later, in 1772.

  William Theobald suggests that the word tour

Macro Perspective of Tourism and Hospitality
comes from Greek and Latin words for circle and turn, and that
tourism and tourist away represent the activities of circling
WEEK 1 away from home, and then returning. 
• Cox & King, the first known travel agency, was
HISTORY AND NATURE OF TOURISM founded in 1758 when Richard Cox became official travel
agent of the British Royal Armed Forces.  Almost 100 years
later, in June 1841, Thomas Cook opened the first leisure
HISTORY OF TOURISM  travel agency, designed to help Britons improve their lives by
• By the early 21st century, international tourism had seeing the world and participating in the temperance
become one of the world’s most important economic activities movement.  He organized a packaged tour for 570 people to a
and its impact was becoming increasingly apparent from the religious meeting in England.  In 1845, he ran his first
Arctic to Antartica.     commercial packaged tour, complete with cost-effective railway
tickets and a printed guide.   
• By 10,000 B.C., people had lived as tribes from place
to place for the proverbial “greener pastures” where they • In the 1850s, Monaco (a principality in the south of
developed settlements and trade resulting to the need for France) decided to cure its economic woes by becoming a
better transportation, thus by developing harnesses the winter haven for the rich as a health resort and a casino. 
domesticated animals were also used to pulls sledges for • Cruising began in the 1840 with the Cunard Lines
trade.    crossing the Atlantic between England and North America. 
• By 5000 B.C. people began to develop water • During the age of the grand tour from 1880 through
transportation.  They built canoes, dugouts and rafts and the 1930s, wealthy Europeans toured Europe as a part of their
propelled them by paddle or poles used in rivers, streams, and education. 
lakes. 
• The continued popularity of rail travel and the
• The development of the wheel around 3000 B.C. in emergence of the automobile had presented additional
Mesopotamia gave a major push to the humankind when they milestones in the development of tourism.  In fact, a long
developed carts pulled by oxen and other mobile transport to journey taken by Karl Benz’ wife in 1886 served to kick off
carry people and goods.  Wheeled vehicles reached other interest in auto travel and helped to publicize his budding car
civilization later – to India by 2500 B.C., to Europe by 1400 company, which would one day become Mercedes Benz.   
B.C., and to China about 1300 B.C.  The first spoke-wheels
were developed mainly for Chariots of war, pulled by horses, • Fast forward to 1952 with the first commercial air
around 2000 B.C. and 1500 B.C.  flights from London, England, to Johannesburg, South Africa
and Colombo, Sri Lanka and the dawn of the jet age, which
• By 1000 B.C., the Chinese had constructed roadways many herald as the start of the modern tourism industry.  The
between cities and the Persians had done the same around 1950s also saw the creation of Club Mediterannee and similar
500 B.C.  These paved ways for greater wheeled travel.  club holiday destinations, the precursor of today’s all-inclusive
• The Egyptians developed sailboats around 3200 B.C. resorts.  American Airlines’ first transcontinental flight between
leading to trade between civilizations.  The Phoenicians in New York and Los Angeles was introduced in 1959.  In 1970,
1000 B.C. were the first to have merchant fleet trading with the Boeing 747 began flying 450 passengers at a time across
Spain.  the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.                                                                 

• Another reason for early travel was the Olympic • The decade that followed is considered to have been
Games in 776 B.C. in Olympia, Greece.   Travel for sports a significant period in tourism development, as more travel
cannot be overlooked in those times, especially in the companies came onto the scene, increasing competition for
perspective of how dramatically it has grown in modern times customers and moving towards “mass tourism, introducing new
and the mass travel it entails.  destinations and modes of holidaying”.  In the 1970s,
ecotourism and sustainable tourism became important topics. 
• Religious travel grew strongly after the crucifixion of In the 1980s, cruising became popular.  In 1986, the United
Christ.  As AD, one of the important providers of lodging places States established the Visa Waiver Program (VWP) to
for the pilgrims was the church.  In the first century Roman eliminate unnecessary barriers to travel to the United States.
Catholic Church maintained hospices, monasteries and hostels The Visa Waiver Program is a program of the US government
for pilgrims during the middle ages.    that allows citizens of specific countries to travel to the United
States for tourism, business, or while in transit for up to 90
• Marco Polo became the first note business traveler as days without having to obtain a visa.  Currently, 39 countries
he pioneered trade routes from Europe to China, staying at and territories are part of the program. 
primitive inns called khans along the way from 1275 to 1292. 
• Industry growth has been interrupted at several key
• Travel for leisure purposes has evolved from an points in history, including World War 1, the Great Depression,
experience reserved for very few people into something and World War II.  At the start of this century, global events
enjoyed by many. Historically, the ability to travel was reserved thrust international travel into decline including the September
for royalty and the upper classes.  From ancient Roman times 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Centre in New York (also
through to the 17th century, young men of high standing were known as 9/11), the war in Iraq, perceived threat of future
encouraged to travel through Europe on a “grand tour”.    terrorist attacks, and health scares including SARS, BSE
(bovine spongiform encephalopathy, West Nile Virus, MERS,
• The use of hospitality predates the use of the word and the present time CORONA virus (COVID19). 
tourism, and first appeared in the 14th century.  It is derived
from the Latin hospes, which encompasses the words guest, • At the same time, the industry began a massive
host and foreigners.  The word tourist appeared in print much technological shift as increased internet use revolutionized
travel services.  Through the 2000s, online travel bookings airlines to purchase discounted seats that they then sell to
grew exponentially, and by 2014 global leader Expedia had consumers for a price that is generally about 20 percent lower
expanded to include brands such as Hotels.com, the Hotwire than the price offered by airlines or an online service company
Group, trivago, and Expedia CruiseShip Centers, earning such as Travelocity. 
revenues of over $4.7 million. 
• National Offices of Tourism (NOT) – seek to
MAIN ELEMENTS OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM  improve the economy of the country they represent by
increasing the number of visitors and consequently their
Tourism is the business of attracting visitors and catering to spending in the country.  Connected this function is the
their needs and expectations.  The following is an overview of responsibility to oversee and ensure that hotels, transport
the major components of the tourism and travel industry.  systems, tour operators, and tour guides maintain high
standards in the care and consideration of the tourist.   
1.  Tourist Destinations:  A tourist destination is a place of
interest where tourists visit, typically for its inherent or an • Destination Management Companies (DMC) – is a
exhibited natural or cultural value, historical significance, service organization in the visitor industry that offers a host of
natural or built beauty, offering leisure and amusement.   programs and services to meet client’s needs.  Initially, a
destination management sales manager concentrates on
Promoters of Tourism 
selling the destination to meeting planners and performance
• Pacific Area Travel Association (PATA) – founded improvement companies (incentive house). 
in 1951, comprising 95 government state and city tourism
2. Transportation:  This sector is vital to move travelers
bodies, 25 international airlines and airports, 108 hospitality
around the world.  Transportation is a broad term which
organizations, 72 educational institutions, and hundreds of
includes roads, railways, airways, and waterways:   
travel industry companies in Asia Pacific and beyond that have
terminals (airports, railway stations, bus terminals, ferry
united behind common goals:  excellence in travel, and tourism
crossings and seaports) and vehicles (aircrafts, buses, trains,
growth. 
ships, ferries). In tourism all the components of the
• Ministry of Tourism – a government cabinet body transportation play a vital and impressive role.   
that advocate tourism development, marketing, and
• Airlines – Major, National, Regional, Nonscheduled /
management through the National Tourism Organization
charter 
(NTO). 
• Ground Transporter – Rent-a car, Motor/coach,
• City Level Offices of Tourism and Convention
Railroad 
Centers – Many cities have established convention and
visitors bureau (CVBs), whose main function is to attract and • Cruise lines – Cruise ship 
retain visitors to the city.  They are staffed by representatives
of the city’s attractions, restaurants, hotels and motels, and 3. Accommodations:  This is an important part of
transportation system.  These bureaus are largely funded by tourism infrastructure because any traveler will need a bed to
the transient occupancy tax (TOT) that is charged to the sleep at the end of the day.  The hotel industry satisfies this
guests.  need of the traveler.  Accommodation comes in many forms: 
• Tour Operators – they are the one who promote • Hotels – they come in various categories and
tours and trips that they plan and organize.  A tour is a trip standards to meet every possible budget. 
taken by an individual or group of people who travel together
with a professional tour manager / escort and follow perpetual • Motels – are motor hotels located on highways. 
preplanned itinerary. 
• Lodges – are up-country accommodation mostly
• Travel Agencies – A travel agent is a middleperson sponsored by the local state.  We would have forest lodges,
who acts as a travel counselor and sells travel services on country lodges, ski lodges, etc. 
behalf of airlines, cruise lines, rails and bus transportation
• Guest Houses – were originally meant for
companies, hotels, and auto rental companies.  The American
government officials on tour but they are now open to the
Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) is the world’s largest travel
public. 
trade association, with more than 26,000 members in more
than 165 countries.  Agents use computer reservation systems • Furnished Apartments – are modern popular
(CRS) to access service availability and make bookings.  The alternative hotels especially for travelers staying longer. 
main vendors of CRS are Sabre, Apollo, Worldspan, System
One, and Galileo.  • Camps – are ideal for trekkers on foot or caravans. 
They provide outdoor accommodation ranging from tents,
• Tour Wholesalers and Consolidators – Tour porta-cabins to caravan sites. 
suppliers provide the package components for tour operators
via the services of hotels, attractions, restaurants, airlines, • Resorts – are for holidaymakers and located at
cruise lines, railroads and sightseeing which are packaged into attractive natural sites like hills, beaches, hot spring, waterfalls,
a tour that is sold through a sales channel to the public. Tour lakes, etc.  Man-made resorts are the latest craze like
wholesaling came into prominence years ago because airlines Disneyland, Universal Studios, Lego-land, Wild Wadi, etc. 
had vacant seats, which, like hotel rooms, are perishable. 
Airlines naturally wanted to sell as many seats as possible and • Cruise line – a company that operates cruise ships
found that they could sell blocks of seats to wholesalers close that features accommodation while on board. 
to departure dates.    4. Tourist Attractions are a core component of
These tickets are for specific destinations around which tour tourism.  They are often called “tourist attractions” because
wholesalers build a tour.  Wholesalers then sell their tours they tend to attract tourists.  Attractions are the places,
directly through retail agents.  Consolidators work closely with people, events, and things that make the objects of the tourist
gaze and attract tourists to destinations.  Common examples The tourist/visitor looks for diverse psychic and physical
include natural and cultural sites, historical places, monuments, experiences and satisfaction from the tourism activity.  The
zoos and game reserves, aquaria, museums and art galleries, nature of these experiences will mostly find out the destinations
gardens, architectural structures, theme parks, sports facilities, chosen and the activities experienced and enjoyed or
festivals and events, wildlife, and people.    participated in. 
5. Travel Brokers are also known as travel agents and • The businesses providing tourist goods and
assist clients in making the best travel arrangements possible.    services (profits) 
• Travel agents sell transportation, lodging, and Business people behold tourism as an opening to make profit
admission to entertainment activities to individuals and groups by furnishing goods and services demanded by the tourist
planning trips.  They offer advice on destinations, plan trip market. 
itineraries, and make travel arrangements for clients. 
• The government of the host community or area (wealth
• Travel wholesalers supply to retail travel agents and factor) 
they do not sell directly to consumers.  Wholesalers link
individual tourism operators with retailers.  They consider The government looks on tourism as a capital and megabucks
which type of tour program would appeal to a particular market factor in the economy.  Its outlook / attitude bears upon the
and promote that accordingly.  income and employment generation capabilities of this
business for its citizens apart from the foreign exchange
• Tour and charter operator typically combines tour earnings from international tourism and the public / government
and travel components to create a package holiday.  The most revenue in the form of tax receipts from tourist expenditures,
common example of a tour operator’s product would be a flight directly and/or indirectly. 
on a charter airline plus a transfer from the airport to a hotel
and the services of a local representative, all for one price.  • The host community (employment factor) 

• Ground Tour Operator is a local agency that Local residents most often consider tourism as a cultural and
provides services such as transportation and guide services.  employment factor.  It is primarily the effect of interaction
Generally, ground operators work with tour operators, but at between large numbers of international visitors as guest and
times will work directly with clients.  the local residents as hosts which may be promising or
unpromising, both that is of significance and interest to this
• Travel incentive companies basically imply group. 
unforgettable and entertaining trips paid by employers, with the
main purpose of encouraging employees to reach challenging
business goals of the company by achieving individual and/or TOURISM VALUE CHAIN 
group goals.  The incentive travel is predominantly used with
the basic aim increasing sales. 
6. Travel Related Services encompasses event and
conference planning organizations, travel companies and
organizations, as well as associations, government agencies
and companies that specialize in serving the needs of the
tourism sector as a whole. This includes both consumer-direct
and business-to-business companies. 
• Financial (credit cards, travelers cheques, travel
insurance) 
• Travel publications guide books 
FOUR DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF TOURISM 

• The understanding and definition of tourism industry

brings us to the tourism industry value chain.  As we
understood that the industry of tourism operates through a vast
network of inter-connected and related industries as well as
other ancillary industries which aim to serve the tourists and
people on travel for different purposes.   
• Tourism industry value chain is very large.  This value
chain of tourism industry is or can be elastic and flexible and
can also be much larger and widespread.   
• The broad value chain of tourism comprises of travel
and tour services like booking and reservation; transportation
industry (international and national travel and transportation;
accommodation; hospitality industry; food and beverage;
• The tourist (experiences and satisfactions)  
tourism products and destinations and related products and residence of King Louis XIV, is the world’s largest palace and
services; local travel and transportation. largest museum.  It is here that priceless works of art are
displayed for public view.  The Mona Lisa and Venue de Milo
Tourism Industry Supply Chain Features and are the star attractions of extensive collections of Chinese,
Characteristics:  Egyptian, Greek, Roman, French, and European art, sculpture,
and ceramics.   
1. Flexible and expandable 
  A tropical island resort is an island or archipelago that
2. Widespread across industries and sectors 
depends on tourism as its source of revenue.  
3. Can go deep at many points within an industry or
The Bahamas in the Caribbean, Bali in Indonesia, Phuket in
sector 
Thailand, Hawaii in the United States, Fiji in the Pacific, and
4. Covers tourism natured and similar types of Santorini and Ibiza in the Mediterranean are the examples of
industries  popular island resorts.  In the Philippines, Boracay is the most
popular island resort. 
5. Covers many different industries remotely related to
tourism  There are various tourist destination types as given below: 

6. Covers many more industries not related to tourism  • Centered Destination – It is the most common type
of tourist destination where tourists spend most of their time on
7. Many points and parts of this value chain become a occasional excursions to nearby places of attraction.  For
complete and expandable value chain in themselves example, Andaman Island is a centered destination. 
depending upon the type of tourism and its needs. 
• Base Destination – It refers to that type of
TYPES OF TOURISM  destination where tourists need to travel and explore
surrounding region.   
  In 1994, the United Nations classified tourism in three
categories:  • Multi-Centre Destination – Here the destination
comprises two or more destinations of equal importance.  For
1. Domestic Tourism involving residents of the given example, India is a multi-center destination where each Indian
country travelling with that country only.  People are visiting or state or region offers different culture, nature, and culinary
taking holidays and travel in own country.  experience. 
2. Inbound Tourism involving foreigners (non- • Touring Destination – A touring destination refers to
residents), traveling into a given country.  They are visitors the place to visit as part of linear itinerary. 
from outside the country.   
• Transit Destination – It is a place of a brief halt en-
3. Outbound Tourism involving residents traveling to route while the tourists are heading towards the final
another country.  Visitors are travelling to a different country for destination.  For example, Abu Dhabi is a transit destination
a visit or a holiday.    where tourists take a short break for going to Cape Town,
  Outbound Tourism involves two additional conditions:  South Africa. 

(a)  Health conditions as many countries are wary of importing

diseases by “foreign carriers”. (b)  Legal restrictions on travel WEEK 2
as some countries ban their residents to visit certain countries
for political or safety reasons. 
 WORLD TOURISM INDUSTRY AND ECONOMY 
 
The overall contribution of tourism industry comprising of
TYPES OF TOURISM DESTINATION  travel, transportation, entertainment and accommodation
 A tourist destination is a city, town, or other area that is among other tourist attractions to the global economy crossed
dependent to a significant extent on revenues from tourism, or USD 8 Trillion during 2017.
“a country, state, region, city, or town which is marketed or •      France and United States are among the popular tourist
markets itself as a place for tourists to visit”.  The term destinations in the world.
“destination” refers broadly to an area where tourism is a
relatively important activity and where the economy may be •      Tourism contributes to approximately 9% of the worldwide
significantly influenced by tourism revenue.  employment.
For example, Paris which for many is the most fabulous city in Tourism industry has witnessed an astonishing growth over
the world.  It is known as the City of Light.  It is also one of the previous few years.  Sparked by increasing technological
most romantic cities in the world.  Popular attractions in Paris advancements and transport networks all over the world, the
include the Eiffel Tower, Cathedral of Notre Dame, the Louvre industry has seen a steep growth.  In many countries industries
and the Muse d’Orsay, the Ile de la Cite, or simply a stroll down such as wildlife, entertainment, art, transportation, etc. have
the Champs- Elysees. The Cathedral of Notre-Dame is the now started taking one step ahead to expand their reach to
most famous Gothic cathedral in the world.  The Eiffel Tower international visitors / tourists.
was built more than 100 years ago for a World’s Fair and has
become one of the most recognizable buildings in the world WORLD TOURISM AND THE ECONOMY
and became the landmark or symbol of Paris.  The Boulevard
des Champs-Elysees is the main boulevard of Paris known for •      The global travel and tourism industry was valued at USD
fashion.  The Arc de Triomphe, the world’s largest, 7,581 Billion in 2014 (10.0% of GDP) and was forecasted to
commemorates Napoleon’s victories.  The Louvre, the former grow by 3.8% in 2015. 
•      The global tourism industry is further envisioned to witness Hungary, BENELUX (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg),
a year-on-year (Y-O-Y) growth rate of NORDIC
3.9% and reach USD 11,382 Billion (10.6% of GDP) by 2025.   (Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland), Poland, Russia, Rest of
Europe), Asia-Pacific (China, India, Japan, South Korea,
•      The revenue generated from visitor exports is also Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Australia, New
projected to upsurge from USD 2,141 Billion in 2025, exhibiting Zealand, Rest of Asia-Pacific), Middle East and Africa (Israel,
a CAGR of 4.0%.   GCC (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman),
North Africa, South Africa, Rest of Middle East and Africa).
•      Total investment on global travel and tourism sector is
anticipated to swell from USD 814 Billion in 2014 at a year-on-  
year (Y-O-Y) growth rate of 4.7% to reach USD 1,336 Billion in
2025. Europe tourism industry is the largest in the world  Increasing per capita income in most of the emerging nations
accounting for 51% of share in 2015.   is believed to be one of the key drivers of global tourism
industry.  In addition to that, promotion of tourism by certain
•      Europe tourism industry is spiked by increase in number of government bodies such as UNWTO (United Nations World
international tourists in France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Tourism Organization) is also expected to escalate the global
U.K.  The revenue generated from the tourist travel in the U.K. tourism industry.
accounted for USD 142.0 Billion in 2015.  
 However, natural calamities, terrorist activities, political unrest
•      North America and tourism industry accounted for USD in many countries, outbreak of some fatal diseases such as
1,412 Billion in 2015. Ebola, Swine Flu, SARS, MERS, COVID19, etc. are projected
to restrain the growth of tourism industry in some countries of
•      With USD 1,218 Billion of revenues in 2015, the U.S. is
the world.
the largest travel and tourism market in North America followed
by Canada with USD 98.2 Billion.  The U.S. Tourism is further  
anticipated to witness a robust CAGR during the forecast
period.     The global tourism industry is very competitive and includes
some of the top players such as:
•      Asia Pacific tourism industry accounts to witness the
highest growth over the forecast period i.e. 2016-2025.  The •      TCS World Travel
tourism market in Asia Pacific is likely to get propelled from
strengthening economy, rise in disposable income and •      DuVine
increasing infrastructural developments in some of the major
•      Gray & Co
countries such as India, China, Japan and Singapore.  Backed
up by these factors, Asia-Pacific region is projected to attract •      Air BnB
over 502+ million visitors by 2025.
•      Crown Ltd.
 
•      Accor Group
Market Segmentation  By Type
•      Balkan Holidays Ltd
Based on type, the global tourism industry can be segmented
into international tourism and local/domestic tourism. •      G Adventures

 By Purpose of Travel •      Fred Harvey Company

On the basis of purpose of travel, the global tourism industry is  

divided as adventure tourism,
 
business tourism, medical tourism, religious tourism and
  Growth in international tourist arrivals continues to outpace
others.
the economy.
 By Geography •      International tourist arrivals (overnight visitors) worldwide
Growth Drivers and Challenges grew 4% in 2019 to reach 1.5 billion, based on data reported
Key Players by destinations around the world.
WORLD TOURISM •      2019 was another year of strong growth, although slower
 First World compared to the exceptional rates of 2017 (+6%) and 2018
 Second World (+6%).  Demand was slower mainly in advanced economies
 Third World and particularly in Europe.
 The Four Worlds
•      Uncertainty surrounding Brexit, geopolitical and trade
Geographically, the global tourism industry can be segmented tensions, and the global economic slowdown, weighed on
into North America, Latin America, Western and Easter growth. 2019 was also the year of major shifts in the sector
Europe, Asia-Pacific, Middle East and North Africa (MENA) with the collapse of Thomas Cook and of several low-cost
and rest of the world. airlines in Europe.
  •      All regions enjoyed an increase in arrivals.  The Middle
East (+8%) led growth, followed by Asia and the Pacific (+5%). 
The study further analysis the Y-O-Y Growth, demand and International arrivals in Europe and Africa (both (+4%)
supply and forecast future opportunity in North America (United increased in line with the Americas saw growth of 2%.
States, Canada), Latin America (Brazil, Mexico, Argentina,
Rest of LATAM), Europe (U.K., Germany, France, Italy, Spain,
•      As per the main source markets, France reported the term Third World is outdated but still in use; today, the
strongest increase in international tourism expenditure among politically correct designation would be less developed
the top ten markets, while the United States led growth in countries (UN) or Low-income Countries (World Bank).
absolute terms.
Whatever the term is used, it serves to designate countries that
•      Based on current trends, economic prospects and the suffer from high poverty, high child mortality, low economic and
UNWTO Confidence Index, UNWTO forecasts a growth of 3% educational development, and low self-consumption of their
to 4% in international tourist arrivals worldwide in 2020. natural resources.  They are countries that are vulnerable to
exploitation by large corporations and industrialized nations.
•      International tourism refers to tourism that crosses
national borders.   These are the developing and technologically less advanced
nations of Asia, Africa, Oceania, and Latin America.  Third
•      Globalization has made tourism a popular global leisure world nations tend to have economies dependent on the
activity.  developed countries and are generally characterized as poor
with unstable government and having high fertility rates, high
•      The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as
gender-related illiteracy and are prone to diseases.  One of the
people “travelling to and staying in place outside their usual
critical factors is the lack of a middle class; there is a huge
environment for not more than one consecutive year for
impoverished population and a small elite upper class that
leisure, business and other purposes.  
controls the country’s wealth and resources.  Most Third World
•      The World Health Organization ((WHO) estimates that up nations also have high foreign debt levels.
to 500,000 people are in flight at any one time.
 
