoral nerve: The articular branches from the femoral
nerve travel over the surface of the iliopsoas notch, which
Limitations is located between the anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS)
Deep musculofascial planes may be difficult to visualize with and medial aspect of the iliopubic eminence. These nerve
ultrasound (US), often requiring low-frequency, curved endings reach the plane between the iliopsoas muscle and
transducers for adequate imaging. The location and extent the iliofemoral ligament (iliopsoas plane) and innervate
of LA spread may be inconsistent when using low volumes or the anterior and lateral aspects of the hip capsule.

FIGURE 23-1. Innervation of the anterior aspect of the hip capsule.
• Obturator nerve: The articular branches exit the pelvis

through the obturator foramen between the external obtu-
rator and pectineus muscles to innervate the antero-medial Ultrasound View
aspects of the hip capsule. A cross section along the anterior border of the pelvis at the
• Accessory obturator nerve: This nerve is formed by the level of the iliopsoas notch, bordered laterally by the AIIS and
ventral divisions of L2-L5 and is present in 10% to 30% medially by the iliopubic eminence, shows the iliopsoas muscle
of cases. It travels deep to the psoas muscle and over the and tendon passing into the thigh. At this level, the articular
superior pubic ramus, supplying the anterior and medial branches of the femoral and accessory obturator nerves enter
aspects of the hip capsule. the hip capsule deep to the iliopsoas fascial plane (although not
visible). When imaged by US the AIIS, iliopsoas notch, and
The cutaneous innervation of the anterolateral thigh iliopubic eminence are visualized as a hyperechoic rim (pelvic
is mostly provided by the LFCN that travels underneath rim) deep to the hypoechoic iliacus muscle and the hyperechoic
the inguinal ligament, medially to the anterior superior iliac round-shaped psoas tendon. Superficially, the femoral artery,
spine (ASIS) and courses distally, superficial to the sartorius vein, and nerve are located on the medial side and the sartorius
muscle. muscle and LFCN on the lateral side (Figures 23-1 and 23-2).
The posterior part of the hip is innervated by the sciatic Figure 23-2 shows a sagittal oblique section of the hip joint
nerve and branches of the sacral plexus such as the superior along the head and neck axis and lateral to the iliopsoas tendon.
and inferior gluteal nerves, and an articular branch from the The iliopsoas muscle covers the head of the femur, acetabulum,
quadratus femoris nerve. labrum, and ligaments of the anterior capsule superficially.

Blocks for Hip Analgesia CHAPTER 23 241
FIGURE 23-2. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform a hip block. A. Pericapsular nerve group block
B. Iliopsoas plane block. FA, femoral artery; PE, pectineus muscle; IPE, iliopubic eminence; AIIS, anterior inferior iliac
spine; SaM, sartorius muscle.
Distribution of Analgesia Block Preparation

The extent of the sensory block depends on the spread of the Equipment
LA; it confers analgesia to most of the anteromedial aspect of
• Transducer: Low-frequency transducer (or high-frequency
the hip joint.
linear transducer in patients with a low body mass index)
To provide cutaneous analgesia of the incision site, an
additional block of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve is • Needle: 80- to 100-mm, 22-gauge, short-bevel, insulated
recommended (see Chapter 26). stimulating needle

Local Anesthetic
The available evidence on the duration of the pericapsular
hip block is still scarce; however, high concentrations of long-
lasting LAs (e.g., bupivacaine 0.5% or ropivacaine 0.5-0.75%)
are indicated to provide prolonged analgesia after a hip
surgery. Similarly, as in many other fascial plane infiltrations,
adding liposome bupivacaine to bupivacaine may extend
the analgesia duration.
Patient Positioning
Place the patient in the supine position with the leg fully
extended and slightly rotated externally (Figure 23-3).
TECHNIQUES
Three approaches have been described to perform this
block, according to the transducer orientation (A, B, and C)
(Figure 23-4).
A. Transverse Oblique (Pericapsular

Nerve Group Block and Hip Block)
The optimal US image of the pelvic rim at the level of the ilio-
psoas notch can be obtained following two scanning strategies:
• Option 1: The transducer is placed over the AIIS in a
transverse orientation and then rotated approximately
45° to align the transducer with the pelvic rim. FIGURE 23-3. Patient position to perform a hip block.
FIGURE 23-4. Transducer positions to perform a hip block. (A) Transverse oblique. (B) Sagittal. (C) Sagittal oblique.

• Option 2: The transducer is placed over the femoral crease along the fascial plane. The needle is further advanced if the
in an oblique orientation, parallel to the inguinal ligament, injection is intramuscular or slightly withdrawn if high resis-
to image the head of the femur and then moved cranially tance is perceived.
until the surface of the iliopsoas notch is visualized.
Scanning Technique B. Sagittal (Iliopsoas Plane Block)

and C. Sagittal Oblique (Anterior
Applying slight transducer movements such as sliding,
rotating, tilting, and pressing may improve the view of the
Hip Capsule Block)
hyperechoic iliopsoas notch between the AIIS and iliopubic Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position
eminence, the hypoechoic iliopsoas muscle, and hyperechoic
These two approaches aim to visualize both the head of the
oval shape of the tendon. It is also important to identify the
femur and acetabular rim/labrum in the long axis. There are
femoral artery and nerve superficial to the iliopsoas muscle to
two scanning strategies to obtain this US image:
avoid injury to these structures (Figure 23-2).
1. Sagittal: The transducer is placed over the ASIS in a sagit-
Needle Approach and Trajectory tal orientation and then moved medially until the femur
head and acetabulum, covered by the iliacus muscle, are
The needle is inserted in-plane from lateral to medial through visualized. If the thick iliopsoas tendon is seen in the long
the iliopsoas muscle toward the plane between the iliopsoas axis, the transducer is slightly moved laterally.
tendon and bone (Figure 23-5).
2. Sagittal oblique: The transducer is placed over the femo-
ral crease in a 45° oblique sagittal orientation to visualize
Local Anesthetic Distribution the head and neck of the femur in the long axis. Then, the
After negative aspiration, 10 to 12 mL of LA are injected in transducer is moved cranially until the acetabulum is also
incremental steps while observing for an adequate spread visualized deep to the iliacus muscle.
FIGURE 23-5. Hip block; reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane. FV, femoral vein; FA, femoral artery;
FN, femoral nerve; PE, pectineus muscle; IPE, iliopubic eminence; AIIS, anterior inferior iliac spine.

FIGURE 23-6. Iliopsoas plane block; reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane. SaM, sartorius muscle.
Scanning Technique In the sagittal approach, the injection occurs lateral to the
iliopsoas tendon, while in the sagittal oblique orientation
Similar to the previously described scanning technique, the injection occurs medially to the tendon. This may have
slight adjustments of the transducer position and angulation implications on the extent of the block, in particular when
help to image the femoral condyle, the acetabular rim, and using low volumes.
ligaments of the anterior capsule as hyperechoic structures
connecting them (Figure 23-2).
Needle Approach and Trajectory • Use color Doppler to identify the femoral vessels when
The needle is inserted in-plane from distal to proximal they are not clearly visualized.
toward the labrum/acetabulum until bone contact is felt or • Adjust the settings of the US machine carefully (depth,
until the needle tip is located superficial to the iliofemoral gain, and focus) to optimize the view of deep structures
plane (Figure 23-6). with the curvilinear probe.
• Choose a needle of appropriate length and stiffness to
Local Anesthetic Distribution reach the target.
After negative aspiration, the LA is injected while confirm- • When using a transverse oblique approach, inserting the
ing the spread between the iliopsoas muscle and acetabu- needle in a steep angle is required to avoid puncture of
lar rim/labrum and superficial to the capsule ligaments. the femoral nerves and vessels.

Flowchart
Hip Block Algorithm
Patient position
Supine;
leg extended and externally
rotated

• Curved or linear transducer Transverse over the inguinal
• Depth: 4-6 cm crease to visualize the head of
• Nerve stimulator @ 0.5 mA the femur.
The hypoechoic iliopsoas muscle

and hyperechoic psoas tendon
Scanning
are seen over the hyperechoic
Slide the transducer cranially until
pelvic rim (between the AIIS and
the pelvic rim and psoas tendon
iliopubic eminence). Femoral
are identified.
vessels and nerve are medial and
superficial to the iliopsoas muscle.
• Slide the transducer proximally/

distally, medial/laterally No Psoas
• Apply pressure, rotate, and tendon and pelvic
adjust the tilt of the transducer rim visualized?
to improve the image
• Adjust the US depth if necessary
Yes
Insert the needle in-plane in a

lateral to medial direction through
the iliopsoas muscle until bone
contact
GOAL: Needle placement lateral

to the psoas tendon between the
bone and iliopsoas muscle
injection every 3-5 mL
R = Motor Response absent at • After negative aspiration, inject

0.5 mA 2-3 mL to confirm LA spread
A = Aspiration [negative] under iliacus muscle
P = Injection Pressure <15 psi • Complete the block with
T = Total mL injected 10-15 mL

SUGGESTED READINGS Nielsen ND, Greher M, Moriggl B, et al. Spread of injectate around
hip articular sensory branches of the femoral nerve in cadavers.
Birnbaum K, Prescher A, Hepler S, Heller K-D. The sensory inner- Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2018;62:1-6.
vation of the hip joint—an anatomical study. Surg Radiol Anat. Nielsen TD, Moriggl B, Søballe K, Kolsen-Petersen JA, Børglum J,
1997;19:371-375. Bendtsen TF. A cadaveric study of ultrasound-guided subpec-
Gasanova I, Alexander JC, Estrera K, et al. Ultrasound-guided tineal injectate spread around the obturator nerve and its hip
suprainguinal fascia iliaca compartment block versus periar- articular branches. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42:357-361.
ticular infiltration for pain management after total hip arthro- Orozco S, Muñoz D, Jaramillo S, Herrera AM. Pericapsular Nerve
plasty: a randomized controlled trial. Reg Anesth Pain Med. Group (PENG) block for perioperative pain control in hip
2019;44:206-211. arthroscopy. J Clin Anesth. 2019;59:3-4.
Gerhardt M, Johnson K, Atkinson R, et al. Characterisation and Short AJ, Barnett JJG, Gofeld M, et al. Anatomic study of innerva-
classification of the neural anatomy in the human hip joint. tion of the anterior hip capsule: implication for image-guided
HIP Int. 2012;22:75-81. intervention. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2018;43(2):186-192.
Girón-Arango L, Peng PWH, Chin KJ, Brull R, Perlas A. Pericapsular Turgut M, Protas M, Gardner B, Oskouian RJ, Loukas M, Tubbs RS.
nerve group (PENG) block for hip fracture. Reg Anesth Pain Med. The accessory obturator nerve: an anatomical study with litera-
2018;43(8):859-863. ture analysis. Anatomy. 2017;11:121-127.
Guay J, Parker MJ, Griffiths R, Kopp S. Peripheral nerve blocks Ueshima H, Otake H. Clinical experiences of Pericapsular
for hip fractures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017:1-117 Nerve Group (PENG) block for hip surgery. J Clin Anesth.
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001159.pub2 2018;51:60-61.
Haversath M, Hanke J, Landgraeber S, et al. The distribution of
nociceptive innervation in the painful hip: a histological
investigation. Bone Jt J. 2013;95-B:770-776.

24 Femoral Nerve Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the femoral nerve (FN) proximally to its division at the inguinal crease.
• Indications: Anesthesia and analgesia after hip, femur, anterior thigh, knee, and patella procedures
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread around the FN
upper extremity nerve blocks. However, the disability associ-

General Considerations ated with FN injury is significant. Therefore, we advise strict
The FN block is a well-established regional anesthesia tech- adherence to triple monitoring (i.e., ultrasound [US], nerve
nique. It is the single most powerful analgesic method to treat stimulation, and opening injection pressure).
pain after major knee surgery, either as a single injection or
continuous block. However, an FN block invariably results
in quadriceps muscle paresis, which may impede early active Anatomy
mobilization and ambulation. The protocols for enhanced The FN originates from the dorsal divisions of the ventral
recovery after surgery include early mobilization as a require- rami of the L2-L4 lumbar nerves. Approximately at the level
ment, and therefore, an FN block may interfere with this goal. of the fifth lumbar vertebral body, the FN exits the psoas
Alternatively, more distal interventional analgesia techniques muscle in a medial-to-lateral direction deep to the iliac fascia.
with less impairment of ambulation may be better suited for It continues caudally and enters the anterior compartment
some patients and surgeries. These options include blocks of of the thigh passing deep to the inguinal ligament, anterior
the distal branches of the FN at different levels in the subsar- to the iliopsoas muscle, and lateral to the femoral artery and
torial space, pericapsular or soft tissue infiltration with an LA. vein (Figure 24-1). At the femoral triangle, the nerve divides
Lower doses and concentrations of LAs for FN block and peri- quickly into multiple terminal branches. Deep branches inner-
articular infiltration of LAs can also be used. vate the anterior aspect of the hip, femur, and knee; muscular
Regardless, the FN block is still widely used in patients with branches innervate the iliacus, psoas major, pectineus, rectus
hip fractures both as an analgesic modality in the emergency femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis,
department and to facilitate patient positioning for spinal and sartorius muscles; cutaneous branches innervate the skin
anesthesia. In clinical situations where early mobilization is on the anterior aspect of the thigh and knee. The saphenous
not required, the femoral block is the most effective and con- nerve arises from the FN and continues to travel with the fem-
sistent interventional analgesic method. Finally, an FN block is oral artery on the medial side of the leg and distally to the mid-
often used as the sole anesthetic for quadriceps muscle tear and foot, innervating the skin on this trajectory. Below the patella,
tendon rupture repairs, evacuation of the knee hematoma after the infrapatellar branch crosses the knee and further divides
total knee replacement surgery, and for surgery on the patella. into three branches that combine with cutaneous nerves of the
thigh and form the patellar plexus.
Limitations
The FN block has been associated with a risk of postopera- Cross-Sectional Anatomy
tive falls in the ward, due to the quadriceps muscle weakness.
Protocols for specifying the risk and risk preventions are
and Ultrasound View
necessary whenever lower extremity nerve blocks are used, At the level of the femoral crease, the FN lies superficial to the
particularly for femoral and sciatic blocks. The incidence iliacus muscle covered by the fascia iliaca just lateral to the
of FN injury reported in the literature is lower than that of vascular compartment. The disposition of the nerve, lateral

FIGURE 24-1. Anatomy of the femoral at the femoral crease.
to the femoral artery and vein, is relatively consistent. On Diluted mixtures of these LAs (e.g., 0.125-0.25%) may be
US, the nerve is seen as a flattened triangular or oval group used to diminish, but not to eliminate the quadriceps weak-
of fascicles enveloped within two layers of the fascia iliaca, ness. A volume of 10 to 15 mL is usually sufficient for an
typically at a depth of 2 to 4 cm (Figure 24-2). The superfi- effective block.
cial circumflex iliac artery takes off the femoral artery in the The addition of liposomal bupivacaine for an FN block has
femoral triangle and courses lateral and cephalad superficial been described. Studies show a decrease in pain scores and opi-
to the fascia iliaca. By scanning more distally, the take-off of oid consumption for up to 48 hours. To date, this extended-
the profunda femoris (deep femoral artery) and the branch- release formulation of LAs has not been approved for FN block.
ing of the FN can be identified (Figure 23-1).
Patient Positioning
Distribution of Anesthesia The patient is positioned in supine with the lower extremity
and Analgesia fully extended and slightly rotated externally (Figure 24-4).
In obese patients, taping away adipose abdominal tissue can
The FN block results in anesthesia of the anterior aspect of
help to optimize the access to the inguinal crease (Figure 24-5).
the femur, hip, knee joint, muscles, and skin of the anterior
The US machine should be placed next to the patient on the
thigh, as well as the skin on the medial aspect of the ankle and
contralateral side and facing the practitioner.
foot (Figure 24-3).
Block Preparation Technique

Equipment Landmarks, Transducer Position,
• Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer and Scanning Technique
• Needle: 50-mm, 22-gauge, stimulating needle The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation over the
inguinal crease. The femoral artery is visualized as a round
anechoic pulsating structure with the easily compress-
Local Anesthetic
ible femoral vein medial to it. When the bifurcation of the
Long-lasting LAs (e.g., bupivacaine 0.5% or ropivacaine femoral artery and profunda femoris is seen, the transducer
0.5%) are used for anesthesia or analgesia after knee surgery. should be moved proximally if a block of the entire trunk of

Femoral Nerve Block CHAPTER 24 249
FIGURE 24-2. Cross-sectional anatomy of the femoral nerve. FN, femoral nerve;
FA, femoral artery; FV, femoral vein; LFCN, lateral femoral cutaneous nerve;
GnFN, genitofemoral nerve.
FIGURE 24-3. Distribution of anesthesia with a femoral nerve block. From left to right: dermatomes, myo-
tomes, and osteotomes.

FIGURE 24-5. NYSORA’s technique to facilitate exposure to

the femoral crease in obese patients.
FIGURE 24-4. Patient position for a femoral nerve block.
the FN is required (Figure 24-6). By applying pressure to the

transducer and adjusting the tilt, both the FN and fascia iliaca
can be better visualized. (Figure 24-7).

The needle is advanced in-plane from lateral to medial
toward the lateral edge of the FN, with the goal of entering
through the fascia iliaca covering the nerve. After piercing
the fascia, the needle tip is further advanced until it is in the
space between the two layers of the fascia that contain the FN
(Figure 24-8).

Before injection, the RAPT checklist is done to rule out a
motor response (R) to nerve stimulation, negative aspiration
(A) to avoid intravascular needle placement, low opening FIGURE 24-6. Bifurcation of the femoral artery (FA) into the
injection pressure (P) to avoid intraneural injection, and the profunda femoris artery (PFA). For a complete femoral nerve
total (T) volume to be administered. After the RAPT, 1 to 2 mL (FN) block, the injection is made proximal to the bifurcation
of LA is injected to evaluate the distribution of injectate where only a single artery is seen in the ultrasound.

FIGURE 24-7. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the femoral nerve (FN) at the femoral crease. FV, femoral vein;
FA, femoral artery.
FIGURE 24-8. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a femoral nerve (FN) block showing needle insertion in-plane. FV, femoral
vein; FA, femoral artery; GnFN, genitofemoral nerve.

FIGURE 24-9. Ultrasound image after a femoral nerve (FN) block that
shows an ideal spread of the local anesthetic. FA, femoral artery.
around the FN while monitoring the injection pressure; • Pierce the fascia iliaca lateral to the edge of the FN.
injection into the proper space will result in the displacement • If nerve stimulation is used (0.5 mA, 0.1 msec), the contact
of the FN from the adjacent fascia and muscle (Figure 24-9). of the needle tip with the FN is associated with a motor
response of the quadriceps muscle group.
• Beware of the motor weakness of the quadriceps—risk
Problem-Solving Tips of falls.
• Tilt the transducer craneo-caudally to optimize the image • Circumferential spread of LA around the nerve is not
of the nerve. necessary for this block.

Flowchart
Femoral Nerve Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine;
leg extended and slightly
externally rotated
Initial settings
Transducer position
• Linear transducer
Transverse over the femoral
• Depth: 2-4 cm
crease
The femoral artery is seen as a

Scanning
single, round anechoic pulsating
Apply pressure and tilt sliding the
structure. The femoral nerve is
transducer proximally/distally to
lateral to the artery;
identify the femoral artery and
a flattened oval group of fascicles
femoral nerve
deep to the fascia iliaca

distally, medial/laterally
• Apply pressure and adjust the tilt No
of the transducer to improve the Femoral artery
image and nerve identified?
• May use color Doppler to identify
the artery
• Adjust the US depth if necessary
Yes
Insert the needle in-plane

in a lateral to medial direction
toward the fascia iliaca, lateral
to the femoral nerve
Yes
GOAL: Needle placement lateral to

the nerve deep to the fascia iliaca
Apply the RAPT sequence before

and during injection of every
3-5 mL • After negative aspiration, inject
2-3 mL to confirm LA spread
R = Motor Response [absent at around the femoral nerve
0.5 mA] • Successful LA injection will
A = Aspiration [negative] displace femoral nerve medially
P = Injection Pressure [<15 psi] • Complete the block with

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Subsartorial Blocks: Saphenous
25 Nerve, Adductor Canal, and
Femoral Triangle Blocks
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the saphenous nerve under the sartorius muscle at the medial aspect of the mid-third thigh. Depending on
the injection level and injected volume, it may also block branches of the femoral and obturator nerves.
• Indications: Anesthesia for foot and ankle surgery in combination with a sciatic nerve block, analgesia for knee
surgery in combination with multimodal analgesia, and saphenous vein stripping, or harvesting
• Goal: Spread of LA around the femoral artery in the fascial compartment between the sartorius, vastus medialis,
and adductor muscles
are often present in the adductor canal and contribute to

General Considerations the innervation of the anteromedial aspect of the knee.
Under “subsartorial blocks,” we describe three related, but The level of the injection (proximal-distal) and volume of
distinct blocks: subsartorial saphenous nerve, adductor canal, injectate are factors that determine the block outcomes.
and femoral triangle blocks. For instance, the femoral triangle block with a large vol-
The subsartorial saphenous nerve block is a well- ume of LA results in proximal spread to the femoral nerve,
established technique to anesthetize the medial aspect of and quadriceps weakness. However, a proximal block also
the leg, ankle, and midfoot. It is commonly performed as an confers better analgesia to the anterior knee capsule. While
adjunct to the sciatic nerve block for lower leg surgery. The the adductor canal injection does not result in a complete
use of ultrasound (US) guidance improves its success rate, femoral nerve block, recent studies suggest that the LA may
by allowing determination of the optimal injection site and spread through the Hunter hiatus into the popliteal fossa.
monitoring of the LA spread. This, in turn, may result in a block of the articular branches
The adductor canal block is similar to the subsartorial to the posterior capsule from the sciatic nerve and obturator
saphenous nerve block, except that larger volumes of LA nerve (popliteal plexus).
are used. It was introduced as an alternative to the femoral
nerve block to avoid quadriceps paresis after knee surgery.
The adductor canal block is commonly used in the multi-
Limitations
modal analgesic regimen of the enhanced recovery after sur- The saphenous nerve travels with the femoral artery and vein
gery (ERAS) protocols for knee arthroplasty. at the midthigh. Although easy to localize, there is a risk of
The femoral triangle block is an injection of LA proxi- femoral vascular puncture when performing the block, par-
mal to the adductor canal to anesthetize additional terminal ticularly in larger patients, or when the transducer pressure
branches of the femoral nerve. This results in better analgesia, collapses the vein. Dissection of the femoral artery after an
but also in more motor weakness of the quadriceps muscle. adductor canal block has also been reported.
While the analgesic efficacy of the adductor canal is well- The quality and extent of analgesia provided by the subsar-
documented, the ideal level at which LA should be injected torial block depend on the injection level and the volume of
remains unanswered. Recent anatomical studies suggested LA used. However, none of the techniques will cover all artic-
that in addition to the saphenous nerve, the medial femo- ular branches that supply the knee, so a multimodal analgesia
ral cutaneous nerve, branches from the nerve to the vastus approach is a must. An adductor canal block is not com-
medialis, and articular branches from the obturator nerve pletely devoid of quadriceps weakness risk. Consequently,

implementing protocols for postoperative fall prevention is The canal is sort of a triangular tunnel delimited anteriorly
mandatory when using lower extremity blocks. by the vastus medialis, posteriorly by the adductor muscles,
and roofed by a thick aponeurosis connecting these muscles
(i.e., vasto-adductor membrane) (Figure 25-2). The distal
Anatomy limit of the canal is the adductor hiatus through which the
The saphenous nerve is the longest sensory branch from the femoral vessels enter the popliteal fossa.
femoral nerve. It travels with the femoral artery and vein on
the medial side of the thigh. At the level of the knee, the saphe-
nous nerve pierces the fascia lata between the tendons of the Cross-Sectional Anatomy and
sartorius and gracilis muscles to become subcutaneous. From Ultrasound View
there on, it descends to the medial side of the leg down to the
midfoot, innervating the skin on its trajectory (Figure 25-1). In a cross-sectional plane, the adductor canal appears as a
The sartorius muscle originates from the anterior superior triangular-shaped space, limited by the sartorius muscle and
iliac spine and descends obliquely across the anterior thigh in vastoadductor membrane (superficially), vastus medialis
a lateral-to-medial direction. The intersection of the medial muscle (anterolaterally), and adductor longus and adduc-
border of the sartorius muscle with the medial border of the tor magnus muscle (posteromedially). This interfascial space
adductor longus muscle defines the apex of the femoral trian- contains the femoral artery and vein, the saphenous nerve,
gle and proximal limit of the adductor canal (Figure 25-2). At the medial femoral cutaneous nerve, and branches from
the midthigh, the sartorius muscle covers the adductor canal. the nerve to the vastus medialis (Figure 25-3). Branches of the
obturator nerve may also travel through the adductor canal,
but this is not consistent.
and Analgesia
A subsartorial block results in cutaneous anesthesia of the
medial aspect of the leg below the knee, ankle, and midfoot.
Proximal injections of large volumes of LA may result in a
partial motor block of the quadriceps. The extent of analge-
sia of the knee joint would depend on the site of injection
(Figure 25-4).
Block Preparation
Equipment
• Needle: 50-mm, 22-gauge, insulated, stimulating needle
Local Anesthetic
Bupivacaine or ropivacaine 0.25% to 0.5% are best suited for
this block. Although 5 to 10 mL is sufficient for saphenous
nerve block, typically, 10 to 20 mL is used in adductor canal
blocks for analgesia after knee surgery. A higher volume (e.g.,
30 mL) has been associated with a risk of quadriceps pare-
sis. The data indicate that a continuous adductor canal block
prolongs analgesia without impairing the quadriceps func-
FIGURE 25-1. The saphenous nerve and the levels where it tion. Liposome bupivacaine can also be used to prolong the
can be blocked. duration of the block without the catheter.

Subsartorial Blocks: Saphenous Nerve, Adductor Canal, and Femoral Triangle Blocks CHAPTER 25 257
A B
FIGURE 25-2. Anatomical limits of the femoral triangle (in green) and the adductor canal (in blue).
FIGURE 25-3. Cross-section anatomy of the midthigh.

FIGURE 25-4. Anesthesia distribution of the subsartorial blocks. From right to left,
osteotomes, myotomes, and dermatomes.

The patient is positioned supine, with the knee slightly Landmarks and Transducer Position
flexed and rotated externally to better expose the medial
side of the thigh (Figure 25-5). The US machine is placed The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation over the
next to the patient on the contralateral side, facing the medial aspect of the midthigh. The femoral artery is visual-
practitioner. ized as a round anechoic pulsating structure deep to the sar-
torius muscle.

Scanning Technique
To find the injection site more precisely, the sartorius muscle
is traced proximally-distally to identify the internal sono-
graphic anatomy landmarks that define the femoral triangle
and adductor canal. The apex of the femoral triangle is iden-
tified by the intersection between the medial border of the
sartorius muscle and the medial border of the adductor lon-
gus muscle (Figure 25-6A). An injection distal to this limit
will occur in the adductor canal (Figure 25-6B).
The femoral artery is traced proximally and distally until it
is located below the midpoint of the sartorius muscle. At this
level (adductor canal), the saphenous nerve is lateral to the
artery and can be consistently blocked (Figure 25-7).

The needle is advanced in-plane from lateral to medial
toward the deep fascia of the sartorius muscle, lateral to the
femoral artery. The pressure of the transducer should
be released to identify the position of the femoral vein before
injection (Figure 25-8).

After negative aspiration, 1 to 2 mL of LA is injected to
confirm the correct injection site. The block is completed
with 10 to 15 mL of LA while observing the spread between
the sartorius muscle, vastus medialis, and femoral artery.
The injection usually facilitates imaging of the saphenous
FIGURE 25-5. Patient position. nerve (Figure 25-9).

FIGURE 25-6. Ultrasonographic landmarks defining the distal limit of (A) the femoral
triangle and (B) the adductor canal. SaM, sartorius muscle; SaN, saphenous nerve;
FA, femoral artery; FV, femoral vein; VMM, vastus medialis muscle; ALM, adductor
longus muscle; AMM, adductor magnus muscle.

FIGURE 25-7. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the adductor canal. SaM, sartorius muscle; SaN, saphenous nerve;
FA, femoral artery; FV, femoral vein; VMM, vastus medialis muscle; ALM, adductor longus muscle; AMM, adductor magnus muscle.
FIGURE 25-8. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of an adductor canal block with needle insertion in-plane. SaM, sartorius muscle;
SaN, saphenous nerve; FA, femoral artery; FV, femoral vein; VMM, vastus medialis muscle; ALM, adductor longus muscle;
AMM, adductor magnus muscle.

FIGURE 25-9. Local anesthetic distribution after injection into the adductor canal. FA, femoral
artery; FV, femoral vein; SaN, saphenous nerve.
• Local anesthetic volume: Do not use more than 10 mL of LA.

Problem-Solving Tips Bigger volumes may result in a motor block of the quadri-
• Tilt and slide the transducer cranial and caudal to optimize ceps muscle.
the image of the fascial planes. • The sonographic appearance of the saphenous nerve
• Color Doppler: If the artery cannot be visualized: (1) Use is hyperechoic; the nerve may not always be visualized
color Doppler or power Doppler mode and/or (2) Image the (e.g., larger patients). The saphenous nerve often becomes
femoral artery at the femoral crease and follow the artery by better visualized after the injection lateral to the femoral
scanning distally. artery as the landmark.
• An out-of-plane approach may be easier in larger patients.

Flowchart
Saphenous Nerve Block: Adductor Canal Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine: leg extended and
externally rotated
Initial settings
Transducer position
• Linear transducer (curved in
Transverse over the medial
larger patients)
thigh to identify the femoral vessels
• Depth: 3-5 cm
deep to the sartorius muscle.
Tips Scanning
• An injection distal to this limit will Scan along the thigh proximally/
occur in the adductor canal. distally to identify the level where
• An injection proximal to this limit the medial border of the sartorius
will occur in the femoral triangle. muscle meets the medial border of
the adductor longus muscle.

distally until the femoral artery is
located below the mid-point of No Limit of
the sartorius muscle. the adductor canal
• The saphenous nerve would be identified?
lateral to the artery; although
may not always be seen.
Yes
Insert the needle in-plane through

the sartorius muscle to reach the
canal just lateral to the femoral
artery. Needle course is in
anterolateral to posteromedial
direction.
• After negative aspiration, inject

Use the RAPT method during 2-3 mL to confirm LA spread in
injection every 3-5 mL* the intermuscular fascial plane
lateral to the artery.
R = Motor Response absent at • Successful injection often
0.5 mA improves visualization of the
A = Aspiration (negative) saphenous nerve.
P = Injection Pressure <15 psi • Complete the block with
*Local motor response may indicate wrong (intramuscular) needle placement.

More distal motor response may indicate needle-nerve contact with the
saphenous nerve, which requires caution to avoid its injury by the needle or injection.
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Jæger P, Jenstrup MT, Lund J, et al. Optimal volume of local anaes- clinical implications of the ultrasound-guided subsartorial
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Foot Ankle Surg. 2013;19:76-79.

