Deity

A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred.[1] The Oxford
Dictionary of English defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine.[2] C. Scott
Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who
interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of
consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life".[3]
Examples of representations of deities in different cultures; clockwise from upper left: Hinduism, Buddhism, Yoruba, Maya,
Roman, Shinto, Christianity, Greek, and Inca.

Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. Monotheistic religions accept
only one deity (predominantly referred to as "God"),[4][5] whereas polytheistic religions accept
multiple deities.[6] Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities,
considering them as aspects of the same divine principle.[7][8] Nontheistic religions deny any
supreme eternal creator deity, but may accept a pantheon of deities which live, die and may be
reborn like any other being.[9]: 35–37 [10]: 357–58 

Although most monotheistic religions traditionally envision their god as omnipotent,

omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent, and eternal,[11][12] none of these qualities are
essential to the definition of a "deity"[13][14][15] and various cultures have conceptualized their
deities differently.[13][14] Monotheistic religions typically refer to their god in masculine
terms,[16][17]: 96  while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways—male, female,
hermaphroditic, or genderless.[18][19][20]

Historically, many ancient cultures—including the ancient Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Greeks,

Romans, and Germanic peoples—personified natural phenomena, variously as either deliberate
causes or effects.[21][22][23] Some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical
concepts.[21][22] In Indian religions, deities were envisioned as manifesting within the temple of
every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind.[24][25][26] Deities were envisioned as a
form of existence (Saṃsāra) after rebirth, for human beings who gain merit through an ethical
life, where they become guardian deities and live blissfully in heaven, but are also subject to
death when their merit is lost.[9]: 35–38 [10]: 356–59 
Etymology

Kobayashi Eitaku painting showing the god Izanagi (right) and Izanami, a goddess of creation and death in Japanese
mythology.

The English language word deity derives from Old French deité,[27] the Latin deitatem or "divine
nature", coined by Augustine of Hippo from deus ("god"). Deus is related through a common
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin to *deiwos.[28] This root yields the ancient Indian word Deva
meaning "to gleam, a shining one", from *div- "to shine", as well as Greek dios "divine" and Zeus;
and Latin deus "god" (Old Latin deivos).[29][30][31]: 230–31  Deva is masculine, and the related
feminine equivalent is devi.[32]: 496  Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek
thea.[33] In Old Persian, daiva- means "demon, evil god",[30] while in Sanskrit it means the
opposite, referring to the "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining
ones".[32]: 496 [34][35]

The closely linked term "god" refers to "supreme being, deity", according to Douglas Harper,[36]
and is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan, from PIE *ghut-, which means "that which is
invoked".[31]: 230–31  Guth in the Irish language means "voice". The term *ghut- is also the source
of Old Church Slavonic zovo ("to call"), Sanskrit huta- ("invoked", an epithet of Indra), from the
root *gheu(e)- ("to call, invoke."),[36]
An alternate etymology for the term "god" comes from the Proto-Germanic Gaut, which traces it
to the PIE root *ghu-to- ("poured"), derived from the root *gheu- ("to pour, pour a libation"). The
term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein "to pour".[36] Originally the German root was a
neuter noun. The gender of the monotheistic God shifted to masculine under the influence of
Christianity.[31]: 230–31 [36] In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies
recognized both masculine and feminine deities.[35]

Definitions

Pantheists believe that the universe itself and everything in it forms a single, all-encompassing deity.[37][38]

There is no universally accepted consensus on what a deity is,[1] and concepts of deities vary
considerably across cultures.[1] Huw Owen states that the term "deity or god or its equivalent in
other languages" has a bewildering range of meanings and significance.[39]: vii–ix  It has ranged
from "infinite transcendent being who created and lords over the universe" (God), to a "finite
entity or experience, with special significance or which evokes a special feeling" (god), to "a
concept in religious or philosophical context that relates to nature or magnified beings or a
supra-mundane realm", to "numerous other usages".[39]: vii–ix 

A deity is typically conceptualized as a supernatural or divine concept, manifesting in ideas and

knowledge, in a form that combines excellence in some or all aspects, wrestling with weakness
and questions in other aspects, heroic in outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and
desires.[40][41] In other cases, the deity is a principle or reality such as the idea of "soul". The
Upanishads of Hinduism, for example, characterize Atman (soul, self) as deva (deity), thereby
asserting that the deva and eternal supreme principle (Brahman) is part of every living creature,
that this soul is spiritual and divine, and that to realize self-knowledge is to know the
supreme.[42][43][44]

Theism is the belief in the existence of one or more deities.[45][46] Polytheism is the belief in and
worship of multiple deities,[47] which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and
goddesses, with accompanying rituals.[47] In most polytheistic religions, the different gods and
goddesses are representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles, and can be viewed
either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator God or transcendental absolute
principle (monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature.[47] Henotheism accepts
the existence of more than one deity, but considers all deities as equivalent representations or
aspects of the same divine principle, the highest.[8][48][7][49] Monolatry is the belief that many
deities exist, but that only one of these deities may be validly worshipped.[50][51]