THE FIRST, THE SECOND, THE THIRD WORLD
After the Second World War, the world split into two major
  geopolitical blocs and spheres of influence with conflicting
political views about government and the right society.  The
The bloc of democratic – industrialized countries within the term “Fourth World” was coined in the early 1970s by Shuswap
American sphere of influence, the “First World” also known as Chief George Manuel, it refers to widely unknown nations
the The West.  The term First World refers to the developed, (cultural entities) of indigenous peoples, “First Nations” living
capitalist, industrial countries, generally aligned with NATO and within or across national state boundaries.
the USA.  The block of countries aligned with the United States
after World War II, which had more or less common political
and economic interests, this included the countries of North WEEK 3
America and Western Europe, Japan, South Korea, and
Australia. 
PHILIPPINE TOURISM AND ECONOMY
Some African countries were assigned to the First World
because of their links with Western countries.  Western Sahara INTERDEPENDENCE OF PHILIPPINE TOURISM INDUSTRY
was part of Spain at that time.  The anticommunist Apartheid AND ECONOMY
Regime of South Africa was until May 1961, a member of the Philippine Product Portfolio
Commonwealth, and Namibia was then known as Types of Tourism in the Philippines
South West Africa and was administered by South Africa.  Most Visited Churches, Festivals, Wellness in the Philippines
Angola and Mozambique were run by the Portuguese like The Most Popular Festivals in the Philippines
companies. (Historical footnote: Both countries became The Best Wellness Retreats in the Philippines
communist countries for some years in 1975). 8.  Aegle Wellness Center at Balesin Island, Quezon
Urban Attractions in the Philippines
There were some “neutral” states in Europe, such as
Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, Ireland, and Finland, but they •      The tourism industry has seen a significant spike in its
can be classified as First World in the context. contribution to the Philippines’ economic growth, so much so
that it provided 5.4 million jobs in 2018.  That’s 1.8% higher
  than jobs provided by the industry sector in 2017.  Tourism
industry accounted for 12.7% of the country’s Gross Domestic
The Eastern Bloc of the communist-socialist states, where the Product (GDP) in 2018.  That’s a 0.5% increase compared to
political and economic power should come from the up to now the numbers the local tourism industry raked in, in 2017.  
oppressed peasants and workers.  They are less industrialized
states.  The countries in the sphere of influence of the Soviet •      In a statement released by the Department of Tourism
Union; it included the Soviet Socialist Republics, the countries (DOT), DOT Secretary Bernadette Romulo – Puyat was quick
of Eastern and Central Europe, e.g. Poland, East, Germany to credit the current government’s infrastructure projects and
(GDR), Czechoslavakia, and the Balkans.  And there were the policies.  The Build Build Build program of the administration
Asian communist states in the sphere of influence of China, - has greatly improved infrastructure and transport connectivity,
Mongolia, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. while the ease of doing business has boosted both visitor and
investor confidence in Philippine tourism.
 
•      In 2017, the government inaugurated the Paranaque
The remaining three-quarters of the world population, countries Integrated Terminal Exchange (PITX), which has been
that did not belong to either bloc, were considered “Third deemed the “first integrated and multi-modal terminal in the
World”.  The Third World was all the other countries.  The southwestern part of Metro Manila.  The year 2018 also saw
mainly underdeveloped agricultural sates and nations of Africa, the opening of Mactan-Cebu International Airport’s new
Asia, and Latin America, where the blessings of civilization international terminal, Terminal 2, and the new Bohol-Panglao
benefited only a small ruling elite and the corporations and International Airport.  Updated facilities of Clark International
upper classes of the former colonial powers.  In principle, the Airport also opened earlier.  On top of this, DOT has made
public its bid to host the United Nations World Tourism •      Beach and diving tourism - Beach tourism is currently
Organization (UNWTO) general assembly in 2021.  This the major tourist draw of the Philippines. 
confab gathers major players in the global tourism scene, and
hosting such an event will definitely put the Philippines on Among the most popular beaches and diving choices in the
everyone’s radar.  We can’t wait to see how that will propel country include Boracay, El Nido, Coron, Cebu and Siargao. 
Philippine tourism here and abroad. Other common beach places are in Samal, Cagayan, La
Union, Pangasinan, Zambales, Batangas, Iloilo, Dumaguete,
From January to September 2019, a total of 6,161,503 people Camarines Sur and Zamboanga.   
visited the country, compared to 5,387,458 in 2018.
•      Hiking Tourism - Hiking is a rising form of tourism in the
•      Most of the country’s visitors came from Korea, China, Philippines, especially among locals and Western foreigners. 
USA, Japan and Taiwan.   Korea has consistently topped the Among the most famous hiking areas in the country are Mount
list for the first three quarters of the year with a total of Apo, Mount Pinatubo, Mount Halcon, Mount Banahaw, Mount
1,450,792 visitors, followed by China with 1,359,817.  Makiling, and Mount Pulag.   
Meanwhile, 792,619 people came from the USA, 518,211 from
Japan, and 252,578 from Taiwan. •      Research and Education Tourism - Due to the diverse
number of flora and fauna of the country, researchers from
•      Nature Based Tourism is any type of tourism that relies around the world have flocked various biodiversity sites in
on experiences directly related to natural attractions and Philippine environmental corridors.  Among the big draws for
includes ecotourism, adventure tourism, extractive tourism, environmental researchers include Mount Mantalingajan,
wildlife tourism, and nature retreats. Sibuyan Island, Dinagat Islands, Mount Hamiguitan, etc.  
•      Cultural Heritage Tourism is a branch of tourism •      Arts and Crafts Tourism - Arts and crafts tourism in the
oriented towards cultural heritage of the location where tourism Philippines has recently expanded following several attempts
is occurring.  to establish a cultural renaissance.  The country was conferred
its first UNESCO Creative City through Baguio in 2016.  Other
•      Sun and Beach Tourism occurs in coastal towns where arts and crafts centers are in Manila, Quezon City, San
beaches are located and most of the time the weather Fernando, Iloilo City, etc.   
conditions are of sunny weather and mild temperature (25 to
30 C).   •      Pilgrimage Tourism - The Philippines is the Catholic
pilgrimage capital of Asia, possessing hundreds of olden
•      Cruise & Nautical Tourism is tourism that combines churches, most of which were established between 15th to
sailing and boating with vacation and holiday activities.    19th centuries through the earthquake baroque architecture. 
Among the most popular pilgrimage sites in the Philippines are
•      Shopping, Leisure and Entertainment
Paoay Church, Manila Cathedral, Maragondon Church, Cebu
Tourism – Shopping Tourism includes duty free shopping in
Metropolitan Cathedral, Baclayon Church, Panay Church, etc.  
airports; purchasing luxury goods; visiting shopping malls,
department stores and outlets; discovering local brands; and •      Fiesta Tourism - Various festivals in the country are
supporting local artisan business and locally sourced flocked annually by both locals and foreigners.  The country
items.  Leisure travel is travel in which the primary motivation has been known as the traditional capital of the world’s
is to take a vacation from everyday life, often characterized by festivities and the capital of fun due to the thousands of
staying in nice hotels or resorts, relaxing on beaches or in a festivals which happen in the country, most of which are annual
room, or going on guided tours and experiencing local tourist spectacles.  Among the most famous of these events are the
attractions.  Entertainment is a form of activities that take Sinulog Festival of Cebu, the Kidayawan Festival of Davao, the
away people’s stress and give them properly amusement to Ati-Atihan Festival of Aklan, the Dinagyang Festival of Iloilo,
relax such as going to movie theaters, water park, carnival and the Panagbenga Festival of Baguio, the Moriones Festival of
so on. Marinduque, the Pahiyas Festival of Quezon Province, etc.
•      MICE and Events Tourism – Meeting, Incentives, Wellness Tourism - Wellness tourism has recently doubled its
Conferences and Exhibitions (MICE) is a type of tourism in contribution to Philippine tourism due to the rise of hilot
which large groups, usually planned well in advance, are (ancient Filipino art of healing) practices in spas, bath houses,
brought together.   and hotels.  Staycation, or staying in hotels for relaxation
purposes, has also become a trend, along with the increase of
Health, Wellness and Retirement Tourism – refers to trips
yoga, as rooted to the Indian roots of many indigenous Filipino
that are taken by tourists with the principal purpose being
cultures.  Hilot havens include Camiguin, Siguijor, and Antique,
improve their health and/or wellbeing.   Retirement Tourism or
while staycation destinations include the hotels of Manila,
Senior Tourism is a type of tourism typical of people of
Bataan, Batanes, Tagaytay, Baguio, and Bukidnon. 
advanced age.  
•      Heritage Towns and Cities Tourism - The Philippines is
•      Diving and Marine Sports Tourism – Scuba diving
home to numerous heritage towns and cities, many of which
tourism is the industry based on servicing the requirements of
have been internationally destroyed by the Japanese through
recreational divers at destinations other than where they
fire tactics in World War II and the Americans through bombing
live.  Marine Sports Tourism refers to marine and coastal-
during the same war.  Only the heritage city of Vigan has a
based sports presented as tourist attractions around the
town law that guarantees its singular architecture (the Vigan
waterfront.  It can be defined as the attractions providing
colonial style) shall always be used in construction and
tourists with marine and coastal-based activities as their
reconstruction.   
principal focus.  
1.  San Agustin Church, Intramuros Manila – It was the only
•      Education Tourism can be defined as tourism that
church building left standing in Intramuros after the war.   
pursues educational learning as a pretext for a trip, either
learning knowledge (historical, cultural, social) or learning a
language more and more practiced every day.   
2.  Iglesia de la Immaculada Concepcion (Baclayon church was completed in 1797.  The church served as a
Church), Bohol -  This limestone and bamboo church on the stronghold against Muslim raiders back in the old days.  
island of Bohol has stood on the same site for 300 years.  
12.         Mt. Carmel Chapel – Basco, Batanes - The Mt.
3.  Basilica del Santo Nino, Cebu -  The current building Carmel Chapel is truly a picturesque icon atop of the hill of
dates back to 1739; the old Cebu town grew around the Tukon and against the northern winds that Batanes is famous
church, and Cebu’s other historical sites are just a short walk for.  Architects Joven Ignacio and Tina Torralba together with
away from the church – Fort San Pedro, the old Cebu City Hall, the local artisans constructed the chapel inspired by the
and Magellan’s Cross, among others.   traditional Ivatan stone houses.  Once can have a beautiful
panoramic view of the West Philippine Sea and the Pacific
4.  Quiapo Church, Manila - Quiapo’s main landmark.  Ocean from the chapel.
Formally known as the Minor Basilica of the Black Nazarene,
the church got its name from its being the home of the Black 13.         St. Andrew Kim Parish – Project Pangarap,
Nazarene, making it the focal point of the annual Procession of Bocaue, Bulacan - Inspired by a Korean and European
the Black Nazarene that grips Manila every January.  The structural design, the parish was built to pay tribute to the first
church has stood on this site since the 1850s.    Korean Catholic priest who studied and sought refuge in
Bulacan.  
5.  Binondo Church, Manila - Officially known as “The Minor
Basilica and National Shrine of San Lorenzo 14.         Daraga Church – Sta. Maria Street, Daraga, Albay
- Located in a serene hill in the town of Daraga, the church of
Ruiz”, Binondo Church was built to cater to the growing Nuestra Senora de la Porteria (Our Lady of the Gate) is a
Chinese Catholic community in the Philippines.  The marvelous gift from the Fransciscan missionaries to Daraga.  
Dominican friars built the Binondo Church in 1596, on the other
side of the Pasig River.  The present church is a reconstruction 15.         Basilica of San Martin de Torres (Taal Basilica) –
of a structure that was almost completely destroyed during Taal, Batangas  - The largest church in the Philippines and in
World War II.    Asia, standing 96 meters long and 45 meters wide, Taal
Basilica is one astonishing landmark that sits on the crest of a
6.  Paoay Church, Ilocos Norte - St. August Church, hill right at the center of the town.  
colloquially known as Paoay Church.  This house of worship
embodies the architectural style known as “Earthquake 1.            Sinulog Festival, Third Sunday of January – Cebu
Gothic”: due to its sturdy construction, the Paoay Church has - One of the biggest festivals in the country. It celebrates the
survived over 300 years of earthquakes.  The bell tower is also image of the Santo Nino (Holy Child) that was originally
separated from the main church building, to prevent the church brought by Ferdinand Magellan from Spain in the 16th century.
from being damaged should the tower fall in an earthquake. 
The tower 2.            Masskara Festival, Third Week of October –
Bacolod - The festival is marked by dancers donning elaborate
served as an observation post for Filipino freedom fighters in colorful masks parading all over town, backed up by Latin-
1898 and 1945.  Along with a number of other Baroque-style inspired drumbeats.  
churches in the Philippines, the Paoay Church was designated
a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993. 3.            Dinagyang Festival, Fourth Sunday of January –
Iloilo - Another celebration in honor of Santo Nino, this award-
7.  Betis Church - Guagua, Pampanga - The Baroque- winning fete in Iloilo is marked by a street party celebrated with
inspired church built in 1660.  It is tagged as the Sistine Chapel bountiful food and drinks, concerts, and a street dance
of the Philippines due to its outstanding European-styled competition where different districts and local schools
murals and carvings.  Because of its exquisiteness, it is participate.  It also celebrates the traditions of Aklan Island’s
declared as a National Cultural Treasure by the National indigenous Aeta people.
Museum and the NCCA.
4.            Panagbenga Festival, February – Baguio - Also
8.  Caleruega Church - Brgy. Caylaway, Batulao, Nasugbu, called the “Season of Blooming”, Panagbenga is a grand event
Batangas - Caleruega’s name is inspired from a town in Spain, in Baguio where giant floats adorned with flowers parade along
which was the birthplace of St. Dominic de Guzman, father of the whole stretch of Session Road.  
the Order of Preachers. 
5.            Pintados Festival, June 29 – Tacloban, Leyte - The
The Calaruega is known as a place for reflection and Pintados Festival of Tacloban is yet another culturalreligious
relaxation.  One of its features is a retreat house. festival dedicated to Santo Nino, which is filled with various
activities locals and tourists would enjoy. 6.  Moriones
9.  Callao Cave Chapel – Penablanca, Cagayan - Callao Festival, Holy Week – Marinduque - During the celebration,
Cave chapel is a limestone cave made of seven enormous men and women who play the role of the “Moriones” are
chambers:  Chapel, Column, Skeleton, Elephant’s Head, dressed in biblical Roman warrior costumes and intricately
Praying Angel, Rocket, Lion’s Head and Dog’s Head carved masks to reenact the seven-day search for St.
Formation.   Longinus, a Roman centurion who converted into Christianity.  
10.         The Episcopal Church of Saint Mary the Virgin – 9.  Pahiyas Festival, May 15 – Lucban, Quezon - Probably
Staunton Rd, Sagada, Mountain Province - The church of one of the most colorful celebrations around, Pahiyas Festival
St. Mary The Virgin in Sagada, also known as the “Angelican in Lucban, Quezon, is dedicated to San Isidro Labrador, the
Church”, is said to be the oldest church in Cordillera.  It was patron saint of farmers.  
founded by Rev. John Staunton in 1990s and even survived
World War II.    8.  Kadayawan Festival, Third Week of August – Davao
- The word “madayaw”, which means beautiful in Dabawenyo,
11.         Miag-ao Church – Zulueta Ave, Miagao,Iloilo - Well- truly encapsulates the biggest and most colorful harvest
known for its artistic sculptural relief carved on its façade, the festival in Mindanao.  Its main events are ethnic dance
competition, beauty pageants, fireworks display, and a food
event called “Ka’n sa Da’n.” 9.  Ati-atihan Festival – Aklan Antartica, or the fish spa where fish clean your feet in a small
-  One of the oldest festivals in the country, Ati-atihan was pool of water
originally a pagan festival that is now celebrated as a tribute to
Santo Nino.  The festival is characterized by soot-covered 4.            National Museum of the Philippines - The museum
performers, dressed in indigenous costumes dancing tirelessly has four main complexes and extensive collections and
to the beat of the drums.  Ati-atihan is notable for having been artifacts relating to art, archaeology, anthropology, zoology,
the inspiration by a number of other festivals in the Philippines. biology, and natural history.  The museum galleries help offer a
sense of place, telling the cultural story beyond what you will
10.  Bailes de Luces, January 5 – Negros Occidental find on your own visiting the city’s many historical attractions.  
- Bailes de Luces or Festival of Lights is a relatively young
festival, in the town of La Castellana, Negros Occidental.  It 5.            Bambike Ecotours - Bambikes are locally hand-
started a back in 1997 as a thanksgiving feast for the upcoming made bicycles custom-built from bamboo.  The company has a
year, where a lively parade of dancers moving to the Latin social welfare initiative that employs villagers for the production
beat, floats, and children are all decked with beautiful lights,  of the bikes.  Depending on your interests, you can select a
tour that involves history, art, or city life.
1.            Qi Palawan Resort, Hotel - Qi Palawan is located
just an hour’s drive from stunning El Nido, in the 6.            Fort Santiago - The 16th-century fortress was key in
worldrenowned island of Palawan.   protecting the Intramuros, which is the oldest district in Manila,
known historically as the Walled City.
2.            The Farm at San Benito Hotel - The Farm at San
Benito in Batangas boasts of holistic wellness services for the 7.            Robinson Place Mall – It has a surprising number of
mind, body, and spirit.  Encompassing 50 hectares of lush unique stores where you can find local items. The mall’s
acreage, the resort houses several deluxe villas, a massive modern building is a stark contrast to the rustic and historic
spa, a vegan restaurant, organic gardens which provide for the landmarks that surround it.
restaurant, a gym, swimming pools, and ample greenery.   
8.            Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas - The galleries
3.            Bahay Kalipay – Puerto Princesa City, Palawan showcase Philippine money over several decades.  There are
- For a more rustic, back-to-basics wellness retreat, Bahay artifacts, old coins, and various currencies on display that
Kalipay, which literally translated means “Happy House”, is a illustrate the changes in money over time.  
peaceful oasis in the otherwise busy capital of Palawan.  
9.            Divisoria Market - This is the best place to people-
4.            Atmosphere Resorts & Spa – Negros Oriental watch and takes in the local flavor.  The bustling atmosphere is
- Over on the island of Visayas, within an old coconut like a flea market, and bargaining is the name of the game. 
plantation in the province of Negros Oriental, is Atmosphere
10.         Manila Super Mall - It is like one-stop shopping for
Resort and Spa situated near the sea and amongst nature.   
something to do in the city because the huge complex has
5.            Lotus Shores – Siargao Island, Surigao del Norte retail stores, restaurants, and entertainment.
- Also by the sea and at the heart of surfers’ paradise is Lotus
11.         Quezon Memorial Circle - A national park located in
Shores located on the southeastern coast of Siargao (a
the heart of the metro.  It’s one of the best locations to visit if
beautiful island that’s a retreat in itself).    
you want to learn more about the city, thanks to the attractions
6.            Nurture Wellness Village – Tagaytay - For Metro found there: Museo ni Manuel L. Quezon, Quezon Heritage
dwellers, another quick and easy getaway from the hectic House, Quezon City Experience (QCX) 
urban jungle is Nurture Wellness Village in Tagaytay.  
12.         La Mesa Ecopark - is a protected watershed that is
7.            Mandala Spa & Resort Villas – Boracay Island said to hold the last rainforest in Metro Manila.  The manmade
-  The Mandala Spa & Resort Villas in Boracay was tastefully lake is the primary water source for nearby residents and is
designed to blend in with its lush natural environment.  The surrounded by a 2,000-hectare forests and nature trails. It has
resort houses 15 luxurious villas which, despite the world- a public swimming pool for those who want to cool down.
renowned beach waiting right outside, make it difficult to leave
its comforts.
WEEK 4
 Located at the Mykonos Village of Balesin Island, the Aegle
Wellness Center is a premium wellness destination that
distinguishes itself through state-of-the-art medical facilities
SECTORS OF TOURISM
and world class Thalassotherapy pools.  
SECTORS IN TOURISM
1.            Rizal Park - Sometimes referred to as Luneta
Park, this is a peaceful and manicured outdoor garden located
in the heart of the city.  Throughout the park, of the note is the
century-old Monument of Rizal, which houses the remains of
one of the Philippines’ most celebrated heroes, Dr. Jose
Rizal.  
2.            Intramuros - It is the oldest section of the city and
characterized by its walled fortress.  This section of Manila was
once a walled city during Spanish Colonial times in the 1500s
to the 1800s.  
3.            Manila Ocean Park - The Manila Ocean park is one
of the most unique adventures in the city.  Get interactive with
marine life with the Sharks and Rays Encounter, Trails to
Accommodation Sector   Attractions include historic sites, heritage homes, museums,
Cruises are classed as both a form of transportation and a halls of fame, art galleries, botanical gardens, aquariums, zoos,
form of accommodation.  Agri-tourism remains a fairly niche water parks, amusement parks, casinos and cultural
concept, but one which is gaining increased traction, with attractions.  Many attractions are educational in nature while
tourists spending time on a farm, seeing the day-to-day work others are solely for entertainment.
that goes on first-hand and even joining in.  Farmhouse
accommodation is simply accommodation that facilitates this  Events are an important motivator of tourism, and figure
kind of experience and it often resembles as B&B.  Timeshare prominently in the development that marketing plans of most
accommodation refers to accommodation where ownership is destinations.  Equally, “event management” is a fast growing
shared between multiple different people, with usage rights professional field in which tourists constitute a potential market
being allocated to each owner at a different time of the year.  for planned events and the tourism industry has become a vital
This kind of accommodation tends to include condos and stakeholder in their success and attractiveness.
lodges, and owners are usually allocated usage rights for a
An event happens when people are gathered in a place for a
week or two weeks.
specific reason.  It may be for concerts, conference, or
Attraction Sector
festivals.  With events, local culture, tradition and customs are
Events Sector celebrated, entertainment and recreation complement each
Food and Beverage Services Sector other and cultural and social advancement is ensured.
Tourism Services
 The food and beverage sector encompasses all types of
Transportation Sector
establishments supplying food and beverages for consumption
Travel Trade
from fine dining and ethnic restaurants to institutional food
Entertainment Sector
outlets and catering firms, from pubs and bars to nightclubs
Travel Intermediaries
and lounges.
Tour Operator
Travel Agent  Restaurants are establishments which provide food and drink,
Benefits of Intermediation which is primarily eaten on the premises.  Tthe term
Tourism distribution channel methods
TRADITIONAL TOURISM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM catering is usually used to refer to food and drink services that
MODERN TOURISM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM are situated in locations where eating and drinking are not the
Tourist Information primary attraction.  Therefore, it would not include restaurants,
Shopping but it would include food and drink sold on public transport, in
Tourist Guides and Tours parks and at tourist sites. Bars and cafes provide a relaxed
Connected Industries environment for travelers to eat and drink.  In the case of bars,
Financial Services the focus tends to be on sales of alcoholic drinks and soft
Educational drinks, while in the case of cafes, the focus tends to be on hot
The latest Travel and Tourism Trends drinks and light snacks.  Some locations in the world attract a
large number of tourists off the back of the night life on offer,
Accommodation is one of the basic needs for any tourism with nightclubs being the main example.  These clubs are
activity.  The rise of platforms like Airbnb has increased the establishments which stay open until late at night and combine
popularity of shared accommodation, which typically consists music with alcohol sales.  Most nightclubs also feature a
of a space in a house, which may be shared with the stage for performers, and a dance floor for guests.  A casino is
owners.  Hostels are a form of shared-room lodging, where an entertainment establishment, which provides people with
guests pay for a bed in a dormitory-style set up.  Each room opportunities to gamble – primarily through luckbased card,
will be provided with multiple beds, with guests sharing dice and slots games.  In addition to these games, many
casinos are connected to hotels or resorts, and many also host
kitchen and bathroom facilities.  A form of outdoor
other entertainment, such as musical or comedy performances.
accommodation which makes use of temporary shelter is
usually in the form of a tent.  Tourists and travelers who camp The tourism services sector is made up of the organizations,
may opt to stay at a commercial campsite, which will provide associations, government agencies and companies that
additional facilities or amenities, or they might prefer to make specialize in serving the needs of the tourism industry as a
their own campsite in a publicly accessible area, like a national whole rather than the needs of travelers specifically.
park.  Most bed and breakfast accommodation is situated in a
converted private house or pub, and will provide guests with a Those working in tourism services include people who
private room for the night and breakfast in the morning.   research tourism trends, advertise and market tourism
products, educate or inform others about tourism, and those
Adventure/Outdoor Recreation who distribute general tourism information, like statistics. 
Retail businesses that benefit from tourism and travel also fall
Outdoor recreation or outdoor activity is leisure pursuits
into this sector.  Examples would include national tourism
engaged in the outdoors, often in natural or semi-natural
information companies, local tourist boards, tourism agencies,
settings out of town.  It may also refer to a team sport game or
tourism charities and inspection agencies.
practice held in an outdoor setting.  When the recreation
involves excitement, physical change, or risk, such as in rafting  Tourism was earlier defined as an industry that provides for
or climbing, it is sometimes referred to as adventure the movement, comfort and enjoyment of the people.  The
recreation.   “movement” in this destination is addressed by the
transportation sector.  This sector includes a wide variety of
Changing trends in travel and tourism, where clients request
different types of travel, including air, road, rail and water-
active, recreational experiences or travel adventures where
based methods. 
they can learn about nature and culture are driving the
growth.   Transportation is the means to carry people and goods from
one place to another.  This has become very important in each
stage of human civilization.  With the development of Its principal role is to bring buyers and sellers together.  In
transportation, mass production and distribution is possible. tourism for example, intermediaries are people or businesses
that link the tour package with the tourists.
 Air travel is one of the main ways that tourists and travelers
reach their chosen destination, and the airline industry provides  
various services, including scheduled and chartered flights. 
Companies within this sub-category may offer flights to  A tour operator typically combines tour and travel components
domestic and international destinations, as well as both long to provide a holiday.  The most common example of a tour
haul and short haul flights. operator’s package would include a hotel, a transfer from the
airport, a specific activity and possibly a flight.  Niche tour
Car rental services provide customers with temporary access operators may specialize in specific destinations, e.g. Italy,
to the car.  These services can enable tourists or travelers to India, UK, activities and experiences, e.g. skiing, music trips,
actually get their chosen destination in the first place, but many special interest tours, or a combination of both.  For profit, tour
customers use them after they have arrived, as they provide a operators usually negotiate net rates with suppliers and then
greater amount of freedom for exploration than relying on add their own margins on the package on a percentage or per
public transport. passenger basis.
 As the name suggests, the water transport sub-category  A travel agent is a private retailer that provides travel related
includes all forms of transport that carry passengers across services to the public on behalf of suppliers such as hotels,
water.  This includes ocean liners and ferries, which tend to flights, car hire or package holidays (tour operator).
voyage from point A to point B, as well as cruise ships, where
transportation is not the only purpose and the voyage itself is a  A travel agency’s main function is to act as an agent selling
huge part of the travel experience. travel products and services on behalf of a supplier. 
Consequently, unlike other retail businesses, they do not keep
 In many cases, coach services are one of the most cost- any stock in hand.  
effective ways for tourist or travelers to reach their destination,
and they are especially popular for day trips, although coach A package holiday or a ticket is not purchased from a supplier
travel does cater for international travel too.  Moreover, local unless a customer requests that purchase.  The holiday or
bus services also fall underneath this umbrella. ticket is supplied to them at a discount and profits therefore the
difference between the advertised price which the customer
 Railways are another popular transportation method, helping pays and the discounted price at which it is supplied to the
passengers to easily get from one location to another.  Rail agent. 
services are especially popular with domestic travelers, due to
their convenience and regularity.  Moreover, many major cities This is known as commission.
make use of subway-style rail services, facilitating quick and
 An online travel agency will typically perform a very similar role
easy movement.
to a more traditional travel agency, albeit using the power of
 A more recent form of transportation, which is going to the internet.  While the purpose is still to connect tourists with
become increasingly influential in the year ahead, is travel products on behalf of suppliers, there is more of an
the spacecraft.  The most famous example of a company emphasis on self-service methods. 
operating within this area is Virgin Galactic, which is hoping to
•      Producers - Able to sell products in bulk.  Reduce
be able to provide commercial space tourism via passenger
promotional costs.
trips into space in the near future.
•      Consumers – Avoid search and transaction costs.  Gain
 