26 Lateral Femoral Cutaneous
Nerve Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve distal to the anterior superior iliac spine.
• Indications: Analgesia for surgery on the anterolateral thigh; skin grafting, muscle biopsy, meralgia paresthetica
• Goal: Local anesthetic spread around the nerve superficial or lateral to the sartorius muscle
lateral border. A few centimeters distally, the LFCN is located

General Considerations between the sartorius and tensor fasciae latae muscles. On
The lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (LFCN) block is a com- US, the nerve appears as a small hyperechoic neural struc-
monly performed technique to provide cutaneous anesthesia ture 0.5 to 2 cm below the skin surface between the fascia lata
or analgesia to the anterolateral aspect of the thigh. The block and superficial fascia of the sartorius, or within a fat-filled
also can help diagnose and treat meralgia paresthetica. This hypoechoic space between the sartorius and tensor fascia
mononeuropathy of the LFCN is manifested by pain, dyses- latae muscles (Figure 26-2).
thesia, or numbness in the area supplied by the LFCN. Ultra-
sound (US) facilitates clear identification of the nerve and
ensures needle placement in the correct fascial plane.
and Analgesia
The LFCN is a purely sensory nerve that provides cutane-
Anatomy ous innervation to the anterolateral thigh (Figure 26-3). The
innervation territory of the LFCN is highly variable.
The LFCN is a small sensory nerve arising from the dorsal
divisions of L2-L3. After emerging from the lateral border
of the psoas major muscle, it courses under the fascia iliaca Block Preparation
laterally toward the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS). The
nerve then passes under the inguinal ligament and trav- Equipment
els distally over the sartorius muscle into the thigh, where • Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer
it divides into two branches (i.e., anterior and posterior) to
provide innervation to the anterolateral aspect of the thigh • Needle: 25- to 40-mm, 25-gauge needle
(Figure 26-1). There are many anatomical variations of the
nerve with regards to its entrance into the thigh. Local Anesthetic
For cutaneous anesthesia, lidocaine 2% or ropivacaine 0.2%
are commonly used. For meralgia paresthetica, long-lasting
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and local anesthetics (LAs) with steroids are used.
Ultrasound View
At the level of the ASIS, the LFCN is located just medial to
Patient Positioning
the insertion of the sartorius muscle. As the sartorius muscle The patient is placed in a supine position with the lower
descends in a lateral to a medial direction across the anterior extremity extended to maximize the exposure to the proxi-
thigh, the LFCN travels superficially from its medial to its mal thigh (Figure 26-4).

FIGURE 26-1. Anatomy of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve.
FIGURE 26-2. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve.

Lateral Femoral Cutaneous Nerve Block CHAPTER 26 267
FIGURE 26-3. Expected sensory distribution of the lateral FIGURE 26-4. Patient position to perform an ultrasound-
femoral cutaneous nerve (highlighted in red). guided lateral femoral cutaneous nerve block.
LFCN. The LFCN is identified as a hyperechogenic structure

Technique moving superficial to the muscle toward a tiny space between
Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position the sartorius and tensor fascia latae muscles. The nerve is
accessed where it is best visible (see Figure 26-2).
After identification of the ASIS, the transducer is placed in a
transverse orientation just distal to it to identify the sartorius
muscle as a hypoechoic triangular structure. Needle Approach and Trajectory
The needle is advanced either in-plane or out-of-plane deep
Scanning Technique to the fascia lata next to the nerve. After negative aspiration,
The transducer is slid distally over the sartorius muscle, 1 mL of LA is injected to confirm the correct needle position
adjusting the tilt and pressure, to see the rather small-appearing (Figure 26-5).

FIGURE 26-5. Reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane to block the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve.
Local Anesthetic Distribution Flowchart

The LA spread surrounding the LFCN ensures a successful
block. If the nerve is not clearly visible, a careful infiltration
superficial to the fascia of the sartorius muscle is sufficient for a
successful block.
Lateral Femoral Cutaneous Nerve (LFCN) Block

Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine; leg extended
Initial settings Transducer position

• Linear transducer Transverse just distal to the ASIS
• Depth: 3 cm to identify the sartorius muscle.
The LFCN appears as a Scanning

hypoechoic, triangular structure Slide the transducer from insertion
located between the sartorius and to ASIS distally over the sartorius
tensor fascia latae muscles. muscle to identify the LFCN.
If the nerve is not clearly visible, a No

careful infiltration superficial to the
LFCN identified?
fascia of the sartorius muscle may
be sufficient.
Yes
Insert the needle in-plane or out-

of-plane, deep to the fascia lata
and next to the LFCN.
After negative aspiration, inject

3-5 mL and verify the LA spread
around the LFCN.

Lateral Femoral Cutaneous Nerve Block CHAPTER 26 269
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arthroplasty. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2014;42:625-630. Simpson RL. Ultrasound guided lateral femoral cutaneous
Grothaus MC, Holt M, Mekhail AO, Ebraheim NA, Yeasting RA. nerve (LFCN) block: safe and simple anesthesia for harvesting
Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve: an anatomic study. Clin Orthop skin grafts. Burns. 2013;39:146-149.
Relat Res. 2005:164-168. doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000164526.08610.97. Thybo KH, Mathiesen O, Dahl JB, Schmidt H, Hägi-Pedersen D.
Hara K, Sakura S, Shido A. Ultrasound-guided lateral femoral Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve block after total hip arthroplasty:
cutaneous nerve block: comparison of two techniques. Anaesth a randomised trial. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2016;60:1297-1305.
Intensive Care. 2011;39:69-72. Vilhelmsen F, Nersesjan M, Andersen JH, et al. Lateral femoral
Nersesjan M, Hägi-Pedersen D, Andersen JH, et al. Sensory dis- cutaneous nerve block with different volumes of ropivacaine:
tribution of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve block—a ran- a randomized trial in healthy volunteers. BMC Anesthesiol.
domised, blinded trial. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2018;62:863-873. 2019;19:1-8.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
27 Obturator Nerve Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the obturator nerve at the inguinal crease.
• Indications: Supplemental analgesia for hip and knee surgeries (considered as rescue block for knee surgery),
prevention of thigh adduction response during transurethral bladder surgery, relief of painful or permanent hip
adductor spasticity
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread in the fascial planes containing the branches of the obturator nerve
• Local anesthetic volume: 5 to 10 mL in each interfascial space or around each branch of the obturator nerve.
For the proximal approach, use 10 to 15 mL.
with a branch of the medial circumflex femoral artery in the

General Considerations vicinity of the obturator nerve.
The obturator nerve block is a well-established technique
for hip and knee surgeries, traditionally performed based
on landmarks and nerve stimulation. However, the ana- Anatomy
tomical variability and deep location of the structures The obturator nerve arises from the ventral rami of the L2 to
make it difficult to achieve consistent results. The wide- L4 lumbar nerves. It descends to the pelvis through the psoas
spread availability of point-of-care ultrasound (US) led major muscle emerging from its medial border, then travels
to a renewed interest in this technique because US allows posteriorly with the common iliac arteries and laterally along
visualization of the nerves and precise injection of LAs into the pelvic wall toward the obturator foramen, through where
the fascial planes through which they travel. Modifications it enters the thigh (Figure 27-1). In most individuals, the nerve
of the technique have been proposed to optimize the spread divides before exiting the pelvis into an anterior and posterior
of the injectate around the obturator nerve and along the branch, which are separated at first by fibers of the external
obturator canal, proximal to the bifurcation of the nerve. obturator, and more distally by the adductor brevis muscles.
The obturator nerve block may add to the quality of anal- The articular branches supplying the hip joint are usually
gesia after hip and knee surgeries; however, its analgesic derived from the common obturator nerve proximal to its
value in the context of a multimodal analgesia regime is yet division and only occasionally from the individual branches.
to be determined. The anterior branch of the obturator nerve initially travels
through the interfascial plane between the pectineus and adduc-
tor brevis muscles. It runs further caudad between the adductor
Limitations and Specific Risks longus and adductor brevis muscles, innervating the adductor
A limitation of this technique includes the difficulty in longus, adductor brevis, and gracilis muscles. The posterior
obtaining good US images of the structures in the inguinal branch travels in the fascia between the adductor brevis and
area. Likewise, the insufficient cranial spread of the LA and adductor magnus muscles (Figure 27-1). The nerve supplies
anatomical variability may result in an inconsistent block multiple branches to the adductor magnus and adductor brevis
extent and limit the analgesic value to treat hip pain. muscles and occasionally innervates the external obturator and
The risk of vascular puncture is a common complication adductor longus muscles as well. The posterior branch also pro-
related to this block because the obturator artery anastomoses vides articular branches to the medial aspect of the knee joint.

FIGURE 27-1. Anatomy of the obturator nerve in the thigh.
than 40% to 50% is often used as a definition of a successful

Cross-Sectional Anatomy and obturator nerve block.
Ultrasound View The obturator nerve also contributes to the sensory inner-
At the level of the inguinal ligament, just distally to the vation of the hip and knee joints. The branch to the hip joint
obturator foramen, the branches of the obturator nerve run might not be blocked by the described distal block approaches.
superficially to the external obturator muscle and deep to the The cutaneous anesthesia of the medial aspect of the thigh is
pectineus muscle (Figure 27-2A). inconsistent and variable in extension (Figure 27-3).
Slightly distally, the branches of obturator nerve diverge as
they reach the adductor brevis muscle (Figure 27-2B).
Further distally, the anterior branch lies between the Block Preparation
adductor longus and brevis, while the posterior branch runs Equipment
between the adductor brevis and magnus. The identification
of the adductor fascial planes, just medial to the pectineus • Transducer: Linear high-frequency or curved transducer
muscle, is easy with a linear US transducer, although the • Needle: 50- or 100-mm, 21- or 22-gauge, short-bevel, insu-
branches of the obturator nerve may not always be visualized lated, stimulating needle
(Figure 27-2C).
Choice of Local Anesthetic
Distribution of Anesthesia To avoid contractions of the adductor muscles during endo-
scopic bladder surgery, short- or intermediate-acting LAs,
and Analgesia such as lidocaine 2%, are indicated. For analgesia after hip
The obturator nerve provides motor innervation to the graci- or knee surgery, long-lasting LAs (e.g., bupivacaine 0.5% or
lis and adductor longus brevis and magnus muscles. The pec- ropivacaine 0.5%) are recommended. Like most fascial plane
tineus and adductor magnus muscles receive co-innervation blocks, the success of the block relies on the volume injected.
from the femoral nerve and the sciatic nerves, respectively. Therefore, 10 to 15 mL is commonly injected to obtain an
Consequently, a decrease in adductor muscle strength of more adequate spread pattern.

Obturator Nerve Block CHAPTER 27 273
FIGURE 27-2. Cross-sectional anatomy of the obturator nerve (A) exiting the obturator foramen,
(B) approaching the adductor brevis muscle, and (C) at the level of the adductor brevis muscle.

FIGURE 27-3. Obturator nerve block: sensory and motor distribution (highlighted in red).
Patient Positioning vessels. The transducer is moved medially along the crease
to identify the pectineus, and further medially, the adductor
Patients are placed in the supine position with the thigh longus, adductor brevis, and adductor magnus muscles.
slightly abducted and externally rotated to facilitate access to
the medial aspect of the inguinal crease (Figure 27-4).
Scanning Technique
Technique The anterior and posterior branches of the obturator nerve
can be seen running along the fascial planes superficial and
deep to the adductor brevis muscles (Figure 27-2).
The US transducer is placed in a transverse orientation Scanning as much proximally as possible and tilting the
perpendicular to the inguinal crease to identify the femoral transducer about 45° cranially, the two branches are seen

brevis muscles (anterior branch) and between the adductor

brevis and adductor magnus muscles (posterior branch).
Nerve stimulation may elicit contraction of the adductor
muscles. When necessary, the needle is adjusted to opti-
mize the spread of the LA solution in the interfascial space
(Figures 27-5 and 27-6).
• Proximal approach: The needle is inserted in-plane from
lateral to medial toward the hyperechoic fascial plane
between the pectineus and external obturator muscles.
The obturator nerve may be seen as a hyperechoic thick
structure, although it may be difficult to distinguish from
the interfascial plane (Figures 27-7 and 27-8). Due to the
pronounced tilt of the transducer, it can be difficult to
align the needle with the transducer in order to visual-
ize the needle and target simultaneously when in-plane
needle insertion is used.

With the distal and proximal techniques, the spread of the
LA occurs along the corresponding intermuscular fascial
planes. Moreover, in the proximal technique, a retrograde
spread of LA through the obturator canal is to be expected,
resulting in blockade of the branches diverging cranially
to the inguinal ligament. The proximal approach is better
suited to avoid the contraction of the adductor muscles dur-
ing endoscopic bladder surgery.
FIGURE 27-4. Patient position for an obturator nerve block. • Weakness or inability to adduct the leg indicates a successful
obturator nerve block. A simple method of assessing adduc-
tor muscle strength (motor block) is to instruct the patient to
converging in the fascial plane between the pectineus and the adduct the leg from an abducted position against resistance.
external obturator muscles (Figure 27-2). • Caution should be exercised to prevent intravascular injec-
tion in a highly vascular area. Always use color Doppler,
Needle Approach and Trajectory appropiate monitoring, and frequent aspiration, and frac-
tionate the dose and maintain verbal contact with the patient.
The block can be performed proximal or distal to the bifurca-
• When nerve stimulation is used, adduction of the thigh can
tion of the nerve.
occur even without proper nerve identification. This is due
• Distal approach: The needle can be advanced in-plane to direct muscle or muscle branch stimulation with cur-
or out-of-plane; two aliquots of LA are injected into the rents >1.0 mA. Decreasing the current intensity helps dis-
fascial planes between the adductor longus and adductor tinguish between nerve versus direct muscle stimulation.

FIGURE 27-5. Distal approach to block the obturator nerve; transducer position and sonoanatomy.
FIGURE 27-6. Distal approach to block the obturator nerve; reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane.

FIGURE 27-7. Proximal approach to block the obturator nerve; transducer position and sonoanatomy.
FIGURE 27-8. Proximal approach to block the obturator nerve; reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane.

Flowchart
Obturator Nerve Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine with the thigh slightly
abducted and externally rotated

• Linear transducer Transverse over the femoral crease
• Depth: 4-6 cm Goal: Visualize the femoral vessels
• The anterior branch travels Scanning

between the adductor longus 1. Slide the transducer medially to
and brevis muscles. visualize the pectineus,
• The posterior branch travels adductor longus, brevis, and
between the adductor brevis magnus muscles (L-B-M).
and adductor magnus. 2. Look for the anterior and
• Relevant fascial planes are posterior branches of obturator
usually seen; the nerves may not nerve in the fascial planes
always be identified. superficial or deep to the
adductor brevis muscle.
• Tilt transducer caudal-cephlalad.

• Check depth settings: may need
to increase.
• Apply pressure on transducer. No Intermuscular
• If unsure about anatomy, go fascial planes
back to femoral vessels and identified?
repeat the scanning sequence.
• To identify obturator nerve -
focus on relevant fascial planes.
Yes
Distal approach Proximal approach

Advance the needle 1. Scan and tilt the transducer
1. Between the adductor about 45° cranially to identify
longus and brevis, and the pectineus and external
2. Between the adductor brevis obturator muscles.
and magnus 2. Advance the needle between
the pectineus and external
obturator muscles.
Use the RAPT method during • After negative aspiration, inject

injection every 3-5 mL 1-2 mL to confirm LA spread in
the intermuscular fascial plane.
R = Motor Response absent at 0.5 mA • Complete the block with
A = Aspiration (negative) volume of 5-10 mL in each
P = Injection Pressure <15 psi fascial plane or 10-15 mL for the
T = Total mL injected proximal approach.

SUGGESTED READINGS Paraskeuopoulos T, Saranteas T. Ultrasound-guided obturator

nerve block: the importance of the medial circumflex femoral
Anagnostopoulou S, Kostopanagiotou G, Paraskeuopoulos T, vessels. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2012;37:565.
Chantzi C, Lolis E, Saranteas T. Anatomic variations of the obtu- Runge C, Børglum J, Jensen JM, et al. The analgesic effect of obtu-
rator nerve in the inguinal region: implications in conventional rator nerve block added to a femoral triangle block after total
and ultrasound regional anesthesia techniques. Reg Anesth Pain knee arthroplasty: a randomized controlled trial. Reg Anesth
Med. 2009;34:33-39. Pain Med. 2016;41:445-451.
Kim YB, Park HY, Kim KM, Shin HJ, Kim SB, Lee MG. The effect Shah N, Sofi K, Nengroo S. Obturator nerve block in transurethral
of interfascial injection on obturator nerve block compared resection of bladder tumor: a comparison of ultrasound-guided
with nerve stimulating approach by ultrasound-guide: a ran- technique versus ultrasound with nerve stimulation technique.
domized clinical trial. Urol J. 2019;16(4):407-411. Anesth Essays Res. 2017;11:411-415.
Lee SH, Jeong CW, Lee HJ, Yoon MH, Kim WM. Ultrasound guided Taha AM. Ultrasound-guided obturator nerve block: a proximal
obturator nerve block: a single interfascial injection technique. interfascial technique. Anesth Analg. 2012;114:236-239.
J Anesth. 2011;25:923-926. Yoshida T, Onishi T, Furutani K, Baba H. A new ultrasound-
Lin J-A, Nakamoto T, Yeh S-D. Ultrasound standard for obtura- guided pubic approach for proximal obturator nerve
tor nerve block: the modified Taha’s approach. Br J Anaesth. block: clinical study and cadaver evaluation. Anaesthesia.
2015;114:337-339. 2016;71:291-297.
Nielsen ND, Runge C, Clemmesen L, et al. An obturator nerve block Yoshida T, Nakamoto T, Kamibayashi T. Ultrasound-guided obtu-
does not alleviate postoperative pain after total hip arthroplasty: a rator nerve block: a focused review on anatomy and updated
randomized clinical trial. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;44:466-471. techniques. Biomed Res Int. 2017;2017:1-9.
Nielsen TD, Moriggl B, Søballe K, Kolsen-Petersen JA, Børglum J,
Bendtsen TF. A cadaveric study of ultrasound-guided subpec-
tineal injectate spread around the obturator nerve and its hip
articular branches. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42:357-361.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
28 Proximal Sciatic Nerve Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the sciatic nerve at the gluteal, subgluteal, or proximal thigh level.
• Indications: Anesthesia and analgesia for foot and ankle surgery, procedures involving the posterior aspect of
the thigh and knee, and for above-knee amputation
• Goal: Local anesthetic spread within the sheath containing the sciatic nerve
General Considerations Anatomy

The sciatic nerve block is a well-established regional anesthe- The sciatic nerve is a large nerve, originating from the lum-
sia technique for lower extremity surgery, both with or with- bosacral plexus (L4-L5 and S1-S3). The nerve exits the pel-
out combination of the saphenous nerve block. It is sometimes vis through the greater sciatic foramen below the piriformis
performed as an optional component of multimodal analgesia muscle. It courses distally along the fascial planes between
strategies for knee surgery. The development of ultrasound the gluteus maximus muscle (posterior) and the inner group
(US) guidance in regional anesthesia has increased the suc- of muscles (i.e., superior and inferior gemellus, obtura-
cess rate while reducing the required local anesthetic (LA) vol- tor internus, and quadratus femoris muscles). The nerve
ume for a successful block. The sciatic nerve can be accessed descends into the posterior thigh between the greater tro-
at several levels along its proximal course (parasacral, gluteal, chanter of the femur and ischial tuberosity and continues
subgluteal) and through different needle approaches (pos- down to the popliteal fossa between the biceps femoris and
terior, lateral, or anterior). However, the popularity of these adductor magnus. The posterior femoral cutaneous nerve
techniques appears to be declining in favor of more distal runs along the sciatic nerve at the gluteal level until they are
approaches or motor sparing blocks of the sensory branches of separated by the insertion of the biceps femoris muscle at
the sciatic nerve components. For instance, popliteal or ankle the ischial tuberosity (Figure 28-1).
blocks are preferred for ambulatory foot surgery (see Chap-
ters 29 and 32) as they interfere less with early ambulation.
Similarly, interventional analgesia for knee surgery is evolving Cross-Sectional Anatomy and
toward more selective blocks targeting the terminal sensory Ultrasound Anatomy
branches of the posterior knee capsule (see Chapter 31).
At the gluteal level, the nerve is located between the gluteus
maximus (superficial) and deep muscles (i.e., obturator inter-
Limitations nus, inferior gemellus, or quadratus femoris muscles). Using a
Obtaining an optimal image of the sciatic nerve at the gluteal curvilinear transducer between the greater trochanter (lateral)
level may be challenging due to its deep location, particularly and ischial tuberosity (medial), the gluteus maximus muscle
in obese patients. The distribution of anesthesia below the is seen as the most superficial muscular layer, typically several
knee resulting from a proximal block is equivalent to that of a centimeters thick and the quadratus femoris muscle deep to
popliteal approach, but the resulting motor block of the pos- it. The intermuscular fascial plane bridges the two bony struc-
terior compartment of the thigh limits the patient autonomy. tures. The sciatic nerve is seen as a triangular hyperechoic
The deeper needle path toward the sciatic nerve is less toler- structure in this fascial plane, slightly closer to the ischial
ated requiring higher degree of sedation. tuberosity than to the greater trochanter (Figure 28-2A).

FIGURE 28-1. Anatomy of the sciatic nerve in the posterior thigh.
More distally, at the gluteal crease, the sciatic nerve is 6 to 8 cm, in the fascial plane between the adductor magnus
more superficial and easier to block as the gluteus maximus and biceps femoris muscle (Figure 28-3).
muscle tapers off. The nerve is located between the gluteus
maximus (posterior) and adductor magnus (anterior). The
long head of the biceps femoris and ischiotibialis muscles Distribution of Anesthesia
originate at the ischial tuberosity, just medially to the sciatic
nerve at this level. Placing a linear (or curvilinear) transducer
and Analgesia
at the gluteal crease visualizes the sciatic nerve as a triangu- The proximal sciatic nerve block results in a sensory and
lar or oval hyperechoic structure in the intermuscular fascial motor block of the posterior aspect of the thigh and leg below
plane (Figure 28-2B). the knee. In the thigh, the motor block involves all the pos-
At the proximal thigh, the sciatic nerve can also be blocked terior compartment muscles (i.e., biceps femoris, semimem-
through the lateral or anterior approach. However, these branosus, and semitendinosus), and partially of the adductor
techniques are more challenging because of the deep location magnus muscles. The sensory block includes the posterior
of the nerve. The femoral artery and its profunda femoris capsules of the hip and knee. The posterior femoral cutane-
branch can be identified with color Doppler US medially to ous nerve is usually spared by the subgluteal and anterior
the nerve. The femur is readily seen as a hyperechoic rim with approaches. Unless the surgical incision involves the poste-
the corresponding shadow lateral to the nerve. The sciatic rior thigh, the lack of cutaneous anesthesia in this area is of
nerve is visualized as a hyperechoic structure at a depth of little clinical relevance. Below the knee, a sciatic block results

Proximal Sciatic Nerve Block CHAPTER 28 283
FIGURE 28-2. Sonoanatomy of the sciatic nerve (A) at the gluteal level with a curvilinear transducer and (B) at the gluteal
crease (subgluteal) with a linear transducer.
FIGURE 28-3. Sonoanatomy of the sciatic nerve when imaged via an anterior approach.

FIGURE 28-4. Sensory and motor distribution after a sciatic nerve block at a gluteal or subgluteal level.
in complete anesthesia, except for the territory of the saphe- analgesia after knee surgery. Short-acting LAs, such as lido-
nous nerve on the medial leg, ankle, and foot (Figure 28-4). caine 2%, are commonly used for short, less painful procedures.
A volume of 10 to 20 mL is usually sufficient for an effective
block. Increasing the volume up to 30 mL may not signifi-
Block Preparation cantly prolong the block duration.
Equipment
• Transducer: Low-frequency curvilinear transducer (or Patient Positioning
high-frequency linear transducer for subgluteal approach) For the gluteal or subgluteal approach, the patient can be placed
• Needle: 80- to 100-mm, 22-gauge, insulated, stimulating in a lateral decubitus position (Sim’s position) with the limb to
needle be blocked flexed at the hip and knee, or in a prone position
(Figure 28-5). Exposures of the thigh, calf, and foot are required
to detect a motor response when using nerve stimulation.
Local Anesthetic For the anterior and lateral approaches, the patient is placed
Bupivacaine or ropivacaine 0.5% are used for anesthesia in a supine position with the hip abducted and externally
and analgesia for foot and ankle surgeries. Diluted mixtures rotated to facilitate transducer and needle placement. A supine
of these LAs (e.g., 0.125-0.25%) may be used to provide position has also been described for the lateral approach.

The sciatic nerve is seen as a hyperechoic oval structure

within this fascial plane. Scanning distally while adjusting the
tilt helps to distinguish the sciatic nerve in continuity from
the tendinous structures attached to the ischial tuberosity
at this level (Figure 28-8). The needle is advanced in-plane,
from lateral to medial toward the lateral edge of the sciatic
nerve within the fascial plane (Figure 28-9). This approach is
also known as “infra-gluteal” referring to an injection distal
to the gluteus muscles.
Anterior Approach
The curved transducer is placed in a transverse orientation
over the anteromedial aspect of the proximal thigh. The
femoral artery and nerve are seen superficially on the medial
side, with the lesser trochanter appearing on the lateral side.
The sciatic nerve is visualized as a hyperechoic oval structure
in the deep fascial plane between the adductor magnus mus-
cle and biceps femoris. (Figure 28-3) Sliding and tilting the
transducer usually help to improve the visualization. If the
patient is able to dorsiflex and/or plantarflex the ankle, this
maneuver can be used to rotate the nerve or move it within
the muscular planes, facilitating identification.
The needle is inserted in-plane or out-of-plane and
advanced toward the fascial plane where the sciatic nerve is
located. It is important to identify the femoral vessels (color
Doppler) and femoral nerve before inserting the needle to
avoid inadvertent puncture.
Due to the steep angle, visualization of the needle tip may
be difficult.
FIGURE 28-5. Patient position to perform a proximal sciatic

nerve block. Local Anesthetic Distribution
Once the needle tip is positioned within the fascial plane
next to the sciatic nerve sheath, 1 to 2 mL of LA is injected to
Techniques confirm the proper injection site. Repositioning the needle is
often necessary to accomplish the desired LA spread around
Gluteal Approach the sciatic nerve to increase the block speed and success.
The transducer is positioned in a transverse orientation
over the gluteal region between the greater trochanter and
ischial tuberosity to identify the deep fascia of the gluteus maxi- Problem-Solving Tips
mus muscle connecting the two landmarks. By applying pres-
sure and adjusting the tilt, the sciatic nerve is identified as the • A linear transducer can also be used in smaller patients
triangular hyperechoic image in the fascial plane (Figure 28-6). and for the subgluteal approach. However, the wider sec-
The needle is advanced in-plane, from lateral to medial tor of the curved transducer is usually better for a proximal
toward the lateral edge of the sciatic nerve within the fascial sciatic nerve block as it allows visualization of the osseous
plane and 1-2 mL of LA is injecte to confim the injection site. landmarks.
(Figure 28-7) Note that this approach is also termed “sub- • The ability to visualize the sciatic nerve proximally depends
gluteal” in the literature, referring to an injection deep to the on the identification of the correct fascial planes. Tracing
gluteus muscle. the muscular planes proximally and distally, or from their
insertion sites, often helps to find the sciatic nerve.
• The depth of the sciatic nerve changes along its course
Subgluteal Approach depending on the thickness of the surrounding muscles.
The transducer is placed over the gluteal crease to identify the Consequently, the sciatic nerve exhibits a high degree of
fascial planes between the gluteus maximus (posterior), biceps anisotropy. Adjusting the tilt along the way is essential to
femoris (medial), and adductor magnus muscles (anterior). obtain an optimal view of the sciatic nerve.

FIGURE 28-6. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the sciatic nerve at the gluteal level.
FIGURE 28-7. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a proximal sciatic nerve block at the gluteal level with needle insertion
in-plane.

FIGURE 28-8. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the sciatic nerve at the subgluteal level.
FIGURE 28-9. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a proximal sciatic nerve block at the subgluteal level with needle insertion
in-plane.

Flowchart
Subgluteal Sciatic Nerve Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Prone or lateral decubitus;
the leg flexed at the knee or hip
Initial settings
Transducer position
• Curved transducer
Over the gluteal crease
• Linear transducer also possible
GOAL: Visualize gluteus maximus
in smaller patients
(posterior), biceps femoris (medial),
• Depth, 4-6 cm
and adductor magnus (anterior).
The sciatic nerve appears as a Scanning

hyperechoic, oval structure within Tilting the transducer and
the intermuscular fascial plane applying the pressure helps
close to the ischial tuberosity. identify sciatic nerve.
• Imaging sciatic nerve in the

popliteal fossa is often easier.
• Once identified, scan the sciatic
nerve proximally to the sub- No
gluteal level. Sciatic nerve identified?
• The depth of the sciatic nerve
will change from popliteal fossa
(2-4 cm) to mid-thigh (4-6 cm) to
subgluteal level (3-5 cm). Yes
Advance the needle in-plane from

lateral to medial toward the lateral
edge of the sciatic nerve within
the fascial plane.
• After negative aspiration, inject

Use the RAPT method during 1-2 mL and verify LA spread in
injection every 3-5 mL the intermuscular fascial plane
and next to the sciatic nerve.
R = Motor Response absent at • Reposition the needle if needed
0.5 mA to achieve the desired spread.
A = Aspiration (negative) • Complete the block with 15-10
P = Injection Pressure <15 psi mL of LA.
SUGGESTED READINGS Christiansen CB, Madsen MH, Rothe C, Andreasen AM,

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Cappelleri G, Ambrosoli AL, Turconi S, Gemma M, Ricci EB, 2013;110:319-320.
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2014;119:489-493. current affect the resultant blockade. J Anesth. 2014;28:524-531.

Hara K, Sakura S, Yokokawa N, Tadenuma S. Incidence and effects Tammam TF. Ultrasound-guided sciatic nerve block: a comparison
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2012;37:289-293. Wiesmann T, Hüttemann I, Schilke N, et al. Ultrasound-guided sin-
Johnson CS, Johnson RL, Niesen AD, Stoike DE, Pawlina W. gle injection versus continuous sciatic nerve blockade on pain
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a cadaveric study. J Ultrasound Med. 2018;37:897-903. (CoSinUS trial): a randomized, triple-blinded controlled trial.
Karmakar MK, Kwok WH, Ho AM, Tsang K, Chui PT, Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2018;35:782-789.
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2007;98:390-395. niques for ultrasound-guided subgluteal sciatic nerve block.
Nwawka OK, Meyer R, Miller TT. Ultrasound-guided subgluteal Anesth Analg. 2014;119:1442-1448.
sciatic nerve perineural injection: report on safety and efficacy Yoshida T, Nakamoto T, Hashimoto C, Aihara S, Nishimoto K,
at a single institution. J Ultrasound Med. 2017;36:2319-2324. Kamibayashi T. An ultrasound-guided lateral approach for
Osaka Y, Kashiwagi M, Nagatsuka Y, Miwa S. Ultrasound-guided proximal sciatic nerve block: a randomized comparison with
medial mid-thigh approach to sciatic nerve block with a patient the anterior approach and a cadaveric evaluation. Reg Anesth
in a supine position. J Anesth. 2011;25:621-624. Pain Med. 2018;43:712-719.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
29 Popliteal Sciatic Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Block of the sciatic nerve at the popliteal fossa.
• Indications: Foot and ankle surgery; analgesia after major knee surgery
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread within the sciatic nerve sheath (Vloka’s sheath) between tibial and common
peroneal nerves
(Figure 29-1). The nomenclature, consistency, and function of

General Considerations the connective tissue sheath around the sciatic nerve have been
The popliteal block is a commonly used anesthesia technique the subject of considerable debate. In this text, we opt to call
for foot and ankle procedures, particularly in the setting of it the Vloka sheath in recognition of Dr. Jerry Vloka’s contribu-
ambulatory surgery. It provides a sensory-motor block of the tion to the understanding of the sciatic sheath and its role in
lower extremity below the knee. The anesthetic effect is simi- sciatic popliteal block.
lar to that of the proximal sciatic nerve block but spares the In the popliteal fossa, the nerve becomes relatively superfi-
hamstring muscles. cial as the biceps femoris tapers into a tendon. The TN con-
The introduction of ultrasound (US) and research on the tinues its course along the posterior aspect of the popliteal
functional anesthesia anatomy of the popliteal space resulted vein and artery while the CPN courses laterally deep to the
in substantial refinement and standardization of popliteal tendon of the biceps femoris muscle and descends around
block techniques. In particular, US allows monitoring of the head and neck of the fibula. The semimembranosus mus-
the LA spread proximally/distally, and determination of the cle and the tendon of the semitendinosus muscle are located
level where the sciatic nerve divides, as the optimal injection at the medial side of the popliteal fossa.
site. Monitoring of the spread of the injectate also allows for
a reduction of the LA volume and dose required for a suc- Cross-Sectional Anatomy and
cessful block. The popliteal block can be performed in dif-
ferent patient positions and with different needle insertion
Ultrasound View
techniques to obtain consistent results. At the popliteal crease, the popliteal artery is located at a
depth of approximately 2 to 4 cm in between the condyles of
Limitations the femur. The popliteal vein runs posterior to the artery and
the TN is seen posterior (superficial) to the vein and slightly
The popliteal block results in complete motor block below the lateral. The CPN is located anterior (deep) to the tendon of
knee limiting the ability to ambulate without assistive devices. the biceps femoris muscle (Figure 29-2A).
At the level of division of the sciatic nerve, the TN and the
CPN are clearly seen as individual structures enclosed in
Anatomy the Vloka’s sheath. The popliteal vessels are distanced from
The sciatic nerve descends through the posterior compartment the sciatic nerve by the popliteal fat, the amount of which
of the thigh into the popliteal fossa where its main compo- substantially varies among individuals (Figure 29-2B).
nents, the tibial nerve (TN) and the common peroneal nerve Proximal to the division of the sciatic nerve, the popliteal
(CPN), diverge. The level at which the TN and CPN diver- vessels lie deeper (anterior) and become more challenging to
gence occurs varies being approximately 2 to 4 cm proximal to image. The sciatic nerve is deep (anterior) to the long head
the popliteal crease. From their origin in the pelvis, the TN and of the biceps femoris between the short head of the biceps
CPN are enveloped by a common connective tissue sheath that on the lateral side and the semimembranosus muscle on the
continues along the nerves individually after their separation medial side (Figure 29-2C).

