MACHINE DYNAMICS 231

Lecture 5

Free Body Diagrams &

Newton’s Second Law
Work, Energy & Power

By

Brad Saracik
Lecturer
&
Dr Ian Howard
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Curtin University of Technology
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 2

The Cause of Motion: Newton’s 2nd Law

In this topic, we study the underlying causes of motion. For a

change in curvilinear motion (acceleration) to occur, an unbalanced
force must act on a body. The study of the relationship between
forces and motion is called kinetics and relies heavily on Newton’s
2nd Law. We consider how to relate the applied force to the
properties of a body and determine the resulting acceleration. Using
the kinematics studied in other topics, you can then determine the
resulting motion. Initially we focus on understanding and applying
Newton’s 2nd Law to curvilinear motion (translation).

Outcomes: After understanding this reading, completing the

exercises and practicing problems of these types, the reader should
be able to:
1. State Newton’s 2nd Law conceptually and in equation form
2. Define inertia and mass and explain their importance as a
constant property of particles and bodies.
3. Describe the vector ‘Force’ and define and explain types of
forces commonly found in machine dynamics problems
4. Understand the crucial role of Free Body Diagrams (FBDs) in
capturing external forces on a body and draw accurate FBDs
5. Resolve forces in FBDs and accurately apply Newton’s 2nd
Law to determine the resulting acceleration in multiple axes.
6. Given a resultant acceleration, apply Newton’s 2nd Law to
determine the required Force and obtain this resultant using
FBDs.

Reading & Problem Sets:

Meriam: 3.1-3.5, 6.3 pp114-153, pp418-429
Hibbeler:13.1-13.6, 17.3 pp97-145, 394-406
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 3

Newton’s Laws
Recall Newton’s three laws of mechanics which he defined as:
1. Inertia: Unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, an object
will maintain a constant velocity.
2. The acceleration of a particle is directly proportional to the
combined force acting on it and in the same direction.
3. The mutual forces acting upon each other are equal, opposite
and collinear.

All three laws have uses in mechanical engineering, however the

2nd law produces probably the most used equations in dynamics.

We must be careful not to oversimplify Newton’s 2nd law and also

realise it has limitations. All of Newton’s laws are based on an
inertial frame of reference. In other words, Newton’s 2nd law applies
to absolute forces and accelerations; vectors defined relative to a
fixed (inertial) reference. Einstein threw a spanner in the works with
his theory of relativity. Luckily for us, most dynamics problems can
be posed in terms of an inertial frame of reference and effects that
occur at speeds approaching the speed of light are insignificant.
However, remember this limitation if you ever work for NASA or are
involved in high energy physics research. Within the mining
industry, through to Formula 1, we can use Newton’s laws as
stated.

The key concepts arising from each of the three laws are underlined
in the following clarifying definitions:
1. Every body has a tendency to maintain its state of motion
(velocity) unless acted on by an unbalanced force
2. A body accelerates linearly depending on the magnitude of the
unbalanced force acting on it in that direction
3. For every force that exists another equal, opposite force with
the same line of action, affecting (acting on) another body
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 4

The Concepts of Inertia and Mass

Inertia technically refers to the concept that all bodies have a
tendency to maintain equilibrium (zero acceleration) as given by
Newton’s 1st Law. By this definition, inertia should not be quantified.

Newton’s 2nd Law, as defined previously, can be written in equation

form as ΣF ∝ a, thus ΣF = Ca , where
• Σ is pronounced ‘sigma’ meaning ‘the sum of’
• ΣF is the vector sum of all forces (resultant) acting on a body
• a is the resulting acceleration vector of the body
• C is a scalar constant, relating to the body

The constant C can be experimentally determined for any body and

is defined as the inertial mass of the body (m). In other words, an
object with a larger mass has more resistance to a change in
velocity than an object of lesser mass. Common usage often states
this as having more inertia.

Thus ΣF = ma, (Eq. 1)

where the SI units for mass (m) are kilograms [kg].
(Sidenote: physics students may have come across gravitational
mass. Galileo showed that the two are mathematically equivalent).