Monotheism is the belief that only one deity exists.[52][53][54][55][56][57][58] A monotheistic deity,
known as "God", is usually described as omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent
and eternal.[11][59] However, not all deities have been regarded this way[13][15][60][61] and an entity
does not need to be almighty, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent or eternal to qualify as a
deity.[13][15][60]

Deism is the belief that only one deity exists, who created the universe, but does not usually
intervene in the resulting world.[62][63][64] Deism was particularly popular among western
intellectuals during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.[65][66] Pantheism is the belief that
the universe itself is God[37] or that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent
deity.[38] Pandeism is an intermediate position between these, proposing that the creator
became a pantheistic universe.[67] Panentheism is the belief that divinity pervades the universe,
but that it also transcends the universe.[68] Agnosticism is the position that it is impossible to
know for certain whether a deity of any kind exists.[69][70][71] Atheism is the non-belief in the
existence of any deity.[72]

Prehistoric
Statuette of a nude, corpulent, seated woman flanked by two felines from Çatalhöyük, dating to c. 6000 BCE, thought by
most archaeologists to represent a goddess of some kind.[73][74]

Scholars infer the probable existence of deities in the prehistoric period from inscriptions and
prehistoric arts such as cave drawings, but it is unclear what these sketches and paintings are
and why they were made.[75] Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals.[76] It
was once common for archaeologists to interpret virtually every prehistoric female figurine as a
representation of a single, primordial goddess, the ancestor of historically attested goddesses
such as Inanna, Ishtar, Astarte, Cybele, and Aphrodite;[77] this approach has now generally been
discredited.[77] Modern archaeologists now generally recognize that it is impossible to
conclusively identify any prehistoric figurines as representations of any kind of deities, let alone
goddesses.[77] Nonetheless, it is possible to evaluate ancient representations on a case-by-case
basis and rate them on how likely they are to represent deities.[77] The Venus of Willendorf, a
female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted by some as
an exemplar of a prehistoric female deity.[76] A number of probable representations of deities
have been discovered at 'Ain Ghazal[77] and the works of art uncovered at Çatalhöyük reveal
references to what is probably a complex mythology.[77]

Religions and cultures

Sub-Saharan African
Yoruba deity from Nigeria

Diverse African cultures developed theology and concepts of deities over their history. In Nigeria
and neighboring West African countries, for example, two prominent deities (locally called
Òrìṣà)[78] are found in the Yoruba religion, namely the god Ogun and the goddess Osun.[78] Ogun
is the primordial masculine deity as well as the archdivinity and guardian of occupations such as
tools making and use, metal working, hunting, war, protection and ascertaining equity and
justice.[79][80] Osun is an equally powerful primordial feminine deity and a multidimensional
guardian of fertility, water, maternal, health, social relations, love and peace.[78] Ogun and Osun
traditions were brought into the Americas on slave ships. They were preserved by the Africans in
their plantation communities, and their festivals continue to be observed.[78][79]

In Southern African cultures, a similar masculine-feminine deity combination has appeared in

other forms, particularly as the Moon and Sun deities.[81] One Southern African cosmology
consists of Hieseba or Xuba (deity, god), Gaune (evil spirits) and Khuene (people). The Hieseba
includes Nladiba (male, creator sky god) and Nladisara (females, Nladiba's two wives). The Sun
(female) and the Moon (male) deities are viewed as offspring of Nladiba and two Nladisara. The
Sun and Moon are viewed as manifestations of the supreme deity, and worship is timed and
directed to them.[82] In other African cultures the Sun is seen as male, while the Moon is female,
both symbols of the godhead.[83]: 199–120  In Zimbabwe, the supreme deity is androgynous with
male-female aspects, envisioned as the giver of rain, treated simultaneously as the god of
darkness and light and is called Mwari Shona.[83]: 89  In the Lake Victoria region, the term for a
deity is Lubaale, or alternatively Jok.[84]

Ancient Near Eastern

Egyptian
Egyptian tomb painting showing the gods Osiris, Anubis, and Horus, who are among the major deities in ancient Egyptian
religion.[85]

Ancient Egyptian culture revered numerous deities. Egyptian records and inscriptions list the
names of many whose nature is unknown and make vague references to other unnamed
deities.[86]: 73  Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1,400 deities are named in
Egyptian texts,[87] whereas Christian Leitz offers an estimate of "thousands upon thousands" of
Egyptian deities.[88]: 393–94  Their terms for deities were nṯr (god), and feminine nṯrt
(goddess);[89]: 42  however, these terms may also have applied to any being – spirits and
deceased human beings, but not demons – who in some way were outside the sphere of
everyday life.[90]: 216 [89]: 62  Egyptian deities typically had an associated cult, role and
mythologies.[90]: 7–8, 83 