FIGURE 29-1. Anatomy of the sciatic nerve in the popliteal fossa.
Distribution of Anesthesia Patient Positioning

and Analgesia The popliteal block can be performed with the patient in the
The popliteal sciatic nerve block results in anesthesia of the lateral (oblique), prone, or supine position. In all positions,
lower extremity below the knee, except for the skin on the medial exposure of the calf and foot is required to be able to observe
aspect of the leg down to the midfoot (supplied by the saphenous motor responses to nerve stimulation (Figure 29-4).
nerve, a branch of the femoral nerve). The motor block includes With the patient in the lateral position, the underlying,
flexion and extension of the ankle and toes, thus foot drop nonoperating leg is flexed, the upper leg is extended, and a
is expected. The sensory fibers reaching the posterior aspect of footrest is placed underneath the ankle.
the knee capsule are also anesthetized, but not the hamstring In the prone position, the patient’s legs are almost fully
muscles, which are responsible for knee flexion. In combina- extended and slightly abducted, with the foot resting on a small
tion with a saphenous nerve block, the popliteal block results in footrest. This way the hamstring tendons are relaxed, making
complete anesthesia of the leg and ankle (Figure 29-3). transducer placement and manipulation easier.
Finally, if the procedure is to be performed supine, it must
be ensured that there is sufficient space to accommodate the
Block Preparation transducer below the knee and thigh. This can be accom-
plished by using an elevated footrest.
Equipment
• Transducer: High-frequency, linear transducer
• Needle: 50-mm, 22-gauge, short-bevel, stimulating needle
Technique
(in most patients) Initial Transducer Position
The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation 2 to 3 cm
Local Anesthetic proximal to the crease over the medial border of the biceps
Bupivacaine or ropivacaine 0.5% are used for anesthesia and femoris muscle. Alternatively, it can be positioned at the popli-
analgesia for foot and ankle surgeries. Short-acting LAs, such teal crease to identify the popliteal vessels and the TN posterior
as lidocaine 2%, are commonly used for short, less painful to them. In the latter case, the TN is traced proximally until it
procedures. A volume of 10 to 20 mL is usually sufficient for unites with the CPN into the common sciatic (Vloka) nerve
an effective block. sheath (Figure 29-5).

Popliteal Sciatic Block CHAPTER 29 293
FIGURE 29-2. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the sciatic nerve. (A) At the popliteal crease were tibial nerves (TNs) and
common peroneal nerve (CPNs) are separated; (B) at the level of the division, and (C) proximal to the division. BFM, biceps femoris
muscle; ScN, sciatic nerve; TN, tibial nerve; CPN, common peroneal nerve; PV, popliteal vein; PA, popliteal artery;
SmM, semimembranosus muscle; StM, semitendinosus muscle
Scanning Technique space between the TN and CPN (Figure 29-6). As the
needle enters the sheath, a loss of resistance is felt and
The stock maneuvers to visualize the sciatic nerve are trans- can be detected by the US as an indentation, followed by
ducer pressure and tilt caudally to pick up the hyperechoic snapback.
round shape of the nerve(s). The level of bifurcation can
• Out-of-plane: The needle is inserted from posterior and
then be found by sliding the transducer proximally and dis-
directed into the sheath, as described above. This approach
tally while adjusting the tilt accordingly. The optimal site
is associated with less discomfort as the needle trajectory
of injection is where the nerves just start diverging but are
through the skin and adipose tissue, rather than through
still together in the common Vloka’s sheath. By adjusting
the muscle, is shorter (Figure 29-7).
the pressure on the medial or lateral side of the transducer
(heeling maneuver), the relative position of the two nerves Nerve stimulation may result in flexion or extension of the
can be optimized from horizontal to oblique for the out-of- ankle or toes if the tip contacts the TN or CPN.
plane and in-plane approaches, respectively.
Needle Insertion Local Anesthetic Distribution

Injection of 1 to 2 mL of LA should result in separation of
Using an in-plane or out-of-plane technique, insert the nee-
the TN and CPN within Vloka’s sheath. A correct injection
dle and advance the tip into the sciatic nerve sheath between
is ensured when the spread of the LA extends within the
the TN and CPN.
sheath several centimeters proximally to the site of injec-
• In-plane lateral approach: The needle is inserted through tion, as well as distally around both divisions of the nerve
the biceps femoris muscle and its fasciae toward the (Figure 29-8).

FIGURE 29-3. Distribution of anesthesia with a popliteal block. From left to right: dermatomes, myotomes, and osteotomes.
A B C
FIGURE 29-4. Patient positions for various approaches to popliteal block: (A) lateral, (B) prone, and (C) supine with
an elevated footrest.
The needle is inserted in-plane (or out-of-plane) from

Continuous Ultrasound-Guided lateral to medial and advanced to the space between the
Popliteal Sciatic Block TN and CPN. The correct placement of the needle can be
The goal of the continuous popliteal sciatic block is to place confirmed by injecting 4 to 5 mL of LA into the common
the catheter into the sciatic nerve sheath in the popliteal fossa. nerve sheath. This LA injection distends the sheath and

FIGURE 29-5. Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the sciatic nerve proximal to the popliteal fossa crease. TN, tibial
nerve; CPN, common peroneal nerve; PA, popliteal artery; PV, popliteal vein; SmM, semimembranosus muscle; BFM, biceps
femoris muscle.
FIGURE 29-6. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a popliteal block with needle insertion in-plane. TN, tibial nerve; CPN, com-
mon peroneal nerve; PA, popliteal artery; PV, popliteal vein; SmM, semimembranosus muscle; BFM, biceps femoris muscle.

FIGURE 29-7. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a popliteal block with needle insertion out-of-plane. TN, tibial nerve; CPN, common
peroneal nerve; PA, popliteal artery; PV, popliteal vein; SmM, semimembranosus muscle; BFM, biceps femoris muscle.
A B
FIGURE 29-8. Adequate local anesthetic distribution after a popliteal block. (A) Proximally around the
sciatic nerve. (B) Distally around both the TN and the CPN.
facilitates the advancement of the catheter. Maintaining the may stabilize the catheter and decrease the chance of dislodge-
needle in a steady position inside the sheath, the catheter ment, compared with the subcutaneous tissue of the popliteal
is advanced 3 to 5 cm and the needle is then withdrawn. fossa in the prone approach. When the knee is flexed and
Injection through the catheter should result in the exten- extended, the side of the thigh is less mobile than the back
sion of the spread into the space containing the two nerves of the knee. Finally, access to the catheter site is more con-
proximally and distally. venient with the lateral approach compared with the prone
The lateral in-plane approach may have some advantages approach. A common starting infusion regimen is to infuse
over the prone approach with regard to catheter placement. ropivacaine 0.2% at 5 mL/hour with a patient-delivered bolus
Insertion of the catheter through the biceps femoris muscle of 5 mL every 60 minutes.

• Dorso-plantar flexion of the ankle may help as it makes the

Problem-Solving Tips nerve rotate in relation to its surroundings.
• To facilitate the visualization of the popliteal vessels, apply
color Doppler and adjust the tilt of the transducer. The
compression of the calf will also help to identify the popli- Flowchart
teal vein by increasing the blood flow.
Ultrasound-guided Popliteal Sciatic Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Most common: Lateral decubitus
Also possible: Prone and supine

• Depth: 3-5 cm Transverse orientation, 2-3 cm
• Linear (usually) or curved above the popliteal fossa crease,
transducer over the medial border of the
• Nerve stimulator @ 0.5 mA biceps femoris muscle.
Scanning step 1
GOAL: Visualize the hyperechoic
sciatic nerve superficial and lateral
to the popliteal artery and vein.
• Tilt transducer slightly caudad to
optimize the image of the sciatic
nerve.
• If unsuccessful, position
transducer 1-2 cm above the No
popliteal crease and identify the Sciatic
popliteal artery. nerve identified?
• Once popliteal artery (PA) is
identified, tilt the transducer
back and forth in caudad-cranial
direction to identify tibial nerve Yes
superficially and lateral to PA.
Dynamically scan distal/proximal
to identify the level at which tibial
nerve (TN) and common peroneal
nerve (CPN) diverge, but are still
within the same common
connective tissue sheath
(Vloka’s sheath).
Tips
• Either in-plane or out-of-plane
needle insertions can be used.
• Correct needle tip position,
• Insert needle into the Vloka’s
between TN and CPN, results in
sheath between TN and CPN.
the separation of the nerves
• Needle entry into the sheath is
during injection.
often associated with a “click”.
• Scan the sciatic nerve proximal
• Inject 1-2 mL of local anesthetic
from the injection site and
to confirm proper needle tip
observe the spread while
position.
injecting. Correct injection will
• CompIete the block with 15-20
continue spreading within the
mL of local anesthetic.
sheath, separating the TN and
CPN as a definitive sign that
injection is made into the
correct anatomical space. Apply the “RAPT” method of
R = Motor Response absent at

0.5 mA
A = Aspiration negative
P = Injection Pressure <15 psi
T = Total volume injected

SUGGESTED READINGS Sala-Blanch X, Riva N de, Carrera A, López AM, Prats A, Hadzic A.
Ultrasound-guided popliteal sciatic block with a single injection
Andersen HL, Andersen SL, Tranum-Jensen J. Injection inside at the sciatic division results in faster block onset than the classical
the paraneural sheath of the sciatic nerve: direct comparison nerve stimulator technique. Anesth Analg. 2012;114:1121-1127.
among ultrasound imaging, macroscopic anatomy, and histo- Sala-Blanch X, López AM, Pomés J, Valls-Sole J, García AI,
logic analysis. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2012;37:410-414. Hadzic A. No clinical or electrophysiologic evidence of nerve
Bang SU, Kim DJ, Bae JH, Chung K, Kim Y. Minimum effective local injury after intraneural injection during sciatic popliteal block.
anesthetic volume for surgical anesthesia by subparaneural, Anesthesiology. 2011 Sep;115:589-595.
ultrasound-guided popliteal sciatic nerve block: a prospective Soberón JR, McInnis C, Bland KS, et al. Ultrasound-guided popli-
dose-finding study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95:1-6. teal sciatic nerve blockade in the severely and morbidly obese:
Choquet O, Noble GB, Abbal B, Morau D, Bringuier S, Capdevila X. a prospective and randomized study. J Anesth. 2016;30:397-404.
Subparaneural versus circumferential extraneural injection Techasuk W, Bernucci F, Cupido T, et al. Minimum effective
at the bifurcation level in ultrasound-guided popliteal sciatic volume of combined lidocaine-bupivacaine for analgesic sub-
nerve blocks: a prospective, randomized, double-blind study. paraneural popliteal sciatic nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2014;39:306-311. 2014;39:108-111.
Jeong JS, Shim JC, Jeong MA, Lee BC, Sung IH. Minimum effective Tiyaprasertkul W, Bernucci F, González AP, et al. A randomized com-
anaesthetic volume of 0.5% ropivacaine for ultrasound-guided parison between single- and triple-injection subparaneural popli-
popliteal sciatic nerve block in patients undergoing foot and teal sciatic nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2015;40:315-320.
ankle surgery: determination of ED50 and ED95. Anaesth Tran DQH, Dugani S, Pham K, Al-Shaafi A, Finlayson RJ. A ran-
Intensive Care. 2015;43:92-97. domized comparison between subepineural and conventional
Karmakar MK, Shariat AN, Pangthipampai P, Chen J. High-definition ultrasound-guided popliteal sciatic nerve block. Reg Anesth
ultrasound imaging defines the paraneural sheath and the fascial Pain Med. 2011;36:548-552.
compartments surrounding the sciatic nerve at the popliteal fossa. Tran DQH, González AP, Bernucci F, Pham K, Finlayson RJ.
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2013;38:447-451. A randomized comparison between bifurcation and prebifurca-
Lopez AM, Sala-Blanch X, Castillo R, Hadzic A. Ultrasound guided tion subparaneural popliteal sciatic nerve blocks. Anesth Analg.
injection inside the common sheath of the sciatic nerve at divi- 2013;116:1170-1175.
sion level has a higher success rate than an injection outside the
sheath. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2014;61:304-310.
Missair A, Weisman RS, Suarez MR, Yang R, Gebhard RE.
Continuous Block
A 3-dimensional ultrasound study of local anesthetic spread Ambrosoli AL, Guzzetti L, Chiaranda M, Cuffari S, Gemma M,
during lateral popliteal nerve block: what is the ideal end point Cappelleri G. A randomised controlled trial comparing two pop-
for needle tip position? Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2012;37:627-632. liteal nerve catheter tip positions for postoperative analgesia after
Perlas A, Wong P, Abdallah F, Hazrati L-N, Tse C, Chan V. day-case hallux valgus repair. Anaesthesia. 2016;71:1317-1323.
Ultrasound-guided popliteal block through a common Ilfeld BM, Sandhu NS, Loland VJ, et al. Ultrasound-guided
paraneural sheath versus conventional injection: a prospec- (needle-in-plane) perineural catheter insertion: the effect
tive, randomized, double-blind study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. of catheter-insertion distance on postoperative analgesia.
2013;38:218-225. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2011;36:261-265.
Sala-Blanch X, Franco J, Bergé R, Marín R, López AM, Agustí M. Kim TE, Howard SK, Funck N, et al. A randomized comparison
Estimación del volumen de anestésico local en contacto con of long-axis and short-axis imaging for in-plane ultrasound-
el nervio ciático en el bloqueo poplíteo. Rev Esp Anestesiol guided popliteal-sciatic perineural catheter insertion. J Anesth.
Reanim. 2016;64:125-130. 2014;28:854-860.
Sala-Blanch X, Reina MA, Ribalta T, Prats-Galino A. Sciatic nerve Monahan AM, Madison SJ, Loland VJ, et al. Continuous popliteal
structure and nomenclature: epineurium to paraneurium: is sciatic blocks: does varying perineural catheter location relative
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Sala-Blanch X, López A, Prats-Galino A. Vloka sciatic nerve sheath: randomized, subject-masked, controlled clinical trial. Anesth
a tribute to a visionary. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2015;40(2):174. Analg. 2016;122:1689-1695.

30 Genicular Nerves Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Infiltration around the sensory branches that provide innervation to the knee joint (genicular nerves) before they enter
the knee capsule.
• Indications: Chronic knee pain, total knee arthroplasty, or procedures associated with moderate to severe
postoperative knee pain
• Goal: Local anesthetic spread next to the genicular arteries (if visible) or at the junction of the epiphysis and diaph-
ysis of the femur and tibia
General Considerations Specific Risks

The genicular nerve block and radiofrequency ablation ther- The proximity of the inferolateral genicular nerve (ILGN) to
apy were initially described to treat severe chronic pain of the common peroneal nerve (CPN) is a risk factor for unin-
the knee. An extended version of the block technique under tended CPN block resulting in foot drop. Thus this nerve is
ultrasound (US) guidance was recently introduced to provide spared if denervation is planned to treat chronic pain. Vascu-
analgesia after knee surgery. The infiltration targets only the lar or intraarticular punctures are other potential risks.
sensory branches to the knee joint, preserving quadriceps
muscle strength. Thus, this novel analgesic technique could
be used as an alternative when the femoral nerve and adduc- Anatomy
tor canal blocks are not indicated or not desirable.
The innervation of the knee is complex, with branches
The first reported block of genicular nerves under fluoros-
originating from femoral, obturator, and sciatic nerves
copy guidance was based on bony landmarks. The introduc-
(Figure 30-1). The interindividual variability explains the
tion of US allows for easy recognition of the same landmarks
discrepancy in the literature over the nomenclature and the
and provides additional visualization of the soft tissues and
origin of the genicular nerves.
vessels needed to identify the injection site. The available data
To facilitate understanding of knee innervation, most
is still limited; however, case series show promising results
authors divide the knee into an anterior and posterior com-
of genicular nerve block in the perioperative setting. Clini-
partment, and then further divide the anterior compart-
cal trials are currently ongoing to determine the efficacy of
ment into four quadrants. For the purpose of the technique
this novel technique to treat acute pain after total knee
description, the genicular nerves are called the superolateral
replacement.
(SLGN), superomedial (SMGN), inferolateral (ILGN), and
inferomedial (IMGN) genicular nerves, which innervate pri-
Limitations marily each corresponding quadrant. Several cadaver stud-
ies also show a contribution from other branches such as the
The genicular nerves vary in number and trajectory and, recurrent peroneal nerve, the nerve to the vastus medialis,
because of their small size, they are not visualized with the intermediate, lateralis, and the infrapatellar branch.
available US technology. Genicular nerve blocks are based
on US landmarks, which may result in inconsistent anal- • The SLGN courses around the femur shaft to pass between
gesia, particularly if a low volume of local anesthetic (LA) the vastus lateralis and the lateral epicondyle. It accompa-
is used. nies the superior lateral genicular artery.

FIGURE 30-1. Innervation of the knee. The origin of the superomedial and superolateral genicular nerves
(from the sciatic nerve or from the femoral nerve) is controversial.
• The SMGN courses around the femur shaft, following metaphysis (the junction between the epiphysis and diaphy-
the superior medial genicular artery, to pass between the sis) of the femur and tibia. Additional landmarks are the cor-
adductor magnus tendon and the medial epicondyle below responding arteries, which follow the same path as the nerves
the vastus medialis. and the collateral ligaments (Figure 30-2).
• The ILGN courses around the tibial lateral epicondyle
deep to the lateral collateral ligament, following the infe-
rior lateral genicular artery, superior of the fibula head. Distribution of Analgesia
• The IMGN courses horizontally below the medial collat- The genicular nerve block is a motor-sparing technique that
eral ligament between the tibial medial epicondyle and anesthetizes the sensory terminal branches innervating the
the insertion of the collateral ligament. It accompanies the knee joint, resulting in anesthesia of the anterior compart-
inferior medial genicular artery. ment of the knee. The distribution of anesthesia of each nerve
• The recurrent peroneal nerve originates in the inferior is mostly in the corresponding quadrant.
popliteal region from the common peroneal nerve and
courses horizontally around the fibula to pass just inferior
of the fibula head and travel superior to the anterolateral Block Preparation
tibial epicondyle. It accompanies the recurrent tibial artery.
Equipment
• Transducer: High-frequency, linear transducer
Ultrasound View • Needle: 50-mm, 22-gauge, short-bevel needle
The relative position of the genicular nerves to bony land-
marks at the level of the knee seems to be consistent accord-
ing to the studies performed in cadavers, providing a reliable
Local Anesthetic
anatomic basis for an ultrasound-guided block. The US Long-lasting LAs such as bupivacaine or ropivacaine
landmarks are the osteo-muscular planes at the level of the (0.25-0.5%) in a volume of 4 to 5 mL per nerve are suggested.

Genicular Nerves Block CHAPTER 30 301
FIGURE 30-2. Sonoanatomy of the genicular nerves in a coronal plane. SLGA, superolateral genicular artery; SMGA, superomedial
genicular artery; ILGA, inferolateral genicular artery; IMGA, inferomedial genicular artery. (A) Transducer position and sonoanatomy
of the superomedial genicular nerve. (B) Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the inferomedial genicular nerve. (C) Transducer
position and sonoanatomy of the superolateral genicular nerve. (D) Transducer position and sonoanatomy of the inferolateral
genicular nerve.

The patient is placed in a supine position with the knee Initial Transducer Position and
slightly flexed by placing a pillow in the popliteal fossa Scanning Technique
(Figure 30-3).
• SLGN: The transducer is placed in a coronal orientation
over the lateral epicondyle of the femur and then moved
proximally to visualize the metaphysis of the bone. The
superolateral genicular artery may be seen between the
deep fascia of the vastus lateralis and the femur at this level
(see Figure 30-2A).
• SMGN: The transducer is placed in a coronal ori-
entation over the medial epicondyle of the femur
(see Figure 30-2B). The transducer is moved slightly proxi-
mally to visualize the metaphysis of the bone just anterior
to the adductor tubercle. The SMG artery may be seen at this
level between the deep fascia of the vastus medialis and
the femur.
• ILGN: The transducer is placed in a coronal orienta-
tion over the lateral side of the distal knee. After identi-
fying the lateral epicondyle of the tibia, the transducer
FIGURE 30-3. Patient position to perform a genicular is moved distally to visualize the head of the fibula.
nerve block. The inferolateral genicular artery may be seen between

the collateral ligament and the lateral condyle of the tibia anterior of the fibula. The recurrent tibial artery is visual-
(see Figure 30-2C). ized superficial to the bone.
• IMGN: The transducer is placed in a coronal orientation
over the medial condyle of the tibia and moved distally Needle Approach and Trajectory
to visualize the metaphysis of the bone. At this level, the Once the injection site has been identified, the needle tip is
inferomedial genicular artery is seen beneath the medial advanced next to the vessel (if seen) until bony contact is felt
collateral ligament (see Figure 30-2D). using an in-plane or out-of-plane approach. Alternatively,
• Additionally, the recurrent peroneal nerve can also be the transducer can be rotated in a transverse orientation
blocked: the transducer is placed in a coronal orientation and the needle tip redirected toward the bone surface. After
over the anterolateral side of the distal knee to visualize confirming the correct position, the rest of the LA is injected
the junction of the tibial lateral epiphysis and diaphysis, (Figure 30-4).
FIGURE 30-4. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of the genicular nerves

showing needle insertion and distribution of the local anesthetic. SLGN,
superolateral genicular nerve, and artery; SMGN, superomedial genicular
nerve, and artery; ILGN, inferolateral genicular nerve, and artery; IMGN,
inferomedial genicular nerve, and artery.

Genicular Nerves Block CHAPTER 30 303
Flowchart
Genicular Nerves Blocks Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine with the knee slightly
flexed
Initial settings
• Depth: 1-3 cm
Transducer position
Coronal orientation on the medial
and lateral aspect of the knee
(varies according to the block).
SUPEROMEDIAL SUPEROLATERAL INFEROMEDIAL INFEROLATERAL

genicular nerve (SMGN) genicular nerve (SLGN) genicular nerve (IMGN) genicular nerve (ILGN)
Over the vastus medialis Over the proximal tibia to
Over the vastus lateralis
to image the femur shaft image the transition Over the proximal
to image the femur shaft
anterior to the adductor between epiphysis and tibiofibular joint
in long axis
tubercle diaphysis
Scanning
Scanning Scanning
For SMGN and SLGN, slide the transducer
IMGN: Slide the ILGN: Slide the transducer
until the junction between the epiphysis and
transducer to visualize the to visualize the lateral
diaphysis of the femur is visualized. The
medial collateral ligament collateral ligament and the
genicular arteries may be identified between
and the genicular artery. genicular artery.
the fascia and the periosteum.
• Insert needle in-plane or out-of-plane • Insert needle in-plane or out-of-plane

until bony contact is felt next to the deep to the ligaments next to the
vessels at this level. vessels.
• Complete the block with 3-5 mL of • Complete the block with 3-5 mL of
local anesthetic per nerve. local anesthetic per nerve.
SUGGESTED READINGS Fonkoue L, Behets CW, Steyaert A, Kouassi JEK, Detrembleur C,

Cornu O. Anatomical evidence supporting the revision of
Burckett-St Laurant D, Peng P, Girón Arango L, et al. The nerves of classical landmarks for genicular nerve ablation. Reg Anesth
the adductor canal and the innervation of the knee: an anatomic Pain Med. 2019:1-2. doi:10.1136/rapm-2019-101103.
study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2016;41:321-327. Fonkoue L, Behets CW, Steyaert A, et al. Accuracy of fluoroscopic-
Choi WJ, Hwang SJ, Song JG, et al. Radiofrequency treatment guided genicular nerve blockade: a need for revisiting anatomi-
relieves chronic knee osteoarthritis pain: a double-blind cal landmarks. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;44:950-958.
randomized controlled trial. Pain. 2011;152:481-487. Franco CD, Buvanendran A, Petersohn JD, Menzies RD, Menzies
Davis T, Loudermilk E, DePalma M, et al. Prospective, multicenter, LP. Innervation of the anterior capsule of the human knee:
randomized, crossover clinical trial comparing the safety implications for radiofrequency ablation. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
and effectiveness of cooled radiofrequency ablation with 2015;40:363-368.
corticosteroid injection in the management of knee pain from Gofeld M. Letter to the editor. Pain. 2014;155:836-837.
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El-Hakeim EH, Elawamy A, Kamel EZ, et al. Fluoroscopic guided Sala-Blanch X. Ultrasound-guided genicular nerve block for
radiofrequency of genicular nerves for pain alleviation in chronic pain control after total knee replacement: preliminary case
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Pain Physician. 2018;21:169-177. (English Ed). 2017;64:568-576.

Roberts SL, Burnham RS, Agur AM, Loh EY. A cadaveric study Valls JMO, Vallejo R, Pais PL, et al. Anatomic and ultrasonographic
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pain. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42:69-74. pain. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42:90-98.
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31 iPACK Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Infiltration of the local anesthetic into the space between the popliteal artery and the posterior capsule of the
knee (iPACK).
• Indications: Analgesia after knee arthroplasty, cruciate ligament repair, and procedures involving the posterior
aspect of the knee
• Goal: Local anesthetic infiltration over the posterior aspect of the femur underneath the popliteal artery
of the popliteal vessels and the sciatic nerve to the posterior

General Considerations knee capsule, where the needle passes during the infiltra-
Postoperative pain following total knee arthroplasty (TKA) tion. With the medial-lateral needle insertion technique,
is mediated by branches of the obturator (medial), femoral the saphenous nerve may be on the way and can be injured.
(anterior), and sciatic nerves (posterior). While the sciatic Routine ultrasonographic identification of the nerve is rec-
nerve block results in the best analgesia for the posterior ommended to determine the safe needle insertion site and
aspect of the knee, motor weakness of the lower extremity pathway.
preventing early rehabilitation and masking intraoperative
common peroneal nerve (CPN) injury discourage the use
of this analgesic modality. A muscle strength-sparing infil- Anatomy
tration into the interspace between the popliteal artery and
Innervation of the posterior knee is provided by articular
the posterior capsule of the knee (iPACK) is an alternative
branches that originate from the TN, CPN, sciatic, and the
analgesic supplement to the femoral or adductor canal blocks
posterior division of the obturator nerve (Figure 31-1).
for posterior knee pain. The iPACK block targets the sen-
Articular branches from the TN are the main source of
sory articular branches of the sciatic nerve while sparing the
innervation to the posterior knee joint capsule. They origi-
motor branches of the tibial nerve (TN) and CPN, avoiding
nate either proximal or distal to the superior border of the
the foot drop that occurs with the sciatic nerve block.
medial femoral condyle and course transversely to the inter-
condylar region, where they further branch.
Limitations and Specific Risks The articular branches from the sciatic and/or the CPN
The iPACK block provides analgesia limited to the posterior further divide into anterior and posterior branches to inner-
aspect of the knee capsule, and therefore it should be viewed vate the anterolateral and posterolateral capsule, respectively.
as a supplement to the femoral and/or adductor canal block. Finally, the articular branch from the posterior obturator
Additionally, ultrasound (US) imaging of the popliteal ves- nerve courses through the adductor hiatus, together with the
sels and sciatic nerve to avoid their injury during iPACK can femoral artery and vein, and enters the popliteal fossa. At the
be difficult in obese patients. level of the femoral condyles, it divides into two to three ter-
The specific risks related to this technique are vascular minal branches that supply the superomedial aspect of the
injection or inadvertent nerve injury due to the proximity posterior capsule.

FIGURE 31-1. Anatomy of the anterior and posterior knee joint innervation.

Ultrasound View
At the popliteal fossa, proximally to the femur condyles,
the flat surface of the femur is separated from the popliteal
artery and vein by fat and loose tissue, where the sensory
branches and vessels travel to supply the posterior capsule
(Figure 31-2).
Distribution of Analgesia
The iPACK block is a motor-sparing technique that anesthe-
tizes the small articular sensory nerves from the popliteal
plexus resulting in analgesia of the posterior capsule of the
knee. Cadaveric studies have found the spread of the injectate
anteriorly suggesting that the technique may, in some cases,
supply the anterolateral and anteromedial knee joint capsule.
Block Preparation
Equipment
• Transducer: Low-frequency curved or high-frequency lin- FIGURE 31-2. iPACK block ultrasound anatomy. PA, popliteal
ear transducer artery; PV, popliteal vein; SmM, semimembranosus muscle;
• Needle: 80- to 100-mm, 20- to 22-gauge, short-bevel, StM, semitendinosus muscle; TN, tibial nerve; CPN, common
insulated stimulating needle peroneal nerve.

iPACK Block CHAPTER 31 307
Local Anesthetic popliteal vessels. The vastus medialis and sartorius muscles
are located medially and the semimembranosus muscle pos-
Optimal concentration and volume of local anesthetics (LAs) teriorly (Figure 31-4).
to perform an iPACK block have not been determined. Bupi-
vacaine or ropivacaine in concentrations of 0.2% to 0.5%
appear to be commonly used based on the information
Scanning Technique
published. The iPACK block is performed proximal to the popliteal
fossa crease. If the femoral condyles are initially visualized,
Patient Positioning slide the transducer proximally until the condyles disappear
and the distal femoral shaft is identified.
The iPACK block can be performed with the patient in a
supine position with the knee flexed or elevated on a footrest,
or in a prone position (Figure 31-3). Needle Approach and Trajectory
The needle is inserted in-plane, from the anteromedial
Technique aspect of the knee, toward the space between the popli-
teal artery and the femur. Normally, needle insertion in a
Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position steep angle is required to stay close to the femoral shaft and
The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation over the avoid puncture of the nerves and vessels. Once the posterior
medial aspect of the thigh, approximately 2 cm above the aspect of the popliteal artery is reached, inject 2 mL of the
patella. The goal is to identify the space between the femo- LA to confirm the proper position of the needle by observ-
ral shaft and the popliteal artery. At this location, the TN ing how the space between the artery and the femur shaft is
and CPN can also be visualized deep and posterior to the filled (Figure 31-5).
FIGURE 31-3. Patient position for different approaches for an iPACK block.