from knowledge of the specialists.  Gain from lower prices.
 The travel trade sector supports the bookings and sales in the
•      Destination – International marketing networking.
other sectors.  The people that work in the travel trade make
reservations for accommodations, tours, transportation, food  
and beverage for attractions.  These booking can be in the
form of an all-encompassing tour package or a single booking What is a tourism distribution Channel?
for a single traveler.
 The tourism channel of distribution is an operating structure,
 Entertainment sector is a form of activities that take away system, or linkage of various combinations of organizations
people’s stress basically come from work or school and give through which a producer of travel products describes, sells, or
them properly amusement to relax.  In tourism industry, confirms travel arrangements to the buyer.
entertainment is a very important sector.  Tourists would love
to visit some specific places such as movie theatres, water  
park, Carnival and so on.  These establishments will provide •      Direct – through advertising, brochure, distribution,
them relaxation and enjoyment.  If the satisfaction of the tourist website, social media, client referrals and so on.
is attained, there will be a possibility that they will come back
again.
 
 Intermediaries are firms or persons who act as mediators on a
link between parties to a business deal, investment decision,
negotiation etc.  Intermediaries usually specialize in specific
areas, and serve as a conduit for market and other types of
information.  They are also called the “middleman”. It also
means to transform goods and services from a form that
consumers do not want into a product that they do not want. 
•      Indirect – though a third party (indirectly) by using tourism  The tourism industry is a big business in almost every country
distribution channels such as retail travel agents, wholesalers in the world. Yearly millions people travel on several occasions,
and inbound tour operators. spending billions of dollars.  Change and evolution is more
fast-paced than ever, with shifting demographics and
developing technology creating brand new travel trends.  
 The travel and tourism industry has been transformed by
technology.  From online reservations to customer
communication, the introduction of technology trends to the
tourism sector has changed travelers’ expectations and help
businesses provide their guest with a more immersive
experience.  
•      Ecotourism, sustainable tourism, and heritage tourism will
continue to grow in importance.
•      Globally, the number of tourist arrivals will continue to
increase by about 4 percent per year.
•      Government will continue to increase in recognizing the
 The tourist information sub-category is focused on providing importance of tourism not only as an economic force, but also
travelers with important information about things to do in the as a social-cultural force of growing significance.
local area.  This includes offline methods, such as tourist
•      More bilateral treaties are being signed, which will make it
information offices and leaflets, as well as online methods,
easier for tourists to obtain visas to visit other countries.
such as information websites and social media accounts.
•      The promotion and development of tourism will move even
 
more from the public sector (government) to the private sector
 Shops play a varied role in the travel and tourism industries, (involved industry segments).
catering to people’s basic needs, while also providing a form of
•      Technology will continue to advance, allowing even more
entertainment.  Indeed, many people travel to specific parts of
information to be available more quickly to more places around
the world to experience the shopping in that location with
the world.
examples including 5th Avenue in New York, Bond Street in
London and Rodeo Drive in L.A. •      Marketing partnership and corporate alliances will
continue to increase.
 
•      Employment prospects will continue to improve.
 Tourist guides offer organized tours of a location, which will
typically consist of them taking a group of people to some of •      Ticketless air travel will continue to increase.
the important attractions or tourist sites nearby.  The role of the
tourist guide is to factual information and context helping to •      Travel and tourism bookings via the Internet will continue
make the tour more interesting and educational. to increase rapidly.
  •      As an ever-increasing number of tourists visit destinations,
managing these destinations will continue to be a challenge.
            There are a number of other industries that are more
broadly linked to either the tourism industry or the travel •      Low-cost, no-frills airlines will continue to gain an
industry, or both.  These include companies that promote the increased market share at the expense of major airline
interests of the travel industry itself; businesses that help to companies.
actually connect customers with travel and tourism products;
and organizations that provide either practical support or •      Airlines will try to entice travelers to book their trips via the
logistical assistance for tourists and travelers. airline’s website rather than through Expedia and similar sites.

  •      Automatic airport check-in will continue to become

popular.
 A number of financial services are relevant to both the tourism
industry and the travel industry.  The most obvious of these •      The cruise industry will continue to expand.
include travel insurance and medical insurance products, while
•      There would be more alternative cruises.
other examples include services linked to currency conversion
and the acquisition of travelers cheques. •      There would be extreme increased concern for the health
and safety of travel and tourism.
 
•      Nature, culinary, and volunteer tourism will continue to
 The educational sub-category includes business that delivers
increase.
the kinds of education services that attract tourists and
travelers.  This is a growing aspect of the tourism industry and
includes organizations that are linked to conferences, WEEK 5
exhibitions, and training activities, as well as certain academic
institutions.
SECTORS OF HOSPITALITY
 
The hospitality industry is an important component of the  If you have arranged for hotel and accommodation, you will
tourism industry. The hospitality industry is an inclusive term automatically find the other two.  A lot of focus is being made
for hotels and food establishments.  It is a part of a broader these days to improve the lodging experience of people
service industry where people create the service experience traveling around the world.
with specific skills to generate revenue.  The service industry
places the customer as the central focus as against the   Below are the three main types of hotel and accommodation
machines in the Industrial Age.  People include both internal services:
people who generate the service; and external people who are
•      Lodging – When people travel from one place to the
the customers, suppliers, government officials, media people,
other, they need a place to sleep.  A shelter which will keep
etc.  Hospitality Industry refers to the business in which a guest
them safe from the atrocities of nature.  This results in people
is served by a host.  The guests are welcomed and received
booking lodges and rooms for their stay.
some services like entertainment, food, safe stay, health care
services and more.  Hospitality industry broadly comprises of  
Tourism Industry and has many sectors. It is a bustling industry
with myriad categories, but customer service is the unifying •      Suites – Apart from general lodges to stay, hotel sector
factor shared by all segments of the industry.  Different sectors offers luxury suites for the stay as well.  Generally, suites are
of the industry ensure that traveler’s needs are catered to in a suitable for formal sorts of staying and are much expensive
holistic manner. compared to regular room services.

DIFFERENT SECTORS OF HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY  

1.  Lodging – Accommodation
2.  Food and Beverage •      Resorts – The third type of accommodation which is
Sector of the foodservice industry popular among travelers are resorts.  These bring you close to
3.  Travel and Tourism nature and give you a necessary break from your normal
4.  Entertainment Industry routines.
5.  Timeshare  
 Have you ever stayed at a hotel, flown on a plane, or eaten at This is another crucial one of the 5 different sectors of the
a restaurant? If so, you have experienced at the hospitality hospitality industry.  It’s another wide sector of the hospitality
industry. industry.  Food and Beverage sector reign supreme in the
The hospitality industry is a broad group of businesses that industry and for good reasons.
provide services to customers.  It’s focused on the satisfaction It can range from something as simple as a bistro all the way to
of customers and providing specific experiences for them.   high-end restaurant and every catering establishment in
The hospitality itself is a multi-billion-dollar industry that relies between.  As it’s expected, the food and beverage industry is
heavily on the availability of disposable income and leisure further subcategorized into niches.
time.
In the hospitality sector, the success of a business depends
largely on how efficient the hospitality team is and how
effective the business model is.  So, in essence, one can make
a foray into all categories of the hospitality industry.
Cost and challenges will certainly swing upwards but managing
or owning different sectors of the hospitality can offer a chance
to rake in more rewards in the long haul.
The Five Main Sectors of Tourism and Hospitality Industry
This sector of the hospital industry features a gamut from
luxurious hotels to lavish resorts and campgrounds.
 Accommodation is an absolutely broad sector of the hospitality
industry, ranging from bed & breakfast enterprises and hotels There can be a humongous list when we categorize
to other facilities that offer lodging services. the food service industry as a crucial sector of the hospitality
industry but we will list the key categories below.
 Again, customer service is indispensable in providing
accommodation services. And that isn’t all –  

efficiency, integrate comfort and world-class amenities are also •      Quick-service Establishments – These are commercial
its foundation. foodservice restaurants that compete for customers who look
to garner quick snacks, drinks, and meals. Typically, they have
 An extravagant resort, for instance, should offer its customers fewer employees.  Think of McDonald’s, KFC, Subway, Pizza
privacy and exclusive services to cut it in the niche. Hut, etc.
  As you might expect, accommodation can marry well with  
other segments of the hospitality industry.
•      Catering Businesses – This category provides food and
 Of the three things which people need, when they travel, the beverage catering services for any special occasion – from
most important one is accommodation.  Other two are food and weddings to birthday parties and everything in between.
transportation.  It is due to the fact we have started with lodging
in our list of 5 sectors of the hospitality industry.   
•      Full-Service Restaurants – These are your typical •      Therefore, the travel and tourism domain makes the
restaurants or eateries which feature course meal, drinks, and backbone of our hospitality industry.  It is a huge domain which
a plethora of other food services.  These establishments demands innovation, strategy, and novelty at each step.
usually seat you at a table and use waiter to take food orders.  
•      When we talk about travel and tourism, it is not confined to
From fine dining to casual dining to themed restaurants; there leisure and travel for fun.  Both formal and informal travelling
is a range of these full-service restaurants. are included in this division.  People travel across the globe for
businesses, education, entertainment, holidays, and many
Themed restaurants have grown multiple folds like the wave other things.
of luxury underwater restaurants of the world.
•      Like all other different sectors of the hospitality industry,
Such is the popularity and growth of Foodservice this one also demands customer focus, leniency, relationship
establishments that industry pundits are considering Full- management, and other integrated marketing skills for its
service restaurants as a separate category of the hospitality smooth running and expansion.
industry.
 This again is a key category of the hospitality industry as it
People are always looking forward to food when they on the involves the most important thing of hospitality - us, the buyers
go.  When in a different country, people like to taste local and recipients of all hospitality services.  Hence, this sector of
cuisines. hospitality thrives for us and to entertain us.  
So, food and catering make essentials of the hospitality  Entertainment is a significant part of our travel these days.  If
industry. It starts with food production and ends at food travelling experience lacks fun and entertainment, then you
presentation on the eating tables, with storage and cooking might not be able to enjoy your time up to the fullest.
steps resting in between.
 For the successful running of hospitality businesses, it is
It is also important to discuss the processes and stages important to have in the kitty as many entertainment activities
involved in the foodservice industry of hospitality. as possible.
    Some of the activities which can elevate your experience
when it comes to entertainment are:
•      Food Management - It starts with the production of food. 
Many hotels and restaurants serve naturally organic food.  •      Marinas – They are one of the most popular places to go
Apart from production, food transportation and storage also when it comes to partying.  You can get along with your friends
make part of this division. on a private yacht where you can dance, play games, and
enjoy the best of your life.
 
 
•      Food Presentation – People like to eat food which is well
presented.  So, a lot of focus should be made on food •      Sports and Gaming – Sports and gaming are basic
representation to improve hospitality experience. things which people are looking for on their travel.  As a result,
casinos, swimming pools, and other similar activities are
 
becoming an indispensable part of the hospitality sector.
•      Beverages – Apart from general food items, beverage
 
storage, and representation also make it into the list of food
and catering services. •      Cruise – Apart from marinas, cruise services are also
becoming an essential component of the hospitality industry. 
 
Now, people like to spend their days on luxury ships which sail
•      Restaurant Management – Restaurant management is a across the blue oceans under the clear sky.
science which is being taught in colleges these days.  With
 
proper skills to manage a restaurant, you can manage food,
beverage, and maintain a quality representation of food, so that •      Nightclubs – Who doesn’t love to dance to their favorite
customers will come again to eat at your place. song when on a break?  We all do.  This is why hotels have
nightclubs services in them.
A lot to consider, tourism is synonymous with hospitality and
not as a different sector of the hospitality industry.  
•      Travel and tourism industry is a vast sector of the •      Bars – Sitting around a table and having a couple of
hospitality industry with several key players across the globe.  drinks with your friend is always a refreshing experience.  This
Most of them include trains, airlines, cruise ships, and several is why bars make an important part of the entertainment sector
crew members in their service. of the hospitality industry.
•      On the whole, players in the travel and tourism segments An emerging yet vastly important sector of the hospitality
are in the business of moving people from one destination to industry is vacation ownership of a place.  In this scheme,
another. people either individuals or parties own the rights to a place for
a specific time period during the year.
•      It would not be an exaggeration if we make a statement
that the most important segment of the hospitality industry is  We have placed Timeshare on our list of 5 different sectors of
travel and tourism as others depend on it.  Without profound the hospitality industry because of the raised interest of
levels of travelling and tourism in a region, the hospitality hospitality enthusiasts for Timeshare.
industry of the region won’t grow.
 Timeshare gives us an option to own our choices and to
enjoy facilities by either buying a part of a facility or getting into global society. It is also the most powerful interdisciplinary
a membership plan.  During this time, they can bring this place language in almost all fields of engineering, and every aspect
under their use, the way they want to. of health sciences, education, social sciences, physical
sciences, economics, finance, environmental sciences, Global
 There are many places which people can own for the time Warming, and even music and art, among many other
being, under the timeshare rule.  A couple of them are disciplines (Tsokos & Wooten, 2016). 
discussed below:
But What is Mathematics?
 
Definition: If we ask a dozen persons, “What Math is,” we
•      Convention Centers – Convention centers make the would probably get more than a dozen answers. But Blay
base of the hospitality industry as they offer a place where (2020) provided a noteworthy definition that “Math is the
people can gather in bulks for seminars, conventions, expos, language of mind, body and soul – mind and body because it
and other similar things. deals with every aspect of our daily life, and soul because of its
power to create abstractions.”
 
Definition of Mathematics According to Some
•      Villas and Resorts – You can own villas and resorts
Mathematicians
under the timeshare rule, for some time of the year and can go
and enjoy with your friends or family.
1. Albert Einstein (1879–1955): “Do not worry too much
 
about your difficulties in Math, I can assure you that
With the developing technologies and improved management mine are still greater.”
skills, the hospitality industry is poised to grow in future as well.
Hence, to elaborate on these sectors, it is imperative to take a 2. Aristotle (384–322 BC): “The science of quantity and
holistic approach towards presenting the outlook for the
hospitality industry. the Mathematical sciences particularly exhibit order,
symmetry, and limitation; and these are the greatest
forms of the beautiful.”

3. Benjamin Franklin: (1706-1790): “No employment can

be managed without Arithmetic, no mechanical
invention without Geometry.”

4. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642): “The laws of nature are

written in the language of Mathematics” and
“Mathematics is a language with which God has written
the universe.”

5. Pythagoras (570 BC – 495 BC): “There is Geometry in

the humming of the strings. There is music in the
spacing of the spheres.” and “Geometry is knowledge
of the eternally existent.”

Some of these definitions or statements emphasize science,

some highlight the abstractness of Mathematics like art, and
others specifically said it is a language, while another
expressed what he feels about the subject. Today, no single
definition of Mathematics exists, even among modern
Mathematicians. There is a lack of consensus on whether
Mathematics in the Modern World Mathematics is an art, language, or science as many
professionals and educators take no interest in the definition of
Mathematics. Some say, “Mathematics is what Mathematicians
WEEK 1 do,” but this writer says, “Mathematics is what everybody
does!”
Discovering Patterns and 1 Numbers in Investigating Patterns in Life
Nature PART 1 Many patterns and occurrences exist in the world. For
example, in the movie “Groundhog Day,” Bill Murray realized
Defining Mathematics that he was living the same day over and over again. The story
became interesting when he came up with ways to fix the
Mathematics plays a vital role in technological, scientific, things that went wrong before. If you have time, watch the film
medical, educational, and economic accomplishments in our of Bill Murray, “Groundhog Day” – 1993.
From the movie “Groundhog Day,” these patterns can be Calculus, among others. Mathematics is especially useful
anything, like: because it helps us predict phenomena and situations, and
number patterns, specifically, are all about prediction.
 procrastination on doing something; Research shows that recognizing these patterns is also an
important problem-solving skill. Therefore, to enhance this skill,
 always “too busy” or having “no time” at all; we begin with the patterns in one geometric design called the
Pascal’s Triangle.
 always giving up before finishing something; The Pascal’s Triangle, also known as the Chinese Triangle, is
discovered by a French Mathematician named Blaise Pascal.
 constant struggles with friendships or relationships; We use arithmetic patterns to develop this Triangle.
Specifically, to get the next row of the triangle, we just have to
 addictions to smoking, drinking, drugs, mad partying, etc.; add the first term to the second term, then the second term to
the third term, and so forth. If we have the term 1 in the first
 persistent issues with teachers, classmates, groupmates, row, the second row will have the terms 1, 2, 1 because of 0+1,
1+1, and 1+0. For the third row, we add 0+1, 1+2, 2+1, and
etc.; 1+0, resulting to 1, 3, 3, 1.

 making the sign of a cross every time you pass by a Further, to check the Pascal’s Triangle, we can use the
expansions of binomial expressions. Each row of the triangle
church; and has x and y values, where:

 always putting on a shirt with the right arm first. x= 1 or the first term in a row in the Pascal’s Triangle;
xy= middle term/s in a row in the Pascal’s Triangle; and
y= 1 or the last term in a row in the Pascal’s Triangle
Number Patterns
This gives us the coefficients for an expanded binomial of the
This section discusses number patterns and relationships. Let form (x + y)n, where the power or n is the row of the triangle.
us examine some patterns in numbers. Look for any video Illustration 1 shows how we can derive with these binomial
about number patterns and discover how they form sets of expansions. Observe the pattern of expansion below to
numbers and symmetry. continue to the power of 7, 8, 9, etc.
                                                                     Illustration 1

Note: Check your answers at the end of the assignment.

Wrapping up, let’s differentiate the two common types of
mathematical sequences: arithmetic and geometric sequences.
An arithmetic sequence is created through constant difference
between each consecutive pair of terms. A geometric
sequence instead has a constant ratio between each pair of
consecutive terms. This means that the next term is obtained
Maybe you will agree that Mathematics is the science of by multiplying the preceding number by a constant factor.
patterns. Patterns are all around us.  The only challenge for Examples below will help you understand the differences
everyone is to develop this pattern just like the ones seen on between the two better.
this page and described in the film. Let us see some
coincidences in numbers and letters of the alphabet.