Around 200 deities are prominent in the Pyramid texts and ancient temples of Egypt, many
zoomorphic. Among these, were Min (fertility god), Neith (creator goddess), Anubis, Atum, Bes,
Horus, Isis, Ra, Meretseger, Nut, Osiris, Shu, Sia and Thoth.[85]: 11–12  Most Egyptian deities
represented natural phenomenon, physical objects or social aspects of life, as hidden immanent
forces within these phenomena.[91][92] The deity Shu, for example represented air; the goddess
Meretseger represented parts of the earth, and the god Sia represented the abstract powers of
perception.[93]: 91, 147  Deities such as Ra and Osiris were associated with the judgement of the
dead and their care during the afterlife.[85]: 26–28  Major gods often had multiple roles and were
involved in multiple phenomena.[93]: 85–86 
The first written evidence of deities are from early 3rd millennium BCE, likely emerging from
prehistoric beliefs.[94] However, deities became systematized and sophisticated after the
formation of an Egyptian state under the Pharaohs and their treatment as sacred kings who had
exclusive rights to interact with the gods, in the later part of the 3rd millennium BCE.[95][86]: 12–15 
Through the early centuries of the common era, as Egyptians interacted and traded with
neighboring cultures, foreign deities were adopted and venerated.[96][88]: 160 

Levantine

A 4th century BC drachm (quarter shekel) coin from the Persian province of Yehud Medinata, possibly representing
Yahweh seated on a winged and wheeled sun-throne.

The ancient Canaanites were polytheists who believed in a pantheon of deities,[97][98][99] the chief
of whom was the god El, who ruled alongside his consort Asherah and their seventy
sons.[97]: 22–24 [98][99] Baal was the god of storm, rain, vegetation and fertility,[97]: 68–127  while his
consort Anat was the goddess of war[97]: 131, 137–39  and Astarte, the West Semitic equivalent to
Ishtar, was the goddess of love.[97]: 146–49  The people of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah
originally believed in these deities,[97][99][100] alongside their own national god Yahweh.[101][102] El
later became syncretized with Yahweh, who took over El's role as the head of the
pantheon,[97]: 13–17  with Asherah as his divine consort[103]: 45 [97]: 146  and the "sons of El" as his
offspring.[97]: 22–24  During the later years of the Kingdom of Judah, a monolatristic faction rose
to power insisting that only Yahweh was fit to be worshipped by the people of Judah.[97]: 229–33 
Monolatry became enforced during the reforms of King Josiah in 621 BCE.[97]: 229  Finally, during
the national crisis of the Babylonian captivity, some Judahites began to teach that deities aside
from Yahweh were not just unfit to be worshipped, but did not exist.[104][39]: 4  The "sons of El"
were demoted from deities to angels.[97]: 22 

Mesopotamian

Akkadian cylinder seal impression showing Wall relief of the Assyrian national
Inanna, the Sumerian goddess of love, sex, god Aššur in a "winged male"
and war hybrid iconography

Ancient Mesopotamian culture in southern Iraq had numerous dingir (deities, gods and
goddesses).[17]: 69–74 [105] Mesopotamian deities were almost exclusively
anthropomorphic.[106]: 93 [17]: 69–74 [107] They were thought to possess extraordinary powers[106]: 93 
and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size.[106]: 93  They were generally
immortal,[106]: 93  but a few of them, particularly Dumuzid, Geshtinanna, and Gugalanna were said
to have either died or visited the underworld.[106]: 93  Both male and female deities were widely
venerated.[106]: 93 

In the Sumerian pantheon, deities had multiple functions, which included presiding over
procreation, rains, irrigation, agriculture, destiny, and justice.[17]: 69–74  The gods were fed, clothed,
entertained, and worshipped to prevent natural catastrophes as well as to prevent social chaos
such as pillaging, rape, or atrocities.[17]: 69–74 [108]: 186 [106]: 93  Many of the Sumerian deities were
patron guardians of city-states.[108]

The most important deities in the Sumerian pantheon were known as the Anunnaki,[109] and
included deities known as the "seven gods who decree": An, Enlil, Enki, Ninhursag, Nanna, Utu
and Inanna.[109] After the conquest of Sumer by Sargon of Akkad, many Sumerian deities were
syncretized with East Semitic ones.[108] The goddess Inanna, syncretized with the East Semitic
Ishtar, became popular,[110][111]: xviii, xv [108]: 182 [106]: 106–09  with temples across
Mesopotamia.[112][106]: 106–09 
The Mesopotamian mythology of the first millennium BCE treated Anšar (later Aššur) and Kišar
as primordial deities.[113] Marduk was a significant god among the Babylonians. He rose from an
obscure deity of the third millennium BCE to become one of the most important deities in the
Mesopotamian pantheon of the first millennium BCE. The Babylonians worshipped Marduk as
creator of heaven, earth and humankind, and as their national god.[17]: 62, 73 [114] Marduk's
iconography is zoomorphic and is most often found in Middle Eastern archaeological remains
depicted as a "snake-dragon" or a "human-animal hybrid".[115][116][117]

Indo-European

Germanic

The Kirkby Stephen Stone, discovered in Kirkby Stephen, England, depicts a bound figure, who some have theorized may
be the Germanic god Loki.