FIGURE 31-4. Transducer position and sonoanatomy for an iPACK block. SmM, semimembranosus muscle; StM, semitendi-
nosus muscle; PA, popliteal artery; PV, popliteal vein; TN, tibial nerve; CPN, common peroneal nerve.
FIGURE 31-5. iPACK block reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane. SmM, semimembranosus muscle; StM,
semitendinosus muscle; PA, popliteal artery; PV, popliteal vein; TN, tibial nerve; CPN, common peroneal nerve.

Alternative Approach Problem-Solving Tips

Place the transducer over the popliteal fossa crease in order to • Use color Doppler to facilitate identification of the popli-
visualize the TN, CPN, popliteal artery, and femoral condyles. teal vessels.
From this location, slide the transducer proximally until the flat
• When performing a medial-to-lateral approach, needle
posterior aspect of the shaft of the femur becomes visible. When
insertion in a steep angle is required to stay close to the
the space between the popliteal artery and femur shaft is clearly
femoral shaft and avoid puncture of the nerves and vessels.
identified, the needle is inserted in-plane from the medial (or
lateral) side, and advanced between the popliteal artery and the
femur. The injection proceeds as described above (Figure 31-6).
FIGURE 31-6. Alternative transducer position at the popliteal fossa to perform an iPACK block.

Flowchart
iPACK Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine with the knee flexed
(Prone or lateral decubitus also
possible)

• Depth: 4-8 cm Transverse orientation over
• Curved transducer the medial aspect of the thigh,
• Nerve stimulator @ 0.5 mA approx. 2 cm above the patella.
Scanning
Tilt and slightly move the
transducer posterior to visualize
the popliteal artery and femoral shaft.
GOAL: Identify the space
between them.
• If femoral condyles initially

visualized, slide the transducer
proximally until the condyles No Space between
disappear, and the femoral shaft
the femoral shaft and popliteal
is identified.
artery identified?
• Use color Doppler to facilitate
identification of the popliteal
vessels.
Yes
injection every 3-5 mL • Insert needle in-plane from the
anteromedial aspect of the knee,
R = Motor Response absent at toward the space between the
0.5 mA popliteal artery and the femur.
A = Aspiration (negative) • Inject 10-15 mL to complete the
P = Injection Pressure <15 psi block.
Tip: Be mindful of the needle

insertion angle to stay close to the
femoral shaft and avoid puncture
of the popliteal vessels or sciatic
nerve injury.
SUGGESTED READINGS Kandarian BS, Elkassabany NM, Tamboli M, Mariano ER. Updates
on multimodal analgesia and regional anesthesia for total
Amer N. Combined adductor canal and i-PAK blocks is better than knee arthroplasty patients. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol.
combined adductor canal and periarticular injection blocks 2019;33:111-123.
for painless ACL reconstruction surgery. J Anesth Crit Care. Kandarian B, Indelli PF, Sinha S, et al. Implementation of the
2018;10:154-157. iPACK (Infiltration between the Popliteal Artery and Capsule
Ardon AE, Prasad A, McClain RL, Melton MS, Nielsen KC, of the Knee) block into a multimodal analgesic pathway for
Greengrass R. Regional anesthesia for ambulatory total knee replacement. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2019;72:238-244.
anesthesiologists. Anesthesiol Clin. 2019;37:265-287. Kim DH, Beathe JC, Lin Y, et al. Addition of infiltration between
Elliott CE, Thobhani S. The adductor canal catheter and interspace the popliteal artery and the capsule of the posterior knee and
between the popliteal artery and the posterior capsule of the adductor canal block to periarticular injection enhances post-
knee for total knee arthroplasty. Tech Reg Anesth Pain Manag. operative pain control in total knee arthroplasty: a randomized
2014;18:126-129. controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 2018;129(2):526-535.
Kampitak W, Tansatit T, Tanavalee A, Ngarmukos S. Optimal loca- Niesen AD, Harris DJ, Johnson CS, et al. Interspace between popli-
tion of local anesthetic injection in the interspace between the teal artery and posterior capsule of the knee (iPACK) injectate
popliteal artery and posterior capsule of the knee (iPACK) for spread: a cadaver study. J Ultrasound Med. 2019;38:741-745.
posterior knee pain after total knee arthroplasty: an anatomical O’Donnell R, Dolan J. Anaesthesia and analgesia for knee joint
and clinical study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2019;72:486-494. arthroplasty. Br J Anaesth. 2017;18:8-15.

Ohgoshi Y, Matsutani M, Kubo EN. Use of iPACK block with con- Sinha SK, Abrams JH, Arumugam S, et al. Femoral nerve block with
tinuous femoral triangle block for total knee arthroplasty: a selective tibial nerve block provides effective analgesia without
clinical experience. J Clin Anesth. 2019;54:52-54. foot drop after total knee arthroplasty: a prospective, random-
Reddy AG, Ajit J, Reddy R, Murlidhar S, Arshaj G, Reddy A. To ized, observer-blinded study. Anesth Analg. 2012;115:202-206.
compare effect of combined block of adductor canal block Sinha SK, Suter S. New blocks for the same old joints. Curr Opin
(ACB) with iPACK (Interspace between the Popliteal Artery Anaesthesiol. 2018;31:630-635.
and the Capsule of the posterior Knee) and adductor canal Soffin EM, Wu CL. Regional and multimodal analgesia to reduce
block (ACB) alone on total knee replacement in immediate opioid use after total joint arthroplasty: a narrative review.
postoperative rehabilitation. Int J Orthop Sci. 2017;3:141-145. HSS J. 2019;15:57-65.
Safa B, Gollish J, Haslam L, McCartney CJL. Comparing the effects Tran J, Giron Arango L, Peng P, Sinha SK, Agur A, Chan V.
of single-shot sciatic nerve block versus posterior capsule local Evaluation of the iPACK block injectate spread: a cadaveric
anesthetic infiltration on analgesia and functional outcome study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;44:689-694.
after total knee arthroplasty a prospective, randomized, double- Tran J, Peng PWH, Gofeld M, Chan V, Agur AMR. Anatomical
blinded, controlled trial. J Arthroplasty. 2014;29:1149-1153. study of the innervation of posterior knee joint capsule: impli-
Sankineani SR, Reddy ARC, Eachempati KK, Jangale A, Reddy AVG. cation for image-guided intervention. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Comparison of adductor canal block and iPACK block 2019;44:234-238.
(interspace between the popliteal artery and the capsule of the Thobhani S, Scalercio L, Elliott CE, et al. Novel regional techniques
posterior knee) with adductor canal block alone after total knee for total knee arthroplasty promote reduced hospital length of
arthroplasty: a prospective control trial on pain and knee func- stay: an analysis of 106 patients. Ochsner J. 2017:233-238.
tion in immediate postoperative period. Eur J Orthop Surg Tran J, Peng PWH, Gofeld M, Chan V, Agur AMR. Anatomical
Traumatol. 2018;28:1391-1395. study of the innervation of posterior knee joint capsule: impli-
Sebastian MP, Bykar H, Sell A. Saphenous nerve and iPACK block. cation for image-guided intervention. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;0:1. 2019;44:234-238.
Sinha S, Abrams J, Sivasenthil S, et al. Use of ultrasound-guided popli-
teal fossa infiltration to control pain after total knee arthroplasty:
a prospective, randomized, observer-blinded study. Presented at
the American Society of Regional Anesthesia (ASRA) Meeting,
March 15-18, 2012 in San Diego; Abstract P 52.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
32 Ankle Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Blockade of the four terminal branches of the sciatic nerve and the saphenous nerve (optional) at the level of the
distal leg and ankle.
• Indications: Distal foot and toe surgery, transmetatarsal or toe amputations
• Goal: Local anesthetic (LA) spread surrounding each individual nerve
retinaculum, where it divides into the calcaneal, medial, and

General Considerations lateral plantar nerves (Figure 32-1).
The ankle block is a commonly performed regional The deep peroneal nerve crosses the anterior surface of
anesthesia technique for procedures on the forefoot. Traditional the ankle, deep to the tendons of the tibialis anterior, exten-
techniques based on surface landmarks and nerve stimulation sor hallucis longus muscles, and extensor digitorum longus
targeted the two deep nerves (tibial and deep peroneal) and next to the anterior tibial artery. The nerve enters the foot to
required an additional subcutaneous ring infiltration around innervate the extensor digitorum brevis and extensor hallu-
the ankle to block the three superficial nerves (superficial cis brevis muscles and all the deep structures on the dorsum
peroneal, sural, and saphenous). Ultrasound (US) guidance of the foot. It terminates as cutaneous fibers supplying skin
allows for precise identification of each nerve and a consistent between the hallux and second toe (Figure 32-1).
blockade using lower volumes of LA. The quality, duration, and The superficial peroneal branch emerges at 10 to 20 cm prox-
distribution of the blocks around the ankle are similar to those imal to the lateral malleolus to lie superficial to the crural fas-
of more proximal approaches of the sciatic nerve. cia between the lateral and anterior muscular compartments,
The main advantage of the ankle block is the preservation of at 10 to 20 cm proximal to the lateral malleolus. It divides into
ankle mobility and thus facilitation of unassisted ambulation. two or three small branches and terminates as cutaneous fibers
on the dorsal and lateral surface of the foot (Figure 32-1).
The sural nerve is formed by two components, from the
Limitations and Specific Risks
tibial and common peroneal nerves, and runs superficially
The main limitation is due to the fact that it requires mul- along the posterior midline of the leg. At the ankle, it courses
tiple injections; the time required to complete the blockage lateral to the Achilles tendon, next to the lesser saphenous
is longer. An ischemia tourniquet at the level of the ankle is vein to innervate the lateral margin of the foot and ankle
well-tolerated even with an ankle block. However, additional (Figure 32-1).
sedation or anesthesia is required for more proximal loca- The saphenous nerve travels down the medial leg alongside
tions of the tourniquet. Specific complications of the ankle the great saphenous vein. It innervates the medial malleolus and
block are extremely rare. a variable portion of the medial aspect of the leg below the knee.
Anatomy Cross-Sectional Anatomy

The tibial nerve is the largest of the five nerves at the ankle At the level of the ankle joint, the tibial nerve lies posterior
level and provides innervation to the intrinsic muscles, or lateral to the posterior tibial artery and veins, deep to the
bones, joints, and skin of the heel and sole of the foot. The flexor retinaculum and superficial to the flexor hallucis longus
nerve passes posterior to the medial malleolus, in close con- muscle and tendon. The deep peroneal nerve is located lat-
tact to the posterior tibial artery and veins, deep to the flexors eral to the anterior tibial artery between the anterior aspect of

FIGURE 32-1. Relative position of the terminal nerves at the level of the ankle.
the tibia and the tendons of the extensor muscles. At the level associated with the small saphenous vein and superficial to
of the midleg, the superficial peroneal nerve is located just the deep fascia. The tiny distal branches of the saphenous
deep to the fascia cruralis between the peroneal muscles and nerve lie close to the saphenous vein, although they are
the extensor digitorum longus. The sural nerve lies between difficult to visualize at the ankle. Figure 32-2 illustrates the
the lateral malleolus and the Achilles tendon intimately relative position of the nerves at the level of the ankle.
FIGURE 32-2. Cross-section at the level of the ankle illustrating the distribution and anatomic
relationship of the nerves to perform an ankle block.

Ankle Block CHAPTER 32 315
PLANTAR VIEW DORSAL VIEW
Tibial nerve Sural nerve Deep peroneal nerve Superficial peroneal nerve Saphenous nerve
FIGURE 32-3. Sensory block distribution of the ankle.
Distribution of Anesthesia TECHNIQUE

and Analgesia
An ankle block results in anesthesia of the entire foot distally Tibial Nerve
to the ankle if the saphenous nerve is included (Figure 32-3). The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation between the
Selective blocks may be indicated to anesthetize only the area medial malleolus and the Achilles tendon. The nerve can be seen
of interest. as an oval hyperechoic structure immediately posterior to the
posterior tibial artery and veins (Figure 32-5 and 32-6). Color
Doppler can help in locating the vessels. To avoid misidentifi-
Block Preparation cation with the tendons, the nerve’s intimate relationship with
Equipment
• Needle: 30- to 40-mm, 25-gauge needle
Local Anesthetic
To extend the duration of postoperative analgesia, long-
acting LAs, such as bupivacaine 0.5% or ropivacaine 0.5%,
are preferable.
Patient Positioning
The patient can rest in a comfortable supine position and
the foot is elevated by placing support underneath the calf to
facilitate the scanning around the ankle (Figure 32-4). Gentle
internal or external rotation is helpful for better access to FIGURE 32-4. Ideal patient positioning to perform an
the tibial and sural nerves, respectively. ultrasound-guided ankle block.

FIGURE 32-5. Transducer position and ultrasound anatomy to block the tibial nerve block. TP, tibialis posterior muscle;
FDL, flexor digitorum longus; PTA, posterior tibial artery; PTV, posterior tibial vein; TN, tibial nerve; FHL, flexor hallucis longus.
FIGURE 32-6. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of tibial nerve block with needle insertion in-plane. TP, tibialis posterior muscle;
FDL, flexor digitorum longus; PTA, posterior tibial artery; PTV, posterior tibial vein; TN, tibial nerve; FHL, flexor hallucis longus.

FIGURE 32-7. Transducer position and ultrasound anatomy to block the deep peroneal nerve. TA, tibialis anterior muscle;
ATA, anterior tibial artery; DPN, deep peroneal nerve; EHL, extensor hallucis longus; EDL, extensor digitorum longus.
the artery should be kept in mind. If in doubt, tracking the rim, immediately lateral or superficial to the anterior tibial
structures proximally will clearly differentiate the nerve from artery. The nerve may be difficult to distinguish from the sur-
the tendons as they transition into muscles. rounding tissue (Figure 32-7 and 32-8).
Deep Peroneal Nerve Superficial Peroneal Nerve

The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation on the The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation
anterior aspect of the ankle. The deep peroneal nerve can be 10 to 15 cm proximal to the lateral malleolus. The nerve
seen as two small hypoechoic fascicles with a hyperechoic appears as a hypoechoic flat structure at the intersection
FIGURE 32-8. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of the deep peroneal block with needle insertion in-plane. TA, tibialis anterior
muscle; ATA, anterior tibial artery; DPN, deep peroneal nerve; EHL, extensor hallucis longus; EDL, extensor digitorum longus.

FIGURE 32-9. Transducer position and ultrasound anatomy to block the superficial peroneal nerve. EDL, extensor digitorum
longus; SPN, superficial peroneal nerve; PBM, peroneus brevis muscle.
between the crural fascia and the intermuscular septum

separating the lateral and anterior muscular compartments.
Sural Nerve
Before injection, the nerve should be traced proximally, as it The transducer is positioned in a transverse orientation
often divides before piercing the fascia, to avoid incomplete between the posterior border of the lateral malleolus and the
blocks (Figure 32-9 and 32-10). Achilles tendon. The sural nerve appears as a tiny hyperechoic
FIGURE 32-10. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of superficial peroneal nerve block with needle insertion in-plane. EDL, extensor
digitorum longus; SPN, superficial peroneal nerve; PBM, peroneus brevis muscle.

FIGURE 32-11. Transducer position and ultrasound anatomy to block the sural nerve. PBM, peroneus brevis muscle;
SuN, sural nerve; SSV, small saphenous vein.
oval structure in close contact with the lesser saphenous vein Local Anesthetic Distribution
(Figure 32-11 and 32-12).
Ideally, the LA spreads immediately adjacent to the nerve;
redirection to achieve circumferential spread is not neces-
Needle Approach sary for the small nerves, as the LA diffuses quickly into
For each of the blocks, the needle can be inserted either in-plane the neural tissue. For the tibial nerve, the LA should be
or out-of-plane. Ergonomics often dictate which approach is ideally injected within the neurovascular sheath to avoid
the most effective (Figure 32-6, 32-8, 32-10, and 32-12). delayed onset.
FIGURE 32-12. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of sural nerve block with needle insertion in-plane. PBM, peroneus brevis
muscle; SuN, sural nerve; SSV, small saphenous vein.

• When using veins as landmarks, use as little pressure as

Problem-Solving Tips possible on the transducer to permit the veins to fill and
• Scanning a few centimeters craneo-caudally while adjust- aspirate before injecting the LA.
ing the tilting of the probe will help to improve visualiza-
tion of the small nerves.
• When scanning around the ankle, it is necessary to ensure Flowchart
good coupling of the probe with the surface of the skin.
Ankle Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine, with foot elevated
Initial US machine settings

Linear transducer
Depth: 3 cm
Transducer position
Around the ankle
(varies according to the nerve
to block)
TIBIAL NERVE DEEP PERONEAL NERVE SUPERFICIAL PERONEAL SURAL NERVE

(TN) (DPN) NERVE (SPN) (SUN)
1
Transverse, between
the medial malleolus
and Achilles tendon 2
Transverse, over the
anterior aspect of tibia
3
Transverse, 10-15 cm
proximal to the lateral
malleolus 4
Transverse, between
the lateral malleolus
and Achilles tendon
Scanning
Scan proximally/distally while
adjusting the tilt to optimize
the image.
TN: Round, hyperechoic, lateral to the posterior

tibial vessels & deep to the flexor retinaculum.
DPN: Small hyperechoic lateral to the anterior
tibial artery.
SPN: Small, hyperechoic, deep to the crural fascia.
SuN: Small, hyperechoic, next to the small
saphenous vein. Often not visualized before
the injection of LA.
Use the RAPT method during Insert the needle to reach the
injection every 3-5 mL fascial plane enveloping the nerve
and inject 1 mL to confirm
R = Motor Response absent at correct position.
0.5 mA
A = Aspiration (negative)
P = Injection Pressure <15 psi Each block requires 3-5 mL
T = Total mL injected per nerve.

SUGGESTED READINGS Marsland D, Dray A, Little NJ, Solan MC. The saphenous nerve in
foot and ankle surgery: its variable anatomy and relevance.
Antonakakis JG, Scalzo DC, Jorgenson AS, et al. Ultrasound does Foot Ankle Surg. 2013;19:76-79.
not improve the success rate of a deep peroneal nerve block at Prakash, Bhardwaj AK, Singh DK, Rajini T, Jayanthi V, Singh G.
the ankle. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35:217-221. Anatomic variations of superficial peroneal nerve: clinical impli-
Benzon HT, Sekhadia M, Benzon HA, et al. Ultrasound-assisted cations of a cadaver study. Ital J Anat Embryol. 2010;115:223-228.
and evoked motor response stimulation of the deep peroneal Redborg KE, Antonakakis JG, Beach ML, Chinn CD, Sites BD.
nerve. Anesth Analg. 2009;109:2022-2024. Ultrasound improves the success rate of a tibial nerve block at
Canella C, Demondion X, Guillin R, et al. Anatomic study of the the ankle. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34:256-260.
superficial peroneal nerve using sonography. AJR Am J Roentgenol. Redborg KE, Sites BD, Chinn CD, et al. Ultrasound improves the
2009;193:174-179. success rate of a sural nerve block at the ankle. Reg Anesth Pain
Chin KJ, Wong NW, Macfarlane AJ, Chan VW. Ultrasound-guided Med. 2009;34:24-28.
versus anatomic landmark-guided ankle blocks: a 6-year retro- Russell DF, Pillai A, Kumar CS. Safety and efficacy of forefoot surgery
spective review. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2011;36:611-618. under ankle block anaesthesia. Scott Med J. 2014;59:103-107.
López AM, Sala-Blanch X, Magaldi M, Poggio D, Asuncion J, Snaith R, Dolan J. Ultrasound-guided superficial peroneal nerve
Franco CD. Ultrasound-guided ankle block for forefoot sur- block for foot surgery. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2010;194:W538.
gery: the contribution of the saphenous nerve. Reg Anesth Pain
Med. 2012;37:554-557.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
5 Trunk and Abdominal
SECTION
Wall Blocks
Chapter 33 Intercostal Nerve Block 325

Chapter 34 Pectoralis Nerves Block 333
Chapter 35 Serratus Plane Block 341
Chapter 36 Paravertebral Block 349
Chapter 37 Erector Spinae Plane Block 359
Chapter 38 Transversus Abdominis Plane Blocks 367
Chapter 39 Rectus Sheath Block 379
Chapter 40 Quadratus Lumborum Blocks 385

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
33 Intercostal Nerve Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Injection of the local anesthetic into the intercostal space within the planes through which the intercostal nerves travel.
• Indications: Analgesia for rib fractures, postsurgical analgesia for chest and upper abdominal surgery
(i.e., thoracotomy, thoracostomy, mastectomy, gastrostomy, and cholecystectomy), herpes zoster,
or post-herpetic neuralgia
• Goal: Local anesthetic spread in the intermuscular plane around the intercostal nerve
• Local anesthetic volume: 3 to 5 mL at each level
and ventral rami. The dorsal rami provide innervation to the

General Considerations skin and muscles of the paravertebral region. The ventral rami
The intercostal nerve block is a well-established nerve block continue laterally as the intercostal nerves (Figure 33-1). Each
technique to provide analgesia to the thoracic wall. The intercostal nerve then pierces the posterior intercostal mem-
landmark-based technique was considered an “advanced” brane approximately 3 cm lateral to the intervertebral fora-
technique with a relatively high risk of complications. Expert men and enters the subcostal groove of the rib. Initially, the
use of ultrasound (US) helps to decrease the risk of pneumo- nerves travel between the parietal pleura and the intercostal
thorax as the pleura is readily identified and can be avoided. membrane. However, just lateral to the angle of the rib, they
Intercostal blocks can be performed with small gauge needles enter the space between the innermost and internal intercos-
and are a good alternative in patients needing analgesia follow- tal muscles, where they continue for much of the remainder
ing chest surgery, particularly when epidural analgesia is not of their course along with the intercostal arteries and veins
indicated (e.g., anticoagulation enhanced recovery protocols). (Figure 33-2). Small collateral nerves cross the space and travel
along the upper border of the rib below. At the midaxillary line,
the intercostal nerve gives rise to the lateral cutaneous branch,
Limitations and Specific Risks which pierces the internal and external intercostal muscles.
For most indications, multiple-level intercostal nerve blocks are This branch provides innervation to the muscles and skin of
required to cover the area of interest, which increases the dis- the lateral chest and upper abdominal wall (Figure 33-1). The
comfort and the risk of adverse events. Reported complications continuation of the intercostal nerve terminates as the anterior
of intercostal nerve blocks include pneumothorax (1%), injury cutaneous branch, giving innervation to the skin and muscles
to the peritoneum and abdominal viscera, local anesthetic sys- of the anterior chest and abdominal wall, including the skin
temic toxicity (LAST), hematoma due to injury to the intercos- overlying the sternum and rectus abdominis.
tal artery, and inadvertent spinal anesthesia. It is widely known Most of the fibers of the first thoracic nerve (T1) leave the
to be a nerve block procedure with one of the most rapid local intercostal space by crossing the neck of the first rib to join
anesthetic (LA) systemic uptake rates as the nerve runs in close fibers from C8. Only a smaller bundle of T1 continues as
contact with the corresponding artery and vein. an intercostal nerve to supply the muscles of the intercos-
tal space. Fibers of the second, and sometimes third, inter-
costal nerve (T2 or T3) form the intercostobrachial nerve,
Anatomy which innervates the axilla and skin of the medial aspect of
The spinal nerves T2-T12 innervate the thoracic wall and the upper arm as far distal as the elbow. The ventral ramus
upper abdomen. After emerging from their respective inter- of T12 is called a subcostal nerve because it does not run
vertebral foramina, thoracic nerve roots divide into dorsal between two ribs.

326 SEC TION 5 Trunk and Abdominal Wall Blocks
FIGURE 33-1. Schematic illustration of the anatomy of the thoracic spinal and intercostal nerves.
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and Distribution of Anesthesia

Ultrasound View and Analgesia
A sagittal cross-section of an intercostal space on the poste- The distribution of anesthesia is unilateral and metameric
rior aspect of the thoracic wall shows, from the surface to the along the segment innervated by the corresponding intercos-
lung: the skin and subcutaneous tissue, superficial muscles tal nerve. For a successful block, a sufficient number of injec-
of the back, two ribs connected by three thin muscular layers tions in the correct intercostal spaces is necessary.
(the external, internal, and innermost intercostal muscles),
the endothoracic fascia, and the parietal and visceral layers Block Preparation
of the pleura. Medially to the costal angle (Figure 33-3A),
the intercostal space is seen deep under the erector spinae Equipment
muscles. At this level, only the external intercostal muscle
• Transducer: Linear transducer
and the intercostal membrane are present, and the neurovas-
cular bundle is in contact with the endothoracic fascia and • Needle: 30- to 50-mm, 22- to 25-gauge needle
the pleura underneath. Lateral to the costal angle, the neu-
rovascular bundle is located in the subcostal groove between Local Anesthetic
the internal and the innermost intercostal muscles, with the
For a single-injection intercostal nerve block, 3 to 5 mL
nerve being the most caudal structure (Figure 33-3B).
of bupivacaine 0.25% to 0.5% or ropivacaine 0.5% are

Intercostal Nerve Block CHAPTER 33 327
FIGURE 33-2. Anatomy of the intercostal nerve in the subcostal groove.
commonly used. The duration of analgesia is 6 to 12 hours upper abdomen with the arms allowed to hang at the sides of
for ropivacaine and up to 24 hours with bupivacaine with epi- the bed. This position moves the scapula laterally and permits
nephrine. There is a large variability in duration from block access to the posterior angles of the ribs above the level of T7.
to block. The addition of epinephrine may slow the systemic
absorption and increase the maximum allowable dose with
a single shot by 30%. Lidocaine 1% to 2% with epinephrine Technique
1:200,000 to 1:400,000 is sometimes used for analgesia during
chest tube insertion or diagnostic blocks. Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position
For a multiple-injection intercostal nerve block, the Ribs can be counted with the US or starting from the twelfth
maximum allowable dose needs to be calculated and the vol- rib (lowest palpable), or from the seventh rib (inferior tip of the
ume adjusted for each level. Maximum bupivacaine dose is scapula). The transducer is placed lateral to the angle of the rib,
2 mg/kg (for plain solution) to 3 mg/kg (with epinephrine) in a sagittal oblique orientation perpendicular to the direction
and 7 to 10 mg/kg/day. The maximum lidocaine dose is up of two consecutive ribs. Note that the angle of the transducer
to 5 to 7 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg/day. In one study, liposomal position changes slightly at different intercostal levels.
bupivacaine was shown to be similarly effective as thoracic
epidural analgesia.
Scanning Technique
The inferior angle of the scapula is a good starting point
Patient Positioning for scanning. This corresponds to the seventh intercostal
An intercostal nerve block can be performed with the space when the patient is properly positioned. For the lateral
patient in the seated, lateral decubitus, or prone position approach, continue by scanning the intercostal space lat-
(Figure 33-4). With the patient seated or in the lateral posi- eral to the costal angle. Color Doppler may help to identify
tion, it is helpful to have the patient’s spine arched with the intercostal artery but it is not common to visualize the
the arms extended forward resting on or holding a pillow. intercostal nerve itself (Figure 33-5). For a medial approach,
Support from an assistant may also improve the patient’s the transducer is placed in a sagittal orientation 4 to 5 cm lat-
comfort during the procedure. When the patient is placed eral to the spinous process to identify the pleura deep to the
in the prone position, a pillow should be placed under the external intercostal muscle and the intercostal membrane.

FIGURE 33-3. Sagittal cross-section anatomy of the intercostal nerve medial (A) and lateral (B) to the
costal angle. ESP, erector spinae muscles; EIM, external intercostal muscle; IIM, internal intercostal muscle;
IMIM, innermost intercostal muscle.
Needle Approach and Trajectory ensure the complete block of the intercostal nerve. The needle
is advanced, either in-plane or out-of-plane, to penetrate the
The needle entry site is immediately below the inferior margin external and internal intercostal muscles. The optimal target
of the rib, somewhere between the costal angle and the poste- needle endpoint is a location just below the internal intercos-
rior axillary line, proximal to the exit of the lateral branch, to tal muscle to assure that the needle tip remains superficial to
the parietal pleura (Figure 33-6). Hydrodissection facilitates
visualization of the needle tip and identification of the space
between the innermost and internal intercostal muscles. To
identify the correct plane for injection consider using nor-
mal saline or dextrose to decrease the total dose of LA. If the
block is performed medially to the costal angle, the needle is
advanced below the external intercostal muscle. The displace-
ment of the pleura with the injection confirms the correct
position of the needle tip.

The LA solution injected into the subcostal groove spreads
along the intercostal space and may reach both distally and
proximally; some of the injectate may enter the paravertebral
FIGURE 33-4. Patient position (sitting) for an ultrasound-
space as well if large volumes are used.
guided intercostal nerve block.

FIGURE 33-5. Transducer position and ultrasound image of an intercostal nerve block. EIM, external intercostal muscle;
IIM, internal intercostal muscle; IMIM, innermost intercostal muscle.
FIGURE 33-6. Intercostal nerve block reverse ultrasound anatomy illustration with needle insertion in-plane.
EIM, external intercostal muscle; IIM, internal intercostal muscle; IMIM, innermost intercostal muscle.

• The innermost intercostal muscle is not always visualized, so

Problem-Solving Tips it is not a useful landmark to guide the injection. The internal
• Difficulties to visualize the target layer can often be obviated intercostal muscle is more readily identified and can serve as
by adjusting the tilt of the US transducer. a surrogate sonographic target for needle placement.
• Perform hydrodissection as this often facilitates the visu- • Intercostal nerve blocks above T7 may be difficult because
alization of the needle tip and identification of the correct of the scapulae; an alternative technique such as a paraver-
tissue layer (space between the innermost and internal tebral or epidural block should be considered.
intercostal muscles).
Flowchart
Ultrasound-Guided Intercostal Nerve Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Sitting, lateral decubitus, prone.
Initial setting
• Depth: 2-4 cm
Transducer position
LANDMARKS identification: Lateral to the angle of the rib,
• 7th rib: Tip of the scapula in a sagittal oblique orientation,
• 12th rib: Last palpable rib perpendicular to the ribs.
TIP: Scanning
Color Doppler useful in identifying Adjust the tilt and rotation to visualize 2
intercostal artery; intercostal ribs, the intercostal muscles, and pleura.
nerves typically cannot be seen.
• Asking the patient to take a deep

breath helps identify the pleura.
• Improve the patient position by
No
flexing the spine (knee-chest Intercostal space
position). clearly visualized?
• Adjust the transducer orientation;
slight tilt laterally facilitates
recognition of pleura.
Yes
Needle can be inserted in-plane or out-

of-plane through the intercostal muscles
(just below the internal intercostal
muscle) ensuring that the tip remains
superficial to the pleura.
The spread is
Reposition the needle tip. Use 0.9% No visualized between the
NaCl or dextrose for hydrodissection
innermost and internal
when localizing needle tip to decrease
intercostal
the total dose of local anesthetic.
muscles?
Yes
TIP:
For analgesia, block at 3 levels is
Complete the block with 3-5 mL of local
required: One intercostal block at
ansthetic for each intercostal level.
the level of surgical incision, plus 1
level above and 1 below the incision.