Example 1: 3, 7, 11, 15, … is an arithmetic

WEEK 2 sequence because it is formed by adding 4 to each term in the
sequence, which is called the common difference. 
Discovering Patterns and 1 Numbers in Example 2: 3, 6, 12, 24, … is a geometric sequence because
Nature PART 2 it is formed by multiplying each term by 2 to get the succeeding
terms which are called the common ratio. Incidentally, the
geometric sequence is the consecutive horizontal sums in the
Pascal’s Triangle Pascal’s triangle.
We are already familiar with the number patterns found in sets
such as 2, 5, 8, 11 since they are among the patterns we first WEEK 3
learned in school. As we advance, we experience number
patterns through the vast concepts of Algebra, Trigonometry,
Discovering Patterns and 1 Numbers in
Fibonacci numbers appear everywhere—from the leaf and
Nature PART 3 flower arrangement in plants to animal skin to the scales of
pineapples and many others. Fibonacci numbers can be found
Fibonacci Sequence in the growth of living things and human beings. Let us look at
a few examples. Anthurium is a locally grown plant with flowers
with only one petal, while some gumamela has five petals.
Trace the paths and add the digits of the next three shallow Many other native plants or trees with leaves, flowers,
diagonals as they are done. The sequence has the following branches, roots, fruits, and other parts show Fibonacci
elements: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, _____, _____, _____. numbers.
Here are a few examples of Fibonacci numbers in flowers.

The sunflower seeds are arranged clockwise

in  34 spirals and 21  spirals  counter-clockwise. It varies

according to the size of flowers, but the number of spirals is
always close to Fibonacci numbers.
Do you see how the squares fit neatly together? Observe that 1
and 1 makes 2, 1 and 2 makes 3, 2 and 3 makes 5, and so on.
According to some, the pattern above is known as the When you make squares with those widths, you get a nice
Fibonacci sequence, and according to some, it is nature’s
numbering system. Observe how the series is formed and how
it continues. 

The sequence which you just generated by tracing and adding

the numbers in the shallow diagonals of Pascal’s triangle is
called a Fibonacci sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
...). It is termed after the man named Leonardo Fibonacci who
solved the now-famous rabbit-breeding problem. The problem
goes like this. spiral with a sequence of 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on.
“A man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded by a wall. The squares that fit neatly in the snail shell implies that
How many pairs of rabbits can be produced from that pair in a Fibonacci numbers are very much    present in any spiral.
year if it is supposed that each pair begets a new pair from the
second month on and becomes productive? (Tannenbaum, The
2004).”

Golden Ratio [Phi = φ]

The value approached by dividing two consecutive Fibonacci
numbers, that is bigger Fn divided by smaller Fn, is called the
Golden Ratio. It is symbolized by the Greek letter Phi “φ" and is
always approximately equal to 1.6180339887. This ratio
appears many times in geometry, art, architecture, and many
other areas. Below is the geometric explanation of the Golden
ratio.

Let us see though the graph below the solution or the pattern
that Leonardo Fibonacci discovered.
Fibonacci sequence is defined by the recursive relation of Fn =
Fn-1 + Fn-2, and with a starting condition of F1 = 1 and F2 = 1.
In other words, we always start the pattern with 1, 1 and
followed by the sum of the previous two. Following this, we can
create a sequence of 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, and so
forth.
Source: https://www.truewillaesthetics.com/defining-the-ideal- However, in contrast to everyday language, Mathematical
physique/ language presents symbols that have straightforward
meanings. Additionally, the language of Mathematics is a
Finding the nth term in a Fibonacci Sequence using practice in simplification that more elegant equations are
Binet’s Formula shorter ones. We practice simplification by solving long
equations. The Mathematical language is straightforward
because it is transparent about its truth value.

By now, we have learned in this module that Fibonacci

numbers grow very quickly and very large in a short span of
time. Just like its origin, the Rabbit Problem. Now the next Mathematical Expressions
problem is how can we find any Fibonacci number without According to Leshem and Markovits (2013), "Numbers and
enumerating the previous numbers? figures represent nouns, while operational signs are verbs." Do
For example, how can we find F30 without knowing F29 and you agree? Let's discuss further.
F28? While finding this (F30 = 832,205) is quite easy and can In language, nouns are names of persons, places, animals,
be done using repeated addition with a little help from the things, and events. Pronouns function the same way, too, that
calculator. Fortunately, there is a more convenient way to get pronouns signify someone or something. In Mathematics,
the answer. It is called Binet's formula. numbers, variables, and expressions can be likened to nouns
As presented above, Fibonacci numbers are strongly related to and pronouns.
the golden ratio. From this, Binet's formula expresses the nth Conjunctions and verbs in language describe what nouns are.
Fibonacci number in terms of n and the golden ratio to find The corresponding Mathematical symbols would be +, -, *, and
the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence.  (division sign).
Formulated by Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, the Binet's Take the example of the following noun phrase "snacks of a
formula follows this:  bag of chips and two bottles of soda." Mathematically, we can
express the phrase as "snacks of 1 bag of chips + 2 bottles of
soda." Simplifying it further, the resulting expression would be
"1+2."
Sometimes Mathematical expressions show unknown values.
These are typically symbolized by variables such as x, y, or z.
If we express "11 less than my age" into a Mathematical
The formula looks like complicated, but it is obviously a lot
expression, it would be x-11, where x is "my age," which is
more convenient to use. Further, the formula can be simplified,
unknown.
we can reduce the first term to φ or the golden ratio since its
value is always equal to 1.6180339887… The next term, on the The table below shows us how symbols can tell a story:
other, is just the reciprocal phi which is equal to negative
version which is -1.6180339887…

WEEK 4
Mathematical Equations
Mathematical Language and Symbols - Part 1 
We use language to communicate complete thoughts or ideas.
The Language of Mathematics
Complete thoughts are communicated through sentences,
As Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) said, "The universe cannot be which have a doer (noun) and what the doer is, was, or will do
read until we have learned the language and become familiar (verb) or how the doer is described (adjective). Thus, "The
with the characters in which it is written. It is written in Philippines" is not a complete thought, but "The Philippines is a
mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles, dirty place" is a complete thought.
and other geometrical figures, which means it is humanly
impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is
A group of Mathematical symbols that express a complete
wandering about in a dark labyrinth." Like other languages,
thought is called an equation. Typically, equations are a
Mathematics has its grammar, syntax, semantics, vocabulary,
comparison of two or more Mathematical expressions. The
word order, synonyms, negations, conventions, idioms,
example "The Philippines is a dirty place" can be
abbreviations, sentence construction, and paragraph structure.
Mathematically expressed as "The Philippines=dirty place," as
Mathematics has language features unparalleled in other the Philippines is equated to being dirty.
languages, like representation, for example, "x, y, or z" for any
real number or any numerical expression. In addition, the
language of Mathematics is packed with terms and symbols,
which are typically not used in everyday conversations. These
reasons may make understanding Mathematics difficult. 
We further expand our table above to show how equations took 5." Is what he said true or false? You do math in your
work:  head by subtracting 20-8 and concluded that Zee is lying or
that his statement is false. 
If he had said, "I took 12 cookies," he would've been telling
the truth. If Zee is particularly scared of you and said, "I took
some cookies," you would never know if that statement is true
or false because "some" would be any number. An unknown
truth value of a statement is considered as having an "open"
truth value.
True equations are verifiable as logical, while false equations
are not. Open truth values cannot be logically judged as true
or false. Let's expand the previous table to illustrate how truth
values may be made:

WEEK5
Mathematical Language and Symbols - Part 2
Translation from English to Mathematical Expressions
and Sentences

Truth Values Reading and writing are the basic skills that should be
As mentioned earlier, Mathematics uses straightforward enhanced to get using a language; it is the same in learning
language. Unlike linguistic language, it is easy to judge if a Mathematics. In a language course, you are encouraged to
Mathematical equation is true or not. To evaluate an equation's speak in complete sentences, while in a Math class, labelling
truth value, we look at the assumptions and givens within the and explaining the answers are the rules that no one should
particular equation. It is best to think about an equation as one forget. However, it should be noted that Mathematics is a much
whole story in mathematics and not assume what is not given. easier language than English because it has few verbs, though
This lesson will only discuss three types of truth values: true, it has an infinite number of nouns (Leshem and Markovits,
false, or open. 2013).

Without additional information, the sentence "The Our preliminary activity practised the two common English and
Philippines=dirty place" can only be judged as having an open mathematics attributes as a language, which has synonyms
truth value. We cannot simply judge the Philippines as dirty and abbreviations. As Tsokos and Wooten (2016) said, “Math
because the story does not tell us how dirty is "dirty." is the language of thought. We think faster than we speak, and
we speak faster than we write, therefore to convey our
Suppose you lived in a dormitory. One day, you stored a box of thoughts quickly, Mathematicians abbreviate everything.”
20 cookies and explicitly told your dorm mates not to take them
from your cookie box. The next day, you left the dorm without Once you have learned the basic keywords for translating word
eating your cookies (you still have 20). When you came home problems from English into mathematical expressions and
hours later, you opened your box of cookies to take a snack. equations, you will be presented with various English
Surprisingly, it only had eight cookies left.  expressions and be told to perform the translation.

To investigate, you checked the CCTV footage to look at who Illustration 1

took your cookies. The footage clearly shows that only your
dorm mate Zee took your cookies, but you cannot see how
many he took. When asked how many he took, he said, "I only
Mathematical Terms in Pilipino 
Composing an English-Filipino vocabulary for the natural
sciences and Mathematics can be controversial. It implies a
shift from English to Filipino as a medium of communication.
Worse – to some, anyway – it raises the spectre of abandoning
our position as one of the few English-speaking countries and
the only one in the Far East. While others are striving hard and
hurriedly to learn the de facto universal language, we would
deliberately drop it, wail many Filipinos, perhaps in honest
confusion, or exclaim in rising aggression. The shift would be a
giant step backward, a stupid throwback, and all that. Important
as these observations are, however, this piece is hardly the
occasion to discuss them. (Miranda, 2015)
This translation work started as an academic undertaking, a
basic inquiry into the capabilities of Filipino for scientific
communication. A strong conviction inspired that the beauty
and force of Philippine languages, principally Tagalog, are
adequate to identify things, explain concepts, and describe
phenomena, processes, and procedures in the natural
sciences and mathematics. There was a reason, too, namely to
make it possible to implement a directive to teach in Filipino
freshman chemistry and introductory physical science at the
University of the Philippines. The wisdom of teaching science
in this language was not at issue; the implications of replacing
English in schools (Miranda, 2015).
That is why this topic aims to present the problem with its
partial solution and thereby generate awareness and interest.
As the examples presented, a reminder that no one will regard
the work finished. The search for terms must go on and on,
and others will have to join in the effort. As you read this, no
one ever knows this; you will be the next to discover some not
searched translations of Mathematical terms in Pilipino.
Illustration 2
 - What is the duration and equivalent course unit of each
of the NSTP Component?  
Each of the NSTP component shall be undertaken for an
academic period of two (2)  semesters for 54 to 90 training
hours per semester. It shall be credited for three (3) units per 
semester.  
- What fees shall be charged to students taking any of the
NSTP components?  
No other fees shall be collected except basic tuition fees, which
should not be more than 50%  of the charges of the school per
academic unit.  
- Who will manage the NSTP implementation?  
The school authorities shall exercise academic and
NSTP 1 administrative supervision on the design,  formulation, adoption
and implementation of the different NSTP components in their 
respective schools.  
WEEK 1
In the case of ROTC, the school authorities and Department of
National Defense (DND),  subject to the policies, regulations
CWTS/LTS CURRICULAR PROGRAM  and programs of DND on the military component of the 
training, shall exercise joint supervision over its
implementation  
Lesson 1  
- Who will manage the NSTP implementation?  
What is the legal basis of the National Service Training
Program (NSTP)?   Schools who have contracted CHED accredited or TESDA-
recognized Non-Governmental  Organizations (NGOs) to
The National Service Training Program (NSTP) Law or RA formulate and administer training modules for any of the NSTP 
9163 also known as “An Act  Establishing the National Service components shall jointly exercise academic and administrative
Training Program (NSTP) for tertiary level students, amending supervision with those NGOs.  
for the  purpose Republic Act No. 7077 and Presidential
Decree No. 1706, and for other purposes.” was enacted  last CHED Regional Offices, TESDA, Provincial/District Offices and
January 2002 to amend the Expanded ROTC.   DND-AFP (through the Major  Service Reserve Commands),
shall oversee and monitor the implementation of the NSTP 
This program aimed to enhance civic consciousness and under their respective jurisdiction, to determine if the trainings
defense preparedness in the youth by  developing the ethics of are being conducted in  consonance with the objectives of the
service and patriotism while undergoing training in any of its NSTP Law.  
three (3) program  components, specifically designed to
enhance the youth’s active contribution to the general welfare.   - What is NSTP-One Summer Program (NSTP-OSP)?  
Who are covered by the NSTP Law?   NSTP-OSP is established for the three (3) components: ROTC,
CWTS and LTS.  
 All incoming freshmen students, male, female, starting school
year (SY) 2002-2003, enrolled  in any baccalaureate and in at This is intended for graduating students in baccalaureate or at
least two (2) year technical-vocational or associate courses,  least two-year technical vocational or associate courses, who
are required to complete one (1) NSTP component of their have yet to comply with the NSTP as a requirement for 
choice, as a graduation  requirement;   graduation, as well as for students, thus allow them to
concentrate on the academic subjects  and other co-curricular
 All higher and technical-vocational education institutions must concerns.  
at least offer one (1) of the  NSTP components.  
- What is the National Service Reserve Corps (NSRC)?  
 State universities and colleges (SUC’S), shall offer the ROTC
component and at least one  other NSTP component.   NSRC is created under Section 11 of RA 9163 or the NSTP
Act of 2001, composed of  graduates of the non- ROTC
 The Philippine Military Academy (PMA), Philippine Merchant components: the CWTS and LTS. Members of this Corps
Marine Academy (PMMA),  Philippine National Police Academy maybe  tapped by the State for literacy and civic welfare
(PNPA), and other SUC’s of similar nature, in view of the  activities, through the joint effort of DND,  CHED, and TESDA. 
special character of these institutions, are exempted from the
NSTP.   Guiding Principles  

 Private higher education and technical- vocational education A. Prime Duty of the Government to its Citizens  
institutions with at least 350  student cadets, may offer the
 The aim of the government is to serve and protect the citizens
ROTC component and consequently establish / maintain a 
and vice-versa the responsibility of  all citizens to defend the
Department Of Military Science and Tactics (DMST), subject to
security of the state, and in fulfillment the government may
the existing rules and  regulations of the Armed Forces Of The
require each citizens to  render personal, military or civil
Philippines (AFP).  
service.  
B. Role of the Youth in the Nation-Building 
The state shall promote civic consciousness among them, and CWTS students demonstrate technical skills in communities
shall develop their physical, moral  valuable resource of the like meat  processing, silkscreen making and how to establish
nation, the youth shall be motivated, trained, organized and small business.  
involved in  military, literacy or civic welfare programs actively.  
Care for Health - This area aims to give knowledge on
Lesson 2   medical-related fields and extend health  services needed in
the community. It includes medical services like first- aid
- What are the components of the NSTP?   operation, vaccination,  info dissemination, basic lifesaving
seminars, heath / nutrition technical assistance and training of 
Reserve Officer’s Training Corps [ROTC]
youth to be first aid assistants.  
Refers to the program component,  institutionalized under
Environment - This area inculcates environmental awareness
Section 38 and 39 of  Republic Act No. 7077, designed to
and its contribution to health and  related fields. It involves
provide  military training to motivate, train organize
management of waste, environmental protection, dissemination
and  mobilize them for national defense  preparedness. 
and  application of technologies supportive of the community
Civic Welfare Training Service [CWTS]   needs and livelihood activities related to  environment and
other related fields supportive of the national thrust.  
Refers to the program component or activities  contributory to
the general welfare and the  betterment of life for the members
of the  community or the enhancement of its
facilities,  especially those devoted to improving
health,  education, environment, entrepreneurship,  safety,
WEEK 2
recreation and moral of the citizenry and  other social welfare
services.   SELF-AWARENESS LEADS TO SELF-DISCOVERY AND
Literacy Training Service [LTS]   SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Refers to the program component designed to  train the
students to teach literacy and numeracy  skills to school IV. LESSON PROPER LET’S BEGIN! 
children, out-of-school youth and  other segments of society in ∙ I have healthy body
need of their services.  
 
THE NSTP-CWTS DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT  
S-afety and Security    I am an attractive person 
 I am an honest person 
E-ducation  
 Religion is my guide in everyday life 
R-ecreation  
 I am a cheerful person 
V-alues Formation and Moral Recovery    I hate myself 
I-ndustry and Entrepreneurship    I am from a happy family 
C-are for Health    I am not loved by my family  

E-nvironment 
 (Jamaludin & Yousaf- TSCS, 2009)
NSTP-CWTS SERVICE COMPONENTS  
LESSON 1 
Safety and Security - This area involves disaster
Definition of Self Concept 
preparedness during fire, earthquake or other  calamity that
needs immediate response from any trained civilians during “the totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings having
emergency situations.  Basic lifesaving seminar, fire drill and reference to himself as an object”  (Rosenberg, 1979, p.7) 
the like are some of these examples.  
Like other belief systems, the self-concept includes 
Education - This area involves enhancement of institutional
support materials and facilities for the  community and school
such as providing materials containing basic literacy skills for 1. Cognitive 
pre-schoolers,  alternative learning system for out-of-school
2. Behavioral 
youths and adults, mathematics and science tutorials  and
extended services of skilled students.   3. Affective component. 

Recreation - This area involves sports fest, parlor games for

Cognitive Component: Self Schema 
street children and painting that  enrich youth’s capacities to
relate with one another in the community    Self-schemas are “cognitive generalizations about the self,
Values Formation and Moral Recovery - This involves the derived from past experience, that  organize and guide the
development of youth to be good  leaders, responsible processing of self-related information” 
individuals imbued with good moral values and active agent of Behavioral component: self-perception 
development of  the community.  
Darl Bem (1972) influential self-perception theory reflects we
Industry and Entrepreneurship - This area includes observe our behavior and the  situation in which it took place,
programs and activities that are vital to  economic growth. make attributions about why the behavior occurred,and draw 
conclusions about our own characteristic and disposition. In  Conscious 
other words, we come to understand  ourselves the same way
we perceive and understand others. 
SELF-PERCEPTION 
Affective/evaluative component: Self-Esteem 
SELF- KNOWLEDGE 
“self-esteem reflects the perceived difference between an
individual’s actual self-concept (who I  think I really am) and Knowledge or understanding of one’s own nature,  abilities,
some ideal self-image (who I would really like to be).”  and limitations; insight into oneself. 

You and Me: Understanding of Self 

 Plenty of material connected together. 
 William James’s conception of the self was highly
 Conscious, unconscious, subconscious 
introspective. (looking inside)  In 1954 Festinger’s theory of
social comparison, we cannot interpret our own actions and
feelings  without looking outward to the actions and feelings of SELF-SCHEMA 
exhibited by the other people. 
WESTER CULTURE EASTERN CULTURE   Fall under the behavioral component of  self-concept. 

William James was American  philosopher- western culture  Perceives one’s behavior in environment.
and social thought.   Fall under the cognitive component of self concept. 
Focused on individual self-concept e.g., interpersonal  Beliefs about one’s self. 
competition, individual  achievement, independence.   Information from previous experiences. 
How does self-concept foster 
LESSON 2 
Alternative perspective- Eastern culture such as Japan-
eastern culture and social thought.  SELF ACTUALIZATION 

Focused on collectivistic self-concept  e.g., intragroup "Self-Actualization is the intrinsic growth of what is already in
cooperation,  interdependence, and collectivistic achievement.  the organism, or more accurately, of what the organism is." -
Abraham Maslow 
 The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept,
created Charles Horton Cooley by in  1902, stating that a Characteristics of Self Actualizing People 
person's self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions
Realistic 
and the  perceptions of others. The term refers to people
shaping themselves based on other people’s  perception, Realistically oriented, SA persons have a more efficient
which leads the people to reinforce other people’s perspectives perception of reality, they have  comfortable relations with it.
on themselves. People  shape themselves based on what This is extended to all areas of life. SA persons are
other people perceive and confirm other people's opinion on  unthreatened,  unfrighten by the unknown. they have a
themselves. The term "looking glass self" was first used by superior ability to reason, to see the truth. They are logical  and
Cooley in his work, Human Nature and  the Social Order in efficient. 
1902. 
Acceptance 
 C. H. Cooley has summed it up in his statement: "I am not
what I think I am and I am not what you  think I am; I am what I Accept themselves, others and the natural world the way they
think that you think I am."  are. Sees human nature as  is, have a lack of crippling guilt or
shame, enjoy themselves without regret or apology, they have
Threat to self-concept/ cognitive dissonance theory  no  unnecessary inhibitions. 
 Cognitive dissonance is a discomfort caused by holding Spontaneity, Simplicity, Naturalness 
conflicting cognitions (e.g., ideas,  beliefs, values, emotional
reactions) simultaneously.  Spontaneous in their inner life, thoughts and impulses, they are
unhampered by  convention. Their ethics is autonomous, they
 The theory of cognitive dissonance in social psychology are individuals, and are motivated to continual  growth. 
proposes that people have a motivational  drive to reduce
dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to Problem Centering 
create a consistent  belief system, or alternatively by reducing
Focus on problems outside themselves, other centered. They
the importance of any one of the dissonant elements  that can
have a mission in life  requiring much energy, their mission is
leads to the change in self-concept. 
their reason for existence. They are serene, characterized  by
DIFFERENCE  a lack of worry, and are devoted to duty. 

SELF –CONCEPT  Detachment: The Need for Privacy 

Alone but not lonely, unflappable, retain dignity amid confusion
 Encompasses what people know and believe  about and personal misfortunes,  objective. They are self-starters,
responsible for themselves, own their behavior. 
themselves. 
Autonomy: Independent of Culture and Environment 
 All self-knowledge is integrated into a single concept. 
 Largely coherent and integrated. 
SA's rely on inner self for satisfaction. Stable in the face of EMPOWERMENT THOUGH SELF AWARENESS 
hard knocks, they are self contained, independent from love
and respect.  - Knowing your strengths, weaknesses, vulnerabilities,
thoughts and feelings is a big step towards  knowing who you
Continued Freshness of Appreciation  really are. 
Have a fresh rather than stereotyped appreciation of people - Self-awareness is the key to preventing the emotional drama
and things. Appreciation of the  basic good in life, moment to that guides your reactions to  situations and other people. 
moment living is thrilling, transcending and spiritual. They live
the  present moment to the fullest.  Importance of self-concept 

Interpersonal relations  - A person’s self-concept affects his way of relating with

others. 
Profound, intimate relationships with few. Capable of greater
love than others consider  possible. Benevolence, affection and - A strong self- concept is necessary for healthy and satisfying
friendliness shown to everyone.  interaction. 