In Germanic languages, the terms cognate with 'god' such as Old English: god and Old Norse:
guð were originally neuter but became masculine, as in modern Germanic languages, after
Christianisation due their use in referring to the Christian god.[118]

In Norse mythology, Æsir (singular áss or ǫ́ss) are the principal group of gods,[119] while the term
ásynjur (singular ásynja) refers specifically to the female Æsir.[120] These terms, states John
Lindow, may be ultimately rooted in the Indo-European root for "breath" (as in "life giving force"),
and are cognate with Old English: os (a heathen god) and Gothic: anses.[121]: 49–50 
Another group of deities found in Norse mythology are termed as Vanir, and are associated with
fertility. The Æsir and the Vanir went to war, according to the Nordic sources. The account in
Ynglinga saga describes the Æsir–Vanir War ending in truce and ultimate reconciliation of the
two into a single group of gods, after both sides chose peace, exchanged ambassadors
(hostages),[122]: 181  and intermarried.[121]: 52–53 [123]

The Norse mythology describes the cooperation after the war, as well as differences between
the Æsir and the Vanir which were considered scandalous by the other side.[122]: 181  The goddess
Freyja of the Vanir taught magic to the Æsir, while the two sides discover that while Æsir forbid
mating between siblings, Vanir accepted such mating.[122]: 181 [124][125]

Temples hosting images of Germanic deities (such as Thor, Odin and Freyr), as well as pagan
worship rituals, continued in Nordic countries into the 12th century, according to historical
records. It has been proposed that over time, Christian equivalents were substituted for the
Germanic deities to help suppress paganism, during Christianisation.[122]: 187–88  Worship of the
Germanic gods has been revived in the modern period as part of the new religious movement of
Heathenry.[126]

Greek

Zeus, the king of the gods in Corinthian black-figure plaque of

ancient Greek religion, shown on a Poseidon, the Greek god of the seas
gold stater from Lampsacus (c. (c. 550–525 BCE)
360–340 BCE)
The ancient GreeksAttic white-ground red-figured kylix Bust of Athena,
revered both gods and goddesses.[127] These the Greek goddess
continued to be revered
of Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of of wisdom, copy after a votive statue
through the early centuries
love, ridingof the common
a swan (c. 46–470 era,
BCE) and manyinofAthens
of Kresilas the Greek
(c. 425 deities
BCE) inspired and were
adopted as part of much larger pantheon of Roman deities.[128]: 91–97  The Greek religion was
polytheistic, but had no centralized church, nor any sacred texts.[128]: 91–97  The deities were
largely associated with myths and they represented natural phenomena or aspects of human
behavior.[127][128]: 91–97 

Several Greek deities probably trace back to more ancient Indo-European traditions, since the
gods and goddesses found in distant cultures are mythologically comparable and are
cognates.[31]: 230–31 [129]: 15–19  Eos, the Greek goddess of the dawn, for instance, is cognate to
Indic Ushas, Roman Aurora and Latvian Auseklis.[31]: 230–32  Zeus, the Greek king of gods, is
cognate to Latin Iūpiter, Old German Ziu, and Indic Dyaus, with whom he shares similar
mythologies.[31]: 230–32 [130] Other deities, such as Aphrodite, originated from the Near
East.[131][132][133][134]

Greek deities varied locally, but many shared panhellenic themes, celebrated similar festivals,
rites, and ritual grammar.[135] The most important deities in the Greek pantheon were the Twelve
Olympians: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hermes, Demeter,
Dionysus, Hephaestus, and Ares.[129]: 125–70  Other important Greek deities included Hestia,
Hades and Heracles.[128]: 96–97  These deities later inspired the Dii Consentes galaxy of Roman
deities.[128]: 96–97 

Besides the Olympians, the Greeks also worshipped various local deities.[129]: 170–81 [136] Among
these were the goat-legged god Pan (the guardian of shepherds and their flocks), Nymphs
(nature spirits associated with particular landforms), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads
(who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, satyrs (a class of
lustful male nature spirits), and others. The dark powers of the underworld were represented by
the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives.[136]
The Greek deities, like those in many other Indo-European traditions, were anthropomorphic.
Walter Burkert describes them as "persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts".[129]: 182  They
had fantastic abilities and powers; each had some unique expertise and, in some aspects, a
specific and flawed personality.[137]: 52  They were not omnipotent and could be injured in some
circumstances.[138] Greek deities led to cults, were used politically and inspired votive offerings
for favors such as bountiful crops, healthy family, victory in war, or peace for a loved one recently
deceased.[128]: 94–95 [139]

Roman

4th-century Roman sarcophagus depicting the creation of man by Prometheus, with major Roman deities Jupiter, Neptune,
Mercury, Juno, Apollo, Vulcan watching.