SUGGESTED READINGS Truitt MS, Murry J, Amos J, et al. Continuous intercostal nerve
blockade for rib fractures: ready for primetime? J Trauma Inj
Karmakar MK, Ho AMH. Acute pain management of patients Infect Crit Care. 2011;71:1548-1552.
with multiple fractured ribs. J Trauma. 2003;54:612-615. Vandepitte C, Gautier P, Bellen P, Murata H, Salviz EA,
Karmakar MK, Critchley LAH, Ho AMH, et al. Continuous Hadzic A. Use of ultrasound-guided intercostal nerve block
thoracic paravertebral infusion of bupivacaine for pain as a sole anaesthetic technique in a high-risk patient with
management in patients with multiple fractured ribs. Chest. Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg.
2003;123:424-431. 2013;64(2):91-94.
Kopacz DJ, Thompson GE. Intercostal blocks for thoracic and Vlassakov K, Vafai A, Ende D, et al. A prospective, randomized
abdominal surgery. Tech Reg Anesth Pain Manage. 1998;2:25-29. comparison of ultrasonographic visualization of proximal
Nunn JF, Slavin G. Posterior intercostal nerve block for pain relief intercostal block vs paravertebral block. BMC Anesthesiol.
after cholecystectomy. Anatomical basis and efficacy. Br J 2020;20:1-9.
Anaesth. 1980;52:253-260. Zhan Y, Chen G, Huang J, Hou B, Liu W, Chen S. Effect of
Strømskag KE, Kleiven S. Continuous intercostals and interpleural intercostal nerve block combined with general anesthesia
nerve blockades. Tech Reg Anesth Pain Manage. 1998;2:79-89. on the stress response in patients undergoing minimally
Rice DC, Cata JP, Mena GE, Rodriguez-Restrepo A, Correa AM, invasive mitral valve surgery. Exp Ther Med. 2017;14:
Mehran RJ. Posterior intercostal nerve block with liposomal 3259-3264.
bupivacaine: an alternative to thoracic epidural analgesia. Zinboonyahgoon N, Luksanapruksa P, Piyaselakul S, et al. The
Ann Thorac Surg. 2015;99:1953-1960. ultrasound-guided proximal intercostal block: anatomical
Stromskag KE, Kleiven S. Continuous intercostals and interpleural study and clinical correlation to analgesia for breast surgery.
nerve blockades. Tech Reg Anesth Pain Manage. 1998;2:79-89. BMC Anesthesiol. 2019;19:1-10.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
34 Pectoral Nerves Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Injection of local anesthetic (LA) into the fascial plane between the pectoral muscles and between the pectoralis minor
and serratus anterior muscles.
• Indications: Analgesia after breast surgery, thoracotomy, rib and clavicle fractures, and herpes zoster neuralgia
• Goal: LA spread along the interfascial planes to block the pectoral nerves and lateral branches of the intercostal
nerves T3-T6
is common, which limits the reproducibility of these blocks.

General Considerations The block of the long thoracic nerve may interfere with nerve
Ultrasound (US)-guided pectoral nerves block (Pecs I and II) monitoring during axillary fossa surgery.
are novel fascial plane techniques introduced for analgesia Infiltration of large volumes and doses of LAs in vascu-
after breast surgery. The techniques can be viewed as sim- larized intermuscular planes carries a risk of local anesthetic
pler alternatives to the epidural, paravertebral, or intercos- systemic toxicity (LAST). The most commonly reported
tal blocks, which require a greater degree of technical skills. complications are local hematoma. However, pneumotho-
These techniques are increasingly more commonly used due rax may also occur, particularly during the Pecs II, due to the
to their simplicity and documented efficacy. A recent meta- proximity of the intercostal muscles and pleura.
analysis concluded that the Pecs II block, in the context of
multimodal analgesia, reduces opioid requirements after
breast surgery. Recent evidence suggests that Pecs II is associ- Anatomy
ated with a lower incidence of chronic pain after mastectomy.
Compared to the paravertebral block, Pecs I and II have The lateral and medial pectoral nerves are branches of the
several advantages: the targeted fascial planes are more brachial plexus arising from the lateral and medial cords,
superficial and easier to identify, the blocks can be performed respectively. These branches are interconnected by the ansa
in the supine position, and risk of complications is lower. pectoralis, a fine neural network. They innervate the pecto-
However, the extent and quality of analgesia of Pecs I and ralis major and minor muscles, the acromioclavicular joint,
II blocks are lower compared to paravertebral blocks, which and contribute innervation to the ribs and clavicle through
can be used as a complete anesthetic for breast surgery. the origins and insertions of the pectoral muscles.
The Pecs I was described first and consists of an interfas- The lateral pectoral nerve pierces the clavipectoral fascia
cial injection of LA between the pectoralis major and minor following the course of the pectoral branch of the thoracoac-
muscles, targeting the medial and lateral pectoral nerves. Pecs romial artery and cephalic vein, deep to the pectoralis major
II was then introduced as a modification to extend analgesia muscle, which it innervates. The medial pectoral nerve
to the axillary fossa and upper intercostal nerves by adding runs distally and pierces the pectoralis minor muscle send-
a second infiltration into a deeper fascial plane between the ing branches to supply this muscle and the pectoralis major
pectoralis minor and serratus anterior muscles. muscle (Figure 34-1).
The intercostal nerves (III-VII), supplying the upper chest
wall, travel between the innermost intercostal and internal
Limitations intercostal muscles. Their lateral branches take off at the level
Current US images are unable to identify the small nerve of the anterior or midaxillary line piercing the internal and
branches traveling in these fascial planes. Interindividual external intercostals, and serratus anterior muscles to reach
variability in both the extent and duration of sensory block the subcutaneous tissue where they divide into the anterior

FIGURE 34-1. Sagittal section of the axilla showing the origin and course of the medial and lateral
pectoral nerves.
and posterior branches (Figure 34-2). These branches inner- are seen separated by the hyperechoic fascial planes. The third
vate the subcutaneous tissue and thoracic fascia. The inter- and fourth ribs are seen as hypoechoic rounded structures
costal nerve continues anteriorly to become subcutaneous casting an acoustic shadow, whereas the intercostal muscles
close to the midline, where it provides innervation to the and hyperechoic pleura line are seen connecting the ribs.
parasternal area.
The lateral branch of the second intercostal, the inter-
costobrachial nerve, innervates the skin and subcutaneous Distribution of Analgesia
tissue of the axilla and proximal medial side of the arm. The An injection of LA between and deep to the pectoralis major
long thoracic nerve is a branch of the upper trunk of the bra- and minor muscles anesthetizes the lateral and medial pec-
chial plexus that passes under the clavicle over the first and toral nerves, the lateral cutaneous branches of the intercos-
second ribs. It then descends inferiorly and laterally along the tal nerves, and may block the intercostobrachialis and long
outer surface of the serratus anterior, between the anterior thoracic nerves as well. However, analgesia and its efficacy
and posterior axillary lines. Here it gives off the branches to vary. Figure 34-4 illustrates the dermatomes, myotomes, and
each digitation of the serratus muscle (Figure 34-3). osteotomes covered by this technique.
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and Block Preparation

Ultrasound View
Equipment
A cross-section of the lateral thoracic wall below the axillary
fold (at the level of intersection between the third rib and • Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer
anterior axillary line) shows the two interfascial compart- • Needle: 80- to 100-mm, 22- to 25-gauge needle
ments of interest for Pecs blocks. These compartments are
(a) between the two pectoralis muscles and (b) between the pec-
Local Anesthetic
toralis minor and serratus anterior muscles. Of note, that lat-
ter compartment communicates with the axilla (Figure 34-2). Bupivacaine, l-bupivacaine, or ropivacaine diluted to reach
On US, the serratus anterior muscle is seen overlying the ribs an appropriate volume is best suited for analgesia after
and external intercostal muscles. The three muscular layers breast surgery or thoracic wall incisions. Bupivacaine and

Pectoral Nerves Block CHAPTER 34 335
FIGURE 34-2. Schematic illustration of the anatomy, course, and branches of an intercostal nerve.
ropivacaine 0.25% to 0.50% are most commonly reported in minor is identified deep to the pectoralis major muscle. At
the literature, not exceeding 0.2 to 0.4 mL/kg-1. this point, the serratus anterior muscle is seen over the third
and fourth ribs (Figure 34-6).
Patient Positioning
The Pecs blocks can be performed with the patient in a supine Needle Approach and Trajectory
position with the arm in 90° abduction or in the lateral posi- The needle is advanced in-plane from medial to lateral toward
tion with the side to be blocked upwards, and the ipsilateral the deep fascia of the pectoralis major muscle (Figure 34-7).
arm flexed forward (Figure 34-5).
• Pecs I and the first injection of Pecs II: The LA is injected
between the pectoralis major and minor muscles.
Technique • The second injection of Pecs II: The injection is made
between the pectoralis minor and serratus anterior muscles.
The transducer is placed in a sagittal orientation at the mid-
subclavicular area to identify the pectoralis major muscle. Local Anesthetic Distribution
After negative aspiration, 1 to 2 mL of LA is injected to con-
firm the correct injection site. The block is completed with
Scanning Technique 10 to 15 mL of LA in each fascial plane while observing the
The transducer is then moved caudally and laterally while spread between the muscles. If the injection occurs within the
counting the ribs until the lateral border of the pectoralis muscle, the needle tip is repositioned (Figure 34-7).

FIGURE 34-3. Anatomy and course of the long thoracic nerve along
the surface of the serratus anterior muscle.
FIGURE 34-4. From left to right: dermatomes, myotomes, and osteotomes covered by a pectoralis block.
FIGURE 34-5. Patient position to perform a Pecs block.

FIGURE 34-6. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform a Pecs block.
FIGURE 34-7. Pecs block; reverse ultrasound anatomy showing needle insertion in-plane.

• Some clinicians prefer to inject LA in the deepest fascial

Problem-Solving Tips plane first (between the pectoralis minor and serratus
• The thoracoacromial artery can help to identify the inter- anterior muscle) to preserve the US view.
pectoral fascial plane. The spread of LA next to the artery • Needle tracking under US is important to decrease the risk
ensures the blockade of the medial and lateral pectoral nerves. of pneumothorax.
• Slide the transducer cranially and caudally while adjusting the
tilt to identify the lateral border of the pectoralis minor muscle.
Pectoralis Plane Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine with arm abducted 90°
Alternatively: Lateral decubitus
Transducer position
Initial settings Sagittal orientation below
• Linear transducer the mid-clavicle.
• Depth: 3-5 cm Goal: Identify the fasciae of the
pectoralis muscles.
• The serratus anterior muscle

Scanning
should be visualized over the
Slide the transducer caudally and
3rd and 4th ribs.
laterally until the lateral border of
• Muscles appear as hypoechoic
the pec minor is identified deep to
layers superficial to the 3rd
the pec major muscle.
abd 4th ribs.
Slide the transducer cranially and No Fascial planes

caudally while adjusting the tilt of the pectoralis muscles
to identify the lateral border of identified?
the pectoralis minor muscle.
Yes
Insert the needle in-plane from

medial to lateral toward the deep
fascia of the pec major muscle.
Local anesthetic can be injected

at two points:
PEC I PEC II
Between the pec major and pec PEC I + Between the pec minor
minor muscles. and serratus anterior muscles.

10-15 mL of LA per injection site.

SUGGESTED READINGS Grape S, Jaunin E, El-Boghdadly K, Chan V, Albrecht E. Analgesic

efficacy of PECS and serratus plane blocks after breast surgery:
Blanco R. The “pecs block”: a novel technique for providing analgesia a systematic review, meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis.
after breast surgery. Anaesthesia. 2011;66:847-848. J Clin Anesth. 2020;63:109744.
Blanco R, Fajardo M, Parras Maldonado T. Ultrasound description Jack JM, McLellan E, Versyck B, Englesakis MF, Chin KJ. The role
of Pecs II (modified Pecs I): a novel approach to breast surgery. of serratus anterior plane and pectoral nerves blocks in cardiac
Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2012;59:470-475. surgery, thoracic surgery and trauma: a qualitative systematic
Chin KJ, Pawa A, Forero M, Adhikary S. Ultrasound-guided review. Anaesthesia. 2020;16:1-14.
fascial plane blocks of the thorax: pectoral I and II, serratus Miller B, Pawa A, Mariano E. Problem with the Pecs II block: the
anterior plane, and erector spinae plane blocks. Adv Anesth. long thoracic nerve is collateral damage. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
2019;37:187-205. 2019. doi: 10.1136/rapm-2019-100559.
Franco CD, Inozemtsev K. Refining a great idea: the consolidation Schuitemaker R JB, Sala-Blanch X, Rodriguez-Pérez CL, Mayoral R JT,
of PECS I, PECS II and serratus blocks into a single thoracic López-Pantaleon LA, Sánchez-Cohen AP. The PECS II block
fascial plane block, the SAP block. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019. as a major analgesic component for clavicle operations: a
doi:10.1136/rapm-2019-101042. description of 7 case reports. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim.
Fujii T, Shibata Y, Akane A, et al. A randomised controlled trial of 2018;65:53-58.
pectoral nerve-2 (PECS 2) block vs. serratus plane block for Versyck B, van Geffen G-J, Chin KJ. Analgesic efficacy of the Pecs II
chronic pain after mastectomy. Anaesthesia. 2019;74:1558-1562. block: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anaesthesia.
Grape S, El-Boghdadly K, Albrecht E. Analgesic efficacy of PECS 2019;74:663-673.
vs paravertebral blocks after radical mastectomy: a systematic
review, meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. J Clin Anesth.
2020;63:109745.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
35 Serratus Plane Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Interfascial plane injection of local anesthetic (LA) either deep or superficial to the serratus anterior muscle at the level
of the third-sixth ribs.
• Indications: Analgesia after breast surgery, thoracoscopy, rib fractures, and procedures requiring lateral or anterior
thoracic wall incisions
• Goal: Spread of LA under the superficial or deep fascia of the serratus anterior muscle to block the lateral branches
of the intercostal nerves IIl to VI
detect intravascular injection, and be cautious with the dose

General Considerations especially in high-risk populations.
The ultrasound (US)-guided pectoralis and serratus plane
blocks are interventional analgesia techniques used after
surgeries on the hemithorax. They are considered potential
alternatives to the thoracic epidural, paravertebral, intercos-
Anatomy
tal, and intrapleural blocks. Compared to the paravertebral The thoracic wall is innervated by the intercostal nerves,
or thoracic epidural, the serratus anterior plane block offers originating from the ventral rami of the thoracic spinal
benefits in terms of simplicity, safety, and ease of perfor- nerves (T3-T10). The intercostal nerves travel under the
mance. For instance, needle insertion away from the neuraxis inferior border of the ribs, between the innermost and inter-
and critical anatomical structures may reduce the risk of spinal intercostal muscles. At the midaxillary line, the lateral
nal cord injury, epidural hematoma or infection, or pleural cutaneous branches arise from the intercostal nerves and
puncture. However, in terms of analgesia, the serratus ante- pierce the intercostal and serratus anterior muscles. From
rior plane block does not provide equivalent results to the there on, they divide into anterior and posterior branches to
thoracic paravertebral or epidural blocks. Also, the resulting innervate the lateral aspect of the thoracic wall (Figure 35-1).
analgesic patterns may vary according to the distribution of The serratus anterior muscle originates from the ante-
the injectate through the fascial planes, which is determined rior surface of the first through eighth ribs, to insert on the
primarily by the volume, injection site, and injection force. medial aspect of the scapula. It is innervated by the long
To date, studies have shown that injections, either superfi- thoracic nerve (C5-C7), which is a branch of the brachial
cial or deep to the serratus anterior muscle, appear to have plexus. Myofascial planes are formed both superficial and
similar analgesic effects. Nonetheless, the minimum effective deep to this muscle, which is pierced by the lateral cutaneous
volume, optimal injection site, and the number of injections branches of the intercostal nerves before they further divide.
have not been well-established. The latissimus dorsi muscle is superficial and posterior to the
serratus anterior muscle; it is innervated by the thoracodorsal
nerve, a terminal branch of the posterior cord of the brachial
Limitations plexus that travels with the thoracodorsal artery (branch of
The risk of local anesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST) should be the subscapular artery) along the posterior wall of the axilla
considered due to the absorption of the medication across a (Figure 35-2).
large surface. Always keep the maximum dose of LAs in mind, The lateral cutaneous branch of the second intercostal
consider using a pharmacologic marker (e.g., epinephrine) to nerve is called the intercostobrachial nerve. After piercing

FIGURE 35-1. Anatomy course and branches of an intercostal nerve.
FIGURE 35-2. Anatomy of the serratus anterior muscle.

Serratus Plane Block CHAPTER 35 343
FIGURE 35-3. Analgesia distribution of a serratus plane block.
the serratus anterior muscle, it crosses the axilla to the Local Anesthetic
medial side of the arm to provide cutaneous innervation
to the axillary region and the upper half of the medial and As with other thoracic fascial plane techniques, block suc-
posterior aspect of the arm (Figure 35-2). cess depends on the volume and distribution of the LA
between the muscles. Long-acting LAs such as bupiva-
caine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine at concentrations
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and of 0.25% to 0.5% are typically used in doses of 0.15 to
Ultrasound View 0.2 mL/kg. Of note, because LA absorption with this tech-
nique is high, avoid complications by calculating the maxi-
A transverse view of the lateral thoracic wall just below the mum weight-dose.
axilla shows the ribs and their corresponding intercostal
muscles covered by the serratus anterior muscle and the sub-
cutaneous tissue. When imaged by US, the fourth and fifth Patient Positioning
ribs appear as round hyperechoic lines casting an acous- The patient is placed either in the supine position with the
tic shadow behind, and the hyperechoic pleura line deeper arm abducted 90°, or in lateral decubitus with the side to be
between the two. The hypoechoic serratus and latissimus blocked facing up and the arm extended anteriorly to facili-
dorsi muscles appear superficial to the ribs with the latter tate access to the axillary area (Figure 35-4).
posterior to the serratus anterior muscle. The thoracodorsal
artery is often seen between the two muscles (Figure 35-1).
An injection of LA superficial or deep to the serratus anterior
muscle may reach the intercostobrachial, long thoracic, and
thoracodorsal nerves as well as the lateral cutaneous branches
of the intercostal nerves from T3 to T9 to a variable extent.
The latter results in dermatomal analgesia of the ipsilateral
hemithorax (Figure 35-3).
Block Preparation
Equipment
• Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer FIGURE 35-4. Patient position to perform a serratus
• Needle: 50-mm, 22- to 25-gauge needle plane block.

Technique Needle Approach and Trajectory

The serratus anterior plane block can be performed at dif- The needle is advanced in-plane, from superoanterior to
ferent levels between the anterior and posterior axillary lines posteroinferior to reach the fascial plane either superficial or
and between the third through sixth ribs. deep to the serratus anterior muscle. A correct needle posi-
tion is confirmed by injecting 1 to 2 mL of LA.
Transducer Position
The transducer is placed at the midaxillary line in an oblique
orientation perpendicular to the main axis of the fourth and The block is completed with 10 to 15 mL of LA while
fifth ribs (Figure 35-5). Alternatively, the transducer can be observing the spread along the superficial or deep fascia of
initially placed in a sagittal orientation just below the mid- the serratus anterior muscle. (Figure 35-6).
clavicular region to identify the pectoral major and minor
muscles and then slowly moved caudally and laterally count-
ing the ribs as they appear until the fifth rib is identified at the Problem-Solving Tips
mid-axillary line. • The thoracodorsal artery may help identify the plane
between the serratus anterior and the latissimus dorsi
Scanning Technique muscle. Use color Doppler to identify the artery.
• Release the pressure on the transducer while injecting to
At this level, the serratus anterior muscle is seen overlying
allow better distribution of the LA.
the ribs. By sliding the transducer toward the posterior axil-
lary line, the latissimus dorsi muscle will be seen as a thicker • If the spread occurs into the serratus anterior muscle, the
muscular layer superficial to the serratus anterior muscle. needle is withdrawn and directed either more superficially
The thoracodorsal artery may be visualized between the two or deeper.
muscles (Figure 35-5). When not readily seen, the use of • Keep the needle under vision during advancement and aim
color Doppler may help to identify the artery. the tip toward the ribs to decrease the risk of pneumothorax.

FIGURE 35-5. Transducer position and sonoanatomy for a serratus anterior plane block. TDA, thoracodorsal artery.
FIGURE 35-6. Serratus anterior plane block; reverse ultrasound anatomy with needle insertion in-plane and LA spread (1)
between the latissimus dorsi and serratus anterior muscles, or (2) underneath the serratus anterior muscle.
TDA, thoracodorsal artery.

Flowchart
Serratus Anterior Plane Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine with arm abducted 90° or
lateral decubitus with side to be
blocked facing up and arm
flexed forward.
Transducer position
Initial settings Sagittal orientation below the
• Linear transducer mid-clavicular region.
• Depth: 2-4 cm Goal: Identify pectoral major and
minor muscles.
The ribs appear as hyperechoic

round lines with an acoustic
Scanning
shadow behind. The pleura
Slide the transducer caudal-lateral
appears as a hyperechoic line
until the 4th and 5th ribs are
between two ribs. Muscles are
identified at the midaxillary line.
superposed hypoechoic layers
Goal: Identify the serratus anterior
superficial to the ribs. The
(SA) and latissimus dorsi (LD)
thoracodorsal artery may be seen
muscles.
in the hyperechoic fascial
plane between the SA and LD.
• Press and tilt the transducer to

optimize visualization of the
fascial planes.
• Use color Doppler to identify the No Fascial
thoracodorsal artery in the plane between the SA
fascial plane. and LD identified?
• If not successful, repeat the
scanning process starting from
the clavicle and counting the
ribs down. Yes
Insert the needle in-plane toward

the plane either superficial (or
deep) to the SA muscle.
Inject 1-2 mL to confirm proper
needle position.
Adequate spread will result in

clear separation of the muscular
planes superficial (or deep) to the
SA muscle.

15-20 mL of local anesthetic.

SUGGESTED READINGS Kim DH, Oh YJ, Lee JG, Ha D, Chang YJ, Kwak HJ. Efficacy of
ultrasound-guided serratus plane block on postoperative
Biswas A, Castanov V, Li Z, et al. Serratus plane block: a cadaveric quality of recovery and analgesia after video-assisted thoracic
study to evaluate optimal injectate spread. Reg Anesth Pain surgery: a randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled study.
Med. 2018;43:854-858. Anesth Analg. 2018;126:1353-1361.
Blanco R. The “pecs block”: a novel technique for providing analge- Kiss G, Castillo M. Non-intubated anesthesia in thoracic surgery-
sia after breast surgery. Anaesthesia. 2011;66:847-848. technical issues. Ann Transl Med. 2015;3:109.
Blanco R, Parras T, McDonnell JG, Prats-Galino A. Serratus plane Kunhabdulla NP, Agarwal A, Gaur A, Gautam SK, Gupta R,
block: a novel ultrasound-guided thoracic wall nerve block. Agarwal A. Serratus anterior plane block for multiple rib
Anaesthesia. 2013;68:1107-1113. fractures. Pain Physician. 2014;17:E651-E653.
Blanco R, Fajardo M, Parras Maldonado T. Ultrasound Kunigo T, Murouchi T, Yamamoto S, Yamakage M. Injection vol-
description of Pecs II (modified Pecs I): a novel approach ume and anesthetic effect in serratus plane block. Reg Anesth
to breast surgery. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2012;59: Pain Med. 2017;42:737-740.
470-475. Madabushi R, Tewari S, Gautam SK, Agarwal A, Agarwal A. Serratus
Chin KJ. Thoracic wall blocks: from paravertebral to retrolaminar to anterior plane block: a new analgesic technique for post-
serratus to erector spinae and back again—a review of evidence. thoracotomy pain. Pain Physician. 2015;18(3):E421-E424.
Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2019;33:67-77. Mayes J, Davison E, Panahi P, et al. An anatomical evaluation of
Chin KJ, Pawa A, Forero M, Adhikary S. Ultrasound-guided the serratus anterior plane block. Anaesthesia. 2016;71:
fascial plane blocks of the thorax: pectoral I and II, serratus 1064-1069.
anterior plane, and erector spinae plane blocks. Adv Anesth. Mazzinari G, Rovira L, Casasempere A, et al. Interfascial block
2019;37:187-205. at the serratus muscle plane versus conventional analgesia in
Chong M, Berbenetz N, Kumar K, Lin C. The serratus plane block breast surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Reg Anesth Pain
for postoperative analgesia in breast and thoracic surgery: a Med. 2019;44:52-58.
systematic review and meta-analysis. Reg Anesth Pain Med. Park MH, Kim JA, Ahn HJ, Yang MK, Son HJ, Seong BG. A ran-
2019;44:1066-1074. domised trial of serratus anterior plane block for analgesia after
Eid M, Nassr M, Aziz A. Serratus anterior plane block for flail chest thoracoscopic surgery. Anaesthesia. 2018;73:1260-1264.
injury. Anaesthesia Cases. 2014, June;2014-0074. Piracha MM, Thorp SL, Puttanniah V, Gulati A. “A tale of two
Fujiwara A, Komasawa N, Minami T. Pectoral nerves (PECS) and planes” deep versus superficial serratus plane block for
intercostal nerve block for cardiac resynchronization therapy postmastectomy pain syndrome. Reg Anesth Pain Med.
device implantation. Springerplus. 2014;3:409. 2017;42:259-262.
Fujiwara S, Komasawa N, Minami T. Pectral nerve blocks and Purcell N, Wu D. Novel use of the PECS II block for upper limb
serratus-intercostal plane block for intractable postthoracotomy fistula surgery. Anaesthesia. 2014;69:1294.
syndrome. J Clin Anesth. 2015;27:275-276. Semyonov M, Fedorina E, Grinshpun J, et al. Ultrasound-guided
Fuzier R, Despres C. Serratus plane block: new insights but still serratus anterior plane block for analgesia after thoracic sur-
many questions. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2018;43:2018. gery. J Pain Res. 2019;12:953-960.
George RM, Wilson SH. Serratus plane blocks: not quite plane and Thiruvenkatarajan V, Cruz H, Das S. An update on regional analge-
simple. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;44:530-531. sia for rib fractures. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2018;31(5):601-607.
Hards M, Harada A, Neville I, et al. The effect of serratus plane Tighe SQM, Karmakar MK. Serratus plane block: do we need to
block performed under direct vision on postoperative pain in learn another technique for thoracic wall blockade? Anaesthesia.
breast surgery. J Clin Anesth. 2016;34:427-431. 2013;68:1099-1103.
Helander EM, Webb MP, Kendrick J, et al. PECS, serratus plane, Varela O, Melone A, López-Menchaca R, et al. Radiological study
erector spinae, and paravertebral blocks: a comprehensive to evaluate the spreading of two volumes (10 vs. 20 ml) of
review. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2019;33:573-581. radiological contrast in the block of cutaneous branches
Iwamoto W, Ueshima H, Otake H. Serratus plane block for a con- of intercostal nerves in medial axillary line (BRILMA) in
traction of the latissimus dorsi muscle. Reg Anesth Pain Med. a porcine experimental model. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim.
2016;23:471-473. 2018;65(8):441-446.
Jack JM, McLellan E, Versyck B, Englesakis MF, Chin KJ. The role Versyck B, van Geffen GJ, Chin KJ. Analgesic efficacy of the Pecs II
of serratus anterior plane and pectoral nerves blocks in cardiac block: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anaesthesia.
surgery, thoracic surgery and trauma: a qualitative systematic 2019;74:663-673.
review. 2020:1-14. doi:10.1111/anae.15000 Wahba SS, Kamal SM. Thoracic paravertebral block versus pec-
Kaushal B, Chauhan S, Saini K, et al. Comparison of the efficacy toral nerve block for analgesia after breast surgery. Egyptian J
of ultrasound-guided serratus anterior plane block, pectoral Anaesth. 2014;30:129-135.
nerves II block, and intercostal nerve block for the manage- Womack J, Varma MK. Serratus plane block for shoulder surgery.
ment of postoperative thoracotomy pain after pediatric cardiac Anaesthesia. 2014;69:395-396.
surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2019;33:418-425.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
36 Paravertebral Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Injection of local anesthetic into the thoracic paravertebral space.
• Indications: Analgesia after thoracic and breast surgery, rib fractures, and procedures involving the thoracic
and upper abdominal wall
• Goal: Spread of local anesthetic into the paravertebral space around the spinal nerves as they arise from the
intervertebral foramen
• Local anesthetic volume: 4 to 5 mL per space to be blocked
block, and vascular puncture. In patients on antithrombotic or

General Considerations thrombolytic therapy, the same precautions should be taken as
Thoracic paravertebral block (PVB) is a well-established for neuraxial techniques. One of the limitations of the PVB is
analgesia interventional technique for patients having tho- the inconsistency of the craniocaudal spread of LA, which may
racic, chest wall, or breast surgery. Likewise, it is often used require injections at multiple levels to cover the desired area.
for pain management of patients with rib fractures. The PVB
provides an effective unilateral block of the anterior and pos-
terior branches of the corresponding spinal nerves, as well Anatomy
as the sympathetic chain. PVBs also may decrease the risk of The PVS is a wedge-shaped area between the heads and necks
chronic pain after breast and thoracic surgeries and reduce of the ribs that contain the thoracic spinal nerves and the sym-
the recurrence of breast cancer, but this last possible benefit pathetic trunk (Figure 36-1). Its posterior wall is formed by
requires further confirmation. the superior costotransverse ligament, the anterolateral wall
Ultrasound (US) guidance helps to identify the paraver- by the parietal pleura with the endothoracic fascia. The medial
tebral space (PVS) with more precision than the landmark- wall is made by the lateral surface of the vertebral body and
based technique. It also helps monitor the needle placement intervertebral disc. The PVS medially communicates with the
and the spread of the local anesthetic (LA). However, the use epidural space via the intervertebral foramen inferiorly and
of US in the PVB requires a high degree of skill due to the close superiorly across the head and neck of the ribs. Consequently,
proximity of highly vulnerable structures and the depth of injection of LA into the PVS often results in unilateral (some-
the PVS. The potential for complications and the challenges times bilateral) epidural anesthesia. The cephalad limit of the
of the technique inspired the development of several alterna- thoracic PVS is not well defined, whereas the caudad limit is
tive approaches targeting the branches of the spinal nerves at at the origin of the psoas muscle at L1. The PVS also com-
more distal and superficial locations. In this chapter, we municates with the intercostal spaces laterally, resulting in
describe general principles of thoracic PVB; readers are advised the spread of the LA into the intercostal sulcus and resultant
to use the anatomical and technique information presented intercostal blockade as part of the mechanism of action.
here to devise their own approach in line with their experience.

Specific Risks and Limitations Ultrasound View
The proximity of the needle tip to the pleura, neuraxial struc- The PVS can be insonated through the intertransverse
tures, and segmental arteries and veins carries the risk of pneu- windows with the transducer positioned either in a sagit-
mothorax, spinal cord injury, inadvertent spinal or epidural tal or transverse oblique orientation. In a transverse oblique

FIGURE 36-1. Anatomy of the paravertebral space. Left side: at the level of the rib; right side: at the level of the intercostal
space. ESP, erector spinae muscles.
cross-section, the following structures can be identified: hyperechoic interface moving with respiration. The PVS is
skin and subcutaneous tissue; trapezius, rhomboid, erec- identified as a wedge-shaped hypoechoic space demarcated
tor spinae, and external intercostal muscles; and the inter- by the internal intercostal membrane and the pleura below
nal intercostal membrane. The pleura is seen as a bright (Figure 36-2).
FIGURE 36-2. Cross-sectional oblique ultrasound view of the paravertebral space and reverse anatomy illustration.
TP, transverse process; ESP, erector spinae muscles; PVS, paravertebral space; EIM, external intercostal muscle.