Newton’s 2nd law was defined for a particle (i.e. the mass occurs at
one point in space) and applies to translation (or rectilinear motion).
For real bodies, the 2nd law is valid when applied at the centre of
mass of the body. Taking into account all forces on the body, the
linear acceleration (translation) of the centre of mass is calculated.

We will extend Newton’s second law to deal with points other than
the centre of mass on rotating bodies later.
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 5

The Concept of Force

Newton’s 2nd Law defines force as an influence or effect which
causes a body to accelerate. It is a vector quantity in an inertial
reference system, having magnitude and direction and is measured
in Newtons (N) equivalent to [kg.ms2].

Common Forces
Various forces are present in dynamic systems and mechanical
engineering students need to be familiar with them and their
associated terminology. Newton’s 3rd Law indicates that all of these
forces occur in pairs (on separate bodies). For example:

Force due to Gravity: Two bodies produce a force of attraction

depending on their mass and distance of separation, F=G.m1m2 / r2.
Most commonly in Machine Dynamics problems, we refer to the
force due to the gravity of the Earth (weight force), F=mg, where g
is roughly constant 9.81m/s2; combining G, m2 (Earth) and r (Earth)

Reaction (or Normal) Force: When a body is supported by another

object, the force that prevents movement is called the reaction
force. The reaction force is normal (perpendicular) to the contact
surface. Its magnitude varies to balance the sum of forces in this
direction i.e. a⊥=0→ΣF⊥=0. In dynamics, normal forces affect
motion via changing the available surface friction.

Tension and Compression Forces: These forces act to lengthen

or shorten an object respectively. When two ends of a body (or
section of a body) are pulled apart, a body resisting this force
exhibits tension. When two ends of a body (or section of a body)
are pushed together, a body resisting this force exhibits
compression. Note how a length of string does not allow
compression in the way a piece of steel does.
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 6

Spring Force: Elastic materials deform under applied tension or

compression and return to their natural shape when the load is
removed. The force back towards the natural shape is a spring
force. For a linear spring (or its approximation), ΔF= -kΔx

Friction Force: Frictional forces resist motion. For a moving object,

friction forces act in the direction opposite to the velocity. If an
object is stationary (velocity = 0), friction resists the forces which
would otherwise cause motion.
Coulomb Friction is often approximated using the equation
F ≤ μN, where N is a normal or reaction force, and μ is a
dimensionless friction coefficient. The static friction coefficient
μs yields maximum possible grip, actual friction may be less. μs
is often greater than the kinetic or sliding friction coefficient μk.
Drag is the force the resists motion through a fluid (including
air). The force is often approximated using F=½ρv2 ACd, where
ρ is the fluid density, v the velocity of the body relative to the
fluid, A the cross-sectional area and Cd a dimensionless drag
coefficient for this cross-section.
Viscous Friction is a linear approximation, F=-cv where v is
the velocity difference between the surfaces.

Electromagnetic Force: Unlikely to be used directly in machine

dynamics problems, this fundamental force has a number of
important applications: F=k.q1q2 / r2

Pressure Force: Your car engine is driven by forces produced by

the explosive pressure created by burning fuel within the cylinder.
The pressure that builds up creates a force on the piston
F=PavA= ∫PdA, where P is the pressure (in Pascals, or kgm-1s-2) and
A the surface area of the piston (m2)

Conservative forces include gravitational, electromagnetic and

spring forces. Non-conservative forces include friction and drag
(they produce heat, so energy is “lost”).
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 7

Resultant and Component Forces

The force term in Newton’s 2nd Law is the combined or resultant
force acting on a body. It is the total combination (sum) of all forces
on an object that causes the acceleration. To distinguish individual
forces (such as those in the previous section) from the combination
of all forces, the sigma symbol should ALWAYS be used as in Eq 1:
ΣF=ma. Writing only F=ma often leads to errors.

Forces internal to a body, do not act on that body. Therefore, they

must not be included in this sum of forces.

Realise that Force and acceleration are vector quantities, so

resolving into components:
ΣFx=max , ΣFy=may and ΣFz=maz.
ΣFr=mar and ΣFθ=maθ.