The Roman pantheon had numerous deities, both Greek and non-Greek.[128]: 96–97  The more
famed deities, found in the mythologies and the 2nd millennium CE European arts, have been the
anthropomorphic deities syncretized with the Greek deities. These include the six gods and six
goddesses: Venus, Apollo, Mars, Diana, Minerva, Ceres, Vulcan, Juno, Mercury, Vesta, Neptune,
Jupiter (Jove, Zeus); as well Bacchus, Pluto and Hercules.[128]: 96–97 [140] The non-Greek major
deities include Janus, Fortuna, Vesta, Quirinus and Tellus (mother goddess, probably most
ancient).[128]: 96–97 [141] Some of the non-Greek deities had likely origins in more ancient European
culture such as the ancient Germanic religion, while others may have been borrowed, for political
reasons, from neighboring trade centers such as those in the Minoan or ancient Egyptian
civilization.[142][143][144]

The Roman deities, in a manner similar to the ancient Greeks, inspired community festivals,
rituals and sacrifices led by flamines (priests, pontifs), but priestesses (Vestal Virgins) were also
held in high esteem for maintaining sacred fire used in the votive rituals for deities.[128]: 100–01 
Deities were also maintained in home shrines (lararium), such as Hestia honored in homes as
the goddess of fire hearth.[128]: 100–01 [145] This Roman religion held reverence for sacred fire, and
this is also found in Hebrew culture (Leviticus 6), Vedic culture's Homa, ancient Greeks and other
cultures.[145]

Ancient Roman scholars such as Varro and Cicero wrote treatises on the nature of gods of their
times.[146] Varro stated, in his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum, that it is the superstitious man who
fears the gods, while the truly religious person venerates them as parents.[146] Cicero, in his
Academica, praised Varro for this and other insights.[146] According to Varro, there have been
three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for
theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city,
and the natural account created by the philosophers.[147] The best state is, adds Varro, where the
civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's.[147] The Roman
deities continued to be revered in Europe through the era of Constantine, and past 313 CE when
he issued the Edict of Toleration.[137]: 118–20 

Native American

Inca

Left: Inti Raymi, a winter solstice festival of the Inca people, reveres Inti, the sun deity—offerings include round bread and
maize beer; Right: Deity Viracocha

The Inca culture has believed in Viracocha (also called Pachacutec) as the creator
deity.[148]: 27–30 [149]: 726–29  Viracocha has been an abstract deity to Inca culture, one who existed
before he created space and time.[150] All other deities of the Inca people have corresponded to
elements of nature.[148][149]: 726–29  Of these, the most important ones have been Inti (sun deity)
responsible for agricultural prosperity and as the father of the first Inca king, and Mama Qucha
the goddess of the sea, lakes, rivers and waters.[148] Inti in some mythologies is the son of
Viracocha and Mama Qucha.[148][151]
 Inca people have revered many male and female deities.
Inca Sun deity festival Among the feminine deities have been Mama Kuka (goddess
Oh creator and Sun and Thunder, of joy), Mama Ch'aska (goddess of dawn), Mama Allpa
be forever copious, (goddess of harvest and earth, sometimes called Mama
do not make us old, Pacha or Pachamama), Mama Killa (moon goddess) and
let all things be at peace, Mama Sara (goddess of grain).[151][148]: 31–32  During and after
multiply the people,
the imposition of Christianity during Spanish colonialism, the
and let there be food,
Inca people retained their original beliefs in deities through
and let all things be fruitful.
syncretism, where they overlay the Christian God and
—Inti Raymi prayers[152] teachings over their original beliefs and practices.[153][154][155]
The male deity Inti became accepted as the Christian God, but
the Andean rituals centered around Inca deities have been
retained and continued thereafter into the modern era by the Inca people.[155][156]

Maya and Aztec

The zoomorphic feathered serpent deity (Kukulkan, Quetzalcoatl)

In Maya culture, Kukulkan has been the supreme creator deity, also revered as the god of
reincarnation, water, fertility and wind.[149]: 797–98  The Maya people built step pyramid temples to
honor Kukulkan, aligning them to the Sun's position on the spring equinox.[149]: 843–44  Other
deities found at Maya archaeological sites include Xib Chac – the benevolent male rain deity, and
Ixchel – the benevolent female earth, weaving and pregnancy goddess.[149]: 843–44  The Maya
calendar had 18 months, each with 20 days (and five unlucky days of Uayeb); each month had a
presiding deity, who inspired social rituals, special trading markets and community festivals.[156]
A deity with aspects similar to Kulkulkan in the Aztec culture has been called
Quetzalcoatl.[149]: 797–98  However, states Timothy Insoll, the Aztec ideas of deity remain poorly
understood. What has been assumed is based on what was constructed by Christian
missionaries. The deity concept was likely more complex than these historical records.[157] In
Aztec culture, there were hundred of deities, but many were henotheistic incarnations of one
another (similar to the avatar concept of Hinduism). Unlike Hinduism and other cultures, Aztec
deities were usually not anthropomorphic, and were instead zoomorphic or hybrid icons
associated with spirits, natural phenomena or forces.[157][158] The Aztec deities were often
represented through ceramic figurines, revered in home shrines.[157][159]