Paravertebral Block CHAPTER 36 351
adjacent to the site of injection, occurs in approximately 10%

Distribution of Anesthesia of patients after single-injection PVB and may be due to epi-
and Analgesia dural or prevertebral spread.
A PVB produces an ipsilateral somatic and sympathetic
nerve block by a direct effect of the LA on the somatic and
sympathetic nerves in the PVS, as well as extension into the Block Preparation
intercostal space laterally and the epidural space medially.
The overall contribution of epidural spread to the derma- Equipment
tomal distribution of anesthesia following a PVB is not well
defined. Although the injections spread both cephalad and
caudad to the site of injection, the dermatomal distribution • Needle: 80- to 100-mm, 21- to 22-gauge needle
of anesthesia following a single injection of a large volume
varies (Figure 36-3). For that reason, a multiple injection
technique, with small volumes (3-4 mL) of LA at several
Local Anesthetic
contiguous thoracic levels, is preferable over a single, large- Bupivacaine, L-bupivacaine, or ropivacaine diluted to reach
volume injection. This is particularly important when reli- an appropriate volume are best suited for analgesia after
able anesthesia over several ipsilateral thoracic dermatomes breast surgery or thoracic wall incisions. Bupivacaine or ropi-
is desired, such as when a thoracic PVB is used for anesthesia vacaine 0.25% to 0.50% are commonly reported in the litera-
during breast surgery. Segmental contralateral anesthesia, ture, not exceeding 0.2 to 0.4 mL/kg-1.
FIGURE 36-3. Distribution of anesthesia after a paravertebral block.

TECHNIQUES
Transverse Oblique
The transducer is positioned just lateral to the spinous pro-
cess at the targeted level in a transverse oblique orientation
parallel to the course of the ribs. The transverse processes and
ribs are visualized as hyperechoic structures with acoustic
shadowing below them (Figure 36-5A).
Scanning Technique
FIGURE 36-4. Patient position for a paravertebral block. Once the transverse processes and ribs are identified, the
transducer is moved slightly caudad into the intercostal
space to identify the tip of the transverse process and the
Patient Positioning hyperechoic line of the pleura. By applying slight adjust-
The PVB is frequently performed with the patient in a sitting ments, the hyperechoic internal intercostal membrane can
position (Figure 36-4). Alternatively, it can be performed be visualized limiting the thoracic PVS and the adjoin-
with the patient in the prone or in the lateral position with ing intercostal space as a wedge-shaped hypoechoic layer
the side to be blocked facing upwards. (Figure 36-5B).
FIGURE 36-5. (A) Initial transducer position in a transverse oblique orientation parallel to the course of the rib, and
the corresponding sonoanatomy. (B) Transducer position in transverse oblique orientation at the intercostal space and the
corresponding sonoanatomy of the PVS. TP, transverse process; ESP, erector spinae muscles; PVS, paravertebral space;
EIM, external intercostal muscle.

FIGURE 36-6. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a paravertebral block when the transducer is placed in a transverse oblique
orientation. TP, transverse process; ESP, erector spinae muscles; PVS, paravertebral space; EIM, external intercostal muscle.
Needle Approach and Trajectory Scanning Technique

The needle is advanced in-plane from lateral to medial The transducer is then moved medially progressively until
toward the PVS and after careful negative aspiration, 1 to the transverse processes are identified as deeper and square-
2 mL are injected. The goal of the technique is to inject the shaped structures. Too medial transducer placement will
LA below the internal intercostal ligament and membrane, yield an image of the laminae, at which point the transducer
resulting in a downward displacement of the pleura, indicat- is moved slightly laterally to image transverse processes.
ing the proper spread of the LA (Figure 36-6). Once the transverse processes are identified, the transducer is
slightly tilted laterally to enhance the view of the hyperechoic
pleura and the costotransverse ligament (Figure 36-7B).
Sagittal Needle Approach and Trajectory
Landmarks and Initial Transducer Position The needle is advanced in-plane from caudad to cephalad,
Place the transducer 5 to 6 cm laterally from the midline at or out-of-plane toward the PVS between the costotransverse
the targeted level, and in a sagittal orientation, to identify the ligament and the pleura (Figure 36-8). For the out-of-plane
rounded ribs and parietal pleura underneath (Figure 36-7A). approach, the needle is inserted to contact the transverse

FIGURE 36-7. (A) Initial transducer position in a sagittal orientation 5 cm away from the midline and the corresponding
sonoanatomy at this location. (B) Moving the transducer medially, the paravertebral space can be seen between the square
shapes of the transverse processes and just superficial to the hyperechoic line of the pleura. TP, transverse process;
ESP, erector spinae muscles; PVS, paravertebral space; EIM, external intercostal muscle.

FIGURE 36-8. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a paravertebral block when the transducer is placed in a sagittal orientation.
TP, transverse process; PVS, paravertebral space; ESP, erector spinae muscles.
process and then walked off the transfer process 1 to 1.5 cm • The out-of-plane approach in the sagittal ultrasound-
deeper to inject the LA. guided technique may be safer than the in-plane approach
toward the neuraxis. This technique is analogous to the
Local Anesthetic Distribution true-and-tried surface-based techniques with more accu-
rate identification of the transverse processes.
The goal in both cases is to observe a downward displacement
of the pleura. By scanning cranio-caudal, the LA can be seen • Insertion of a catheter through the needle placed in the
spreading to the adjacent intertransverse spaces. This tech- PVS carries a risk of catheter misplacement into the epi-
nique is then repeated at the desired levels. dural or mediastinal space, or through the pleura into the
thoracic cavity.
• Orienting the bevel of the Tuohy needle tip away from the
Problem-Solving Tips pleura may reduce the risk of penetrating the pleura.
Several recommendations are suggested to decrease the • A fascial “pop” or “click” often is felt as the needle pen-
risk of potential complications with an ultrasound-guided etrates the internal intercostal membrane, alerting the
thoracic PVB: operator of the needle position in the PVS.
• For in-plane approaches, the visualization of the needle • For a single site injection, LA (15-20 mL) is injected slowly
path at all times is crucial to reduce the risk of needle entry in small increments, avoiding forceful high-pressure injec-
in unwanted locations (pleura, neuraxial space). tion to reduce the risk of bilateral epidural spread.

Flowchart
Paravertebral Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Sitting, prone, or lateral decubitus
with side to block facing up
Initial settings
• Linear transducer (or curved Transducer position
transducer if obese patient) Transverse oblique or sagittal
• Depth: 4-6 cm
Transverse oblique Sagittal

Lateral to the spinous process parallel to Lateral to the spinous process at the
the ribs target level of the block
GOAL: Image the intercostal space and GOAL: Visualize the transverse processes,
identify the tip of the transverse process, the hyperechoic pleura, and the
the hyperechoic line of the pleura, the costotransverse ligament
costotransverse ligament, and the
internal intercostal membrane
Scanning Scanning
Tilt and apply pressure to the transducer, Once the transverse processes are
to accentuate the hyperechoic internal identified, tilt the transducer laterally to
intercostal membrane and the thoracic enhance the view of the hyperechoic
PVS underneath (wedge-shaped pleura and the costotransverse ligament.
hypoechoic layer). The PVS is positioned between the
costotransverse ligament and the pleura.
Paravertebral space
identified?
Yes
Advance the needle in-plane or out-of-

plane toward the paravertebral space.
Use the RAPT method during • After negative aspiration, inject 1-2 mL
injection every 3-5 mL of LA.
• Goal: Observe a downward movement of
R = Motor Response absent at 0.5 mA the pleura.
A = Aspiration (negative) • Reposition the needle if needed to
P = lnjection Pressure <15 psi achieve the desired spread.
T = Total mL injected • Complete the block by injecting 4-5 mL
per PV level.

SUGGESTED READINGS Luyet C, Herrmann G, Ross S, et al. Ultrasound-guided thoracic

paravertebral puncture and placement of catheters in human
Bouzinac A, Delbos A, Mazieres M, Rontes O. Ultrasound-guided cadavers. Br J Anaesth. 2011;106:246-254.
bilateral paravertebral thoracic block in an obese patient. Moorthy SS, Dierdorf SF, Yaw PB. Influence of volume on the spread
Ann Fr Anesth. 2010;30:162-163. of local anesthetic–methylene blue solution after injection for
Cowie B, McGlade D, Ivanusic J, Barrington MJ. Ultrasound- intercostal block. Anesth Analg. 1992;75:389-391.
guided thoracic paravertebral blockade: a cadaveric study. Mowbray A, Wong KK. Low volume intercostal injection.
Anesth Analg. 2010;110:1735-1739. A comparative study in patients and cadavers. Anaesthesia.
Eason MJ, Wyatt R. Paravertebral thoracic block—a reappraisal. 1988;43:633-634.
Anaesthesia. 1979;34:638-642. Mowbray A, Wong KK, Murray JM. Intercostal catheterisation.
Karmakar MK, Chui PT, Joynt GM, Ho AM. Thoracic paravertebral An alternative approach to the paravertebral space. Anaesthesia.
block for management of pain associated with multiple fractured 1987;42:958-961.
ribs in patients with concomitant lumbar spinal trauma. O Riain SC, Donnell BO, Cuffe T, Harmon DC, Fraher JP, Shorten G.
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2001;26:169-173. Thoracic paravertebral block using real-time ultrasound
Lonnqvist PA, Hildingsson U. The caudal boundary of the thoracic guidance. Anesth Analg. 2010;110:248-251.
paravertebral space. A study in human cadavers. Anaesthesia. Renes SH, Bruhn J, Gielen MJ, Scheffer GJ, van Geffen GJ. In-plane
1992;47(12):1051. ultrasound-guided thoracic paravertebral block: a preliminary
Luyet C, Eichenberger1 U, Greif1 R, et al. Ultrasound-guided paraver- report of 36 cases with radiologic confirmation of catheter
tebral puncture and placement of catheters in human cadavers: position. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35:212-216.
an imaging study. Br J Anaesth. 2009;102(4):534-539.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
37 Erector Spinae Plane Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Interfascial plane injection of local anesthetic (LA) between the erector spinae muscles and the transverse processes at
the segmental levels supplying the area of interest.
• Indications: Analgesia for rib fractures, back surgery, and chest wall procedures. Other potential indications are
currently under investigation
• Goal: Spread of an LA in the plane deep to the erector spinae muscles aiming for a craniocaudal distribution along
several vertebral levels to block the posterior (and possibly anterior) rami of the spinal nerves
marker (e.g., epinephrine), and be conservative with the LA

General Considerations dose especially in high-risk populations (e.g., elderly patients).
The erector spinae plane block (ESPB) is a novel interfascial
plane technique, aiming to block the dorsal and ventral rami
of the spinal nerves to provide multidermatomal analgesia of Anatomy
the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar levels. Several case reports
The erector spinae muscles comprise the iliocostalis, longis-
and few randomized controlled clinical trials have been pub-
simus, and spinalis. They are located parallel along both sides
lished supporting the clinical efficacy of the ESPB in a grow-
of the spine; from the skull to the pelvis and sacral region,
ing number of indications. The mechanisms of action are
and from the spinous to the transverse processes extending
inadequately understood; spread into the paravertebral space
to the ribs. They vary in size and structure at different levels
is thought to be one of the possible sites of action but studies
of the spine. The erector spinae muscles are innervated by
describing LA distribution after injection show considerable
the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves and their function is to
variability and conflicting results. Published reports describe
stabilize, extend, and laterally bend the spine (Figure 37-1).
single-shot techniques, followed by intermittent bolus and
continuous infusion, performed primarily at the thoracic,
lumbar, and some at the cervical level. Cross-Sectional Anatomy and
Ultrasound View
Specific Risks and Limitations The symmetrical erector spinae muscles lie over the trans-
While there is insufficient data to remark on the risk of com- verse process and the lamina. The deep fascial plane is
plications with an ESPB, a case of pneumothorax, a case of separated from the paravertebral space by the transverse pro-
partial autonomic neuropathy, and a few cases of hematoma, cesses and the intertransverse and costotransverse ligaments
suggest that the technique is not devoid of risks. Because and muscles.
injection targets can be well-identified with ultrasound (US) The roots of the spinal nerves exit the vertebral canal
and the site of injection is distant from the neuraxis and through the intervertebral foramina and divide into dorsal
major vascular structures, the potential for complications rami, which course posteriorly through the erector spinae to
could be lower compared to a paravertebral block. innervate the back musculature and adjacent skin; ventral
Because ESPB is a volume-dependent interfascial block, rami, which continue as intercostal nerves from T1-T12 and
systemic levels of LAs could be higher than with most periph- innervate the anterolateral chest and abdominal wall; and
eral nerve blocks due to their absorption across a large surface. communicating rami to the sympathetic trunk in the para-
When performing an ESPB, consider using a pharmacologic vertebral space (Figure 37-2).

FIGURE 37-1. Anatomy of the erector spinae muscles.
FIGURE 37-2. Cross-section of a thoracic vertebra illustrating a spinal nerve, the ventral and dorsal ramus,
and their relationship with the erector spinae muscles.

Erector Spinae Plane Block CHAPTER 37 361
FIGURE 37-3. Sagittal paramedian sonoanatomy for an ESPB. TP, transverse

process; PVS, paravertebral space.
Using a linear transducer positioned in a paramedian sag-

ittal orientation, approximately 2 cm away from the midline,
the transverse processes are identified as squared hyper- Mechanisms of nerve blockade and distribution of the LA
echoic lines with an acoustic shadow behind (Figure 37-3). with this block are not well-understood. Studies suggest
At higher thoracic levels (e.g., above T5), trapezius, rhom- that LA after ESPB spreads in a cephalocaudal distribution,
boid major, and erector spinae muscles can be identified as reaching mainly the dorsal rami, and rarely the ventral rami
three layers superficial to the transverse processes. In the of the spinal nerves, and intercostal spaces. Although pos-
lower and midthoracic levels, only trapezius and erector spi- sible, distribution into the sympathetic chain, paravertebral,
nae muscles can be seen. and epidural spaces is inconsistent (Figure 37-4).
FIGURE 37-4. Sensory distribution of an ESPB.

injection by counting down from the first rib (with US), or

Block Preparation by palpating the bony landmarks of the back, and their cor-
Equipment responding vertebral levels (Figure 37-5).
Consider that after injection, the LA spreads both cau-
• Transducer: A high-frequency, linear transducer can be
dally and cranially; therefore, the targeted transverse process
used for thoracic levels, whereas a low-frequency, curved
(level for the block) should be a central point according to the
array transducer is better suited for lumbar ESPB.
required levels for analgesia.
• Needle: 50- to 100-mm, 22-gauge needle
Local Anesthetic Technique

The ESPB is a fascial plane block; therefore, success depends Initial Transducer Position and
on the volume of LA injected between the muscle and trans- Scanning Technique
verse process. Long-acting LAs or continuous infusions
through catheters have been typically used. The transducer is placed in a paramedian sagittal orienta-
tion over the selected area approximately 2 cm away from
the midline.
Landmarks and Patient Position If the transducer is placed too medial, the thoracic laminae
The block can be performed with the patient in a sitting, lat- will be visualized as flat hyperechoic lines; slide the transducer
eral decubitus, or prone position. Identify the desired level of laterally. When the transducer is placed too lateral, the ribs
FIGURE 37-5. Patient position for an ESPB.

FIGURE 37-6. Scanning during an ESPB. (A) Transducer is placed too medial. (B) Adequate transducer position for an ESPB.
(C) Transducer placed too lateral. ESP, erector spinae; TP, transverse process; PVS, paravertebral space; Cr, cranial; Cd, caudad;
A, anterior; P, posterior.
will be visualized as round hyperechoic lines with an acous-

tic shadow underneath and an intermediate hyperechoic
pleural line; slide the transducer medially (Figure 37-6). The • A high-frequency linear transducer can be used for lower
transverse processes are identified as flat squared hyper- thoracic levels, whereas a low-frequency curved array
echoic lines with an acoustic shadow behind. Note that with transducer may be better suited for lumbar injections or
the transducer perpendicular to the transverse processes, obese patients, where the erector spinae layers are deeper
the pleura is not visualized at the level where the block is (greater depth than 4 cm).
performed (Figure 37-7). • In-plane or out-of-plane needle insertion can be used.
• When pleura is imaged at any time, the transducer is placed
Needle Approach and Trajectory or tilted too lateral. Slide medially and keep the transducer
perpendicular until the transverse processes are identified
The needle is inserted in-plane in a cranial-to-caudal (or and the pleura is no longer seen.
caudal-to-cranial) orientation until the needle tip contacts
the transverse process. To confirm proper needle position, • ESPB is a fascial plane technique—therefore a volume-
1-3 mL of LA are injected. dependent block for success. However, be aware of the
total dose of LAs, keeping in mind the risk of local anes-
thetic systemic toxicity (LAST) and resuscitative measures
Local Anesthetic Distribution should it occur.
The spread should occur deep to the erector spinae muscle • Although multidermatomal coverage is usually expected,
and superficial to the transverse process, extending to the aim for injection at a vertebral level corresponding to the
adjacent levels. surgical incision. In continuous techniques, it is recom-
The total volume to complete the block is 20 to 30 mL of mended that the catheter tip is also located at this level.
LA spreading along the fascial plane deep several vertebral • For ESPB catheters, first inject 5 mL of LA to create a space
levels (Figure 37-8). in which the catheter can then be advanced.

FIGURE 37-7. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform an ESPB at the level of T5. TP, transverse process;
PVS, paravertebral space; Cr, cranial; Cd, caudad; A, anterior; P, posterior.
FIGURE 37-8. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of an ESPB with needle insertion in-plane. Also visualized: A spinal nerve exiting
from the paravertebral space (PVS) and the dorsal ramus traveling posteriorly to innervate the back muscles. TP, transverse
process; Cr, cranial; Cd, caudad; A, anterior; P, posterior.

Flowchart
Erector Spinae Plane Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Sitting, lateral decubitus, or
prone position
Transducer position
Initial settings
Paramedian sagittal orientation,
• Linear or curved transducer
approximately 2 cm away from
• Depth: 3-5 cm
the spinous processes
Common problems and solutions

• Transducer located too lateral:
Transverse processes:
Scanning Ribs will be seen.
Squared hyperechoic rims with
The goal is to visualize To fix, slowly slide the transducer
an acoustic shadow behind.
the transverse processes by medially.
The pleura shouldn't be visible at
scanning laterally or medially. • Transducer located too medial:
this level.
Thoracic laminae will appear.
To fix, slowly slide the transducer
laterally.
Fascial plane No
between the ESP and
transverse process
identified?
Yes
Adequate spread will be deep to Insert the needle in-plane until the
the erector spinae muscles and needle tip contacts the transverse
superficial to the transverse process. Inject 1-3 mL of LA to
process. confirm proper injection plane.
Complete the block

wilh 20-30 mL of LA.
SUGGESTED READINGS Chen N, Qiao Q, Chen R, Xu Q, Zhang Y, Tian Y. The effect of

ultrasound-guided intercostal nerve block, single-injection
Adhikary SD, Prasad A, Soleimani B, Chin KJ. Continuous erector erector spinae plane block and multiple-injection paravertebral
spinae plane block as an effective analgesic option in anticoag- block on postoperative analgesia in thoracoscopic surgery:
ulated patients after left ventricular assist device implantation: a randomized, double-blinded, clinical trial. J Clin Anesth.
a case series. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2019;33:1063-1067. 2019;59:106-111.
Altıparmak B, Korkmaz Toker M, Uysal Aİ, Turan M, Demirbilek Chin KJ, Adhikary S, Forero M. Is the erector spinae plane (ESP)
SG. Comparison of the effects of modified pectoral nerve block block a sheath block? A reply. Anaesthesia. 2017;72:
and erector spinae plane block on postoperative opioid con- 916-917.
sumption and pain scores of patients after radical mastectomy Chin KJ, Adhikary S, Sarwani N, Forero M. The analgesic
surgery: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. J Clin efficacy of pre-operative bilateral erector spinae plane (ESP)
Anesth. 2019;54:61-65. blocks in patients having ventral hernia repair. Anaesthesia.
Aponte A, Sala-Blanch X, Prats-Galino A, Masdeu J, Moreno LA, 2017;72:452-460.
Sermeus LA. Anatomical evaluation of the extent of spread in Chin KJ. Thoracic wall blocks: from paravertebral to retrolaminar
the erector spinae plane block: a cadaveric study. Can J Anesth. to serratus to erector spinae and back again—a review of
2019;66:886-893. evidence. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2019;33:67-77.
Bonvicini D, Tagliapietra L, Giacomazzi A, Pizzirani E. Bilateral Chin KJ, Malhas L, Perlas A. The erector spinae plane block provides
ultrasound-guided erector spinae plane blocks in breast cancer visceral abdominal analgesia in bariatric surgery a report of
and reconstruction surgery. J Clin Anesth. 2018;44:3-4. 3 cases. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42:372-376.

Costache I, Pawa A, Abdallah FW. Paravertebral by proxy—time Nagaraja P, Ragavendran S, Singh NG, et al. Comparison of con-
to redefine the paravertebral block. Anaesthesia. 2018;73: tinuous thoracic epidural analgesia with bilateral erector spinae
1185-1188. plane block for perioperative pain management in cardiac
Evans HT, Leslie GJ, Rutka O, Keevil E, Burckett-St Laurent D. surgery. Ann Card Anaesth. 2018;21:323-327.
Bilateral erector spinae plane block for surgery on the posterior Noss C, Anderson KJ, Gregory AJ. Erector spinae plane block for
aspect of the neck. Anesth Analg. 2019;12:356-358. open-heart surgery: a potential tool for improved analgesia.
Fiorelli S, Leopizzi G, Saltelli G, et al. Bilateral ultrasound-guided J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2018;32:376-377.
erector spinae plane block for postoperative pain management Ohgoshi Y, Ikeda T, Kurahashi K. Continuous erector spinae plane
in surgical repair of pectus excavatum via Ravitch technique. block provides effective perioperative analgesia for breast
J Clin Anesth. 2019;56:28-29. reconstruction using tissue expanders: a report of two cases.
Forero M, Adhikary SD, Lopez H, Tsui C, Chin KJ. The erector J Clin Anesth. 2018;44:1-2.
spinae plane block: a novel analgesic technique in thoracic Oksuz G, Bilgen F, Arslan M, Duman Y. Ultrasound-guided bilateral
neuropathic pain. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2016;41:621-627. erector spinae block versus tumescent anesthesia for postopera-
Forero M, Rajarathinam M, Adhikary S, Chin KJ. Erector spinae tive analgesia in patients undergoing reduction mammoplasty:
plane block for the management of chronic shoulder pain: a randomized controlled study. Anesth Plast Surg. 2018: [Epub
a case report. Can J Anesth. 2017;65:288-293. ahead of print] doi:10.1007/s00266-018-1286-8
Forero M, Rajarathinam M, Adhikary S, Chin KJ. Continuous erec- Schwartzmann A, Peng P, Maciel MA, Forero M. Mechanism of the
tor spinae plane block for rescue analgesia in thoracotomy after erector spinae plane block: insights from a magnetic resonance
epidural failure: a case report. Anesth Analg. 2017;8:254-256. imaging study. Can J Anesth. 2018;65:1165-1166.
Greenhalgh K, Womack J, Marcangelo S. Injectate spread in erector Tsui BCH, Fonseca A, Munshey F, McFadyen G, Caruso TJ. The
spinae plane block. Anaesthesia. 2018;74:126-127. erector spinae plane (ESP) block: a pooled review of 242 cases.
Gürkan Y, Aksu C, Kuş A, Yörükoğlu UH. Erector spinae plane J Clin Anesth. 2019;53:29-34.
block and thoracic paravertebral block for breast surgery com- Tulgar S, Kapakli MS, Senturk O, Selvi O, Serifsoy TE, Ozer Z.
pared to IV-morphine: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Evaluation of ultrasound-guided erector spinae plane block
Anesth. 2019;59:84-88. for postoperative analgesia in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a
Gürkan Y, Aksu C, Kuş A, Yörükoğlu UH, Kılıç CT. Ultrasound prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Clin Anesth.
guided erector spinae plane block reduces postoperative 2018;49:101-106.
opioid consumption following breast surgery: a randomized Tulgar S, Selvi O, Kapakli MS. Erector spinae plane block for dif-
controlled study. J Clin Anesth. 2018;50:65-68. ferent laparoscopic abdominal surgeries: case series. Case Rep
Ivanusic J, Konishi Y, Barrington MJ. A cadaveric study Anesthesiol. 2018;18:1-3.
investigating the mechanism of action of erector spinae Tulgar S, Selvi O, Senturk O, Ermis MN, Cubuk R, Ozer Z. Clinical
blockade. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2018;43:567-571. experiences of ultrasound-guided lumbar erector spinae plane
Kimachi PP, Martins EG, Peng P, Forero M. The erector spinae block for hip joint and proximal femur surgeries. J Clin Anesth.
plane block provides complete surgical anesthesia in breast 2018;47:5-6.
surgery. Anesth Analg. 2018;11:1. Ueshima H. Pneumothorax after the erector spinae plane block.
Kot P, Rodriguez P, Granell M, et al. The erector spinae plane block: J Clin Anesth. 2018;48:12.
a narrative review. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2019;73:209-2020. Ueshima H, Otake H. Blocking of multiple posterior branches
Krishna SN, Chauhan S, Bhoi D, et al. Bilateral erector spinae plane of cervical nerves using an erector spinae plane block. J Clin
block for acute post-surgical pain in adult cardiac surgical Anesth. 2018;46:44.
patients: a randomized controlled trial. J Cardiothorac Vasc Veiga M, Costa D, Brazão I. Bloqueo en el plano del músculo
Anesth. 2018;33:368-375. erector de la columna para mastectomía radical: ¿una nueva
López MB, Cadórniga ÁG, González JML, Suárez ED, Carballo CL, indicación? Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2017:8-11.
Sobrino FP. Erector spinae block: a narrative review. Cent Eur J Vidal E, Giménez H, Forero M, Fajardo M. Erector spinae plane
Clin Res. 2018;1:28-39. block: a cadaver study to determine its mechanism of action.
Muñoz-Leyva F, Chin KJ, Mendiola WE, et al. Bilateral continuous Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2018;65:514-519.
erector spinae plane (ESP) blockade for perioperative opioid- Willard FH, Vleeming A, Schuenke MD, Danneels L, Schleip R.
sparing in median sternotomy: a case series. J Cardiothorac The thoracolumbar fascia: anatomy, function and clinical con-
Vasc Anesth. 2018;33:1698-1703. siderations. J Anat. 2012;221:507-536.
Muñoz F, Cubillos J, Bonilla AJ, Chin KJ. Erector spinae plane block Yamak Altinpulluk E, García Simón D, Fajardo-Pérez M. Erector
for postoperative analgesia in pediatric oncological thoracic spinae plane block for analgesia after lower segment caesarean
surgery. Can J Anesth. 2017;64:880-882. section: case report. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2018;65:284-286.
Muñoz F, Mendiola WE, Bonilla AJ, Cubillos J, Moreno DA, Chin KJ. Yang H, Choi YJ, Kwon H, Cho TH, Kim SH. Comparison of injec-
Continuous erector spinae plane (ESP) block for postoperative tate spread and nerve involvement between retrolaminar and
analgesia after minimally invasive mitral valve surgery. erector spinae plane blocks in the thoracic region: a cadaveric
J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2018;32:2271-2274. study. Anaesthesia. 2018;73:1244-1250.
Munshey F, Rodriguez S, Diaz E, Tsui B. Continuous erector spinae
plane block for an open pyeloplasty in an infant. J Clin Anesth.
2018;47:47-49.

38 Transversus Abdominis
Plane Blocks
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Fascial plane injections of the local anesthetic (LA) between the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles.
• Indications: Analgesia for the abdominal wall and the parietal peritoneum
• Goal: Spread of an LA in the plane to block the lateral and anterior branches of the spinal nerves T6-L1
• Local anesthetic volume: 10 to 20 mL per site, depending on the required block extension and the maximum
recommended dose
plane of interest for the TAP block is located between the

General Considerations transversus abdominis and the internal oblique muscles.
The ultrasound (US)-guided transversus abdominis plane The abdominal wall is innervated by the thoracoabdomi-
(TAP) block is a commonly used analgesic technique for sur- nal nerves (T6-T12) and the ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric
geries involving the abdominal wall, as part of a multimodal nerves (L1). After emerging from the paravertebral space,
postoperative pain treatment. Analgesia with a TAP block is the ventral rami of the intercostal nerves travel into the TAP
limited to the somatic component and highly dependent on plane between the transversus abdominis and the internal
the extent of interfascial spread. Several approaches along the oblique muscles. At the level of the midaxillary line, the ven-
fascial plane have been described to block specific areas of the tral rami give out the perforating lateral cutaneous branches,
abdominal wall. The efficacy of a TAP block has been docu- which innervate the lateral abdominal wall. Segmental nerves
mented in a variety of indications, such as cesarean delivery, from T6-T9 enter the TAP medial to the anterior axillary
hysterectomy, cholecystectomy, colectomy, prostatectomy, line, while the other nerves enter progressively more laterally.
and hernia repair. Intercostal nerves eventually enter the sheath of the rectus
abdominis muscle at its lateral margin (linea semilunaris).
Here, the intercostal nerves give out the perforating anterior
Limitations cutaneous branches that provide innervation of the antero-
Similar to other fascial plane infiltrations, the duration, medial abdominal wall (Figure 38-1). The transversalis fas-
extent, and quality of the analgesia show considerable vari- cia covers the internal surface of the transversus abdominis
ability, which depends on the amount of LA that effectively muscle and aponeurosis, separating them from the underly-
reaches the targeted nerves. ing preperitoneal fat and peritoneum.
Anatomy Cross-Sectional Anatomy and

Analgesic effects of the US-guided TAP block can be explained
Ultrasound View
by the organization of the thoracolumbar nerves along the The disposition and interrelation of the muscular layers of
musculofascial anatomy of the anterolateral abdominal wall. the abdominal wall vary depending on the level of the cross-
There are four paired muscles in the anterolateral abdominal section. (Figure 38-2).
wall: the rectus abdominis (superficial, parallel in the mid- When a linear transducer is positioned transversely over
line), the external oblique, internal oblique, and transversus the abdominal wall, the abdominal muscles are identified as
abdominis muscles (deep and most lateral). The myofascial long hypoechoic structures deep to the subcutaneous tissue.

FIGURE 38-1. Anatomy and innervation of the abdominal wall.
The external oblique is the most superficial, the internal covered. The posterior approach may block the T9-T12 der-
oblique is located in between, and the transversus abdominis matomes of the anterior and possibly the lateral abdominal
is the deepest. The fasciae enveloping each muscle are visual- wall between the costal margin and iliac crest. The ilioingui-
ized as hyperechoic layers that aid recognition of the myo- nal and iliohypogastric block will anesthetize the L1 derma-
fascial planes. Deep to the transversus abdominis muscle, tome (skin of the inguinal area).
the fascia transversalis and peritoneum appear also as hyper-
echoic lines, hardly differentiable from each other.
Block Preparation
Distribution of Analgesia Equipment
The distribution of somatic analgesia with a TAP block • Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer
depends on the injection site and the volume of LA used • Needle: 50- to 100-mm, 22- to 25-gauge needle
(Figure 38-3). A subcostal approach to the TAP block will
result in a cutaneous sensory block of the ipsilateral upper
quadrant of the anterior abdominal wall. When the injec-
Local Anesthetic
tion is medial to the linea semilunaris T6-T7 will be covered, Usually, a large volume of low-concentration LA is required
whereas a more lateral injection will cover T9-T10. Of note, for the effectiveness of the TAP block. A minimum volume
the skin lateral to the anterior axillary line will not be cov- of 15 mL is recommended for a single injection site
ered. However, a lateral approach to the TAP will block the (0.2-0.3 mL/kg). Always keep in mind the weight of the patient
skin covering the ipsilateral lower quadrant of the abdominal to ensure that the maximum safe dose is not exceeded. This
wall, T10-T12 dermatomes, while L1 will not be consistently is especially important when a bilateral or combined TAP

Transversus Abdominis Plane Blocks CHAPTER 38 369
FIGURE 38-2. Crossection of the popliteal fossa proximally to the femur condyles.
BF, biceps femoris muscle; CPN, common peroneal nerve; PA, popliteal artery; PV, popliteal
vein; SmM, semimembranosus muscle; TN, tibial nerve.