As in kinematics, x,y and z components are independent, thus

Newton’s 2nd law provides an equation in each dimension present.

Free Body Diagrams

A Free Body Diagram (FBD) isolates a body of interest from its
surroundings and shows ALL external forces present on that body.
Only when all external forces are correctly accounted for can the
equation of motion ΣF=ma produce a correct result; even if a=0.

The most important step in many Engineering Mechanics problems

is getting the Free Body Diagram right and matching the resulting
equations. This skill is essential to this unit and the rest of your
mechanical / mechatronic engineering course and career.

Free Body Diagrams are also crucial to other areas of mechanical

engineering. Statics, dynamics and solid mechanics all relate forces
acting on a body to the requirements for design of mechanical
systems. Problems in vibration and control require accurate FBDs
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 8

Rules for Drawing FBDs

1. Every time you use Newton’s 2nd Law for an object (static
and/or dynamic), a free body diagram must be drawn including
ONLY that object (i.e. not showing surrounding objects)
2. The object must be identifiable. Draw approximately to scale if
possible and label the figure. eg Fig 1: FBD of pulley
3. Draw and label vectors for ALL Forces acting on the free body
(i.e. external forces). Each vector must show where it is
considered to act (i.e. the arrow points to / from this point). Do
not draw any vector on the body that is not an external force.
Do not draw any forces acting on other bodies
4. If labelling coordinate axes and/or, velocity or accelerations
vectors, do so adjacent (separate) to the FBD. The directions
of the coordinate axes define positive and negative directions
to be used consistently throughout any calculations.
5. If stating magnitudes on the FBD, include the units used.
Always be consistent (eg. don’t mix N and kN).

Suggestions for Dynamics Problems involving FBDs

1. A separate sketch of multi-body systems is often useful before
drawing FBDs. Show all dimensions and angles needed in the
calculations on either the FBDs or this diagram.
2. More than one FBD may be required to solve a given dynamic
system. i.e. draw a separate Free Body Diagram for each
separate body whose (interrelated) motion is required.
3. Take special care if forces can change direction, depending on
system behaviour. For example kinetic friction forces change
direction depending on the current velocity direction, while
static friction resists the combined force which would otherwise
cause motion. Check if acceleration is positive or negative.
4. Sketch forces of known or estimated magnitude roughly to
scale. This visualisation facilitates error checking.
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 9

Use FBDs as part of the problem solving strategy outlined in the

introduction to this unit and tutorial guide. Solving FBD problems
requires similar skills and techniques as solving kinematic
problems. In both cases you will be working with vectors and
motions constrained by real-world geometries. State any necessary
assumptions.

Example FBDs: Vice-grip Pliers Mechanism

Complete Free Body
Diagrams for each
part of the vice-grip
plier shown

Solution
Separate the mechanism into 5 individual bodies whose movement
or design is to be analysed. Gather all forces known to act on each
body, then draw and label each force where it acts. Note the
Newton’s 3rd Law (action-reaction) pairs on separate bodies.

from Kinematics, Dynamics, and Design of Machinery,

K.J. Waldron and G.L. Kinzel, 2nd ed
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 10

Kinetic Problems using FBDs

For mechanical engineering problems involving forces, Free Body
Diagrams will almost always be required. In Machine Dynamics, we
are interested in the motion which results from the application of
forces. The following procedure is recommended to solve problems
of this type

1. Identify moving bodies in the problem

2. For each moving body, identify known constraints on its
motion, e.g. the direction of its velocity and/or acceleration
3. Isolate the external forces on each body by completing a FBD.
You must complete a separate FBD for each body!
4. Based on the vector directions in steps 2 and 3, choose a
coordinate system (axes) with which to analyse the problem.
As in kinematics these may be x-y, n-t or r-θ for 2D problems.
5. Set up Newton’s Second Law as scalar equations for each
axis for each body. e.g. ΣF1x=ma1x , ΣF1y=0 (true iff a1y=0)
6. Write down other known relationships for forces present.
e.g. Fspring = kΔx ; Ffriction (limit) = μFnormal
7. Identify any known relationships between the motion of two
connected bodies, e.g. via gears or pulleys, e.g. a1x=a2y
8. Identify and count the unknowns in the problem. Identify and
count the equations obtained from previous steps. Solve the
equations when the numbers are equal. It is often useful to
substitute in values as late as possible. Leaving working in
equation form provides deeper insight into your model of the
problem.
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 11