Democratic values and attitudes  - A weak self-concept on the other hand often distorts the
individual’s perceptions of how others see  him, generating
Able to learn from anyone, humble. Friendly with anyone feeling of insecurity in relating to other people. 
regardless of class, education,  political belief, race or color.
Conflict of Self-concept 
Discrimination: means and ends, Good and Evil 
- Each human being is several selves. He lives in the role of
Do not confuse between means and ends. They do no do father, husband, businessman,  executive, player and so forth
wrong. Enjoy the here and now,  getting to goal-- not just the but if there are conflicts among any of these roles discomfort
result. They make the most tedious task an enjoyable game. arises.
They  have their own inner moral standards (appearing amoral
to others).  - Such conflicts bring with them dynamics as tensions, guilty
feelings 
Philosophical, unhostile sense of humor 
- We tend to resolve these conflict based on our personality
Jokes are teaching metaphors, intrinsic to the situation, orientations. 
spontaneous, can laugh at  themselves, never make jokes that
hurt others.  Self-Awareness 

Creativity  - Awareness of self does not emerge in an individual at the

time of his birth or any particular stage of  his or her lifetime. 
Inborn uniqueness that carries over into everything they do,
see the real and true more  easily, original, inventive and less - It gradually develops from its initial stages into more and
inhibited.  more complex form. 

Resistance to enculturation: Transcendence of any particular - It does not accomplish any final form in the course of human
culture  life. 

Inner detachment from culture, folkways are used but of no I 

consequence, calm long term  culture improvement,
- I-the Experiencer 
indignation with injustice, inner autonomy and outer
acceptance. Transcend  the environment rather than just - I is an agent, the experiencer. 
cope. 
- This component of self emerges and  develops in a mutual
Imperfections  relationship with the  individual’s environment. 
Painfully aware of own imperfections, joyfully aware of own - The individual experiences himself or  herself as an entity,
growth process. Impatient with  self when stuck, real life pain, separate from the  world through satisfaction
not imagined.  and  dissatisfaction of his or her basic biological  and social
needs. 
Values 
ME 
Philosophical acceptance of the nature of his self, human
nature, social life, nature,  physical reality, remains realistically - The „Me‟- the experienced 
human. 
- „Me‟ is a socially formed object. 
Resolution of dichotomies 
- „I‟ is the spontaneous and acting component of the self, the
Polar opposites merge into a third, higher phenomenon, as „me‟ is the reflexive and evaluative component. 
though the two have united,  work becomes play, most childlike
person is wisest, opposite forces no longer felt as a conflict.  WAYS TO IMPROVE/ EMPOWERMENT 
Desires are in excellent accord with reason. 
Constructive Criticism 
LESSON 3 
Constructive criticism is a form of self- disclosure that helps
Self-Awareness: Improving Interpersonal Relations with another person look at their own  behavior without putting that
Constructive Self-Disclosure/self awareness.  person on the defensive, Not the same as blaming. 
- Skill that can be mastered through learning and practice 
- Replace “You” statements with “I” statements  I never ......
- Request changes “in the future” instead of pointing out
something negative in the present Four Benefits of Self- “I no longer find
Decision to Change that ....
Disclosure 
- Increased accuracy in communication  Level 3  First  Truly I no longer put
- Reduction of stress  Effective Level off .......
- Increased self-awareness 
“I never eat more than
- Stronger relationships  I need.”
Increased Accuracy in Communication 
“I have a 33 inch waist
- People can not read minds  The Better You
Painting  a “I have a great job
- Take the guess work out of the process  Level 4 
Completed New
- Reporting both facts and feelings improves accuracy
Self and my needs are
Reduction of Stress  met.”
- Emphasis on privacy and concealment of feelings creates “I am healthy,
stress 
organized,
- Sharing inner thoughts and feelings usually reduces stress 
It is done.” 
- Stress symptoms can include 
- high blood pressure – perspiration 
“I am one with the
Spirit” 
- decline in immunization – rapid breathing 
Universal “I am worthy of all
Increased Self-awareness  Level 5 
Affirmation good things, my
- The ability to recognize and understand your moods, battles are won, I only
emotions, drives and their effect on  others 
need to show up to
- The foundation on which self- development is built  claim that which is
- Increases as you receive feedback from others  already complete.”
Stronger Relationships 
- When two people engage in an open dialogue, they often
develop a high regard for each  other‟s views  WEEK 3

- Enhances awareness of common interests and concerns MORAL VALUES AND VALUES FORMATION

Lesson 1 Law and Morality 

Definition of LAW 
Lesson 4 The Five Levels of Self Talk
I need to ....  It is possible to describe law as the body of official rules
and  regulations, generally found in constitutions,
Negative I ought to .....
LEVEL legislation, judicial  opinions, and the like, that is used to
Acceptance  The I should ......
1  govern a society and to  control the behaviour of its
Most Harmful
members, so Law is a formal  mechanism of social
I really should lose
control. 
weight
 Law is also defined as a set of rules and principles
I need to which  enforce particular types of behaviour. 
 A society’s code of morality may be defined as a set of
Recognition of “I ought to ..... beliefs,  values, principles and standards of behaviour.’ 
Level 2  Need  Deceptive at “I should ......
Best Definition of MORALITY 
“I really should lose
weight.
 Morality is a rule which lays down a standard of  behaviour principles which  society requires to be observed, and the
which the bulk of society accept and to which its members breach of them is an offence not merely against the 
ought to conform and which justifies  censure in its person who is injured but against society as a whole.
breach.  Devlin believed that there was such a  thing as public
 Religion is defined as a system of beliefs and morality. 
practices  that people follow in order to make sense of life,  According to Devlin, an established morality is as
to bring  meaning to their existence and to bring them necessary as good government to the welfare of  society.
comfort and  guidance.  Societies disintegrate from within more frequently than
they are broken up by external  pressures.’ 
 There is disintegration when no common morality is
The Relationship Between Law and Morality is Complex.  observed and history shows that the loosening  of moral
Law and Morality  bonds is often the first stage of disintegration, so that
Moral Rules  society is justified in taking the same  steps to preserve its
moral code as it does to preserve its government and
Moral  and  
other essential  institutions.
Legal  Rules 
Legal Rules  The Paternalistic view 

 People resort to various kinds of rules to guide their lives.  The final theory is the most modern and is the
Thus moral rules and ethics remind us  that it is immoral to Paternalistic view, harm to self and others view as  put
covet, to tell lies or engage in drunkenness in private. forward by Professor Hart in the 1960s. His theory is that
Society may disapprove of such practices but the law is the law should only intervene in  the private lives of
not so concerned with such matters and leaves them to citizens to prevent harm to others and harm to oneself. He
the  individual’s conscience.  did acknowledge that  there was a difficulty in defining
harm but did acknowledge that it did not include moral
Three main theories  harm to  oneself. An existing law illustrating this theory is
the law which prevents methods of prostitution.  The
Paternalistic view focuses very much on the individual. 
 ∙ The Liberal View (harm to others) proposed by John
 Pursuing your own good in your own way is an
Stuart Mill 
‘experiment of living’. To limit these experiments on  any
 ∙ The Moralistic view (harm to society) proposed by Lord
grounds other than their causing harm to others is
Devlin 
mistaken and will harm society as a whole: ∙ To impose a
 ∙ Paternalist view (harm to self and others) proposed by
way of life on moral grounds is to assume infallibility about
Professor H.L.A Hart 
moral values. ∙ Bad ways of living might still have some

The Liberal View  insight or truth to them that we would lose if we banned 
them. Diversity of lifestyles causes people to think about
 John Stuart Mill posits that the only purpose for which how to live, which leads to better lives. ∙ Different people
power can be rightly exercised over any  member of a need to live different sorts of lives. 
civilized community against his will is to prevent harm to
Lesson 2 Core & Related Values 
others. His own good,  either physical or moral is not
Health 
sufficient. Mill argues this approach is good for individuals
and  society.  Health refers to a holistic concept of physical, mental and
social well- being, with reverence and  Health and harmony
The Moralistic View  with nature  

 According to Devlin there is only one explanation of what  Holistic health  

has been accepted as the basis of criminal law and that is  Cleanliness  
that there are certain standards of behaviour or moral  Physical fitness  
 Reverence for life    Creative goodwill 
 Environmental care 
Sustainable Human Development 
Truth  Sustainable human development means a balance between
the economic and the social, protection of  the environment,
Truth requires critical thinking as well as creativity and a future
wise use of resources, and responsible consumerism,
and scientific orientation. Tolerance  calls for the eradication of
productivity and equity.  Balance between economic and social
prejudices, an open mind and respect for diversity.  
development  

 ∙ Critical thinking  
 Protection of the environment  
 ∙ Creativity 
 Wise use of resources  
 ∙ Openness and respect for others  
 Responsible consumerism  
 ∙ Future orientation  
 Productivity and quality 
 ∙ Scientific orientation 
 Economic equity  

Love    Work ethic  

 Entrepreneurial spirit 
Love includes the need of self-worth and reaching out of
others. The ability to love begins with an  appreciation of one’s
own power and goodness. Honesty, integrity, personal Nationalism  
discipline, courage,  compassion and trust enable one to care
Nationalism is, above all, love of country, appreciation of its
for others.  
history and its heroes, and  appreciation of its cultural heritage.
Democracy upholds the principles of freedom and
 Love and goodness   responsibility, active  participation by all citizens, civic
consciousness, and committed leadership. Globalism
 Self-worth/self-esteem   emphasizes global  solidarity, cooperation, interdependence,
 Goodness  international understanding, appreciation of the world's
heritage  and global peace.  
 Honesty/integrity  
 Personal discipline  
 Love of country 
 Courage  
 Heroism and appreciation of heroes  
 Trust  
 Appreciation of culture heritage  
 Compassion (caring and sharing) 
 Democracy  
Global Spirituality   Freedom and responsibility  
 Civic consciousness and active participation  
Global spirituality enables one to develop an inner relationship
with God, the sacred source of life. It  allows one to grow in  Committed leadership  
relationships with the human community and the whole earth,  National unity  
stressing the unity of  life. It includes inner peace and religious
tolerance.    International understanding and solidarity  
 Interdependence  
 Faith in god    Appreciation of world heritage 
 Inner peace    Cultural freedom  
 Religious tolerance    Global peace 
 Unity of all 
Lesson 3 The Human Person 
Peace and Justice   What is a person? 
Peace and justice are founded on respect for human rights and “The person is seen as more than an isolated individual body,
love, concern for the common  good, cooperation, fairness and but as a dynamically interior person able to  grow deeply in
social responsibility, accountability, and active non-violence.  ∙ oneself through the others with whom he or she
Respect and love for one’s family   communicates, therefore seeing the person  in terms of relation
to other persons.” 
 Family solidarity   - Maritain 
 Responsible parenthood   o “any entity that has the moral right of self-determination.” 
 Respect for human rights  
o the kind of being that has the moral right to make its own life-
 Concern for the common good   choices and to live its life  without being provoked interfered by
 Responsibility and accountability   others 
o the individual’s uniqueness which cannot be interchanged  the state of being free at liberty rather than in confinement
and therefore cannot be  counted 
or under physical restraint • exception from external
o a being that has certain capacities or attributes constituting
personhood, which in turn is  defined differently by different control, interference, regulation, etc. 
authors in different disciplines and by different cultures in   political or national independence 
different times and places 
LAW:  Willfulness 

A person is a human being or a corporation recognized in law

as having certain rights and obligations. PHILOSOPHY:   said or done on purpose; deliberate • obstinately bent on
having one's own way. 
A person is a being characterized by consciousness,
rationality, and a moral sense, and traditionally  thought of as
consisting of both a body and a mind or soul.  WEEK 4

Personhood  VALUES DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 VALUES DEVELOPMENT 

 the status of being a person 
We are not born with values, so how  do people develop their
 a controversial topic in philosophy and law  values? There are  three periods during which values
 closely tied to legal and political concepts liberty of are developed as we grow. 
citizenship, and equality Values provide each team member  with the ability to make
decisions that support  the organization to achieve the defined
Needs: Maslow ‘s Hierarchy of Needs  vision  as well as promoting inter-dependence
and  accountability. Personal values development  and
integration increases the integrity and  personal effectiveness
1. Human beings initially set their priorities according to of the leadership of the team. 
their existential needs such as food, clothes  and sleep. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT 
If the existential needs are not met survival is
Sociologist Morris Massey has described three major periods
threatened and life itself is in danger. 2. If the existential during which values are  developed. 
needs are  satisfied the need for safety is awakened:   The Imprint Period 
2. The desire for protection from the risks to  life such as
war, sickness, accident, environmental catastrophes
Up to the age of seven, we are like sponges, absorbing
etc. take  center ground. 
everything  around us and accepting much of it as true,
3. The next level in the priority  pyramid according to especially when it comes from  our parents. The confusion and
Maslow concerns the  social needs: The human being blind belief of this period can also lead to  the early formation of
trauma and other deep problems. 
wants to  be with like-minded people, he wants to
The critical thing here is to learn a sense of right and wrong,
be accepted and loved. 
good  and bad. This is a human construction which we
4. The following level is concerned with self-regard and nevertheless often assume  would exist even if we were not
here (which is an indication of how deeply  imprinted it has
the esteem of other people: The human being  wants to
become). 
strengthen his self-confidence and for this purpose
seeks regard and recognition from other  people. 
5. The top objective is the need for self-realization: The The Modeling Period 
human being wants to be able to be himself  and to
Between the ages of eight and thirteen, we copy people, often
permanently be able to experience inner peace, our parents, but also others. Rather  than blind acceptance of
happiness and harmony.  their values, we are trying them on like a suit of clothes, to see
how they feel. 

The Human Act: Its Characteristics  At this age we may be much impressed with religion or our
teachers. You may remember being  particularly influenced by
Knowledge  junior school teachers who seemed so knowledgeable--maybe
even more so than  your parents. 
 a familiarity with someone or something, which can The Socialization Period 
include facts, information, descriptions, or  skills acquired
Between 13 and 21, we are very largely influenced by our
through experience or education  peers. As we develop as individuals and  look for ways to get
away from the earlier programming, we naturally turn to people
Freedom  who seem more like us. 
Other influences at these ages include the media, especially lives,  commit themselves to the welfare of the country, care
those parts which seem to resonate  with the values of our about the  environment and other social and moral issues.
peer groups.  They are not clear as to what sort of persons they hope to 
become when they complete their school education.  
BECOMING PRINCIPLED 
Values and the Contemporary Realities 
It's tough to have high moral values, but some people get
there.  Whenever there is a discussion about values and value
education there is generally a skepticism  about the relevance
If you can understand how people's values develop, then you of values in the present day context.  
can guide the process. This is well  understood by dictators
and religious sects around the world. Dictators regularly take KEY CHALLENGES 
over the education  system and brainwash the children in their
ideals. An old Jesuit saying is not that far off: 'Give me the Tradition vs. Modernity 
child  and I will give you the man.' 
Developing societies like India often face the conflict about
Being principled is a very powerful method of influence. But tradition and modernization and both  adults and young
beware: this is a one-way street -- it  also means there are learners have very uneasy attitudes in relation to tradition and
many things you cannot do.  modernization. 

Pre-moral  Globalization 

In the pre-moral state, we have no real values (we are thus One of the contemporary realities is that the socio-cultural
'amoral'). Young children are premoral.  So also, are environment has been radically  transformed. Globalization
psychopaths. Our basic nature tells us to be Machiavellian, signifies omni present culture. Our cultural horizon today
doing whatever it takes to achieve  our goals, even if it means embraces almost all  the planet. Societies have become less
hurting other people.  and less mono-cultural.  

Conventional  Diversity 

Most people have conventional values, as learned from their Philippines is a multilingual, multicultural and multi religious
parents, teachers, and peers. These  basically say, 'here are country. In the age of increasing  intermingling of communities
the rules to live in reasonable harmony with other people.'  and cultures, it is important that diversity within the Philippine
society is  appreciated based on universal principles.  
The bottom line of this state is that we will follow them just so
long as we think we need to. We will  break our values Inclusivity 
occasionally, and especially if our needs are threatened or we
A healthy happy society is one in which all its members feel
are pretty sure we can get  away with breaking values with
included and do not feel that they are  excluded from the
nobody else knowing about it.
processes of the society because of their color, culture, caste,
Principled  religion, gender or  community.  

When we are truly principled, we believe in our values to the Environment 

point where they are an integral and  subconscious part of our
Making children sensitive to the environment and the need for
person. Right and wrong are absolute things beyond the
its protection is an immediate social  concern.  
person, for example as  defined by a religion. 
Exploding world of science and technology 
The test of a principled person is that they will stick to their
values through thick and thin, and even  will sacrifice It is very clear that coming decades are going to see a greater
themselves rather than break their principles. Many great explosion of science and technology  while we are still trying to
leaders were principled (Martin  Luther King, Gandhi, etc.).   cope up with the present challenges of new technology. 
Mass Media 
Lesson 2 IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING VALUES  A major ubiquitous aspect of contemporary society is the
intrusion of the mass media into the day  to day life of all
Why Education for Values? 
societies 
A most important reason for reorienting education for values  is
the fact that the current model of education contributes to
the  lopsided development of students. This model of education LESSON 3 VALUES FORMATION 
puts  exclusive focus on cognitive to the total neglect of the
affective  domain and presents an alienation between head Values can be described as spiritual skills. Values such
and heart.   as  honesty, loyalty and patience are skills of the higher or
spiritual mind  that is above the thinking mind. The formation of
Students are nurtured in a spirit of excessive competition and these values or  spiritual skills follows the same process as the
are  trained right from the beginning to relate to aggressive formation of skills at  lower levels. 
competition  and facts detached from contexts. The
individualistic idea of  excellence is promoted at the cost of THE VALUING PROCESS 
emotional and relational skills.  Young learners hardly
understand why they are in school,  why they are studying
different subjects and how their schooling will  be helpful to  the whole person’s learning and growth; 
them. Their understanding is limited to learning about  the  the total valuing process and
subjects. They hardly know how they should live their
 the factors that influence it such as the family, the school, Five Things About Values Clarification 

the church, the work place, the larger  society and the
1. Values Clarification is a difficult task
whole community  
There are three basic steps that are useful in
Process comes by the influence of:   Values Clarification: 
∙ Choice - right to exercise one's freedoms in any
 Family  manner 
 School or church  ∙ Value - Worth in usefulness or importance to the
 Multitudinous institutions of society  possessor 
(specially the nation and state)  ∙ Action - something done
 World community and in fact universe  2. Values are better than rules
Forward-thinking The organization promotes values to
Knowing what is important to them will help them find
success in their personal and professional  lives.  guide people. Doing this saves time  because
organizations need not write rules, and need not refer
1. Character Values to rule books or  organization manual 
Character values are the universal values that 3. Values serve as outline goals
you  need to exist as a good human being. They are An explicit set of values shall form the foundation of any
also the  core characteristics that employers look for organization because they endure 
when hiring.   4. Values send a message
Examples of character values include commitment, A good value teaches and guides the members of the
loyalty,  positive attitude, and respect.  organization. A symbolic act affirms  the value over and
2. Work Values over.  
Work values are values that help you find what you 5. Values shape an organization
want in a job and give you job satisfaction. It is Values manifest itself in various ways. It thrusts
especially important to understand what your work members to produce quality good  products. 
values are in order to thrive professionally.  Examples
of work values are hands-on, public contact, prestige,
and stability.  WEEK5

3. Personal Values LEADERS AND LEADERSHIP

Personal values are values that help you define what
Lesson 1 LEADER AND LEADERSHIP 
you want out of life and will assist you in  being happy
Is leadership a position of office or  authority? Or, is leadership
and fulfilled. They are the guiding principles of your life. an ability in the sense that he is a leader because he leads? 
Examples of personal values are:  family life, popularity,
WHO IS A LEADER? 
health, and appearance.
A leader by its meaning is one who goes  first and leads by
example, so that others are  motivated to follow him. To be a
leader, a person  must have a deep-rooted commitment to the
goal  that he will strive to achieve it even if nobody  follows
LESSON 4 VALUES CLARIFICATION  him! 
What is Values Clarification?  Leader is a person who influences a group of people towards
the achievement of a goal. 
A method whereby a person can discover his or  her own
values by assessing, exploring, and determining   Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to
accomplish an objective and directs the  organization in a way
what those personal values are and how they affect  personal
that makes it more cohesive and coherent. 
decision making.  
The 7 Secrets of Inspiring Leaders 
What is the goal of Values Clarification? 
The goal of "values clarification" is for you to  become fully
conscious of their influence, and to explore   1. IGNITE YOUR ENTHUSIASM 
2. NAVIGATE A COURSE OF ACTION 
and honestly acknowledge what you truly value at this  time in
your life.  3. SELL THE BENEFITS  
4. PAINT A PICTURE 
 5. INVITE PARTICIPATION  ∙ Act according to what is best for others rather than
6. RENIFORCE OPTIMISM  what is best for you 
7. ENCOURAGE POTENTIAL  ∙ Be consistent in doing “the right thing”  
7. Wisdom
Lesson 2 VIRTUE AS FOUNDATION OF LEADERSHIP  
∙ Learn from mistakes (yours & other’s) 
“The supreme quality for leadership is unquestionably ∙ Consider the big picture (i.e., the long term effect of a
integrity. Without it, no real success is possible, no matter
whether it is on a section gang,  a football field, in an army, or decision) 
in an office.” - Dwight D. Eisenhower  ∙ Act quickly, but do not make hasty decisions 
The leadership virtues describe a leader's  way of reasoning, ∙ Get the facts 
his or her most basic beliefs, and  the emotions associated with ∙ Consider all points of view
those beliefs. 
∙ Be objective  