Polynesian

Deities of Polynesia carved from wood (bottom two are demons)

The Polynesian people developed a theology centered on numerous deities, with clusters of
islands having different names for the same idea. There are great deities found across the
Pacific Ocean. Some deities are found widely, and there are many local deities whose worship is
limited to one or a few islands or sometimes to isolated villages on the same island.[160]: 5–6 

The Māori people, of what is now New Zealand, called the supreme being as Io, who is also
referred elsewhere as Iho-Iho, Io-Mataaho, Io Nui, Te Io Ora, Io Matua Te Kora among other
names.[161]: 239  The Io deity has been revered as the original uncreated creator, with power of life,
with nothing outside or beyond him.[161]: 239 Other deities in the Polynesian pantheon include
Tangaloa (god who created men),[160]: 37–38  La'a Maomao (god of winds), Tu-Matauenga or Ku
(god of war), Tu-Metua (mother goddess), Kane (god of procreation) and Rangi (sky god
father).[161]: 261, 284, 399, 476 

The Polynesian deities have been part of a sophisticated theology, addressing questions of
creation, the nature of existence, guardians in daily lives as well as during wars, natural
phenomena, good and evil spirits, priestly rituals, as well as linked to the journey of the souls of
the dead.[160]: 6–14, 37–38, 113, 323 

Abrahamic

Christianity

Holy Trinity (1756–1758) by Szymon Czechowicz, showing God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, all of whom
are revered in Christianity as a single deity.

Christianity is a monotheistic religion in which most mainstream congregations and

denominations accept the concept of the Holy Trinity.[162]: 233–34  Modern orthodox Christians
believe that the Trinity is composed of three equal, cosubstantial persons: God the Father, God
the Son, and the Holy Spirit.[162]: 233–34  The first person to describe the persons of the Trinity as
homooúsios (ὁμοούσιος; "of the same substance") was the Church Father Origen.[163] Although
most early Christian theologians (including Origen) were Subordinationists,[164] who believed
that the Father was superior to the Son and the Son superior to the Holy Spirit,[163][165][166] this
belief was condemned as heretical by the First Council of Nicaea in the fourth century, which
declared that all three persons of the Trinity are equal.[164] Christians regard the universe as an
element in God's actualization[162]: 273  and the Holy Spirit is seen as the divine essence that is
"the unity and relation of the Father and the Son".[162]: 273  According to George Hunsinger, the
doctrine of the Trinity justifies worship in a Church, wherein Jesus Christ is deemed to be a full
deity with the Christian cross as his icon.[162]: 296 

The theological examination of Jesus Christ, of divine grace in incarnation, his non-
transferability and completeness has been a historic topic. For example, the Council of
Chalcedon in 451 CE declared that in "one person Jesus Christ, fullness of deity and fullness of
humanity are united, the union of the natures being such that they can neither be divided nor
confused".[167] Jesus Christ, according to the New Testament, is the self-disclosure of the one,
true God, both in his teaching and in his person; Christ, in Christian faith, is considered the
incarnation of God.[39]: 4, 29 [168][169]

Islam

Ilah, ʾIlāh (Arabic: ‫ ;إﻟﻪ‬plural: ‫ آﻟﻬﺔ‬ʾālihah), is an Arabic word meaning "god".[170][171] It appears in the
name of the monotheistic god of Islam as Allah (al-Lāh).[172][173][174] which literally means "the
god" in Arabic.[170][171] Islam is strictly monotheistic[175] and the first statement of the shahada,
or Muslim confession of faith, is that "there is no ʾilāh (deity) but al-Lāh (God)",[176] who is
perfectly unified and utterly indivisible.[175][176][177]

The term Allah is used by Muslims for God. The Persian word Khuda (Persian: ‫ )ﺧﺪا‬can be
translated as god, lord or king, and is also used today to refer to God in Islam by Persian, Urdu,
Tat and Kurdish speakers. The Turkic word for god is Tengri; it exists as Tanrı in Turkish.

Judaism
The tetragrammaton in Phoenician (12th century BCE to 150 BCE), Paleo-Hebrew (10th century BCE to 135 CE), and
square Hebrew (3rd century BCE to present) scripts.