Worked Example: Elevator Design Requirements

An engineer is designing a cable and running gear for a suspended
elevator in a new building. The maximum load of the lift and the
mass of the lift itself have been calculated to form the total load
mass (m). The lift will be designed accelerate to its maximum speed
with a maximum acceleration (a). It will decelerate with the same
value when stopping. Determine the tension (T) in the cable at any
time throughout the lift’s journey.
Solution
The tension in the cable will depend on the load hanging from the
cable and its acceleration. Therefore a free body diagram of the lift
is required. (Italics reflect p8 FBD rules used for teaching only)
(3.2) Force: Tension in cable
acting where cable joins lift
T +ve a

(4) Assign axis positive direction

Draw & label acceleration
(adjacent to FBD)

(1) Draw free body:

lift including load
(3.1) Force: weight of lift +
load acting at Centre of Gravity mg
(2) Scale and Label FBD
Figure 1: FBD of loaded elevator
Newton’s second law can now be applied to the circumstance
shown in Figure 1.
ΣF↑=ma↑
→ T – mg =ma
i.e. T = m(a + g). Therefore
• accelerating up or decelerating down at a → T = m(|a| + g)
• when stationary or at constant velocity (max speed) → T=mg
• decelerating up or accelerating down at a → T = m(g - |a|)
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 12

Student Exercise: Modern elevators tend to travel at a maximum

(constant) speed, in the range of 1.5m/s to 6 m/s. How long do you
think they take to accelerate / decelerate? Estimate this time via
calculation. Would taking an old fashioned spring balance with you
inside a lift provide a better answer? How about a modern
electronic balance? Estimate the maximum tension encountered in
a fully loaded suspended lift.

Worked Example: Inclined Plane

Neglecting friction, determine the resulting acceleration for the cart
winched up the fixed ramp in Figure 2.
T Solve the general case for a,
using the symbols shown.
Determine the force required
β
to pull a 20 ton iron ore rail
m cart at constant velocity up a
gradient θ of 4º for a) β: 4º ,
b) β:10º, c) β:30º and d) β:80º
θ
Figure 2: Cart pulled up an inclined plane

Solution
Question: Can we assume that the cart accelerates in the direction
of the ramp? Answer: It is mathematically possible to lift the cart off
the ramp (visualise β approaching 90 º). Therefore, for the general
case, we need to determine the magnitude and direction of the cart
acceleration a. A free body diagram is required to apply Newton’s
2nd Law in 2D.

The external forces to be included are the rope tension, weight

force and reaction (normal) force from the ramp. Friction is
neglected here as instructed.
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 13

ay ax
T θ Anticipating that we want the cart to
travel up and down the ramp (i.e.
β parallel to the ramp), the coordinate
system (x-y) is defined parallel and
perpendicular to the ramp.
θ
mg N

Figure 3: FBD of cart on ramp

Applying Newton’s 2nd law in the x and y direction to find the cart
acceleration:
ΣFx=max → T.cos(β – θ) – mg.sin(θ) = max (Eq. i)
ΣFy=may → T.sin(β – θ) – mg.cos(θ) + N = may (Eq. ii)

The general case for the cart acceleration up / down the ramp is
given by Eq (i), since all terms are known, assuming the problem is
on Earth, i.e. g=9.81 m/s2.
Equation (ii) includes the normal force of the ramp against the cart.
If ay > 0, the block will lift off the ramp, thus N becomes 0 and ay
can be calculated. Forcing ay=0 allows calculation of N. Its value
must be positive for the solution to be valid.

Student Exercise: explain why N cannot be negative.