1. Continuous Self Improvement  

∙ Acknowledge that you do not know  everything and
endeavor to learn  more   Lesson 3 TRAITS OF LEADERSHIP   
∙ Get input from co-workers and team members   The basic principle of leadership is to lead by example. The
∙ Reflect on your actions and assess  what you could principles of leadership, which are  more fundamental than
goals or policies, specify that in order to be a good leader a
have done better   person must be honest,  competent, forward looking, inspiring,
∙ Commit to making changes in the name of self- intelligent, fair-minded, broad-minded, courageous,
straightforward  and imaginative. The more of these traits a
improvement   leader possesses, the more likely people will be to follow.  
2. Dedication  
TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE LEADER 
∙ Fulfill your promises, no matter what 
∙ Commit to completing tasks on time   Emotional stability
∙ Always be dependable Good leaders must be able to  tolerate frustration and
∙ Keep the end in mind  stress.  Overall, they must be well-adjusted and have the
∙ Strive to achieve the best result   psychological maturity  to deal with anything they
3. Sincerity   are  required to face.  
∙ Never utter a false statement   Dominance 
∙ Speak from your heart  Leaders are often times  competitive and decisive and
∙ Smile  usually  enjoy overcoming obstacles. Overall,  they are
∙ Make other people feel important  assertive in their thinking style as well as their attitude
∙ Try to see things from the other person’s point of view  in dealing with others.
4. Generosity    Enthusiasm  
∙ Be lavish in sincere praise  Leaders are usually seen as active, expressive, and
∙ Be generous with your time  energetic. They are often very optimistic and  open to
∙ Be supportive of other people’s ideas  change. Overall, they are generally quick and alert and
∙ Show appreciation of others daily   tend to be uninhibited.  
5. Humility   Conscientiousness. 
∙ Give credit to others & allow them to shine  Leaders are often dominated by a sense of duty and tend
∙ Decide you do not always have to be right  to be very exacting in  character. They usually have a very
high standard of excellence and an inward desire to do
LEADERSHIP one's best.  They also have a need for order and tend to
∙ Allow others to suggest improvements and act on be very self-disciplined 
them   Social boldness.  
∙ Speak about your own mistakes rather than the Leaders tend to be spontaneous risk takers. They are
mistakes of others  usually socially aggressive and generally  thick-skinned.
6. Integrity Overall, they are responsive to others and tend to be high
∙ Never do anything you need to be ashamed of  in emotional stamina. •Tough mindedness. Good leaders
 are practical, logical, and to-the-point. They tend to be low staff. It’s important to show  your commitment not only
in sentimental  attachments and comfortable with criticism. to the work at hand, but also to your promises. 
They are usually insensitive to hardship and overall, are  6. Positive attitude  
very poised.  You want to keep your team motivated towards the
 Self-assurance.   continued success of the company and keep the
Self-confidence and resiliency are common traits among energy levels up. Keep the office mood a fine balance
leaders. They tend to be free of guilt and  have little or no between productivity and  playfulness. 
need for approval. They are generally secure and free 7. Creativity  
from guilt and are usually  unaffected by prior mistakes or As a leader, it’s important to learn to think outside the
failures.  box and to choose which of two bad  choices is the best
 Compulsiveness.  option. Don’t immediately choose the first or easiest
Leaders were found to be controlled and very precise in possibility; sometimes it’s  best to give these issues
their social interactions. Overall, they were  very protective some thought, and even turn to your team for guidance.
of their integrity and reputation and consequently tended By utilizing all  possible options before making a rash
to be socially aware and  careful, abundant in foresight, decision, you can typically reach the end conclusion
and very careful when making decisions or determining you  were aiming for 
specific actions  8. Inspire  
Being able to inspire your team is great for focusing on
the future goals, but it is also  important for the current
Lesson 4 Quality and Characteristics of a Good Leader   
issues. Acknowledge the work that everyone has
QUALITIES TO BE A GOOD LEADER 
dedicated and commend  the team on each of their
efforts. It is your job to keep spirits up, and that begins
1. Honesty
with an  appreciation for the hard work. 
Your business and its employees are a  reflection of
9. Intuition  
yourself, and if you make honest and  ethical behavior
When something unexpected occurs, or you are thrown
a key value, your team will follow suit. 
into a new scenario, your team will  look to you for
2. Delegate 
guidance. the tough decisions will be up to you to
It’s important to remember that trusting your  team with
decide and you will need to  depend on your gut instinct
your idea is a sign of strength, not weakness.
for answers. Learning to trust yourself is as important
Delegating tasks to the appropriate  departments is one
as your team  learning to trust you. 
of the most important skills you  can develop as your
10. Approach 
business grows. 
In order to optimize your effectiveness as a leader, you
3. Communication 
must have the ability to customize  your approach on a
Being able to clearly and succinctly describe what you
person by person basis, based on the situation at hand.
want done is extremely important. If  you can’t relate
Your capacity to  execute this concept will play a huge
your vision to your team, you won’t all be working
role in your ability to get the best work out of your team
towards the same goal.
and other partners along the journey. 
4. Confidence  
Part of your job as a leader is to put out fires and CHARACTERISTICS OF A LEADER 
maintain the team morale. Keep up your  confidence
Some say that leaders are born, but if you look at the 16
level and assure everyone. As the leader, by staying characteristics of a leader you will see  that these
calm and confident, you will help  keep the team feeling characteristics are skill based and therefore can be learnt.  

the same. 
1. A Clear Vision  
5. Commitment  
As a leader you need to have a clear vision of what you
Proving your commitment to the brand and your role,
want to achieve and why. This  vision needs to be
you will not only earn the respect of  your team but will
grand enough to encompass the visions of the people
also instill that same hardworking energy among your
or group you wish to lead. 
2. Communication skills  gratitude’ being grateful for all that  we already have.
Leaders need to be able to communicate their vision But how about being grateful for the times things didn’t
powerfully and persuasively. Think of  Martin Luther work out. We learn more  from our failures, and we can
King, or Gandi.   fail our way to success. 
3. Competency  14. Goal 
You have to be competent in the task, so the berry A leader will set a clear objective that is achievable for
picker leader would be the person who  knows where the group/organization to attain. 
the best berries are.   15. Flexibility 
4. Empathetic  Success comes with an ability to change and adapt as
Leaders are able to empathize with people, so that they situations arise and alter.  
feel and know that their leader  understands their 16. Persistence 
feelings and thoughts.   Only air is softer and more malleable than water. Yet
5. Decisive  over time with persistence water will  carve great
A leader will usually make a decision quickly once canyons out of hard bedrock. 
having accessed the situation and then  stick with that
Lesson 5 LEADERSHIP STYLES 
decision. The root meaning of a decision is to cut
oneself off from any other option.   7 Most Common Leadership Styles (and How to Find Your
Own) 
6. Courage 
At first glance, we may think that some leadership styles are
If you don’t have courage this is a skill that can take a
better than others. The truth is that  each leadership style has
bit of learning. But with time and  application can be its place in a leader's toolkit. The wise leader knows to flex
enhanced or learnt. Courage doesn’t mean foolhardy from one style to  another as the situation demands. 

but means standing up for  and doing what you believe Leadership styles are on a continuum, ranging from autocratic
at one end, to laissez-faire at the  other, with a variety of styles
is right.  
in between. 
7. Sense of Humor 
A great sense of humor Is a prerequisite for a leader. 1. Autocratic Style
Patton famously said ‘We’re not  retreating; we’re The phrase most illustrative of an autocratic leadership
advancing in a different direction’   style is "Do as I say." Generally, an  autocratic leader
8. Confidence  believes that he or she is the smartest person at the
Be confident and have confidence in your team and table and knows more than  others. They make all the
organization. If you’re newly appointed  to a leadership decisions with little input from team members. 
position and are a little unsure. Then have confidence 2. Authoritative Style
in the people who promoted  you, that you are the best The phrase most indicative of this style of leadership
person to do a job.   (also known as "visionary") is "Follow me."  The
9. Self-Discipline  authoritative leadership style is the mark of confident
Good self-discipline is another hallmark of a leader.   leaders who map the way and set  expectations, while
10. Can do  engaging and energizing followers along the way.
Leaders have a can do attitude. After all, if the person In a climate of uncertainty, these leaders lift the fog for
in charge doesn’t think it can be  done, then there is people. They help them see where the  company is
little hope.   going and what's going to happen when they get there.
11. Inspiration  Unlike autocratic leaders, authoritative leaders take the
Inspiration will keep us going long after motivation has time to explain their thinking: They don't  just issue
faded away. As this blog Do you  want to be inspired or orders. Most of all, they allow people choice and
Motivated looks at.   latitude on how to achieve common  goals. 
12. Ambition  3. Pacesetting Style
Maybe all of us have an ambition to be more and or "Do as I do!" is the phrase most indicative of leaders
have more, in leaders this is  pronounced.   who utilize the pacesetting style. This style  describes a
13. Attitude  very driven leader who sets the pace as in racing.
Maybe you’ve heard of the phrase, ‘have an attitude of
 Pacesetters set the bar high and  push their team experienced employees who are self-starters  and
members to run hard and fast to the finish line. motivated. To be most effective with this style, monitor
While the pacesetter style of leadership is effective in team performance and provide regular  feedback. 
getting things done and driving for results, it's  a style
CHOOSING LEADERSHIP STYLES 
that can hurt team members. For one thing, even the
most driven employees may become  stressed working Knowing which of the leadership styles works best for you is
part of being a good leader.  Developing a signature style with
under this style of leadership in the long run.  the ability to stretch into other styles as the situation warrants
4. Democratic Style may help  enhance your leadership effectiveness. 
Democratic leaders are more likely to ask "What do you
think?" They share information with  employees about 1. Know yourself.
anything that affects their work responsibilities. They Start by raising your awareness of your dominant
also seek employees'  opinions before approving a final leadership style. You can do this by asking  trusted
decision. colleagues to describe the strengths of your leadership
5. Coaching Style style. You can also take a  leadership style
When you having a coaching leadership style, you tend assessment. 
to have a "Consider this" approach. A  leader who 2. Understand the different styles.
coaches views people as a reservoir of talent to be Get familiar with the repertoire of leadership styles that
developed. The leader who uses a  coach approach can work best for a given situation. What  new skills do
seeks to unlock people's potential.  you need to develop? 
6. Affiliative Style 3. Practice makes a leader.
A phrase often used to describe this type of leadership Be genuine with any approach you use. Moving from a
is "People come first." Of all the leadership  styles, the dominant leadership style to a different one  may be
affiliative leadership approach is one where the leader challenging at first. Practice the new behaviors until
gets up close and personal with  people. A leader they become natural. In other words,
practicing this style pays attention to and supports the don't use a different leadership style as a "point-and-
emotional needs of team  members. The leader strives click" approach. People can smell a fake  leadership
to open up a pipeline that connects him or her to the style a mile away—authenticity rules. 
team. 4. Develop your leadership agility. 
Ultimately, this style is all about encouraging harmony Traditional leadership styles are still relevant in today's
and forming collaborative relationships  within teams. workplace, but they may need to be  combined with
It's particularly useful, for example, in smoothing new approaches in line with how leadership is defined
conflicts among team members or  reassuring people for the 21st century. Today's business environments
during times of stress.  are fraught with challenges due to the changing
7. Laissez-Faire Style demographics and  the employee expectations of a
The laissez-faire leadership style is at the opposite end diverse workforce. This may call for a new breed of
of the autocratic style. Of all the leadership  styles, this leader who is  an amalgam of most of the leadership
one involves the least amount of oversight. You could styles discussed here.
say that the autocratic style  leader stands as firm as a
rock on issues, while the laissez-faire leader lets people
swim with the  current.
On the surface, a laissez-faire leader may appear to
trust people to know what to do, but taken to  the
extreme, an uninvolved leader may end up appearing
aloof. While it's beneficial to give people  opportunities
to spread their wings, with a total lack of direction,
people may unwittingly drift in the  wrong direction—
away from the critical goals of the organization.
This style can work if you're leading highly skilled,
 segment of general education which aims to contribute to
the total development of the learner through participation
in selected activities. Thus, it provides opportunities to
acquire lifelong skills that are essential to his physical,
mental, social, and emotional development. 
 Physical Education is an integral part of young people's
education in senior cycle. As a result of their learning in
physical education, young people can increase their
enjoyment, confidence, and competence in a range of
physical activities. They can learn about health-related
fitness and take responsibility for being physically active
now and in the future. Overall, they can develop positive
attitudes to physical activity and its importance in a
healthy and fulfilling lifestyle.

 Physical education has been defined in many ways.

According to the PE1 workbook for tertiary level made by: 
 Eviza, et al. (2007), Lumpkin (2002) defined physical
education as process through which an individual obtains
optimal mental, social, and fitness skills through physical
activities 
 Revelo (1972) had the concepts of P.E as an education
through or by means of physical activities. 
 Dr. Carmen TabijeAndin (1978) define P.E as an integral
part of the education program designed to promote the
optimum development of an individual physically,
emotionally, mentally, and socially through total body
movements on the performance of properly selected
physical activities. Further, she explained that P.E offers
unique opportunities for the development of the individual
Physical Fitness and Gymnastics
who can easily find himself fit to live in the new society, as
well as to contribute his maximum capacity in the service
WEEK 1
of his fellowmen, his country and above all, his God. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION  Major Goal of Physical Education 

 Considering these four aspects; 
CHAPTER 1: MEANING, OBJECTIVE, VALUES AND  Fitness is the ability 
HEALTH BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION  To live a healthy 
WHAT IS PHYSICAL EDUCATION? OBJECTIVE OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION VALUES OF PHYSICAL  Satisfying 
EDUCATION HEALTH BENEFITS OF EXERCISE AND  Useful life 
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY  This kind of life is what the education philosophers and
thinkers’ tern as the “good life”. This is the ultimate goal of
 Physical Education (PE) 
education.
 It is the interdisciplinary study of all areas of science
relating to the transmission of physical knowledge and Objectives of Physical Education The following objectives of
Physical Education are viewed and stated in terms of their
skills to an individual or a group, the application of these contribution to the outcomes of education. 
skills, and their results. Physical Education is an important
Physical development – Through carefully selected physical
traditions, and the person’s desire to stay in the game and
education activities, an individual who participates actively will
develop and maintain good health and high level of physical play are inherent in team sports where fear, anger, joy,
activity.  and other powerful emotions are experienced.
Social development – Participation in physical activities give
opportunities for the development of desirable social traits that Health Benefits of Physical Education 
are needed for adjustment to the social life in general.

 Physical Education helps person prevent acquiring various

Some worthwhile traits are: sickness and diseases. 
 Physical Education provides information about the
 Friendliness person’s physical condition. 
 Cooperation   Physical Education does not only train the students in
 Respect for the right of others  sports. It teaches them to internalize the value of sports
 Good Sportsmanship  and its related benefits. 
 Honesty in the group activity or competition  Physical Education basically aims to develop physical
fitness and to maintain it. 
Emotional development – The informal nature of physical  Physical Education provides students an avenue to
education offers opportunities for the development of
expression and emotional traits needed for emotional mastery develop aesthetic inclination like dancing; it teaches
like: students to be graceful in movements which after all, the
basic requirement to illustrate beauty of dance.
 Self-confidence   Reduced risk of heart disease: Physical education can
 Self-control 
counteract major risk factors of coronary heart disease:
 Self-reliance 
obesity, inactivity and high blood pressure. 
 Courage and Determination  Improved physical fitness: A good program improves
children's muscular strength, fleximuscular endurance,
Mental development – Through participating in physical
education activities, the individual develops his mental body composition (fat-to-muscle ratio) and cardiovascular
capacities as he/she learns the mechanical principles or endurance. 
underlying movement, as the learner acquire knowledge and
understanding of rules and strategies of games and sports and  Stronger bones: Regular physical activity increases bone
the ability to analyze and give judgments. density to create a sturdy ske
Values of Physical Education   Weight regulation: A good program can help children
The value of physical education activities are found in the regulate their weight by burning catoning their bodies, and
resulting development and adjustment of the individual. improving their overall body composition. 
Engaging in any activity stimulates in some degree the 4 types
of development, although different activities emphasize  Health promotion: Appropriate physical activity prevents
different amounts. Regular exercise and physical activity are the onset of some diseases anpostpones the debilitating
extremely important and beneficial for long-term health and
effects of the aging process. 
well-being.
 Improved judgment: Quality physical education can
Four types of development 
influence moral development. Studehave the opportunity
to assume leadership, cooperate with others, and accept
 Organic – the development of power and endurance of the
responsibility forown behavior.
heart, lungs, heat-regulating mechanism, and digestive
 Self-discipline: A good program teachers children to
and eliminating organs. 
follow rules and established procedures and to be
 Neuromuscular – the development of skills and
responsible for the own health-related fitness. 
coordination required in the mastery of life’s varied
 Skill development: Physical education develops skills
activities can be directly attributed to physical education. 
which allow enjoyable and rewarding participation in
 Interpretive – a type of development which strengthens
physical activities. New skills become easier to learn. 
the thinking, interpreting, and problem-solving processes
 Experience setting goals: Physical education gives
of the individual. 
children the time and encouragements they need to set
 Emotional – the development and maturing of impulses
and strive for personal, achievable goals. 
and emotions through activities which gives them
expression under natural controls such as officials, rules,
 Improved self-confidence and self-esteem: Physical  Skeletal muscles attach to and move bones by contracting
education instills a strong sense of self-worth in children. and relaxing in response to voluntary messages from the
They can become more confident, assertive, emotionally nervous system. Skeletal muscle tissue is composed of
stable, independent, and self-controlled.  long cells called muscle fibers that have a striated
 Stress reduction: Physical activity is an outlet for appearance. Muscle fibers are organized into bundles
releasing tension and anxiety.  supplied by blood vessels and innervated by motor
neurons
WEEK 2  Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs
throughout the body. Smooth muscle contractions are
MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF A HUMAN BODY involuntary movements triggered by impulses that travel
through the autonomic nervous system to the smooth
Chapter 2: 
muscle tissue. The arrangement of cells within smooth
muscle tissue allows for contraction and relaxation with
 Muscular system of the human body 
great elasticity. The smooth muscle in the walls of organs
like the urinary bladder and the uterus allow those organs
 Body planes 
to expand and relax as needed. The smooth muscle of the

 Synovial joints and movements alimentary canal (the digestive tract) facilitates the
peristaltic waves that move swallowed food and nutrients.
In the eye, smooth muscle changes the shape of the lens
What is muscular system?   to bring objects into focus. Artery walls include smooth
muscle that relaxes and contracts to move blood through
 The Muscular System is responsible for the movement of the body.  
the human body; attached to the bones of the skeletal  The heart wall is composed of three layers. The middle
system are about 700 named muscles that make up layer, the myocardium, is responsible for the heart’s
roughly half of a person’s body weight.   pumping action. Cardiac muscle, found only in the
myocardium, contracts in response to signals from the
 Each of these muscles is a discrete organ constructed of cardiac conduction system to make the heartbeat. Cardiac
skeletal muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and muscle is made from cells called cardiocytes. Like skeletal
nerves. Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, muscle cells, cardiocytes have a striated appearance, but
digestive organs, and blood vessels.   their overall structure is shorter and thicker. Cardiocytes
 In these organs, muscles serve to move substances are branched, allowing them to connect with several other
throughout the body.   cardiocytes, forming a network that facilitates coordinated
contraction.
Source:https://quizlet.com/297741037/muscular-
systemvocabulary-diagram/ Planes of the Body
3 Types of Muscular Tissues

 A plane is an imaginary flat surface often times the body is

 In the muscular system, muscle tissue is categorized into
section or cut along a surface of plane, which is referred to
three distinct types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Each
as a body plane. An unlimited number of sections can be
type of muscle tissue in the human body has a unique
made along an unlimited number of planes. When a
structure and a specific role. Skeletal muscle moves
section of the body or an organ is cut, it is named after the
bones and other structures. Cardiac muscle contracts the
plane which it occurs.  
heart to pump blood. The smooth muscle tissue that forms
organs like the stomach and bladder changes shape to
 Sagittal Planes – run from the top of the body to the
facilitate bodily functions.
bottom and run from the front to the back. It divides the
body into left and right sections. If sagittal planes run
 Here are more details about the structure and function of
down the midline of the body and divide the body into
each type of muscle tissue in the human muscular system.
equal halves, it is called mid sagittal plane.  
 Coronal or frontal Plane – run side to side and top to  Ball and socket joint (hip joint) is the only ball and socket
bottom, these planes divide the body into anterior and joints of the body and is used for large movements while
posterior sections.   the motions between bones at a plane joint.  
 Transverse Planes – run side to side and front to back,  Plane joint (gliding joint) allows the bones to slide against
these planes divide the body into upper and lower each other.  
sections. These planes are sometimes called Horizontal  Condyloid joints (ellipsoid joints) allow you to spread your
Plane.   fingers apart and bring them together or to move in a
 Since we have an infinite number of possible planes and medial or lateral direction.  
ways to draw planes, any plane is describing as an  Saddle joint provides the thumb the ability to move away
oblique plane. So, we can draw a plane like this, which from the palm of the hand.
goes to side to side but also runs slightly up and down,
MOVEMENTS OF THE BODY 
slightly front and back. This is an oblique plane.

SYNOVIAL JOINTS  Flexion describes a bending movement that decreases the

angle between a segment and its proximal segment. For
 A synovial joint, also known as a diarthrosis, is the most example, bending the elbow, or clenching a hand into a
common and most movable type of joint in the body of a fist, are examples of flexion. When a person is sitting
mammal. Synovial joints achieve movement at the point of down, the knees are flexed. 
contact of the articulating bones. Structural and functional
differences distinguish synovial joints from cartilaginous
joints (synchondroses and symphyses) and fibrous joints
 Extension is the opposite of flexion, describing a
(sutures, gomphoses, and syndesmoses).  
straightening movement that increases the angle between
body parts. For example, when standing up, the knees are
extended.
 The main structural differences between synovial and
fibrous joints are the existence of capsules surrounding
the articulating surfaces of a synovial joint and the
 Abduction is a motion that pulls a structure or part away
presence of lubricating synovial fluid within those capsules
from the midline of the body. In the case of fingers and
(synovial cavities).  
toes, it is spreading the digits apart, away from the
 Several movements may be performed by synovial joints.
centerline of the hand or foot. Abduction of the wrist is
Abduction is the movement away from the midline of the
also called radial deviation. 
body. Adduction is the movement toward the middle line of
 Adduction is a motion that pulls a structure or part toward
the body. Extension is the straightening of limbs (increase
the midline of the body, or towards the midline of a limb. In
in angle) at a joint. Flexion is bending the limbs (reduction
the case of fingers and toes, it is bringing the digits
of angle) at a joint. Rotation is a circular movement around
together, towards the centerline of the hand or foot.
a fixed point.
 Elevation is movement in a superior direction. For
 The joint of a skeleton defines a motion of the body and its
example, shrugging is an example of elevation of the
limitation. Synovial have 6 types; Synovial joints are the
scapula. 
most common types of joints in the body; it also gives the
bone ability to move smoothly against each other.  
 Hinge (elbow) is used only for bending and straightening
motions along a single axis. Movements: flexion and
extension    Depression is movement in an inferior direction, the
 Pivot joints (atlantoaxial joints between C1 and C2) is opposite of elevation. 
used for rotation around one axis such as between the  Rotation of body parts is referred to as internal or external,
first and second cervical vertebrae which allows for side to referring to rotation towards or away from the center of the
side Movements: pronation and supination   body
 Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion refer to extension or  Inversion and Eversion refer to movements that tilt the
flexion of the foot at the ankle. These terms refer to flexion sole of the foot away from (eversion) or towards
in direction of the "back" of the foot, which is the upper (inversion) the midline of the body. 
surface of the foot when standing, and flexion in direction
of the sole of the foot.   Eversion is the movement of the sole of the foot away
from the median plane. 
   Inversion is the movement of the sole towards the
median plane. For example, inversion describes the
 Dorsiflexion is where the toes are brought closer to the
motion when an ankle is twist.
shin. This decreases the angle between the dorsum of the
foot and the leg. For example, when walking on the heels
WEEK 3
the ankle is described as being in dorsiflexion.
 Plantar flexion is the movement which decreases the HEALTH RELATED FITNESS
angle between the sole of the foot and the back of the leg;
for example, the movement when depressing a car pedal Chapter 3: Health Related Fitness. 
or standing on tiptoes.   Health Relate Fitness 
Components of Health Related Fitness 
Meaning of Physical Fitness 
Body Mass Index

 (This is an illustration of a ballerina that is demonstrating

plantar flexion of the feet.) Health Related Fitness 
 Flexion and Dorsal flexion refer to movement of the flexion  
(palmar flexion) or extension (dorsiflexion) of the hand at
the wrist. These terms refer to flexion between the hand 1. Health is a state of complete physical, mental and
and the body's dorsal surface, which in anatomical social well-being and not merely the absence of
position is considered the back of the arm; and flexion disease or Infirmity  
between the hand and the body's palmar surface,   2. Health Related-Fitness – Is the components concern
the development of qualities necessary to function
 Palmar flexion is decreasing the angle between the palm efficiently and maintain a healthy lifestyle.  
and the anterior forearm.  
 Dorsal flexion is extension at the ankle or wrist joint. This 1. Cardiovascular Endurance - The ability of the heart,
brings the hand closer to the dorsum of the body. blood vessels, blood, and respiratory system to supply
 Pronation and Supination generally refers to assuming fuel, mainly oxygen, to the muscles and the muscles’
prone or supine positions, but often they are in the ability to utilize the fuel for activity  
standard anatomical position wherein the palm are used in 2. Cardio-respiratory endurance is the ability of the body's
a specific sense referring to rotation of the forearm or foot circulatory and respiratory systems to supply fuel during
so that or sole is facing anteriorly (supination) or sustained physical activity.
posteriorly (pronation).  
Four Training Techniques to Improve Cardio respiratory
Endurance.  