Judaism affirms the existence of one God (Yahweh, or YHWH), who is not abstract, but He who
revealed himself throughout Jewish history particularly during the Exodus and the Exile.[39]: 4 
Judaism reflects a monotheism that gradually arose, was affirmed with certainty in the sixth
century "Second Isaiah", and has ever since been the axiomatic basis of its theology.[39]: 4 

The classical presentation of Judaism has been as a monotheistic faith that rejected deities and
related idolatry.[178] However, states Breslauer, modern scholarship suggests that idolatry was
not absent in biblical faith, and it resurfaced multiple times in Jewish religious life.[178] The
rabbinic texts and other secondary Jewish literature suggest worship of material objects and
natural phenomena through the medieval era, while the core teachings of Judaism maintained
monotheism.[178][179]

According to Aryeh Kaplan, God is always referred to as "He" in Judaism, "not to imply that the
concept of sex or gender applies to God", but because "there is no neuter in the Hebrew
language, and the Hebrew word for God is a masculine noun" as he "is an active rather than a
passive creative force".[180]

Mandaeism

In Mandaeism, Hayyi Rabbi (lit=The Great Life), or 'The Great Living God',[181] is the supreme God
from which all things emanate. He is also known as 'The First Life', since during the creation of
the material world, Yushamin emanated from Hayyi Rabbi as the "Second Life."[182] "The
principles of the Mandaean doctrine: the belief of the only one great God, Hayyi Rabbi, to whom
all absolute properties belong; He created all the worlds, formed the soul through his power, and
placed it by means of angels into the human body. So He created Adam and Eve, the first man
and woman."[183] Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in
domination who has no partner.[184]

Asian

Anitism
 Left: Bakunawa depicted in a Bisaya sword hilt; Right: Ifugao rice deity statues

Anitism, composed of a diverse array of indigenous religions from the Philippines, has multiple
pantheon of deities, with each ethnic group having their own. The most notable deities are
almost always the deity or deities considered by specific ethnic groups as their supreme deity or
deities.[185]

Bathala is the Tagalog supreme deity,[186] while Mangechay is the Kapampangan supreme
deity.[187] The Sambal supreme deity is Malayari,[188] the Blaan supreme deity is Melu,[189] the
Bisaya supreme deity is Kaptan,[190] and so on. There are more than a hundred different ethnic
groups in the Philippines, each having their own supreme deity or deities. Each supreme deity or
deities normally rules over a pantheon of deities, contributing to the sheer diversity of deities in
Anitism.[185]

Buddhism

Left: Buddhist deity in Ssangbongsa in South Korea; Right: Chinese deity adopted into Buddhism

Buddhists do not believe in a creator deity.[191] However, deities are an essential part of Buddhist
teachings about cosmology, rebirth, and saṃsāra.[191] Buddhist deities (such as devas and
bodhisattvas) are believed to reside in a pleasant, heavenly realm within Buddhist cosmology,
which is typically subdivided into twenty six sub-realms.[192][191][9]: 35 
Devas are numerous, but they are still mortal;[192] they live in the heavenly realm, then die and are
reborn like all other beings.[192] A rebirth in the heavenly realm is believed to be the result of
leading an ethical life and accumulating very good karma.[192] A deva does not need to work, and
is able to enjoy in the heavenly realm all pleasures found on Earth. However, the pleasures of this
realm lead to attachment (upādāna), lack of spiritual pursuits, and therefore no nirvana.[9]: 37  The
vast majority of Buddhist lay people in countries practicing Theravada, states Kevin Trainor, have
historically pursued Buddhist rituals and practices because they are motivated by their potential
rebirth into the deva realm.[192][193][194] The deva realm in Buddhist practice in Southeast Asia
and East Asia, states Keown, include gods found in Hindu traditions such as Indra and Brahma,
and concepts in Hindu cosmology such as Mount Meru.[9]: 37–38 

Mahayana Buddhism also includes different kinds of deities, such as numerous Buddhas,
bodhisattvas and fierce deities.

Hinduism

Left: Ganesha deity of Hinduism; Right: Saraswati, Hindu goddess of knowledge and music

The concept of God varies in Hinduism, it being a diverse system of thought with beliefs
spanning henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism and monism among
others.[195][196]

In the ancient Vedic texts of Hinduism, a deity is often referred to as Deva (god) or Devi
(goddess).[32]: 496 [34] The root of these terms mean "heavenly, divine, anything of
excellence".[32]: 492 [34] Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi. In the
earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Asuras.[197]: 5–11, 22, 99–102 [32]: 121  Over
time, those with a benevolent nature become deities and are referred to as Sura, Deva or
Devi.[197]: 2–6 [198]

Devas or deities in Hindu texts differ from Greek or Roman theodicy, states Ray Billington,
because many Hindu traditions believe that a human being has the potential to be reborn as a
deva (or devi), by living an ethical life and building up saintly karma.[199] Such a deva enjoys
heavenly bliss, till the merit runs out, and then the soul (gender neutral) is reborn again into
Saṃsāra. Thus deities are henotheistic manifestations, embodiments and consequence of the
virtuous, the noble, the saint-like living in many Hindu traditions.[199]

Jainism

Padmavati, a Jain guardian deity

Like many ancient Indian traditions, Jainism does not believe in a creator, omnipotent,
omniscient, eternal God; however, the cosmology of Jainism incorporates a meaningful
causality-driven reality, and includes four realms of existence (gati), and one of them for deva
(celestial beings, gods).[10]: 351–57  A human being can choose and live an ethical life (karma),
such as being non-violent (ahimsa) against all living beings, thereby gain merit and be reborn as
deva.[10]: 357–58 [200]