The general case now allows you to solve for any values for the
parameters of this problem. This is extremely useful in engineering
and design. The following determines the required force in SI units.
m=20e3, ax=0, θ =4º in eq. (i)→ Tcos(β -4) – 20e3*9.81sin(4) = 0
β=4º→T = 1.37e4 / cos(0) = 1.37e4N
β=10º→ T = 1.37e4 / cos(6) = 1.38e4N
β=30º→ T = 1.37e4 / cos(26) = 1.52e4N
β=80º→ T = 1.37e4 / cos(76) = 5.66e4N
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 14

Is the problem solved?

• No! Need to check when ay = 0 that N is positive
m=20e3, ay=0, θ =4º in eq. (ii)→ N= 20e3*9.81cos(4) - Tsin(β -4)
β=4º,T = 1.37e4N → N=1.96e5 - Tsin(0) = 1.96e5N
β=10º, T = 1.38e4N → N=1.96e5 – Tsin(6) = 1.94e5N
β=30º, T = 1.52e4N → N=1.96e5 – Tsin(26) = 1.89e5N
β=80º, T = 5.66e4N → N=1.96e5 – Tsin(76) = 1.41e5N
i.e. N is always positive → the cart stays on the ramp.

What happens if we accelerate the cart up the ramp?

Worked Example: as in the previous example, but now accelerate
up the ramp at 1m/s2. The required forces are:
β=4º→T = (20e3 * 1+1.37e4) / cos(0) = 3.37e4N
β=10º→ T = (20e3 +1.37e4) / cos(6) = 3.39e4N
β=30º→ T = (20e3 +1.37e4) / cos(26) = 3.75e4N
β=80º→ T = (20e3 +1.37e4) / cos(76) = 1.39e5N

• Again check when ay = 0 that N is positive

N= 20e3*9.81cos(4) - Tsin(β -4)
β=4º,T = 3.37e4N → N=1.96e5 - Tsin(0) = 1.96e5N
β=10º, T = 3.39e4N → N=1.96e5 – Tsin(6) = 1.92e5N
β=30º, T = 3.75e4N → N=1.96e5 – Tsin(26) = 1.79e5N
β=80º, T = 1.39e5N → N=1.96e5 – Tsin(76) = 6.06e4N
i.e. N is always positive → the cart stays on the ramp.

Student Exercise: find at which angle β, the cart will be lifted off
the ramp. Explain whether this makes sense. (ax=1→84.2º; 0→90º)

You can learn from this example that it is reasonable to assume in

future similar problems that the vehicle stays on the ramp.
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 15

Worked Example: Multi-body FBD Problem

Two rock climbers find

themselves in the situation
shown in Figure 4.
Neglecting all friction
against the rope, the mass
of the rope itself and
assuming that all tension in
the rope is perfectly A 80kg
transferred, determine the
acceleration of the rope and
the two attached climbers.
How fast are they travelling
after 3 seconds in km/hr? B 60kg

Figure 4: Suspended Rock Climber

Cartoon modified with permission from Stephen A. Edwards
http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~sedwards/climbing/leadfall.gif
Solution
Since all tension is transferred and all other rope effects can be
neglected (e.g. no stretching), all external forces on the climbers
are shown below, assuming the angles are close to vertical.
T T
FBD of A FBD of B

a
a

mAg mBg
A: ΣF↓=ma↓ B: ΣF↑=ma↑
→ mA.g - T = mA.a (Eq i) T – mB.g = mB.a (Eq ii)
(i)+(ii) → g(mA - mW) = a(mM + mB)
therefore acceleration: a = g((mA – mB) / (mA + mB) (Eq iii)
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 16

Substituting in the masses of our two climbers and assuming

Earth’s gravity at 9.81m/s2, the man falls with an acceleration of
a = 9.81.(20 / 140) = 1.4m/s2

Since acceleration is constant, assuming the initial velocity was 0

(i.e. at rest), v=u + at = 0 + 1.4*3 = 4.2m/s.
In km/hr, v = 4.2 * 3600/1000 = 15.1 km/hr

On Reflection
Rock climbers are able to “belay” (hold each other safely), despite
having significant differences in weight (mass). Therefore we know
that something is different in the solution to this modelled problem
compared to reality.