 Pronation at the forearm is a rotational movement where

 Continuous Training – the large of improvement possible
will be determined by initial levels of cardio respiratory
the hand and upper arm are turned inwards. Pronation of
endurance.  
the foot is turning of the sole outwards, so that weight is
borne on the medial part of the foot.  
 Interval Training - Consists of alternating periods of

 Supination of the forearm occurs when the forearm or relatively intense work and active recovery. It allows for
performance of much more work at a more intense 4
palm are rotated outwards. Supination of the foot is
workload over a longer period of time than if working
turning of the sole of the foot inwards, shifting weight to
continuous.  
the lateral edge.
 Fartlek – Literally means “Speed Play “it is similar to  Looking good – regular physical activity is a healthy
interval training in that you must run for a specified period lifestyle. Healthy lifestyle such as proper nutrition, good
of time;   posture, and good body mechanics can help you look your
 Par Cours – The technique for improving cardio best.  
respiratory endurance that basically combines continuous  Feeling good – people who engage in regular physical
training and circuit training activity feel better. You can resist fatigue, are less likely to
be injured and are capable of working more efferent.  
Five Important Consideration of Interval Training  
 Enjoying life – life is more enjoyable when you engage in
regular physical activity that results in physical fitness, the
 Training Period – The amount of time that continuous
key to be able to do more of the things you want to do.  
activity is actually being performed.  
 Meeting emergencies – a fit and active person has the
 Recovery Period – The time between training periods.  
capacity to help or to assist other people when they need
 Set – The group of combined training and recovery period.
help.
 
 Repetition – The number of training/ recovery period per Body Mass Index  
set.  
 Training Time/Distance – The rate or distance of the  The Body Mass Index (BMI) is a widely accepted tool to
training period. evaluate body composition. The score reflects how heavy
the person is, relative to his/her height.  
3. Flexibility it is a quality of plasticity which gives the ability to
 The BMI may be determined using a table or chart which
do a wide range of movement.  
displays BMI as a function of mass and height using
4. Muscular endurance is the ability of muscle to perform or
sustain a muscle contracting repeatedly over a period of time. contour lines or colors for different BMI categories, and
  which may use other units of measurement (converted to
5. Muscular strength is the ability of the muscle to exert force metric units for the calculation).  
during an activity.    The BMI is a convenient rule of thumb used to broadly
6. Body composition refers to the relative amount of muscle, categorize a person as underweight, normal weight,
fat, bone, and other vital parts of the body. The components of overweight, or obese based on tissue mass (muscle, fat,
health-related and motor skill-related fitness overlap. For
example, cardio respiratory endurance, strength, flexibility, and and bone) and height. Commonly accepted BMI ranges
body composition are essential for healthy living; they are also are underweight (under 18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5
important in skillful motor performance.
to 25), overweight (25 to 30), and obese (over 30).  
Physical Fitness    BMIs under 20 and over 25 have been associated with
higher all-causes mortality, with the risk increasing with
1. Physical fitness is a state of well-being with low risk of distance from the 20–25 range
premature health problem and energy to participate in a
variety of physical activities. It is a combination of WEEK 4
medical fitness (body soundness) and dynamic fitness
(capacity for action). It is the ability of an individual to SKILLS RELATED FITNESS
perform one’s daily activities efficiently without undue
fatigue, reduce the risk of health problems and with Chapter 4: Skill related-fitness 
Six components of skill related-fitness 
extra “reserve” in case of emergency.  
Benefits of skill related-fitness
2. Fitness A broad term denoting dynamic qualities the
allow you to satisfy your needs regarding mental and
emotional stability, social consciousness and What is skill related fitness? 

adaptability spiritual and moral fiber, and physical heath

consistent with your hereditary
 The ability to perform during games and sports; also
called PERFORMANCE FITNESS. Skill related fitness
Benefits of Health and Wellness   has six components.  
 The abilities that help people perform skills.  
 Consists of those components of fitness that have a  The ability to maintain a certain posture or to move without
relationship with enhanced performance in athletic falling.  
activities. Skill related fitness abilities increases one’s  Static balance: maintain equilibrium in a stationary
ability to perform in various activities and only has an position.  
indirect connection with health. The skill-related  Dynamic balance: maintain equilibrium when moving the
components of fitness are considered to be agility, body. 
balance, coordination, power, speed, and reaction time
2. COORDINATION – the ability to integrate the senses with
though some people feel that other abilities such as
muscles so as to produce accurate, smooth, and harmonious
spatial awareness should be included. It is assumed that body movement.  
kids who have who possess high skill related fitness will
be more likely to participate in a variety of activities and for  Related to the ability to use the senses, such as sight and
this reason will also exemplify a high standard of health- hearing, together with body parts in performing motor
related fitness. Skill-related fitness components are tasks smoothly and accurately. 
assessed with several different tests. Such components
3, AGILITY – the capacity to change the direction of the body
as reaction time and speed are considered by some to be quickly and effectively.
more related to heredity than healthy lifestyles, especially 4. SPEED – the ability to move one’s body from one point to
another in the shortest possible time. 
in young people.
5. POWER – sometimes confused with strength. Speed of
contraction, likewise, is the basic ingredient which, when
combined with strength, provides an explosive type of
movement. 
6. REACTION TIME – the time required to respond or initiate a
RESTING HEART RATE (RHR)  movement as a result of a given stimulus. 

 this is the number of pulses beat at rest. The best tome to  A skill-related physical fitness component that relates
take the RHR is upon waking up in the morning. The to the time elapsed between stimulation and the
average RHR is 75 beats for males and 80 foe females beginning of reaction to it.
per minute. 
Factors determining your skill-related fitness 
WORKING HEART RATE (WHR) OR EXERCISE HEART
HEREDITY 
RATE (EHR) OR TARGET HEART RATE (THR)  

 Speed and reaction time are particularly limited by

 this is 60-80% of your heart’s maximum capacity (after
heredity. 
deducting age) while exercising. An ordinary college
 In spite of limited natural ability, many people have
freshman should approximately have WHR of 130- 160
enough determination and desire to achieve high skill
pulse beats per minute. This is gradually attained in the
levels. 
workout phase and sustained by steady exercises for
about 20 minutes.  PRACTICE 

RECOVERY RATE (RR0)  

 Anyone can learn the skills required for sports, games,

 this is the number of pulse beats taken 5 to 10 minutes
and other lifetime activities. 
after a workout or after walking and stretching in the
gradual cool-down. The heartbeats should go back to PRINCIPLE of SPECIFICITY 
normal or slightly above the resting heart rate.

 It applies to all parts of skill related fitness and to physical

1. BALANCE - involves vision, reflexes, and the skeletal skills.
muscular system which provides the maintenance of
equilibrium.  
 Looking good – regular physical activity is a healthy  ALSO KNOWN AS CARDIOVASCULAR EXERCISE
lifestyle. Healthy lifestyle such as proper nutrition, good BUILDS YOUR ENDURANCE. 
posture, and good body mechanics can help you look your  HERE ARE SOME ADVANTAGES OF AEROBIC
best.  DANCING THAT WILL HELP YOU DECIDE IF YOU
 Feeling good – people who engage in regular physical SHOULD GO FOR IT OR NOT. 
activity feel better. You can resist fatigue, are less likely to  THE ADVANTAGES: IT INCREASES STAMINA. WEIGHT
be injured and are capable of working more efferent.  LOSS, INCREASES RESPIRATION EFFICIENCY,
 Enjoying life – life is more enjoyable when you engage in INCREASES ARTERY HEALTH, REDUCES STRESS
regular physical activity that results in physical fitness, the AND ANXIETY, STRENGTHENS AND TONE MUSCLES.
key to be able to do more of the things you want to do. 
 Meeting emergencies – a fit and active person has the
capacity to help or to assist other people when they need 2. BICYCLING – BIKING IS A TOP-NOTCH CARDIO
WORKOUT. YOU’LL BURN ABOUT 400 CALORIES AN
help. HOUR. PLUS, IT STRENGTHENS YOUR LOWER BODY,
INCLUDING YOUR LEGS, HIPS AND GLUTES
WEEK 5

3. FITNESS WALKING – IS ONE OF THE MAIN GAITS OF

AEROBICS LOCOMOTION AMONG LEGGED ANIMALS. WALKING IS
TYPICALLY SLOWER THAN RUNNING AND OTHER GAITS.
CHAPTER 5: AEROBICS  WALKING IS DEFINED BY AN “INVERTED PENDULUM”
AEROBIC EXERCISE  GAIT IN WHICH THE BODY VAULTS OVER THE STIFF LIMB
TYPES OF AEROBIC EXERCISE  OR LIMBS WITH EACH STEP.
BENEFITS OF AEROBIC EXERCISE 
PROPER SEQUENCE OF AEROBIC EXERCISE PROGRAM

 IT IS AN EXCELLENT TYPE OF CARDIO ACTIVITY. BUT

 AEROBIC EXERCISE IS ANY ACTIVITY THAT USE
IN ORDER TO CHALLENGE YOUR CARDIOVASCULAR
LARGE MUSCLE GROUPS, CAN BE MAINTAINED
SYSTEM, YOU NEED TO WALK AT A PACE AND
CONTINUOUSLY, AND IS RHYTHMIC IN NATURE. IT IS
INTENSITY THAT INCREASES THE DEMANDS ON
A TYPE OF EXERCISE THAT OVERLOADS THE HEART
YOUR HEART, LUNGS, AND MUSCLES. 
AND LUNGS AND CAUSES THEM TO WORK HARDER
 IT IS IMPORTANT FOR WEIGHT CONTROL BECAUSE
THAN AT REST. THE IMPORTANT IDEA BEHIND
IT HELPS YOU BURN CALORIES. IF YOU ADD 30
AEROBIC EXERCISE TODAY IS TO GET UP AND GET
MINUTES OF BRISK WALKING TO YOU DAILY
MOVING. THERE ARE MORE ACTIVITIES THAN EVER
ROUTINE, YOU COULD BURN ABOUT 150 MORE
TO CHOOSE FROM, WHETHER IT IS A NEW ACTIVITY
CALORIES A DAY. SO, KEEP WALKING, BUT MAKE
OR ANY OLD ONE. 
SURE YOU ALSO EAT A HEALTHY DIET
 THERE ARE TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF AEROBIC
EXERCISE HIGH IMPACT EXRCISE AND LOW IMPACT
EXERCISE. ALTERNATE YOUR WORKOUT BETWEEN
4. JUMPING ROPE – A ROPE USED FOR EXERCISES AND
THE TWO TO HELP YOU STAY ENGAGED AND CHILDREN’S GAMES THAT INVOLVE JUMPING OVER THE
MOTIVATED TO MEET YOUR FITNESS GOAL. USUALLY TWIRLING ROPE EACH TIME IT REACHES ITS
LOWEST POINT ALSO; A GAME PLAYED WITH A JUMP
ROPE. 
TYPES OF AEROBIC EXERCISE 

 A SKIPPING ROPE OR JUMP ROPE IS A TOOL USED

1. AEROBIC DANCE –INVOLVES ANY KIND OF DANCE IN THE SPORT OF SKIPPING/JUMPING OVER A ROPE
PUT TO MUSIC AND CAN INCLUDE EVERYTHING FROM
ZUMBA (A LATIN INSPIRED DANCE AEROBICS)  SWUNG SO THAT IT PASSES UNDER THEIR FEET
AND OVER THEIR HEADS. 
 A TYPICAL DANCE CLASS USUALLY BEGINS WITH A 5  HERE ARE 5 SCIENCE-BACKED BENEFITS OF
TO 10-MINUTE WARM-UP, FOLLOWED BY A 20- TO 30- JUMPING ROPE: BURN CALORIES. JUMPING ROPE
MINUTE AEROBIC ROUTINE, AND END WITH A 5- TO CAN BURN 200 TO 300 CALORIES IN 15 MINUTES,
10-MINUTE COOL DOWN.  IMPROVES COORDINATION, REDUCES INJURY RISK,
 IMPROVE HEART HEALTH, AND STRENGTHENS PROVIDES AN ALL-OVER BODY WORKOUT, AS
BONE DENSITY NEARLY ALL OF YOUR MUSCLES ARE USED DURING
SWIMMING.

5. RUNNING – THE FASTEST MEANS FOR AN ANIMAL TO

MOVE ON FOOT. 
 BENEFITS OF AEROBIC EXERCISE 
 IT IS DEFINED IN SPORTING TERMS AS A GAIT IN  INCREASED MAXIMAL OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (V02
WHICH AT SOME POINT ALL FEET ARE OFF THE MAX) 
GROUND AT THE SAME TIME. IT IS A FORM OF BOTH  IMPROVEMENT IN CARDIOVASCULAR/CARDIO-
ANAEROBIC EXERCISE AND AEROBIC EXERCISE.  RESPIRATORY FUNCTION (HEART AND LUNGS) 
 RUNNING IS A COMPLEX. COORDINATED PROCESS  INCREASED MAXIMAL CARDIAC OUTPUT (AMOUNT
WHICH INVOLVES THE ENTIRE BODY.  OF BLOOD PUMPED WITH EVERY MINUTE) 
 AS A FORM OF CARDIO EXERCISE THAT’S EASILY  INCREASED MAXIMAL STROKE VOLUME (AMOUNT
ACCESSIBLE, RUNNING IS ONE OF THE MOST OF BLOOD PUMPED WITH EACH BEAT) 
STRAIGHTFORWARD WAYS TO GET THE IMPORTANT  INCREASE BLOOD SUPPLY TO MUSCLES AND
BENEFITS OF EXERCISE. SINCE IT IMPROVES ABILITY TO USE OXYGEN 
AEROBIC FITNESS, RUNNING IS A GREAT WAY TO  LOWER HEART RATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE AT
HELP IMPROVE CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH. PLUS, IT ANY LEVEL OF SUBMAXIMAL EXERCISE 
BURNS CALORIES AND CAN BUILD STRENGTH,  INCREASED THRESHOLD FOR LACTIC ACID
AMONG OTHER THINGS. ACCUMULATION 
 LOWER RESTING SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD
PRESSURE IN PEOPLE WITH HIGH BLOOD
6. STAIR CLIMBING – IS THE CLIMBING OF A FLIGHT OF
PRESSURE 
STAIR, OFTEN FOR PEOPLE WHO HAVE RECENTLY
STARTED TRYING TO GET IN SHAPE. A COMMON  INCREASED HDL CHOLESTEROL (THE GOOD
EXHORTATION IN HEALTH POP CULTURE IS “TAKEN THE CHOLESTEROL) 
STAIRS, NOT THE ELEVATOR” 
 DECREASED BLOOD TRIGLYCERIDES 
 REDUCED BODY FAT IMPROVED WEIGHT CONTROL 
 ENGAGES YOUR BODY’S LARGEST MUSCLE GROUP
 IMPROVED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE AND REDUCED
TO REPEATEDLY LIFT YOUR BODY WEIGHT UP,
INSULIN RESISTANCE
STEP AFTER STEP. THUS, USING YOUR MUSCLES
TO CARRY YOUR OWN WEIGHT IS FAR HIGHER TO
RUNNING AS COMPARED 
 IT ALSO RAISES YOUR HEART RATE IMMEDIATELY  PROPER SEQUENCE OF AEROBIC EXERCISE
THUS MAXIMIZING YOUR CARDIO BENEFITS. PROGRAM 
o WARM UP 
 DESCRIPTION: SLOW PACE MOVEMENT, LOW
7. SWIMMING – THE SELF-PROPULSION OF A PERSON
IMPACT MOVEMENT.
THROUGH WATER, USUALLY FOR RECREATION, SPORT,
EXERCISE OR SURVIVAL.  o PURPOSE:
 INCREASE BLOOD FLOW AND BODY TEMPERATURE 
 LOCOMOTION – ACHIEVED THROUGH o REMINDER: 
COORDINATED MOVEMENT OF THE LIMBS, THE  START WITH SLOW AND EASY MOVEMENT.
BODY, OR BOTH. 
CARDIO AND AEROBICS PHASE 
 SOME OF THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF SWIMMING ARE
TO BUILD ENDURANCE, MUSCLE STRENGTH AND
CARDIOVASCULAR FITNESS; HELPS MAINTAIN A
 CONTINUOUS MOVEMENTS; AND USES GROUP OF
HEALTHY WEIGHT, HEALTHY HEART AND LUNGS.
MUSCLES AND TRAVELING STEPS. ELEVATE HEART
TONES MUSCLES AND BUILDS STRENGTH.
TO TRAINING LEVEL FOR IMPROVEMENT. LISTEN TO
 YOUR BODY. TOO HIGH INTENSITY AND IMPACT MAY Professional Development and Applied Ethics 
INCREASE RISK OF INJURY. 
WEEK 1
POST CARDIO 

 INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY

 SLOW DOWN EXERCISES ROUTINE TO LOWER What Is Personality?

HEART RATE AND FOLLOWED BY STATE
STRETCHES MOVEMENTS. STRENGTH AND TONE  Personality refers to the long-standing traits and patterns
THE MUSCLES, IMPROVE FLEXIBILITY. AVOID that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and
BALLISTIC STRETCHES, DEEP STATIC STRETCHES behave in specific ways.  
IN BENEFICIAL.   Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. Each
person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term
COOL DOWN 
characteristics and a manner in which he or she interacts
with other individuals and the world around them.

 COMBINATION OF VARIETY OF EXERCISES TO TONE  Our personalities are thought to be long term, stable, and

THE BIG MUSCLES IS ADVISED. FLOOR EXERCISES not easily changed.

AND KINDS OF CRUNCHES ARE EFFECTIVE.  The word personality comes from the Latin word persona.

DECREASE THE HEART RATE AND SMOOTH In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an

TRANSITION. CONTINUE WITH SLOW MOVEMENT TO actor. While we tend to think of a mask as being worn to

PREVENT DIZZINESS AND HEADACHES DUE TO conceal one’s identity, the theatrical mask was originally

BLOOD POOLING ON THE LEGS. used to either represent or project a specific personality
trait of a character.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

 The concept of personality has been studied for at least

2,000 years, beginning with Hippocrates in 370 BCE
(Fazeli, 2012). Hippocrates theorized that personality traits
and human behaviors are based on four separate
temperaments associated with four fluids (“humors”) of the
body: choleric temperament (yellow LESSON PROPER:
bile from the liver), melancholic temperament (black bile
from the kidneys), sanguine temperament (red blood from
the heart), and phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm
from the lungs).
 Centuries later, the influential Greek physician and
philosopher Galen built on Hippocrates’s theory,
suggesting that both diseases and personality differences
could be explained by imbalances in the humors and that
each person exhibits one of the four temperaments.
 In 1780, Franz Gall, a German physician, proposed that
the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a
person’s personality traits, character, and mental abilities.
According to Gall, measuring these distances revealed the
sizes of the brain areas underneath, providing information
that could be used to determine whether a person was
friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good with languages,
 and so on. The pseudoscience of measuring the areas of  Personality is an hypothetical construct referring to an
a person’s skull is known as phrenology. (a) Gall organized system of reaction tendencies that mediates
developed a chart that depicted which areas of the skull relations between the person and his/her environment,
corresponded to particular personality traits or rendering the person's behavior distinctive and more or
characteristics. (b) An 1825 lithograph depicts Gall less uniquely identifying. 
examining the skull of a young woman. (Credit b:  The scientific necessity for the concept appears to rest on
modification of work by Wellcome Library, London) three common observations: (l) Characteristic patterns of
behavior vary from one person to another in ways that
In the centuries after Galen, other researchers contributed tend to be idiosyncratic and distinctively identifying; (2)
to the development of his four primary temperament types, Each person's behavior exhibits a certain lawfulness or
most prominently Immanuel Kant (in the 18th century) and regularity, even if not surface consistency, across
psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (in the 19th century) Kant situations and over time; and (3) Notwithstanding to the
agreed with Galen that everyone could be sorted into one above, a person's characteristic behavior undergoes
of the four temperaments and that there was no overlap modification in the face of changing circumstances and in
between the four categories. He developed a list of traits ways not readily explained by any notion of rigid unfolding
that could be used to describe the personality of a person of an innately determined "program."
from each of the four temperaments. However, Wundt   It would seem, then, that a person's personality
suggested that a better description of personality could be represents his or her largely acquired style of coping with
achieved using two major axes: emotional/non-emotional the world, including certain underlying structural
and changeable/unchangeable. The first axis separated characteristics where, however, the system normally
strong from weak emotions (the melancholic and choleric retains a degree of malleability on a continuing basis.
temperaments from the phlegmatic and sanguine). The Looked at in this way, early structuralization might be of
second axis divided the changeable temperaments special significance and indeed most theories of
(choleric and sanguine) from the unchangeable ones personality assume this to be the case.
(melancholic and phlegmatic). Developed from Galen’s
theory of the four temperaments, Kant proposed trait
words to describe each temperament. Wundt later Personality Traits and Personality Types
suggested the arrangement of the traits on two major
axes. There are many ways to measure personality but psychologists
have mostly given up trying to divide humanity neatly into
 Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective of types. Instead, they focus on personality traits. The most
widely accepted of these traits are the Big Five: Openness,
personality was the first comprehensive theory of Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and
personality, explaining a wide variety of both normal and Neuroticism. Conveniently, you can remember these traits with
the handy OCEAN mnemonic (or, if you prefer, CANOE works,
abnormal behaviors. According to Freud, unconscious too). The Big Five were developed in the 1970s by two
drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with research teams. These teams were led by Paul Costa and
Robert R. McCrae of the National Institutes of Health and
childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our Warren Norman and Lewis Goldberg of the University of
personality. Freud attracted many followers who modified Michigan at Ann Arbor and the University of Oregon, according
to Scientific American. The Big Five are the ingredients that
his ideas to create new theories about personality. These make up each individual's personality. A person might have a
theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed dash of openness, a lot of conscientiousness, an average
amount of extraversion, plenty of agreeableness and almost no
with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they
neuroticism at all. Or someone could be disagreeable, neurotic,
reduced the emphasis on sex and focused more on the introverted, conscientious and hardly open at all. Here's what
social environment and effects of culture on personality. each trait entails:

The perspective of personality proposed by Freud and his Openness 

followers was the dominant theory of personality for the Openness is shorthand for "openness to experience." People
first half of the 20th century. who are high in openness enjoy adventure. They're curious
and appreciate art, imagination and new things. The motto of
THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY the open individual might be "Variety is the spice of life."
People who are low in openness are just the opposite: They
prefer to stick to their habits, avoid new experiences and
probably aren't the most adventurous eaters. Changing
personality is usually considered a tough process, but
openness is a personality trait that's been shown to be subject Age: Birth to 1 Year
to change in adulthood.