FIGURE 38-3. Analgesia distribution of a TAP block.
blocks are to be performed, or when a TAP block is combined muscles (injection site 2). Of note, when T6-T8 coverage is
with other interventional analgesia techniques. desired, the injection point should be between the rectus and
transverse abdominis muscles (Figure 38-5).
Patient Positioning
For the subcostal, lateral, and ilioinguinal-iliohypogastric
approaches, the patient is placed in a supine position. For the B. Ultrasound-Guided
posterior approach, a lateral or semilateral decubitus position Lateral TAP Block
is required.
Landmarks and Initial Probe Position
The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation over the
TECHNIQUES midaxillary line between the subcostal margin and the iliac
crest (Figure 38-6).
A. Ultrasound-Guided Scanning Technique

Subcostal TAP Block The three hypoechoic layers of the abdominal wall muscles are
Landmarks and Initial Probe Position visualized; from superficial to deep are the external oblique,
internal oblique, and the transversus abdominis muscles.
The transducer is placed in an oblique orientation, alongside
the lower margin of the rib cage, lateral to the xiphoid process Needle Approach and Trajectory
as medial and cranial as possible.
The needle is inserted in-plane at the anterior axillary line
and advanced in an anterior-to-posterior direction. The end-
Scanning Technique and Injection Sites point of injection is the fascial plane between the internal
The rectus abdominis muscle and its posterior sheath are oblique and transversus abdominis muscle approximately in
visualized superficial to the transversus abdominis muscle. the midaxillary line (Figure 38-7).
At this level, only the aponeurosis of the internal oblique
is visible between the transversus and the external oblique
muscles. Applying some pressure and tilting the transducer C. Ultrasound-Guided
may help to optimize the image for better identification of the Posterior TAP Block
myofascial planes (Figure 38-4).
An alternative approach is to inject the LA in the most poste-
rior end of the TAP, close to the quadratus lumborum.
The needle is inserted in-plane and advanced from medial
to lateral (alternatively, lateral to medial). The endpoint of
injection is the fascial plane between the rectus abdominis With the patient in a lateral decubitus position, the transducer
and the transversus abdominis muscle (injection site 1) or is placed in a transverse orientation over the midaxillary line
between the internal oblique and the transversus abdominis between the subcostal margin and the iliac crest (Figure 38-8).

FIGURE 38-4. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform a subcostal TAP block. RA, rectus abdominis; EO, external
oblique; IO, internal oblique; TA, transversus abdominis.
FIGURE 38-5. Subcostal TAP block; reverse ultrasound anatomy showing needle insertion in-plane. RA, rectus abdominis;
EO, external oblique; IO, internal oblique; TA, transversus abdominis.

FIGURE 38-6. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform a lateral TAP block. EO, external oblique; IO, internal
oblique; TA, transversus abdominis.
Scanning Technique Needle Approach and Trajectory

The abdominal wall muscles are identified and the transducer The needle is inserted in-plane in the midaxillary line, from
is moved posteriorly following the fascial plane between the anterior to posterior and advanced through the abdominal
internal oblique and transversus abdominis muscles until muscles until it reaches the end of the TAP, always superficial
their posterior insertion. The target is the most posterior end to the fascia transversalis (Figure 38-9).
of the TAP lateral to the quadratus lumborum muscle.
FIGURE 38-7. Lateral TAP block; reverse ultrasound anatomy showing needle insertion in-plane. EO, external oblique; IO,
internal oblique; TA, transversus abdominis.

FIGURE 38-8. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform a posterior TAP block. EO, external oblique; IO, internal
oblique; TA, transversus abdominis; QL, quadratus lumborum.
FIGURE 38-9. Posterior TAP block; reverse ultrasound anatomy showing needle insertion in-plane. EO, external oblique;
IO, internal oblique; TA, transversus abdominis; QL, quadratus lumborum.

D. Ultrasound-Guided Problem-Solving Tips

Ilioinguinal-Iliohypogastric Block • For precise identification of the muscular layers, trace
(Anterior TAP Block) them to the anterior or posterior insertion where they can
be better differentiated.
• As the direction of the muscular fibers differs between the
The transducer is placed in an oblique orientation with three layers, tilting the probe in both directions helps to
the lateral edge over the anterior superior iliac spine identify their limits.
(ASIS) and the medial edge pointing toward the umbilicus
• Ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric block: If only internal
(Figure 38-10).
oblique and transversus abdominis muscles are identi-
fied, the nerves may have already left TAP and be super-
Scanning Technique ficial to the internal oblique muscle after piercing it. The
transducer should be repositioned by scanning more cra-
Applying pressure while tilting the transducer caudally can nially and laterally until the three layers of muscles are
optimize visualization of the three muscle layers of the ante- visualized.
rior abdominal wall: external oblique, internal oblique, and
transversus abdominis. If only two muscular layers are seen, • Ilioinguinal-iliohypogastric block: Color Doppler may
the transducer should be moved further cephalad and later- help identify the circumflex iliac artery, helping confirm
ally until the three muscles are visualized. the proper injection plane.
• For success with a TAP block, choose the best fitting
approach by considering the distribution of segmental
Needle Approach and Trajectory nerves.
The needle is inserted in-plane, medial-to-lateral or lateral-to • An out-of-plane technique may be better in obese patients.
medial, and advanced until the needle tip is placed between Administer intermittent small boluses (0.5-1 mL) as the
the internal oblique and transversus abdominis muscle needle is advanced through the internal oblique muscle to
(Figure 38-11). confirm the position of the needle tip.

FIGURE 38-10. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform an anterior TAP block. EO, external oblique; IO, internal
oblique; TA, transversus abdominis; ASIS, anterior superior iliac spine.
FIGURE 38-11. Anterior TAP block; reverse ultrasound anatomy showing needle insertion in-plane. EO, external oblique;
IO, internal oblique; TA, transversus abdominis.

Flowchart
Transversus Abdominis Plane (Tap) Block
Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine or lateral decubitus
for the posterior approach
Initial settings
• Depth: 1-4 cm
Transducer position
Varies according to the TAP
approach
Subcostal approach Lateral approach Posterior approach Anterior approach

Oblique along the costal Transverse over the mid- Transverse over the Oblique medial to the
margin lateral to the axillary line, between the posterior axillary line. anterior superior iliac
xiphoid process. costal margin and GOAL: Identify the spine and oriented
GOAL: Identify the the iliac crest posterior end of the toward the umbilicus
fascial plane between GOAL: Identify the fascial TA muscle. GOAL: Identify the plane
RA and TA muscles. plane between the IO between the IO and
and TA muscles. TA muscles.
Under ultrasound the muscles of

the abdominal wall appear as
superposed layer of hypoechoic
structures with the hyperechoic
fascia layers in between.
• Apply pressure and tilt the

transducer, while dynamically
scanning to optimize No Fascial
visualization of the plane of interest
myofascial layers. identified?
• Adjust the depth of the
transducer if necessary.
Yes

of-plane toward the fascial plane
of interest. Inject 1-2 mL of local
anesthetic to confirm proper
needle position.
Adequate spread will result in

clear separation of the myofascial
planes.
Complete the block with 10-20 mL

of LA per site. Do not exceed the
maximum recommended dose in
bilateral or multiple injections.

SUGGESTED READINGS Mathew P, Aggarwal N, Kumari K, Gupta A, Panda N, Bagga R.

Quality of recovery and analgesia after total abdominal hyster-
Abdallah FW, Chan VW, Brull R. Transversus abdominis ectomy under general anesthesia: a randomized controlled trial
plane block: a systematic review. Reg Anesth Pain Med. of TAP block vs epidural analgesia vs parenteral medications.
2012;37:193-209. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2019;35:170-175.
Baeriswyl M, Kirkham KR, Kern C, Albrecht E. The analgesic effi- McCarthy RJ, Ivankovich KG, Ramirez EA, et al. Association of the
cacy of ultrasound-guided transversus abdominis plane block addition of a transversus abdominis plane block to an enhanced
in adult patients. Anesth Analg. 2015;121:1640-1654. recovery program with opioid consumption, postoperative
Børglum J, Gögenür I, Bendtsen TF. Abdominal wall blocks in antiemetic use, and discharge time in patients undergoing lapa-
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9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
39 Rectus Sheath Block
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Fascial plane injection of local anesthetic (LA) between the rectus abdominis muscle and its posterior sheath.
• Indications: Postoperative analgesia for midline abdominal incisions (e.g., umbilical hernia repair, periumbilical
surgeries)
• Goal: Spread of the LA along the fascial plane to block the anterior cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves
from the pubic symphysis and pubic crest and insert in the
General Considerations xiphoid process and costal cartilages of ribs 7 to 10. The rec-
The rectus sheath block provides somatic analgesia at the tus abdominis muscle is enclosed by the rectus sheath, which
abdominal midline, therefore it is indicated in abdominal is formed by the aponeurosis of the three laterally located
surgery involving a midline laparotomy. The block is com- muscles: the external oblique, internal oblique, and transver-
monly used in the pediatric population for umbilical hernia sus abdominis. The anterior layer of the rectus sheath is com-
repair. In adults, it is also used for single-incision cholecys- plete in its entirety, while the posterior layer is absent at the
tectomy and some gynecologic procedures. Ultrasound (US) lower quarter of the rectus abdominis muscle (Figure 39-1).
guidance allows for greater reliability in administering LA This is known as the arcuate line, which defines the point
in the correct plane, making this block more reproducible, where the posterior aponeurosis of the internal oblique and the
and decreasing the risk for potential for complications. Con- transversus abdominis muscles become part of the anterior
tinuous rectus sheath blocks have also been also described in rectus sheath, leaving only the transversalis fascia to cover the
patients after laparotomy. Among the reported advantages rectus abdominis muscle posteriorly. This arcuate line is found
are reduced opioid requirements, earlier mobilization, and one-third of the distance from the umbilicus to the pubic crest.
avoidance of complications related to neuraxial techniques. The abdominal wall is innervated by the thoracoabdomi-
nal nerves (T6-T12) and the ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric
Limitations nerves (L1). After giving off the perforating lateral cutane-
ous branches, the intercostal nerves continue to travel in
The duration, extent, and quality of analgesia with a rectus the plane between the transversus abdominis and internal
sheath block can vary. As with other fascial plane techniques, oblique muscles and eventually enter the sheath of the rectus
efficacy depends on the spread of the LA, and therefore, the abdominis at its lateral margin (linea semilunaris). Here, the
volume of LA that reaches the targeted nerves. Although nerves are located in the space between the rectus abdominis
ultrasound may reduce the risk of complications, peritoneal muscle and its posterior rectus sheath before giving out the
and bowel puncture can occur if the needle depth and path perforating anterior cutaneous branches that provide inner-
are not controlled. Puncture of the epigastric vessels that may vation of the anteromedial abdominal wall.
be in the path of the needle can lead to hematoma formation
in the rectus sheath.
Anatomy Ultrasound View
The rectus abdominis muscles are vertically paired, oval- A transverse section of the anterior abdominal wall shows the
shaped muscles on the anterior abdominal wall. They are con- rectus muscles as symmetric fusiform structures separated
nected together in the midline by the linea alba. They originate by the linea alba. The transversalis fascia and peritoneum

FIGURE 39-1. Anatomy and innervation of the abdominal wall.
separate the muscles from the abdominal cavity and its con- fascial planes in which they travel are readily identified, which
tent (Figure 39-2). is all that is necessary for the rectus sheath block. Addition-
US imaging reveals the rectus abdominis muscle as a ally, color Doppler can be used to identify the small epigastric
hypoechoic oval structure surrounded by its hyperechoic epi- arteries that travel in the same plane. Their identification can
mysium. If the transducer is placed transversely between the be used as additional confirmation of the correct fascial plane
costal margin and the arcuate line (i.e., cephalad to the umbi- for injection and to avoid their puncture during the procedure.
licus), the posterior rectus sheath is seen as a well-defined
hyperechoic fascial layer deep to the rectus abdominis
muscle. As previously described, caudal to the arcuate line,
the posterior rectus sheath is not present, and the posterior
aspect of the rectus abdominis muscle is only covered by the A bilateral rectus sheath block results in analgesia of the antero-
fascia transversalis and peritoneum. medial abdominal wall and periumbilical area (spinal derma-
The branches of the intercostal nerves that innervate the tomes 9, 10, and 11). The limited area of analgesia requires a
abdominal wall are difficult to visualize by US. However, the prudent and realistic selection of the indications (Figure 39-3).
FIGURE 39-2. Cross-section of the rectus abdominis muscle cephalad to the arcuate line showing the course
and distribution of the anterior cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves. EO, external oblique; IO, internal
oblique; TA, transversus abdominis; RA, rectus abdominis.

Rectus Sheath Block CHAPTER 39 381
FIGURE 39-3. Analgesia distribution of a rectus sheath block.
posterior rectus sheath, and the hypoechoic space between them.

Block Preparation Color Doppler can be used to identify the epigastric arter-
Equipment ies to aid in the correct fascial plane detection and avoid
their puncture.
• Transducer: Linear transducer
Alternatively, the transducer can be applied sagittally. The
• Needle: 50- to 100-mm, 22-gauge needle transducer is rotated 90° and positioned in the midpoint
between the xiphoid process and the umbilicus. A sagittal
transducer orientation results in a longitudinal view of the
Local Anesthetic rectus abdominis muscle covered by the hyperechoic poste-
In an adult patient, 10 mL of LA (e.g., 0.5-0.375% ropiva- rior rectus sheath underneath.
caine) per side is usually sufficient for a successful blockade.
In children, a volume of 0.1 mL/kg per side is adequate for Needle Approach and Trajectory
effective analgesia.
The needle is inserted in-plane in a medial-to-lateral (or lateral-
to-medial) direction through the subcutaneous tissue. The
Patient Positioning needle traverses the anterior rectus sheath body of the rec-
To perform a rectus sheath block, position the patient in supine. tus abdominis muscle until the tip reaches the space between
the epimysium of the muscle and the posterior rectus sheath
(Figure 39-5). An out-of-plane technique is also suitable and
often preferred in obese patients. After negative aspiration,
Technique 1 to 2 mL of LA is injected to verify needle tip location.
Landmarks, Initial Probe Position, and
Scanning Technique Local Anesthetic Distribution
The transducer is placed superior to the umbilicus, in a trans- An adequate spread will lift the epimysium of the rectus abdom-
verse orientation and slightly lateral to the midline (Figure 39-4). inis muscle while displacing the posterior fascia and the perito-
The first goal is to visualize the rectus abdominis muscle, its neun downward (Figure 39-5). The block is done bilaterally.

FIGURE 39-4. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform a rectus sheath block.
the 0.9% saline can be used for hydro dissection to decrease

Problem-Solving Tips the dose of the LA.
• When injection of the LA spreads within the rectus • An out-of-plane technique can also be used. Small boluses
abdominis muscle, the needle is further advanced and its of LA are injected as the needle is advanced toward the
position checked by injection of another 1 to 2 mL of LA posterior rectus sheath, confirming the correct position of
(hydro dissection). the needle tip.
• When a large volume of LA is planned (e.g., in combin-
ing bilateral TAP and rectus abdominis sheath blocks),
FIGURE 39-5. Rectus sheath block; reverse ultrasound anatomy showing needle insertion in-plane.

Rectus Sheath Block CHAPTER 39 383
Flowchart
Rectus Sheath Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Supine

• Linear transducer Transverse, superior to the
• Depth: 3-4 cm umbilicus, paramedial.
Goal #1:
Visualize the rectus abdominis
(RA) muscle and the posterior
rectus sheath.
• The RA appears as an oval

hypoechoic structure surrounded
by its hyperechoic sheath Scanning
(epimysium). Slide the transducer cranio-
• The posterior rectus sheath caudally between the xyphoid
appears as an additional process and umbilicus to settle on
hyperechoic fascial layer located the best image of the posterior
between the epimysium of the rectus sheath.
muscle and the parietal
peritoneum.
Goal #2:
Identify the fascial plane between
the RA muscle and the posterior
sheath.

of-plane through the RA to reach
the space between the muscle
and the posterior rectus sheath.
Adequate spread will lift the RA

muscle and push down the
posterior rectus sheath.

10 mL of local anesthetic per side.
The block is done bilaterally.

SUGGESTED READINGS Maloney C, Kallis M, El-Shafy IA, Lipskar AM, Hagen J, Kars M.
Ultrasound-guided bilateral rectus sheath block vs. conven-
Abrahams MS, Horn JL, Noles LM, Aziz MF. Evidence-based tional local analgesia in single port laparoscopic appendectomy
medicine: ultrasound guidance for truncal blocks. Reg Anesth for children with nonperforated appendicitis. J Pediatr Surg.
Pain Med. 2010;35:S36-S42. 2018;53:431-436.
Bakshi SG, Mapari A, Shylasree TS. Rectus sheath block for Murouchi T, Iwasaki S, Yamakage M. Chronological changes in ropi-
postoperative analgesia in gynecological oncology surgery vacaine concentration and analgesic effects between transversus
(RESONS): a randomized controlled trial. Can J Anesth. abdominis plane block and rectus sheath block. Reg Anesth Pain
2016;63:1335-1344. Med. 2015;40:568-571.
Castro-Alves LJ, Kendall MC. Confounding factors in the efficacy Phua DS, Phoo JW, Koay CK. The ultrasound-guided rectus sheath
of rectus sheath block? J Pediatr Surg. 2018;53:1637. block as an anaesthetic in adult paraumbilical hernia repair.
Chung W, Yoon Y, Kim JW, et al. Comparing two different tech- Anaesth Intensive Care. 2009;37:499-500.
niques of rectus sheath block after single port laparoscopic Rahiri J, Tuhoe J, Svirskis D, Lightfoot NJ, Lirk PB, Hill AG. System-
surgery in benign adnexal mass patients: surgical versus ultraso- atic review of the systemic concentrations of local anaesthetic
nography guidance—a randomized, single-blind, case-controlled after transversus abdominis plane block and rectus sheath block.
study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2017;217:29-33. Br J Anaesth. 2017;118:517-526.
Doctor JR, Solanki SL, Bakshi S. Knotty catheter!—An unusual Rucklidge M, Beattie E. Rectus sheath catheter analgesia for
complication of rectus sheath block. Indian J Anaesth. patients undergoing laparotomy. BJA Educ. 2018;18:166-172.
2019;63:947-948. Sandeman DJ, Dilley AV. Ultrasound-guided rectus sheath block
Dolan J, Lucie P, Geary T, Smith M, Kenny GN. The rectus sheath and catheter placement. ANZ J Surg. 2008;78:621-623.
block: accuracy of local anesthetic placement by trainee anes- Seidel R, Wree A, Schulze M. Does the approach influence the suc-
thesiologists using loss of resistance or ultrasound guidance. cess rate for ultrasound-guided rectus sheath blocks? An ana-
Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34:247-250. tomical case series. Local Reg Anesth. 2017;10:61-65.
Dolan J, Smith M. Visualization of bowel adherent to the perito- Shido A, Imamachi N, Doi K, Sakura S, Saito Y. Continuous local
neum before rectus sheath block: another indication for the anesthetic infusion through ultrasound-guided rectus sheath
use of ultrasound in regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. catheters. Can J Anaesth. 2010;57:1046-1047.
2009;34:280-281. Shuman LS, Cohen AJ, Mccalley MG, Welch CE, Malt RA.
Godden A, Marshall M, Grice A, Daniels I. Ultrasonography Ultrasound guided rectus sheath block—analgesia for
guided rectus sheath catheters versus epidural analgesia for abdominal surgery. N Engl J Med. 1983;309:498-499.
open colorectal cancer surgery in a single center. Ann R Coll Tanaka M, Azuma S, Hasegawa Y, et al. Case of inguinal hernia
Surg Engl. 2013;95:591-594. repair with transversus abdominis plane block and rectus
Hamilton DL, Manickam BP. Is a thoracic fascial plane block the sheath block [in Japanese]. Masui. 2009;58:1306-1309.
answer to upper abdominal wall analgesia? Reg Anesth Pain Urits I, Ostling PS, Novitch MB, et al. Truncal regional nerve blocks
Med. 2018;43:891-892. in clinical anesthesia practice. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol.
Hong S, Kim H, Park J. Analgesic effectiveness of rectus sheath 2019;33:559-571.
block during open gastrectomy: a prospective double- Vonu PM, Campbell P, Prince N, Mast BA. Analgesic efficacy of
blinded randomized controlled clinical trial. Medicine. nerve blocks after abdominoplasty: a systematic review. Aesthetic
2019;98:e15159. Surg J. 2020;40(11):1208-1215.
Husain NK, Ravalia A. Ultrasound-guided ilio-inguinal and rectus Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P, et al. Ultrasonography-
sheath nerve blocks. Anaesthesia. 2006;61:1126. guided rectus sheath block in paediatric anaesthesia—a new
Kato J, Ueda K, Kondo Y, et al. Does ultrasound-guided rectus approach to an old technique. Br J Anaesth. 2006;97:244-249.
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petic neuralgia? Anesth Analg. 2011;112(3):740-741. Cont Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2010;10:182-186.

40 Quadratus Lumborum Blocks
BLOCK AT A GLANCE
Comprises a group of interfascial plane injections of local anesthetic at different locations around the quadratus
lumborum muscle.
• Indications: Analgesia for the anterolateral abdominal wall and parietal peritoneum
• Goal: Local anesthetic spread either lateral (QL1), posterior (QL2), or anterior (QL3) to the quadratus lumborum
muscle to block the anterior rami of spinal nerves T10-L1 (and, eventually, the paravertebral sympathetic chain)
General Considerations Limitations

The ultrasound-guided quadratus lumborum (QL) block Similar to many interfascial plane blocks, the duration,
was developed from the transversus abdominis plane (TAP) extent, and quality of the analgesia between the different QL
block to achieve a more consistent and extended block of blocks vary. The block characteristics depend on the injec-
the anterior rami of spinal nerves supplying the abdominal tion site, anatomical characteristics of the fascial planes, the
wall. The various QL block techniques (i.e., QL1, QL2, QL3) volume of the LA injected, and whether the injectate reaches
aim to improve the analgesia after surgeries involving the the intended target nerves.
abdominal wall. Several technique variations have been
devised to enhance the spread of local anesthetic (LA) to
reach the thoracic paravertebral space, and eventually Anatomy
the sympathetic chain. Other variations aim to extend
the block to the lumbar plexus and provide analgesia to The QL muscle originates from the posterior part of the iliac
the lower extremity. New modifications continue to be crest and the iliolumbar ligament and inserts on the 12th
implemented: the transverse oblique paramedian (TOP) rib and the transverse processes of vertebrae L1-L4. The QL
and the supra-iliac anterior QL3, for instance, are thought muscle is located between the psoas muscle (anterior) and the
to result in a more cranial and caudal spread of the LA, erector spinae muscles (posterior). Both the QL and psoas
respectively. However, the available evidence so far is insuf- muscles pass posterior to the medial and lateral arcuate liga-
ficient to draw conclusions. ments of the diaphragm to insert in the transverse processes
Mechanisms of action of QL block variants are mainly (Figure 40-1). To understand the potential mechanisms of
related to the anatomical injection site but inconsistent. As action of the QL block, it is essential to understand the anat-
an example, the spread of the LA with an anterior QL block omy of the fasciae that surround the muscles at this level.
(QL3) may reach the paravertebral space, lumbar nerve The thoracolumbar fascia (TLF) is a complex arrange-
roots, and sympathetic chain, and result in weakness of ment of multilayered fascial planes and aponeurotic sheaths
the lower extremities, as has been reported. For safety and that form the retinaculum around the paraspinal muscles
efficacy of QL blocks, adequate ultrasound (US) images are of the lower back and sacral region. Anatomical variations
crucial, yet often challenging to obtain. Without adequate of TLF are common, but it is usually described as a fascial
images, the QL blocks are associated with variable success structure consisting of anterior, middle, and posterior lay-
rates and risks of iatrogenic injury to the kidney, liver, and/ ers. The posterior TLF layer surrounds the erector spinae
or spleen. muscles, the middle layer separates the QL from the erector

FIGURE 40-1. Anatomy of the quadratus lumborum.
spinae muscles, and the anterior layer covers the anterior The lateral raphe is a dense connective tissue layer formed
aspect of the QL muscle (Figure 40-2). Cranially, these fascia where the aponeurosis of the transversus abdominis and
layers follow the QL and psoas muscles through the arcu- internal oblique muscles join the fused posterior and middle
ate ligaments and the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm, and TLF at the lateral border of the erector spinae muscles. The
continue with the endothoracic fascia, providing a potential lumbar interfascial triangle (LIFT) is a fat-filled space along
pathway for the spread of injectate toward the thoracic para- the lateral border of the erector spinae muscles from the
vertebral space. 12th rib to the iliac crest.
FIGURE 40-2. Anatomy of the fasciae surrounding the quadratus

lumborum muscle showing the thoracolumbar fascia (TLF) and its
posterior, middle, and anterior layers.

Quadratus Lumborum Blocks CHAPTER 40 387
The transversalis fascia (TF) is the innermost layer of the and the QL muscle to enter the transversus abdominus plane.
parietal fascia of the abdomen. It is part of the endo-abdom- The lumbar plexus elements can be seen between the inter-
inal fascia investing the abdominal cavity and covering the vertebral foramen and the psoas muscle compartment.
deep surface of the transversus abdominis, QL, and psoas With the transducer placed over the flank of the patient,
major muscles. It communicates with the endothoracic fascia and oriented medially, the transverse process of the L4 ver-
posterior to the diaphragm with a possibility of LA spread tebra appears as a hyperechoic structure with an acoustic
into the thoracic paravertebral space, and it extends caudally shadow behind. The psoas major, QL, and erector spinae
as well, communicating with the fascia iliaca over the psoas muscles appear as hypoechoic structures, surrounded by
major and iliacus muscle, resulting in a potential spread of hyperechoic fasciae, located anterior, superficial, and poste-
LA to the branches of the lumbar plexus. rior to the transverse process respectively. This arrangement
of the muscles produces a sonographic pattern often referred
to as the “shamrock sign” (Figure 40-4). The tiny nerves can-
Cross-Sectional Anatomy and not be seen.
Ultrasound View
A cross-section at the level of the L3 vertebra shows a trans-
verse view of the paraspinal muscles and surrounding fascial
planes, along with the anterior branches of the spinal nerves The distribution patterns of somatic analgesia with QL blocks
(Figure 40-3). The subcostal (T12), iliohypogastric, and ilio- depend on the site of injection among other factors. The
inguinal (L1) nerves travel between the psoas major muscle extent of sensory blocks in Figure 40-5 are only orientative.
FIGURE 40-3. Cross-section anatomy of the quadratus lumborum (QL) muscle at the level of the
L3 vertebra. EO, external oblique muscle; IO, internal oblique muscle; TA, transversus abdominis
muscle; ESP, erector spinae muscles.

FIGURE 40-4. Sonoanatomy of the shamrock sign: psoas major (PMM) located anteriorly, quadratus lumborum (QL) located
superficial, and erector spinae muscles (ESP) located posterior to the transverse process. EO, external oblique muscle; IO, internal
oblique muscle; TA, transversus abdominis muscle.
LAs such as bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, or ropivacaine

Block Preparation should be used.
Equipment
• Transducer: High-frequency linear transducer for QL1, Patient Positioning
and low-frequency curved transducer for QL2 and QL3 For QL blocks the lateral decubitus or sitting positions may be
• Needle: 80- to 100-mm, 22- to 25-gauge needle used. The lateral decubitus position may allow for better ergo-
nomics and imaging of the relevant US structures and neuraxis
(Figure 40-6). The supine position is suitable only for lateral
Local Anesthetic QL blocks (QL1 and QL2), although visualization of the neur-
QL blocks typically require 15 to 30 mL of LA (0.2-0.4 mL/ axial and paravertebral structures will be impaired. For the TOP
kg). Low concentrations (i.e., 0.125-0.375%) of long-acting QL3, the patient should be in a lateral or sitting position.
FIGURE 40-5. Sensory distribution after the performance of different QL blocks.

Posterior Quadratus Lumborum

Block (QL2)
Initial Probe Position and Scanning Technique
The transducer is placed in transverse orientation at the
midaxillary line and slid posteriorly (similar to the QL1
block). The goal is to visualize the fascial plane between the
posterior aspect of the QL muscle and the middle layer of
the TLF (Figure 40-7).

The needle is inserted in-plane, from either the anterior or
posterior end of the transducer, toward the posterior aspect
FIGURE 40-6. Patient position to perform QL block. of the QL muscle and the middle layer of the TLF. The injec-
tion of 1 to 2 mL of LA should result in the pooling of LA
along the posterior aspect of the QL muscle, posterior to the
LIFT (Figure 40-8).
TECHNIQUES
For all QL block techniques, the external landmarks are Anterior or Transmuscular
the iliac crest, costal margin, and the posterior and midaxil- Quadratus Lumborum Block (QL3)
lary lines.
Initial Probe Position and
Scanning Technique
Lateral Quadratus The transducer is placed in a transverse orientation over
Lumborum Block (QL1) the patient’s flank just cranial to the iliac crest and tilted
caudally. The goal is to visualize the acoustic shadow of
Initial Probe Position and the L4 transverse process, the erector spinae muscles pos-
Scanning Technique teriorly, the QL muscle laterally, and psoas major muscle
anteriorly (i.e., the shamrock sign) (Figure 40-7).
With the linear transducer, the technique is similar to the
posterior TAP block (see Chapter 38 for TAP blocks). The
curvilinear transducer is placed in transverse orientation at
the midaxillary line, between the iliac crest and the costal The needle is inserted in-plane from the posterior side, and
margin. The goal is to visualize the abdominal wall muscles through the erector spinae and QL muscles until the tip
(Figure 40-7). reaches the plane between the QL and psoas muscle. The
The transducer is then slid posteriorly until the posterior injection of 1 to 2 mL of LA should spread along this fascial
aponeurosis of the transversus abdominus, internal oblique, plane (Figure 40-9).
and the QL muscles are identified. The target is just deep to
the TAP aponeurosis but superficial to the TF at the lateral Local Anesthetic Distribution
margin of the QL muscle. Applying some pressure and tilting
the transducer may improve imaging of the fascial planes. After confirmation of the correct needle tip position, the
block is completed with the injection of 20 mL of LA while
observing the spread along the corresponding fascial plane.
The needle is inserted in-plane, from either the anterior Variations of the Anterior QL3 Block
or the posterior end of the transducer, until the tip pierces Several variations of the QL3 block have been described:
the posterior aponeurosis of the TA muscle, lateral to the
QL muscle. The injection of 1 to 2 mL of LA should result • The transverse oblique paramedian (TOP QL) is similar to
in a visible spread along the lateral side of the QL muscle QL3 but performed at the level of L2.
between the TA aponeurosis and the transversalis fascia • The supra-iliac anterior QL block technique is performed at
(Figure 40-8). the level of the L5 transverse process.

FIGURE 40-7. Transducer position and sonoanatomy to perform either a QL2 or a QL3 block. EO, external oblique muscle;
IO, internal oblique muscle; TA, transversus abdominis muscle; QL, quadratus lumborum; PMM, psoas major muscle;
ESP, erector spinae muscles.
FIGURE 40-8. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a QL1 or a QL2 block with needle insertion in-plane. EO, external oblique muscle;
IO, internal oblique muscle; TA, transversus abdominis muscle; QL, quadratus lumborum; ESP, erector spinae muscles.