Student Exercise: Which assumptions are most likely to cause the

significant difference between what we know happens and the
result predicted by this calculation? What happens to the calculation
if person B moves so that his end of the rope is not vertical?

Problems with Friction

Friction can be made useful or something to be avoided depending
on the context. Without friction we would not be able to walk or
drive anywhere on flat ground. Our shoes and tyres would simply
slip and slide. However friction in rotating machinery wastes fuel
and causes unwanted heat and wear. In terms of modelling, friction
forces need to be treated carefully to avoid common mistakes.

Friction can only resist sliding motion between two surfaces. It

cannot cause sliding to accelerate.
FF FA
Consider a body at rest on a fixed
surface with a force applied as shown. Figure 5: Friction at Rest
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 17

When the applied force is zero, there is no friction to resist, i.e.

FA=0→ FF=0. As the applied force FA increases, friction increases to
resist it up to a limit FF=µsN, where N is the normal or reaction
force. At this point the body starts to accelerate if FA > (FFmax = µsN).
The same behaviour occurs in both directions, i.e. +ve and -ve.

Once a body is moving, kinetic friction FF v

opposes the velocity. For a sliding contact,
friction is modelled as a constant Figure 6: Motion Friction
FFkinetic = µkN. The kinetic friction coefficient µk is often less than the
static coefficient µs. This discontinuity is often seen in objects which
are difficult to start to move but then lurch into motion accelerating
quickly (as friction is suddenly reduced for the same applied force).

Limit of static F FF
F kinetic
friction
friction

FA v
kinetic
Limit of static friction
friction
Static friction
v=0 only
Figure 7: Variable Friction Forces

In problem solving we need to identify which of the possible friction

forces is consistent with the resulting overall behaviour.

Worked Example: Multibody Problem with Friction

Determine the resulting motion
when the system shown is
θ
released when friction between the
ramp and cart is given by µs=0.3 m2
and µk=0.2. Solve repeatedly for m1
m1=1.2kg, and θ=45° with
m2=1kg ; 1.5kg; and 2.2kg Figure 8: Suspended Loads
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 18

Solution
Similar to previous problems we identify the two free bodies which
may move and external forces on them via Free Body Diagrams.

T T
FBD of 2 FBD of 1
a2 θ

FF a1

θ N
m2g
m1g

FBD1↓ : m1.g - T = m1.a1 (Eq. i)

FBD2↖ : N – m2g.cos(θ) = 0 (Eq. ii)
FBD2↗ : T – mg.sin(θ) - FF= m2a2 (Eq. iii)
Constraint due to rope: a1 = a2 = a (Eq. iv)

We now have 5 unknowns (T, a1, a2, N, FF) in 4 equations. It is

tempting to say FF = µN and try to solve the problem. However, we
actually only know that -µsN ≤ FF ≤ µsN as in Figure 7.

Only one of these possible scenarios will yield a valid solution:

m1 tries to accelerate m2, friction down the slope causes equilibrium.
m2 tries to accelerate m1, friction up the slope causes equilibrium.
m1 accelerates m2, kinetic friction acts down the slope.
m2 accelerates m1, kinetic friction acts up the slope.

Rather than try all cases, where the solution is not intuitive, we can
solve the four equations in the case that FF=0. This eliminates two
of the possible scenarios by indicating which direction of
acceleration is possible and hence the direction of friction.
MD231 Lecture 5: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 19

(i) + (iii) → (m1+m2)a = m1g - m2gsin(θ) - FF (Eq. v)

Zero friction → a = (m1g - m2gsin(θ)) / (m1 + m2), the numerator
indicates whether a is positive or negative. An alternative is to note
that |m1g - m2gsin(θ)| > | FF| will cause acceleration We’ll solve the
3 cases in parallel: Accelerating Force = m1g - m2gsin(θ) =

4.83N (N=Newton) 1.37N -3.49N

It is clear that the first two configurations are trying to accelerate up

the slope and the third down the slope, thus friction changes
direction. It is not intuitively clear if they have static or kinetic
friction. This depends if the accelerating forces are enough to
overcome static friction. From (ii) N= m2g.cos(θ) and the limits of
friction are ±µsN or ±µkN i.e.