Jain texts reject a trans-cosmic God, one who stands outside of the universe and lords over it,
but they state that the world is full of devas who are in human-image with sensory organs, with
the power of reason, conscious, compassionate and with finite life.[10]: 356–57  Jainism believes in
the existence of the soul (Self, atman) and considers it to have "god-quality", whose knowledge
and liberation is the ultimate spiritual goal in both religions. Jains also believe that the spiritual
nobleness of perfected souls (Jina) and devas make them worship-worthy beings, with powers
of guardianship and guidance to better karma. In Jain temples or festivals, the Jinas and Devas
are revered.[10]: 356–57 [201]

Zoroastrianism

Investiture of Sassanid emperor Shapur II (center) with Mithra (left) and Ahura Mazda (right) at Taq-e Bostan, Iran

Ahura Mazda (/əˌhʊrəˌmæzdə/);[202] is the Avestan name for the creator and sole God of
Zoroastrianism.[203] The literal meaning of the word Ahura is "mighty" or "lord" and Mazda is
wisdom.[203] Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, taught that Ahura Mazda is the most
powerful being in all of the existence[204] and the only deity who is worthy of the highest
veneration.[204] Nonetheless, Ahura Mazda is not omnipotent because his evil twin brother Angra
Mainyu is nearly as powerful as him.[204] Zoroaster taught that the daevas were evil spirits
created by Angra Mainyu to sow evil in the world[204] and that all people must choose between
the goodness of Ahura Mazda and the evil of Angra Mainyu.[204] According to Zoroaster, Ahura
Mazda will eventually defeat Angra Mainyu and good will triumph over evil once and for all.[204]
Ahura Mazda was the most important deity in the ancient Achaemenid Empire.[205] He was
originally represented anthropomorphically,[203] but, by the end of the Sasanian Empire,
Zoroastrianism had become fully aniconic.[203]

Skeptical interpretations
The Greek philosopher Democritus argued that belief in deities arose when humans observed natural phenomena such as
lightning and attributed such phenomena to supernatural beings.

Attempts to rationally explain belief in deities extend all the way back to ancient
Greece.[129]: 311–17  The Greek philosopher Democritus argued that the concept of deities arose
when human beings observed natural phenomena such as lightning, solar eclipses, and the
changing of the seasons.[129]: 311–17  Later, in the third century BCE, the scholar Euhemerus
argued in his book Sacred History that the gods were originally flesh-and-blood mortal kings who
were posthumously deified, and that religion was therefore the continuation of these kings'
mortal reigns, a view now known as Euhemerism.[206] Sigmund Freud suggested that God
concepts are a projection of one's father.[207]

A tendency to believe in deities and other supernatural beings may be an integral part of the
human consciousness.[208][209][210][211]: 2–11  Children are naturally inclined to believe in
supernatural entities such as gods, spirits, and demons, even without being introduced into a
particular religious tradition.[211]: 2–11  Humans have an overactive agency detection
system,[208][212][211]: 25–27  which has a tendency to conclude that events are caused by intelligent
entities, even if they really are not.[208][212] This is a system which may have evolved to cope with
threats to the survival of human ancestors:[208] in the wild, a person who perceived intelligent
and potentially dangerous beings everywhere was more likely to survive than a person who
failed to perceive actual threats, such as wild animals or human enemies.[208][211]: 2–11  Humans
are also inclined to think teleologically and ascribe meaning and significance to their
surroundings, a trait which may lead people to believe in a creator-deity.[213] This may have
developed as a side effect of human social intelligence, the ability to discern what other people
are thinking.[213]

Stories of encounters with supernatural beings are especially likely to be retold, passed on, and
embellished due to their descriptions of standard ontological categories (person, artifact,
animal, plant, natural object) with counterintuitive properties (humans that are invisible, houses
that remember what happened in them, etc.).[214] As belief in deities spread, humans may have
attributed anthropomorphic thought processes to them,[215] leading to the idea of leaving
offerings to the gods and praying to them for assistance,[215] ideas which are seen in all cultures
around the world.[208]

Sociologists of religion have proposed that the personality and characteristics of deities may
reflect a culture's sense of self-esteem and that a culture projects its revered values into deities
and in spiritual terms. The cherished, desired or sought human personality is congruent with the
personality it defines to be gods.[207] Lonely and fearful societies tend to invent wrathful, violent,
submission-seeking deities, while happier and secure societies tend to invent loving, non-violent,
compassionate deities.[207] Émile Durkheim states that gods represent an extension of human
social life to include supernatural beings. According to Matt Rossano, God concepts may be a
means of enforcing morality and building more cooperative community groups.[216]

See also

Wikiquote has quotations related to Deity.

Aeon (Gnosticism)

Apotheosis

Deicide

Hero cult

Imperial cult

List of deities

List of deities in fiction

Odinism

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Further reading

Baines, John (2001). Fecundity Figures: Egyptian Personification and the Iconology of a Genre
(Reprint ed.). Oxford: Griffith Institute. ISBN 978-0-900416-78-1.

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