FIGURE 40-9. Reverse ultrasound anatomy of a QL3 block with needle insertion in-plane. EO, external oblique muscle;
IO, internal oblique muscle; TA, transversus abdominis muscle; QL, quadratus lumborum; ESP, erector spinae muscles.
and erector spinae muscles are superficial and more

Problem-Solving Tips hyperechoic.
• Close to the transverse process, the QL muscle is thin • If you cannot identify the QL muscle easily, try to abduct
and best imaged from the anteroposterior aspect. When and laterally flex the ipsilateral hip joint toward the same
imaged from the flank, the muscle appears broader. side of the block to contract the QL muscle.
• Color Doppler imaging is recommended before insertion • The kidneys, spleen, and liver are in the vicinity and
of the needle to rule out lumbar arteries on the posterior exposed to iatrogenic injury, particularly when US imag-
aspect of the QL muscle. ing is suboptimal. Therefore, the use of QL blocks should
• The QL muscle is generally hypoechoic and posterior to entail risk/benefit assessment.
the transversus abdominis muscle. The latissimus dorsi

Flowchart
Ultrasound-guided Quadratus Lumborum Block Technique Algorithm
Patient position
Sitting, or lateral decubitus
(preferred).
QL1 QL2 QL3
Transducer position Transducer position

Transverse, at the midaxillary Transverse on the patient’s
line, between the iliac crest flank just cephalad to the
and the costal margin. iliac crest.
Goal: Goal: Goal:

Visualize the abdominal wall Visualize the plane between Visualize the plane between
muscles. the posterior aspect of the the QL and psoas muscle.
QL muscle and the middle
layer of the TLF.
Insert the needle in-plane Insert the needle in-plane Insert the needle in-plane
through the abdominal until the tip reaches the through the QL muscle until it
muscles until the tip pierces posterior aspect of the QL reaches the plane between
the posterior aponeurosis muscle, posterior to the the psoas and QL
of the TA muscle, lateral to lumbar interfascial triangle muscle.
the QL muscle. (LIFT).
Inject 1-3 mL of LA to confirm

spread in the correct fascial
plane, and complete the
block with 15-20 mL.
SUGGESTED READINGS Børglum J, Moriggl B, Jensen K, et al. Ultrasound-guided trans-

muscular quadratus lumborum blockade. BJA Br J Anaesth.
Albrecht E, Chin KJ. Advances in regional anaesthesia and acute pain 2013;111.
management: a narrative review. Anaesthesia. 2020;75:e101-e110. Carney J, Finnerty O, Rauf J, et al. Studies on the spread of local
Arrivé L, Azizi L, Lewin M, et al. MR lymphography of abdomi- anaesthetic solution in transversus abdominis plane blocks.
nal and retroperitoneal lymphatic vessels. Am J Roentgenol. Anaesthesia. 2011;66:1023-1030.
2007;189:1051-1058. Dam M, Hansen CK, Børglum J, et al. A transverse oblique
Behr AU, Chan VWS, Stecco C. Living versus cadaver fascial plane approach to the transmuscular Quadratus Lumborum block.
injection. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;45:157-158. Anaesthesia. 2016;71:603-604.
Blanco R, Ansari T, Girgis E. Quadratus lumborum block for Dam M, Moriggl B, Hansen CK, et al. The pathway of injectate
postoperative pain after caesarean section: A randomised spread with the transmuscular quadratus lumborum block:
controlled trial. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015;32:812-818. A cadaver study. Anesth Analg. 2017;125:303-312.
Blanco R. Optimal point of injection: the quadratus lumborum type Elsharkawy H, Bajracharya GR, El-Boghdadly K, et al.
I and II blocks. Anesthesia. 2013;68. Comparing two posterior quadratus lumborum block
Blanco R. Tap block under ultrasound guidance: the description of a approaches with low thoracic erector spinae plane block: An
“no pops” technique. Reg Anesth Acute Pain Med. 2007;70:2004. anatomic study. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;44:549-555.
Børglum J, Christensen AF, Hoegberg LCG, et al. Bilateral-dual Elsharkawy H, El-Boghdadly K, Barrington M: Quadratus
transversus abdominis plane (BD-TAP) block or thoracic para- lumborum block: Anatomical concepts, mechanisms, and
vertebral block (TPVB)? Distribution patterns, dermatomal techniques. Anesthesiology. 2019;130:322-335.
anaesthesia and LA pharmacokinetics. Reg Anesth Pain Med. Elsharkawy H, Pawa A, Hons M, et al. Interfascial plane blocks:
2012;37:E1-311. Back to basics. Reg Anesth Acute Pain Med. 2018;43:341-346.

Elsharkawy H. Quadratus lumborum block with paramedian sagittal Schuenke MD, Vleeming A, Hoof T Van, Willard FH.
oblique (subcostal) approach. Anaesthesia. 2016;71:240-241. A description of the lumbar interfascial triangle and its
Hansen CK, Dam M, Steingrimsdottir GE, et al. Ultrasound-guided relation with the lateral raphe: Anatomical constituents of
transmuscular quadratus lumborum block for elective cesarean load transfer through the lateral margin of the thoracolumbar
section significantly reduces postoperative opioid consumption fascia. J Anat. 2012;221:568-576.
and prolongs time to first opioid request: a double-blind ran- Ueshima H, Hiroshi O. Incidence of lower-extremity muscle
domized trial. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019;44:896-900. weakness after quadratus lumborum block. J Clin Anesth.
Hebbard PD. Transversalis fascia plane block, a novel ultrasound- 2018;44:104.
guided abdominal wall nerve block. Can J Anesth. 2009;56: Wikner M. Unexpected motor weakness following quadratus
618-620. lumborum block for gynaecological laparoscopy. Anaesthesia.
Kumar A, Sadeghi N, Wahal C, et al. Quadratus lumborum spares 2017;72:230-232.
paravertebral space in fresh cadaver injection. Anesth Analg. Willard FH, Vleeming A, Schuenke MD, Danneels L, Schleip R.
2017;125:708-709. The thoracolumbar fascia: Anatomy, function and clinical
Ökmen K, MetinÖ kmen B, Topal S. Ultrasound-guided posterior considerations. J Anat. 2012;221:507-536.
quadratus lumborum block for postoperative pain after laparo-
scopic cholecystectomy: a randomized controlled double blind
study. J Clin Anesth. 2018;49:112-117.

9781260470055_PTCE_PASS3.indb 2
INDEX
Tables and figures are indicated by an italic t and f, respectively, following the page number.
A Axillary brachial plexus block Cervical plexus

Abdominal wall, 8–10, 10f, 368f, 380f advantages and disadvantages, 91t anatomy, 11, 11f, 132, 132f
Abdominal wall and thoracic blocks, analgesia distribution, 178, 179f cross-sectional anatomy, 131f
91, 94t–95t, 98t. See also anatomy, 177–178, 177f dermatome distribution, 133f
specific blocks cross-sectional anatomy, 178, 178f organization and distribution, 12t
Accessory obturator nerve, flowchart, 183f superficial branches, 12f, 133f
240, 240f general considerations, 177 Cervical plexus block
Acoustic enhancement, 71, 71f at a glance, 177 anesthesia and analgesia
Acoustic shadow, 71, 71f indications, 91t distribution, 135, 135f
Action potential, 33, 35f, 58, 59f preparation, 178–179, 179f flowchart, 138f
Adductor canal block, 92t, 255, 257f, problem-solving tips, 182 general considerations, 131–132
260f–263f. See also Saphenous technique, 179–181, 180f–183f at a glance, 131
nerve blocks ultrasound view, 178, 180f preparation, 135, 135f
Amide-linked local anesthetics, 36f, Axillary nerve, 15t, 186, 187f–188f, 188 problem-solving tips, 136
37, 40–41, 40t Axillary nerve block, 185, technique, 135–136, 136f–138f
Amino group, local anesthetic, 36 191–192, 192f ultrasound view, 134, 134f
Anatomical planes and Axon, 3, 3f, 33 Charge (Q), 58
directions, 3, 3f Axonotmesis, 117, 117f Checklists, 85–86
Anisotropy, 70–71, 71f 2-Chloroprocaine, 39, 40t, 43t
Ankle block B Chronaxie, 59
advantages and Brachial plexus Clonidine, 42
disadvantages, 93t anatomy, 13, 14t–16t, 144, 144f–145f Cocaine, 37, 39–40
anatomy, 313, 314f axillary, 177, 177f, 178f Connective tissue, 3–5
anesthesia and analgesia costoclavicular, 169, 170f Constant-current source, 57, 58f
distribution, 315, 315f cross-sectional anatomy, 145, 145f Continuous nerve catheters, 52–53, 53f
cross-sectional anatomy, dissection, 14f, 145f Continuous peripheral nerve
313–314, 314f interscalene, 144, 145f blocks (CPNBs)
flowchart, 320f organization, 13f, 144f benefits, 103
general considerations, 313 supraclavicular, 153–154, 154f–155f catheter insertion and management,
at a glance, 313 Brachial plexus block 102–103, 102f, 103t
indications, 93t axillary. See Axillary brachial contraindications, 102
preparation, 315, 315f plexus block history and background,
problem-solving tips, 320 costoclavicular. See Costoclavicular 101–102, 101f
techniques brachial plexus block indications, 102
deep peroneal nerve, 317, 317f infraclavicular. See Infraclavicular risks, 103, 104f
superficial peroneal nerve, brachial plexus block Costoclavicular brachial plexus block
317–318, 318f interscalene. See Interscalene advantages and disadvantages, 90t
sural nerve, 318–319, 319f brachial plexus block analgesia distribution, 170–171, 171f
tibial nerve, 315–317, 316f supraclavicular. See Supraclavicular anatomy, 169, 170f. See also
Ankle joint brachial plexus block Brachial plexus
cross-sectional anatomy, Bupivacaine, 40t, 41, 43t, 44 flowchart, 174f
313–314, 314f Buprenorphine, 41–42 general considerations, 169
innervation, 27, 29f, at a glance, 169
313–314, 314f C indications, 90t
movements, 25t Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, preparation, 171, 171f
Aromatic group, local anesthetic, LAST-specific, 110–112, 111f problem-solving tips, 173
36–37, 36f Carpometacarpal joint, 23t technique, 171–173, 172f–174f
Artifacts, ultrasound, 70–72, 71f–72f Central nervous system. See ultrasound view, 169, 170f,
Autonomic nervous system, 29, 30f Spinal nerves 172f, 173f
Hadzic_INDX_p395-400.indd 395 08/06/21 5:48 PM

396 Index
Coulomb’s law, 57 F G
Current (I), 57 Fascia iliaca block Genicular nerve block
Current density, 57 advantages and advantages and
Current-distance relationship, 60 disadvantages, 92t disadvantages, 93t
Current intensity, 58, 62 anatomy, 229–230, 230f analgesia distribution, 300
anesthesia and analgesia anatomy, 299–300, 300f
D distribution, 231, 232f general considerations,
Deep peroneal nerve, 313 cross-sectional anatomy, 230 299, 303f
Deep peroneal nerve block, 317, 317f. flowchart, 236f indications, 93t
See also Ankle block general considerations, 229 preparation, 300–301, 301f
Dendrite, 3, 3f at a glance, 229 technique, 301–302,
Depolarization, 33, 35f indications, 92t 302f, 303f
Dermatomes, 8, 9f infrainguinal approach, 231–233, ultrasound view, 300, 301f
Dexamethasone, 42–43 234f, 236f Genitofemoral nerve, 19t
Dexmedetomidine, 42 preparation, 231, 233f
Doppler imaging, 70, 70f problem-solving tips, 233 H
Dorsal scapular nerve, 14t suprainguinal approach, Heart failure, LAST risk in, 108
233, 235f, 236f Hip arthroplasty, 96f
E ultrasound view, 230, 231f Hip block
Elbow joint Femoral nerve advantages and
innervation, 26, 26f anatomy, 18f, 19t, 239, disadvantages, 92t
movements, 23t 240f, 241f analgesia distribution, 241
Elderly patients, LAST ultrasound view, 69f, anatomy, 239–240, 240f
risk in, 108 70f, 251f cross-sectional anatomy,
Electric field, 57 Femoral nerve block 240, 241f
Electrical resistance (R), 57 advantages and flowchart, 245f
Electromyography (EMG), disadvantages, 92t general considerations, 239
118–119 anatomy, 247, 248f at a glance, 239
Endoneurium, 4, 5f anesthesia and analgesia indications, 92t
Epinephrine distribution, 248, 249f preparation, 241–242, 242f
as additive to local anesthetics, cross-sectional anatomy, problem-solving tips, 244
41, 42f, 43t 247–248, 249f Hip joint
as marker for intravascular injection, flowchart, 253f innervation, 27, 27f,
41, 109, 110t, 113 general considerations, 247 239–240, 240f
Epineurium, 4 at a glance, 247 movements, 24t–25t
Erector spinae plane block indications, 92t Hydrophobicity, 36–37, 37f
advantages and preparation, 248, 250f
disadvantages, 94t problem-solving tips, 252 I
analgesia distribution, technique, 248, 250–252, I (current), 57
361, 361f 250f–252f, 253f Iliohypogastric nerve, 19t
anatomy, 359, 360f Femoral triangle block, 92t, 255, Ilioinguinal nerve, 19t
cross-sectional anatomy, 257f, 260f. See also Saphenous Impedance, 57
359–361, 360f nerve blocks Informed consent, 85
flowchart, 365f Forearm block Infraclavicular brachial
general considerations, 359 anatomy, 195–197, 196f plexus block
at a glance, 359 anesthesia and analgesia advantages and
indications, 94t distribution, 197, 198f, 201 disadvantages, 90t
preparation, 362, 362f cross-sectional anatomy, 161–162, 162f. See also
problem-solving tips, 363 anatomy, 197 Brachial plexus
technique, 362–363, flowchart, 202f anesthesia and analgesia
364f, 365f general considerations, 195 distribution, 162, 164, 164f
ultrasound view, 361, 361f preparation, 197–198, 198f cross-sectional anatomy,
Ester-linked local anesthetics, 36f, 37, technique, 199–202, 199f–201f 162, 163f
39–40, 40t ultrasound view, 197, flowchart, 167f
Etidocaine, 40t 199f–201f general considerations, 161

Index 397
Infraclavicular brachial iPACK block (Cont.) Local anesthetics (LAs)

plexus block (Cont.) cross-sectional anatomy, 306, 306f additives, 41–43, 42f
at a glance, 161 general considerations, 305 allergy to
indications, 90t at a glance, 305 management, 113–115, 115f
preparation, 163, 164f indications, 93t mechanisms, 112
problem-solving tips, 166 preparation, 306–307, 307f symptoms and diagnosis,
technique, 164–165, problem-solving tips, 309 112–113, 113t, 114f
165f–166f, 167f technique, 307, 308f–309f, amide-linked, 37, 40–41, 40t
Infrainguinal fascia iliaca block, 309, 310f ester-linked, 37, 40, 41t
231–233, 234f, 236f. See also extended-release
Fascia iliaca block K formulations, 44–45
Infusion pumps, 53 Knee arthroplasty, 97f hydrophobicity, diffusion, and
Injection pressure monitoring, 51–52, Knee joint binding, 36–37, 37f
52f, 78–81, 79f–81f innervation, 27, 28f, 299–300, maximum doses, 43, 43t
Intercostal nerve(s), 8, 325–326, 300f, 305–306, 306f mechanism of action, 34, 36f
326f–328f, 333–334, 335f movements, 25t mixtures of, 43–44
Intercostal nerve block nerve factors and, 37–39,
advantages and L 38f, 39t
disadvantages, 94t LAs. See Local anesthetics (LAs) pharmacological properties, 37
anatomy, 325, 326f–327f LAST. See Local anesthetic systemic selection for peripheral nerve
anesthesia and analgesia toxicity (LAST) blocks, 43, 43f. See also
distribution, 326 Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve, specific blocks
cross-sectional anatomy, 326, 328f 19t, 266f site of injection, 37
flowchart, 330f Lateral femoral cutaneous structure-related clinical
general considerations, 325 nerve block properties, 34–37, 36f–37f
at a glance, 325 anatomy, 265, 266f Long thoracic nerve, 14t, 334, 336f
indications, 94t anesthesia and analgesia Lower extremity blocks, 89,
preparation, 326–327, 328f distribution, 265, 268 90, 92t–95t, 98t. See also
problem-solving tips, 330 cross-sectional anatomy, specific blocks
technique, 328–329, 265, 267f Lumbar plexus
329f, 330f flowchart, 268f anatomy, 17, 17f, 18f,
Intercostobrachial nerve, 334 general considerations, 265 217, 219f
Interfascicular epineurium, 4 at a glance, 265 organization, 218f
Interphalangeal joint, 24t preparation, 265, 267f Lumbar plexus block
Interscalene brachial technique, 267, 268f advantages and
plexus block ultrasound view, 266f disadvantages, 92t
advantages and Lateral pectoral nerve, 15t, anesthesia and analgesia
disadvantages, 90t 186, 186f, 333, 334f distribution, 219, 221f, 223
anatomy. See Brachial plexus Lateral raphe, 386 cross-sectional anatomy,
anesthesia and analgesia Levobupivacaine, 41, 43t 218, 220f
distribution, 145–146, 146f Lidocaine, 40, 40t, 43t flowchart, 226f
flowchart, 150f LIFT (lumbar interfascial triangle), 386 general considerations, 217
general considerations, 143, 143f Linking group, local at a glance, 217
at a glance, 143 anesthetic, 37 indications, 92t
indications, 90t Lipid emulsion therapy, preparation, 219, 222, 222f
local anesthetic distribution, for LAST, 110, 111f, 112 problem-solving tips, 225
147, 148f Liposome bupivacaine, 44 technique, 222–223,
preperation, 146, 146f Liver disease, LAST risk in, 108 222f–225f, 226f
problem-solving tips, 149, 149f Local anesthetic systemic ultrasound view, 218–219,
technique, 147, 147f–148f toxicity (LAST) 220f–221f
ultrasound view, 68f, causes, 107
147f–148f diagnosis, 109 M
iPACK block management, 110–112, 111f Medial antebrachial cutaneous
advantages and disadvantages, 93t prevention, 109, 110t nerve, 16t
analgesia distribution, 306 risk factors, 107–109 Medial brachial cutaneous nerve, 16t
anatomy, 305–306, 306f symptoms and diagnosis, 109 Medial pectoral nerve, 16t, 333, 334f

398 Index
Median nerve Obturator nerve block (Cont.) Peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs).
anatomy, 16t preparation, 272, 274, 275f See also specific blocks (Cont.)
distribution, 195–196, 196f problem-solving tips, 275 emergency drugs, 49t
at mid-forearm, 205–206, 206f, 207f technique, 274–275, 276f–277f, 278f equipment cart, 47, 47f, 47t
ultrasound view, 197, 200f, 208, 209f ultrasound view, 272, 273f indications, 98t
Median nerve block Ohm’s law, 57, 58f infection prevention, 51, 51f
for forearm block, 91t, Opioids, 41–42 local anesthetic, 43, 43t
200f, 202f Osteotomes, 8, 9f monitoring, 47, 75, 75f
for wrist block, 91t, 208, epinephrine for, 75–76
209f, 213f P injection pressure, 51–52, 52f,
Mepivacaine, 40, 40t, 43t Paravertebral block 78–81, 79f–81f
Metacarpophalangeal joint, 24t advantages and disadvantages, 94t nerve stimulation for, 77–78, 78t
Mirror image artifact, 72, 72f anatomy, 349, 350f ultrasound for, 76–77, 76f
Musculocutaneous nerve, 15t, anesthesia and analgesia needle insertion techniques, 73, 73f
186, 186f distribution, 351, 351f needle tracking technology, 74
Myelin, 33 cross-sectional anatomy, 349–350, 350f needles for, 48–50, 49f, 50t
Myotomes, 8, 9f flowchart, 356f neurologic complications
general considerations, 349 classification, 117, 117f
N at a glance, 349 management, 118–120, 119f
Na+/K+ pump, 33, 34f, 35f indications, 94t mechanisms, 118, 118t
Needles preparation, 351–352, 352f prevention, 120–121, 120f
for peripheral nerve blocks, 48–50, problem-solving tips, 355 risk factors, 118, 118t
49f, 50t techniques perioperative management
for peripheral nerve stimulation, local anesthetic distribution, 355 protocols, 95, 96f–97f
60, 62f, 63f sagittal, 353, 354f–355f, 356f room setup, 47, 47f
Nerve conduction, 33, 34f transverse oblique, 352–353, trays, 47, 49f
Nerve conduction tests, 119 352f–353f, 356f upper extremity, 89, 90t–91t
Nerve fibers Pectoral nerves block ultrasound machine settings, 67–70,
anatomical distribution, 37–38, 38f advantages and disadvantages, 94t 67f–70f, 69t
classification, 39t analgesia distribution, 334, 336f Peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS)
differential sensitivity to local anatomy, 333–334, 334f–336f basics, 57–58
anesthetics, 38–39, 39t cross-sectional anatomy, 334 electrode localization, 62
structure, 57–58, 58f flowchart, 338f interference with pacemakers and
Nerve injury, 117, 117f general considerations, 333 defibrillators, 60
Nerve plexuses, 10–11. See also at a glance, 333 limitations, 60
specific plexuses indications, 94t as localization tool without
Nerve stimulators, 53–54 preparation, 334–335, 336f ultrasound guidance, 62–64, 63f
Neuron, 3, 34f problem-solving tips, 338 for needle-nerve monitoring,
Neuropathy, postoperative. See technique, 335, 336f–338f 78–79, 78t
Peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs), Perineural catheters, 102–103, 102f. needles for, 60, 62f
neurologic complications See also Continuous peripheral principles, 58–60
Neuropraxia, 117, 117f nerve blocks (CPNBs) settings, 62
Neurotmesis, 117, 117f Perineurium, 4, 5f setup, 61–62
Newborns, LAST risk in, 107–108 Peripheral nerve(s), 3–5, 5f, 6f, temperature effects, 65
37–38, 38f troubleshooting, 64, 64t
O Peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs). with ultrasound-guided nerve
Obturator nerve, 19t, 240, 240f, See also specific blocks blocks, 60, 61f
272f, 273f catheter visualization, 73–74, 74f Peritoneum, 10
Obturator nerve block continuous. See Continuous Phrenic nerve, 186
anatomy, 271–272, 272f peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) Phrenic nerve sparing blocks.
anesthesia and analgesia contraindications, 89, 89t See Axillary nerve block;
distribution, 272, 274f, 275 documentation Infraclavicular brachial plexus
cross-sectional anatomy, 272, 273f block procedure notes, 81–85, block; Suprascapular nerve block
flowchart, 278f 82f–85f, 84t Popliteal sciatic nerve block
general considerations, 271 checklists, 85–86, 86f advantages and disadvantages, 93t
at a glance, 271 informed consent, 85 anatomy, 291, 292f, 293f

Index 399
Popliteal sciatic nerve block (Cont.) Radial nerve (Cont.) Sciatic nerve block
anesthesia and analgesia at mid-forearm, 205–206, 206f popliteal. See Popliteal sciatic
distribution, 292, 294f ultrasound view, 67f, 197, 199f nerve block
continuous, 294, 296 Radial nerve block proximal. See Proximal sciatic
cross-sectional anatomy, 291, 293f for forearm block, 91t, 199, 199f, 202f nerve block
flowchart, 297f for wrist block, 91t, 208, 211f, 213f Seddon classification, nerve injury,
preparation, 292, 294f Radioulnar joint, 23t 117, 117f
general considerations, 291 Rectus sheath block Serratus plane block
at a glance, 291 advantages and disadvantages, 95t advantages and disadvantages, 94t
indications, 93t analgesia distribution, 380, 381f analgesia distribution, 343, 343f
technique, 292–293, 295f–296f, 297f anatomy, 379, 380f anatomy, 341–343, 342f
ultrasound view, 291, 293f cross-sectional anatomy, 379–380, 380f cross-sectional anatomy, 343
Pregnancy, LAST risk in, 109 flowchart, 383f flowchart, 346f
Prilocaine, 40t, 41, 43t general considerations, 379 general considerations, 341
Procaine, 40, 40t at a glance, 379 at a glance, 341
Propagation velocity error, 72, 72f indications, 95t indications, 94t
Proximal sciatic nerve block preparation, 381 preparation, 343, 343f
advantages and disadvantages, 93t problem-solving tips, 382 problem-solving tips, 344
anatomy, 281, 282f technique, 381, 382f, 383f technique, 344, 345f, 346f
anesthesia and analgesia ultrasound view, 380 “Shamrock sign,” 387, 388f
distribution, 282, 284f Regional anesthesia Shoulder block
cross-sectional anatomy, block procedure, 124, 124f advantages and disadvantages, 90t
281–282, 283f equipment and personnel anatomy, 185–186, 186f–187f
flowchart, 288f preparation, 123, 124f anesthesia and analgesia
general considerations, 281 intraoperative management, distribution, 188–189
at a glance, 281 124–126, 125f, 126f–127f cross-sectional anatomy, 187,
indications, 93t patient preparation, 123 187f–188f
preparation, 284, 285f postoperative management, 126 flowchart, 193f
problem-solving tips, 285 preanesthetic evaluation and general considerations, 185
technique, 285, 286f–287f information, 123 at a glance, 185
ultrasound view, 281–282, 283f Renal disease, LAST risk in, 108 indications, 90t
Pudendal nerve, 22t Resting membrane potential, 33, 34f preparation, 189, 189f
Pulse duration, 58, 62 Reverberation, 72, 72f problem-solving tips, 192–193
Rheobase, 59 techniques
Q Ropivacaine, 40t, 41, 43t axillary nerve block,
Q (charge), 58 191–192, 192f
Quadratus lumborum (QL) blocks S suprascapular nerve block,
advantages and disadvantages, 95t Sacral plexus, 19, 20f, 21t–22t 189–190, 190f–191f
analgesia distribution, 387, 388f Saphenous nerve, 256, 256f, ultrasound view, 187–188,
anatomy, 385–387, 386f 313, 313f 187f–188f
cross-sectional anatomy, 387, 387f Saphenous nerve blocks Shoulder joint
flowchart, 392f anatomy, 256, 256f–257f innervation, 26, 26f, 143f, 185–186,
general considerations, 385 anesthesia and analgesia 186f–188f
at a glance, 385 distribution, 256, 258f movements, 23t
indications, 95t cross-sectional anatomy, 256, 257f Spinal nerves
preparation, 388, 389f general considerations, 255 anatomy, 7f
problem-solving tips, 391 at a glance, 255 autonomic component, 29, 30f
technique, 389, 390f–391f preparation, 256, 258, 259f classification, 7–8, 8f
ultrasound view, 387, 388f problem-solving tips, 262 origin, 6–7, 6f
subsartorial, 255 Stimulus, 59f
R technique, 258–259, 260f–263f Stimulus frequency, 62
R (electrical resistance), 57 Sciatic nerve Subclavius, nerves to, 14t
Radial nerve anatomy, 21f, 22t Subsartorial blocks, 255, 258f. See also
anatomy, 15t in popliteal fossa, 291, 292f Saphenous nerve blocks
distribution, 195, 199f in posterior thigh, 281, 282f Subscapular nerve, 15t, 186, 186f
in the hand, 206, 206f ultrasound view, 68f, 283f, 293f Superficial peroneal nerve, 313

400 Index
Superficial peroneal nerve block, Thoracolumbar fascia (TLF), 385–386 Ultrasound (US) (Cont.)
317–318, 318f. See also Threshold level, 58–59, 59f compound imaging, 67, 67f
Ankle block Tibial nerve, 313 conventional imaging, 67, 67f
Supraclavicular brachial plexus block Tibial nerve block, 315–317, 316f. machines, 50–51, 51f
advantages and disadvantages, 90t See also Ankle block settings
anatomy, 153–154, 154f. See also Time-out, 85–86, 86f depth of imaging, 68, 69t
Brachial plexus Tissue harmonic imaging (THI), 67 Doppler, 70, 70f
anesthesia and analgesia Transducer frequency, 67–68, 68f focus, 69, 69f
distribution, 155, 155f Transversalis fascia (TF), 387 gain, 69–70, 70f
flowchart, 158f Transversus abdominis transducer frequency, 67–68, 68f
general considerations, 153 plane (TAP) blocks tissue harmonic imaging, 67
at a glance, 153 advantages and disadvantages, 94t Upper extremity blocks, 89, 90t–91t,
indications, 90t analgesia distribution, 368, 370f 98t. See also specific blocks
preparation, 155, 155f anatomy, 367, 368f
problem-solving tips, 156 cross-sectional anatomy, V
technique, 156, 157f 367–368, 369f Vasoconstrictors, 41, 42f
ultrasound view, 154, 154f, 157f flowchart, 376f Voltage (U), 57
Suprainguinal fascia iliaca block, general considerations, 367
233, 235f, 236f. See also at a glance, 367 W
Fascia iliaca block indications, 94t Wrist block
Suprascapular nerve, 15t, 185–187, preparation, 368, 370 anatomy, 205–206, 206f–207f
186f–188f problem-solving tips, 374 anesthesia and analgesia
Suprascapular nerve block, 185, technique, 370–374, 371f–375f distribution, 206, 207f
189–190, 190f–191f, 192 cross-sectional anatomy,
Sural nerve, 313 U 206, 207f
Sural nerve block, 318–319, 319f. Ulnar nerve flowchart, 213f
See also Ankle block anatomy, 16t general considerations, 205
distribution, 196, 197f at a glance, 205
T at mid-forearm, 205, 206f, 207f preparation, 208, 208f
TAP blocks. See Transversus ultrasound view, 68f, 197, 201f, problem-solving tips, 212
abdominis plane (TAP) blocks 208, 210f techniques
Tetracaine, 40, 40t Ulnar nerve block median nerve, 91t,
Thoracic and abdominal wall for forearm block, 91t, 208, 209f
blocks, 91, 94t–95t, 98t. 201, 201f superficial branch of the radial
See also specific blocks for wrist block, 91t, 208, nerve, 208, 211f
Thoracic paravertebral block. 210f, 213f ulnar nerve, 91t, 208, 210f
See Paravertebral block Ultrasound (US) Wrist joint
Thoracic wall, 8 artifacts, 70–72, 71f–72f innervation, 28f, 205–206, 206f
Thoracodorsal nerve, 15t for catheter visualization, 73–74, 74f movements, 23t

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NEW YORK SCHOOL OF REGIONAL ANESTHESIA

Hadzic’s Peripheral Nerve

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Hadzic’s Peripheral Nerve

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City

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eBook conversion by codeMantra

We dedicate this book to Jerry Vloka, MD, PhD

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Contributors ix 15. Infraclavicular Brachial Plexus Block 161

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David Alvarez, MD Javier Domenech de la Lastra, MD, DESA

Angela Lucia Balocco, MD Robin De Meirsman, MD

Jonas Bruggen, MD Dimitri Dylst, MD

Robbert Buck, MD Christopher J. Edwards, MD

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Admir Hadzic, MD, PhD Leen Janssen, MD

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Leander Mancel, MD Filiep Soetens, MD

Berend Marcus, MD Sam Van Boxstael, MD

Evi Mellebeek, MD Imré Van Herreweghe, MD

Felipe Muñoz-Leyva, MD Astrid Van Lantschoot, MD

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Rob Vervoort, MD Daquan Xu

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Chapter 1 Functional Regional Anesthesia Anatomy 3

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FIGURE 1-1. Conventional body planes and directions. Red,

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FIGURE 1-2. Composition of the neuron.

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FIGURE 1-3. Organization of the peripheral nerve.

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FIGURE 1-4. Diagram of fascicular arrangement in a peripheral nerve.

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FIGURE 1-6. Anatomy of a typical spinal intercostal nerve.

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Thoracic and Abdominal Wall

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Dorsal ramus (posterior)

FIGURE 1-9. Course and distribution of an intercostal nerve.

Nerve Supply to the Peritoneum Nerve Plexuses

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FIGURE 1-11. Dissection of the superficial branches of the cervical plexus.

TABLE 1-1 Organization and Distribution of the Cervical Plexus

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TABLE 1-2 Anatomy of the Brachial Plexus C5-T1

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TABLE 1-2 Anatomy of the Brachial Plexus C5-T1 (Continued)

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TABLE 1-2 Anatomy of the Brachial Plexus C5-T1 (Continued)

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