0 ≤ FFs ≤ 2.08N 0 ≤ FFs ≤ 3.12N -4.58 ≤ FFs ≤ 0N

FFk = 1.39N (Newton) FFk = 2.08N FFk = -3.05N

Comparing the accelerating force at body 2 with the maximum

possible friction informs us motion will occur. The first case easily
overcomes static friction and accelerates up. The second does not
overcome static friction and will remain stationary trying to
accelerate up (even though m2 is heavier than m1). The third will
also remain stationary despite the large mass difference trying to
accelerate down the slope. This is because the accelerating force
does not overcome static friction

Note what happens in the second and third case if we give the
system a push in the direction it is trying to accelerate. Once motion
commences, friction reverts to kinetic friction. In the second case
kinetic friction is larger than the accelerating force so the system will
slow to a rest again. In the third case, the system will actually
commence accelerating down the slope as soon as static friction is
overcome.
MD231 Reading: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 20

The solutions for case 2 & 3 are a=0. The actual amount of friction FF
present can be obtained from (v) when a =0, i.e. FF= m1g - m2gsin(θ)
as calculated previously (i.e. ≠ µsN)

For case 1 from (v), a= (4.83 – 1.39) / (2.2) = 1.56m/s2 with Kinetic
Friction FF = 1.39N.

Student Exercise: Solve the above scenario as given except that

m1=2.2kg and m2=1.2kg. Hint: you can intuitively predict the
resulting motion – explain why. (3.4m/s2)

Problems with Pulleys

Sometime after the invention of the wheel and before Archimedes,
people found how useful pulleys can be to perform tasks previously
impossible or with less effort. We have now learnt a number of
techniques that can be used to analyse pulleys in dynamics.

Instantaneous Centre of Rotation v1

Where you can visualise a pivot
vC=0 v=rω
point for a pulley, vC=0 and the
C
velocity profile across the pulley v2
v2
can be found. 2v2 = v1 m

L=2s2 + s1+const
Constrained Length s2 s1
0=2v2 + v1
For multiple pulleys it can be
m1 v1
easier to create an equation using 0=2a2 + a1
rope length (L) and differentiate v2 m2 differentiate

F FBD F
Free Body Diagram
m m
FBDs show how pulleys create
mechanical advantage (reduce F
effort). For a pulling force F, the load feels a pulling force 2F.
MD231 Reading: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 21

Newton’s 2nd Law and Momentum

Depending on the context in which you read it, Newton’s Second
Law is often defined and written differently. The good news is they
are all equivalent. Depending on the context of the problem being
analysed, Newton’s 2nd Law can be communicated using different
interrelated concepts. For example:
• The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the
combined force acting on the body and is in the same direction
Recall that momentum (p) is defined as mass x velocity (mv).
Therefore, ∑ F = δ ( mv ) (Eq. 2). In situations where mass remains
δt
constant, this is equivalent to δv (i.e the same as Eq. 1)
∑F = m = ma
δt
The two definitions are not designed to confuse students. In fluid
mechanics, for example, changes in mass are an important part of
applying Newton’s second law and momentum is generally used.

Once we can deal with forces and motion in combination (effectively

momentum and its derivatives), other kinetics concepts become
extremely useful for engineers. As you will see later in this course,
the usefulness of machines is often described in terms of work,
energy and power, all of which can be defined in terms of forces
and motion.
MD231 Reading: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 22

Concepts of Work, Energy and Power

Mechanical Work can be defined as the energy transferred by a
force in moving a body. Energy can be defined as the capacity to do
work. Although somewhat circular in logic, these definitions do
provide some intuition into useful dynamical concepts. Lifting an
object opposing gravity takes work. If we then let the object go, its
stored potential energy (equivalent to the work done) will be
converted to kinetic energy as it accelerates under gravity.

You are all familiar with various types of energy. A battery stores
electrical energy. A spring can store mechanical energy. The fuel in
your car stores chemical energy, which we convert to heat via
burning and then from heat to mechanical energy in your engine.
You know (intuitively or from previous study) that the higher we lift
an object in the earth’s gravitational field, the more energy it stores.
Another way of saying this is, the more potential energy the object
has. A battery, a spring, fuel and a raised brick store their energy
differently. In machine dynamics, we are interested in using energy
as “Mechanical Work”. Ideally, the total mechanical work done on
an object causes an equivalent change in its mechanical energy.
Alternatively, energy can be used to perform mechanical work.

Energy and Work are scalars, measured in the SI unit Joules.

Recall the definition of work as the energy transferred by a force to
a moving body. In engineering, work is defined by the following,
where the Force and displacement components are in the same
direction (i.e. a scalar product).
 
W = ∫ F .ds Eq. 3

Only if an average or constant force is known may this be simplified

to W = Fav s = Fconst s. Eq. 4
Note the similarity here between instantaneous and average
acceleration equations (e.g. v = aav t)
MD231 Reading: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 23

Examples of Mechanical Work done / Energy stored by:

Spring Force = -k.x
x2
x2  x2  1 2 1 2
W =∫ k .x.dx = k   = kx2 − kx1
x1
 2  x1 2 2
i.e. Energy stored from relaxed length = ½k.(Δx)2

Gravity Force = m.g

W = ∫ m.g.dh = m.g [h]h1 = mg (h2 − h1 )
h2 h2
h1

i.e. Energy stored = mg(Δh)

Kinetic Energy
Combining the concepts of Work and Energy with Newton’s second
law: unbalance force = m.a.
x2
W = ∫ m.a.dx , Note that a = dv = dv . dx = v. dv , therefore
x1 dt dx dt dx
x2 x2 dv v2 1 1
W = ∫ m.a.dx = ∫ m.v. .dx = ∫ m.v.dv = mv2 − mv1 , thus the
2 2
x1 x1 dx v1 2 2
Work needed to change an object’s velocity from rest is ½m(Δv)2.
Slowing an object from v to rest enables work ½mv2 to be done.

An alternate way of seeing this is that an object which has a non-

zero velocity, stores energy associated with its current speed
equivalent to ½mv2. We call this its kinetic energy.

Conservation of Energy
Like momentum, in a closed system energy must be conserved.
Energy cannot be destroyed. In mechanical systems, energy may
leave the system, for example heat generated by friction which
escapes to the atmosphere. Some mechanical engineering problems
may be solved by recognising the sums of all forms of energy in the
system remains constant, as long as energy ‘losses’ are negligible.
MD231 Reading: FBDs & Newton’s 2nd Law 24

An Introduction to Power
Work and Energy are independent of time. Power is used to
indicate the rate with which energy is transferred or work is done.
Thus, Powerav = ΔWork / Δtime, or Powerav = ΔEnergy / Δtime.
dW
The instantaneous Power is defined as P=
dt

An engine which can accelerate a 1 tonne car to 100kmh in 7

seconds is more powerful than an engine which can only manage it
in 12 seconds. This knowledge is extremely useful in machine
dynamics and mechanical design. Note, however, that the work
done is the same in both cases.

In practice, engineers often select rotating machinery based on 2

central requirements: the desired output torque and output power.

Power Efficiency
In the real-world, when we convert energy from one form into
another or when we perform work, we expect some “loss” of
energy. For example, the frictional forces which act against your car
generate heat. Heat is a form of energy. When heat spreads
throughout the atmosphere, it is no longer available to be used by
the machine. Similarly, heat radiating off the engine means that
some of the energy gained by burning the fuel is not being used to
make your car move.

To measure these losses, we define the dimensionless term power

Pout
efficiency: η = . Since it is impossible to obtain more energy from
Pin
a system than we put into it, efficiency has a maximum value of 1.
Efficiency can also be expressed as a percentage 0-100%
Pout
η= * 100%
Pin