                The two theories of development both focus on the

Conscientiousness  importance of early experiences, but there are notable
differences between Freud's and Erikson's ideas. Freud
People who are conscientious are organized and have a strong centered on the importance of feeding, while Erikson was more
sense of duty. They're dependable, disciplined and concerned with how responsive caretakers are to a child's
achievement-focused. You won't find conscientious types needs.
jetting off on round-the-world journeys with only a backpack;
they're planners. People who are low in conscientiousness are
more spontaneous and freewheeling. They may tend toward
carelessness. Conscientiousness is a helpful trait to have, as it Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development  
has been linked to achievement in school and on the job.
Freud's called this the oral stage. At this point in development,
Extraversion  a child's primary source of pleasure is through the mouth via
sucking, eating, and tasting. Problems with this stage can
Extraversion versus introversion is possibly the most result in what Freud referred to as an oral fixation.
recognizable personality trait of the Big Five. The more of an
extravert someone is, the more of a social butterfly they are.
Extraverts are chatty, sociable and draw energy from crowds.
They tend to be assertive and cheerful in their social
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development  
interactions. Introverts, on the other hand, need plenty of alone Erikson called this the trust versus mistrust stage. Children
time, perhaps because their brains process social interaction learn to either trust or mistrust their caregivers. The care that
differently. Introversion is often confused with shyness, but the adults provide determines whether children develop this sense
two aren't the same. Shyness implies a fear of social of trust in the world around them. Children who do not receive
interactions or an inability to function socially. Introverts can be adequate and dependable care may develop a sense of
perfectly charming at parties — they just prefer solo or small- mistrust of others and the world.
group activities.

Agreeableness 
Age: 1 to 3 Years
Agreeableness measures the extent of a person's warmth and
kindness. The more agreeable someone is, the more likely
they are to be trusting, helpful and compassionate.
Disagreeable people are cold and suspicious of others, and While there are a number of differences between Erikson's and
they're less likely to cooperate. Men who are high in Freud's ideas, their theories both focus on how children
agreeableness are judged to be better dancers by women, develop a sense of independence and mastery.
suggesting that body movement can signal personality.

Neuroticism 
Psychosexual Development  
People high in neuroticism worry frequently and easily slip into
anxiety and depression. If all is going well, neurotic people tend Freud called this the anal stage of development. Children gain
to find things to worry about. a sense of mastery and competence by controlling bladder and
bowel movements. Children who succeed at this stage develop
Other personality measures  a sense of capability and productivity. Those who have
problems at this stage may develop an anal fixation. As adults,
Sensing and intuition refer to how people prefer to gather they might be excessively orderly or messy. 
information about the world, whether through concrete
information (sensing) or emotional feelings (intuition). Thinking Psychosocial Development  
and feeling refer to how people make decisions. Thinking types
go with logic, while feeling types follow their hearts. Erikson called this the autonomy versus shame and doubt
stage. Children develop self-sufficiency by controlling activities
DIMENSION OF THEORIES OF FREUD AND such as eating, toilet training, and talking. Those who succeed
at this stage develop a sense of independence while those who
ERICKSON struggle will be left doubting themselves
               Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory and Erik
Erikson's psychosocial theory are two well-known theories of
development. While he was influenced by Freud's ideas, Ages: 3 to 6 Years
Erikson's theory differed in a number of important ways. 
During the preschool and early elementary years, Freud's
             Like Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops theory was much more concerned with the role of the libido
in a series of predetermined stages. Unlike Freud’s theory of while Erikson's theory was more focused on how children
psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of interact with parents and peers.
social experience across the whole lifespan. Let's compare and
contrast these two theories by looking at some of the key
similarities and differences at each stage.
Freud's Theory   Age: Adulthood
Freud referred to this as the phallic stage. The libido's energy
is focused on the genitals. Children begin to identify with their
same-sex parent. Boys experience the Oedipus complex while Freud's theory focused exclusively on development between
girls experience the Electra complex.  birth and the teen years, implying that personality is largely set
in stone by early childhood. Erikson, on the other hand, took a
Erikson's Theory   lifespan approach and believed that development continues
even in old age.
Erikson's called this the initiative versus guilt stage. Children
begin to take more control over their environment. Those who
are successful at this stage develop a sense of purpose while
those who struggle are left with feelings of guilt.
Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development  
Freud's theory largely focuses on the period between birth and
adolescence. According to Freud, the genital stage lasts
Ages: 7 to 11  throughout adulthood. He believed the goal is to develop a
balance between all areas of life. 
Years Freud believed that this age served as more of a
transitional period between childhood and adolescence. Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development 
Erikson, on the other hand, believed that kids continue to forge
a sense of independence and competence.  Eriksons' theory includes three more stages that span
adulthood. These three stages are:  Intimacy vs. Isolation:
Psychosexual Development   Young adults seek out romantic love and companionship. 
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle-aged adults nurture others
Freud referred to this as the latent period. The libido's energy and contribute to society.  Integrity vs. Despair: Older adults
is suppressed and children are focused on other activities such reflect on their lives, looking back with a sense of fulfillment or
as school, friends, and hobbies. Freud believed this stage was bitterness
important for developing social skills and self-confidence. 
SIGNIFICANCE OF PERSONALITY
Psychosocial Development   DEVELOPMENT 
Erikson called this the industry versus inferiority stage. An individual’s personality refers to his/her appearance,
Children develop a sense of competence by mastering new characteristics, attitude, mindset and behavior with others.
skills. Kids who succeed at this stage develop pride in their Personality development grooms an individual and helps him
accomplishments while those who struggle may be left feeling make a mark of his/her own. Personality development goes a
incompetent. long way in reducing stress and conflicts. Personality
development helps you develop a positive attitude in life.
Personality development helps an individual to inculcate
Age: Adolescence positive qualities like punctuality, flexible attitude, willingness to
learn, friendly nature, eagerness to help others and so on.

Adolescence played a critical role in both Freud's and Erikson's WEEK 2

theories of development. In both theories, teens begin to forge
their own sense of identity. 
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT STAGE 1 -
Freud's Theory   COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Freud referred to this point in psychosexual development as

Communication Skills 
the genital stage. Children begin to explore romantic
relationships. The goal of this stage is to develop a sense of Communication is one of the main ingredients for corporate
balance between all the areas of life. Those who have success, but the problem is that the phrase ‘good
successfully completed the earlier stages are now warm, communication skills’ is a term so overused that it is difficult to
caring and well-adjusted.  pinpoint what it actually means.  Demonstrating strong
communication skills is about being able to convey information
Erikson's Theory   to others in a simple and unambiguous way.  It involves the
distribution of messages clearly and concisely, in a way that
Erikson's called this point in psychosocial development the connects with the audience.  Good communication is about
identity versus role confusion stage. Children develop a understanding instructions, acquiring new skills, making
personal identity and sense of self. Teens explore different requests, asking questions and relaying information with ease. 
roles, attitudes, and identities as they develop a sense of self. Good communication skills are perhaps the most basic skills
Those who receive support and encouragement will emerge that you can possess as an employee, yet they remain one of
with a strong sense of who they are and what they want to the most sought-after by employers. Good communication
accomplish. Those who struggle to forge a strong identity will involves understanding requests, asking questions and
remain confused about who they are and what they want to do relaying key information. 
with their life.
 
Different Types of Communication 
Communication can be categorized into three basic types:  7. Listening - Good communication is all about listening
effectively. Take the time to listen to what the other person is
(1) Verbal communication, in which you listen to a person saying and practice active listening.  Pay attention to what the
to understand their meaning; Verbal communications in other person is saying, ask questions and clarify points, and
business take place over the phone or in person. The medium rephrase what they have said so that you know you have
of the Message is oral.   understood correctly. 
(2) Written communication, in which you read their 8. Open-Mindedness - Strong communications require
meaning; written business communications are printed an open mind and a commitment to understanding other
messages.  people’s points of view. If you disagree with the people you are
speaking to, try to reach a middle ground that benefits all
(3) Nonverbal communication, in which you observe a
parties.   
person and infer meaning. What you say is a vital part of any
communication. But what you don’t say can be even more 9. Tone of Voice - The tone of your voice can set the
important. Research also shows that 55% of in-person whole mood of the conversation. The tone of your voice will
communication comes from nonverbal cues like facial include the level of emotion that you use, the volume you use
expressions, body stance, and tone of voice.   According to and the level of communication you choose.  The same
one study, only 7% of a Receiver’s comprehension of a sentence can have a very different meaning depending on
Message is based on the Sender’s actual words; 38% is based which words are emphasized and the tone of your voice.   
on paralanguage (the tone, pace, and volume of speech), and
55% is based on nonverbal cues (body language).   10. Asking Good Questions - Good questions can help
conversations flow and improve the outcome.  During a
  conversation, always aim to ask open-ended questions. These
are questions with prompts which encourage the recipient to
The Importance of Communication Skills in the Workplace 
speak about certain points and they require more detailed
Communication skills are essential no matter what job you responses.  
work in or your level of seniority. When there is a breakdown in
 
communications, often efficiency, morale and objectives can all
suffer.  What is the Communication Process? - Definition & Steps 
In today’s competitive jobs market, communication skills in the  
business world are highly sought after, with recruiters looking
for candidates who can communicate information, negotiate   
and confidently deal with customers. 
 
 
The process of communication refers to the transmission or
The Top 10 Communication Skills  passage of information or message from the sender through a
selected channel to the receiver overcoming barriers that affect
  its pace.  The process of communication is a cyclic one as it
begins with the sender and ends with the sender in the form of
1. Emotional Intelligence - The ability to understand and
feedback. It takes place upward, downward and laterally
manage your emotions so as to communicate effectively, avoid
throughout the organization.   
stress, overcome challenges and empathize with others. It’s a
skill which is learned over time rather than obtained.     
2. Cohesion and Clarity - Good communication is much The Different Elements in The Process of Communication 
more than saying the right thing; it is about communicating
messages clearly and concisely.    • Sender - The very foundation of communication
process is laid by the person who transmits or sends the
3. Friendliness - In any type of communication, make message. He is the sender of the message which may be a
sure that you set the right tone. A friendly tone will encourage thought, idea, a picture, symbol, report or an order and
others to communicate with you.  Always try to personalize postures and gestures, even a momentary smile. The sender is
messages, particularly when working with partners or fellow therefore the initiator of the message that need to be
colleagues.    transmitted. After having generated the idea, information etc.
the sender encodes it in such a manner that can be well-
4. Confidence - In all interactions, confidence (but not
understood by the receiver. 
over-confidence) is crucial. Demonstrating confidence will give
customers faith in your abilities to deliver what they need, and • Message - is referred to as the information conveyed
that you will follow through with what you have promised.  by words as in speech and write-ups, signs, pictures or
symbols depending upon the situation and the nature and
5. Empathy - Empathy is also beneficial when speaking
importance of information desired to be sent. Message is the
with customers in certain types of customer-facing role.  The
heart of communication. It is the content the sender wants to
goal here is to understand where the other person is coming
covey to the receiver. It can be verbal both written and spoken;
from – and respect their views even if they are very different
or non-verbal i.e. pictorial or symbolic, etc. 
from your own. 
• Encoding - is putting the targeted message into
6. Respect - Empathy leads into the next communication
appropriate medium which may be verbal or nonverbal
skill, respect.  If you respect the ideas and opinions of others,
depending upon the situation, time, space and nature of the
they will be more likely to communicate with you. Active
message to be sent. The sender puts the message into a
listening or simply using the name of the person you are
series of symbols, pictures or words which will be
speaking to can both be effective.   
communicated to the intended receiver. Encoding is an
important step in the communication process as wrong and • It provides a strong basis for coordination amongst
inappropriate encoding may defeat the true intent of the the members of the community or society 
communication process. 
• It allows an individual to fluently work with other
• Channel - refers to the way or mode the message members or elements of the society 
flows or is transmitted through. The message is transmitted
over a channel that links the sender with the receiver. The • It acts as a strong basis for the skill of decision
message may be oral or written and it may be transmitted making 
through a memorandum, a computer, telephone, cell phone,
• It increases the efficiency of an individual to act
apps or televisions.  Since each channel has its advantages
properly in a managerial position 
and disadvantages, the choice of proper selection of the
channel is paramount for effective communication.  • It helps in enhancing peace and corporation amongst
all members of society or community •  It helps in
• Receiver - is the person or group who the message is
boosting self-confidence and morale of individuals 
meant for. He may be a listener, a reader or a viewer. Any
negligence on the part of the receiver may make the  
communication ineffective. The receiver needs to comprehend
the message sent in the best possible manner such that the Communication Barriers 
true intent of the communication is attained. The extent to
which the receiver decodes the message depends on his/her There are many reasons why interpersonal communications
knowledge of the subject matter of the message, experience, may fail. In many communications, the message may not be
trust and relationship with the sender.  The receiver is as received exactly the way the sender intended and hence it is
significant a factor in communication process as the sender is. important that the communicator seeks feedback to check that
It is the other end of the process. The receiver should be in fit their message is clearly understood. The skills of Active
condition to receive the message, that is, he/she should have Listening, Clarification and Reflection, which we will discuss
channel of communication active and should not be shortly, may help but the skilled communicator also needs to
preoccupied with other thoughts that might cause him/her to be aware of the barriers to effective communication. There
pay insufficient attention to the message.  exist many barriers to communication and these may occur at
any stage in the communication process. Barriers may lead to
• Decoding - refers to interpreting or converting the sent your message becoming distorted and you therefore risk
message into intelligible language. It simply means wasting both time and/or money by causing confusion and
comprehending the message. The receiver after receiving the misunderstanding. Effective communication involves
message interprets it and tries to understand it in the best overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise
possible manner.  message.  Some common barriers to effective communication
include: 
• Feedback - is the ultimate aspect of communication
process. It refers to the response of the receiver as to the • The use of jargon. Over-complicated or unfamiliar
message sent to him/her by the sender. Feedback is terms. 
necessary to ensure that the message has been effectively
encoded, sent, decoded and comprehended.    • Emotional barriers and taboos. 

  • Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance

to the receiver. 
An Introduction to Communication and its Types 
• Differences in perception and viewpoint. 
 
• Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or
•  Formal Communication  speech difficulties. 

This is the type of communication which takes place through • Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. 
various official channels within a formal body of the
organization. Formal communication can take place both in • Language differences and the difficulty in
writing or through oral forms. There are also two different types understanding unfamiliar accents. 
of formal communications. And those types are vertical • Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false
communication and horizontal communication. As the name assumptions or stereotyping. People often hear what they
suggests, vertical communication is the type of communication expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to
which flows upwards to downwards or vice versa in a formal incorrect conclusions. 
body of the organization. Similarly, the horizontal or lateral
conversation takes place across various divisions.  • Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction
vary greatly in different cultures, as do the way in which
•  Informal Communication  emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal
This type of communication includes all sorts of space varies between cultures and between different social
communications which take place without the structure of a settings. 
formal body of the organization. There are many experts who  
refer to this type of communication as having a ‘grapevine’
structure. This type of conversation is often distorted and takes Barriers to Communication by Category 
place rapidly. 
• Language Barriers - Clearly, language and linguistic
  ability may act as a barrier to communication. However, even
when communicating in the same language, the terminology
The Importance of Communication  used in a message may act as a barrier if it is not fully
understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that • Active Listening - Active listening is a skill that can be
includes a lot of specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be acquired and developed with practice. However, this skill can
understood by a receiver who is not familiar with the be difficult to master and will, therefore, take time and patience.
terminology used. As nurses, we are especially prone to 'Active listening' means, as its name suggests, actively
making this mistake. We must remember to use language that listening. That is fully concentrating on what is being said
can be understood by the receiver.  rather than just ‘hearing’ the message of the speaker. Active
listening involves listening with all senses. As well as giving full
• Psychological Barriers - The psychological state of the attention to the speaker, it is important that the ‘active listener’
receiver will influence how the message is received. For is also ‘seen’ to be listening - otherwise the speaker may
example, if someone has personal worries and is stressed, conclude that what they are talking about is uninteresting to the
they may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as listener. By providing this 'feedback' the person speaking will
receptive to the message as if they were not stressed. Stress usually feel more at ease and therefore communicate more
management is an important personal skill that affects our easily, openly and honestly. There are both verbal and non-
interpersonal relationships.  Anger is another example of a verbal cues that convey active listening. Non-verbal signs
psychological barrier to communication. When we are angry it include smiling (if appropriate), making eye contact, nodding at
is easy to say things that we may later regret and also to appropriate times, and avoiding distractions. Theses non-
misinterpret what others are saying. More generally, people verbal cues convey the message that you are interested in
with low self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore may what the speaker has to say, and that your attention 
not feel comfortable communicating - they may feel shy about
saying how they really feel, or read negative sub-texts into is fully invested. Offering verbal signs of active listening can
messages they hear.  also be useful. Reflecting on something the speaker has said
by asking a clarifying question is a terrific way to do this.
• Physiological Barriers – These barriers may result Paraphrasing involves finding slightly different words to repeat
from the receiver’s physical state. For example, a receiver with the main idea of the speaker, and is also great way to show
reduced hearing may not grasp the entirety of a spoken active listening. 
conversation, especially if there is significant background
noise.  • Use Simple Language - It’s important to remember
the audience that you’re speaking to, and use language that
• Physical Barriers - An example of a physical barrier to can be easily understood. Avoid using medical terminology or
communication is geographic distance between the sender and jargon when speaking to clients and their families. People are
receiver(s). Communication is generally easier over shorter often intimidated by such language, and can be afraid to admit
distances as more communication channels are available and that they don’t understand the message being delivered. An
less technology is required. Although modern technology often important tool to use when speaking is to pause occasionally
serves to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the and ask questions to ensure that your message is being
advantages and disadvantages of each communication understood as intended. You may also allow the listener to ask
channel should be understood so that an appropriate channel questions to clarify any points. 
can be used to overcome the physical barriers. 
• Give Constructive Feedback - Remember that
• Attitudinal Barriers – These are behaviors or feedback was part of the communication chain we looked at on
perceptions that prevent people from communicating the first page. While the feedback that you give the
effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication may result speaker/sender may occasionally be negative, it is important
from personality conflicts, poor management, resistance to that it be constructive in nature. The intent of the feedback
change, or a lack of motivation. Effective receivers of should be to further the abilities of the speaker. This will
messages should attempt to overcome their own attitudinal strengthen the interpersonal relationship, and enhance future
barriers to facilitate effective communication.  communications. 
• Semantic Barriers - These barriers are concerned with • Communicate Only What Is Needed - Noise and
all sorts of problems which can take place when the distractions can clog up the communication process on all
information is being encoded or decoded. These barriers can levels. While it might be fun to send out funny GIFs or memes
take place due to faulty words, different interpretations, or to your coworkers, these act as distractions that can detract
translations.  from productivity.  Keep your workers focused by encouraging
them to communicate only what is necessary. If they’d like to
• Organizational Barriers - These barriers refer to the
joke around, they can do that through face-to-face
obstructions which can take place due to strict organizational
communication, as it’s a better way to strengthen bonds and
structures. An example of this can be in highly centralized
relationships.  Additionally, it’s important not to overload your
organizations, some members of the team do not get to
workers with too much information. Sending a group text to
interact with other members at all. 
everyone that relates to a subject only three people are
• Personal Barriers - These are the personal factors of interested in is a waste of time for everyone involved. Keep
both the sender and the receiver which might hinder the messages short, succinct, and packed with only the information
process of effective communication.  a person needs to do their job. 

  • Avoid Slang - Slang and casual language can be fun

with your friends, but with your co-workers it can create a
OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS  significant barrier to effective communication. Avoiding slang in
written and verbal instructions will go a long way towards
  keeping your team on the same page. Slang differs
Below, we will look at some tools that can be used to bridge significantly across generations and cultures. It can even vary
barriers in everyday communications.  wildly from region to region, even among those that share a
culture or age group. Slang can cause confusion, but it can
also be a source of alienation and frustration. Confusion,
frustration, and a generally disconnected team is a recipe for History 
disaster. 
 
• Remain Aware of Cultural Differences - The beauty of
the modern workplace is people of all cultures and • The concept of self-esteem has its origins in the 18th
backgrounds can come together and work towards a common century, first expressed in the writings of David Hume, the
goal. With video conferencing and remote workers, you might Scottish enlightenment thinker, shows the idea that it is
be solving problems with people from halfway around the important to value and think well of yourself because it serves
world.  This melting pot mentality means you need to be as a motivational function that enables people to explore their
extremely aware of cross-cultural communication issues. For full potential. 
example, not everyone in your company might speak English
• The identification of self-esteem as a distinct
well. To overcome this language barrier, keep messages
psychological construct has its origins in the work of
simple and to the point so everyone can understand them.
philosopher, psychologist, geologist, and anthropologist
Make sure to research cultural differences and other cultural
William James (1892). James identified multiple dimensions of
barriers that might stand in your way. For example, in Spanish,
the self, with two levels of hierarchy: processes of knowing
conversation is generally supported with eye contact and hand
(called the 'I-self') and the resulting knowledge about the self
gestures. Don’t forget to research domestic cultural groups, as
(the 'Me-self'). The observation about the self and storage of
well. While these communication barriers might not be as
those observations by the I-self creates three types of
immediately apparent, current social issues and general
knowledge, which collectively account for the Me-self,
cultural difference may become a source of mistrust or
according to James. These are the material self, social self,
discomfort. 
and spiritual self. The social self comes closest to self-esteem,
• Stay Open Minded for Questions and Answers - To comprising all characteristics recognized by others. The
communicate effectively, you need to be open-minded and material self consists of representations of the body and
willing to ask and answer questions that may seem frustrating possessions and the spiritual self of descriptive representations
or frivolous. Never put someone off just because you don’t feel and evaluative dispositions regarding the self. This view of self-
like answering them. Instead, be willing to help your coworkers esteem as the collection of an individual's attitudes toward
with their problems. Consistently making yourself available, oneself remains today. 
and even communicating this availability to your team, can go
  In the mid-1960s, social psychologist Morris Rosenberg
a long way in promoting comfortable and effective teamwork. 
defined self-esteem as a feeling of self-worth and developed
On the flip side, don’t get too fired up about opposing
the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES), which became the
viewpoints. Instead, take in the opposing view cordially and
most-widely used scale to measure self-esteem in the social
offer your insight without going into attack mode. 
sciences. 
• Choose a Communication App - Sure, texts are a
  In the early 20th century, the behaviorist movement
great way to get a message across, but a communication app
minimized introspective study of mental processes, emotions,
like Crew helps you contact your coworkers faster than ever. It
and feelings, replacing introspection with objective study
overcomes many potential barriers in virtual communication by
through experiments on behaviors observed in relation with the
simplifying messages, keeping conversations organized, and
environment. Behaviorism viewed the human being as an
helping you manage team scheduling for projects and shifts. 
animal subject to reinforcements, and suggested placing
Each sent message includes a read receipt so you know when
psychology as an experimental science, similar to chemistry or
a person has seen the information. Even better, you can also
biology. As a consequence, clinical trials on self-esteem were
include photos and videos in conversations, which is a great
overlooked, since behaviorists considered the idea less liable
tool for people who prefer nonverbal communication. It’s a
to rigorous measurement. 
perfect way to get announcements across quickly and in a way
that everyone can understand.  • In the mid-20th century, the rise of phenomenology
and humanistic psychology led to renewed interest in self-
WEEK 3
esteem. Self-esteem then took a central role in personal self-
BUILDING SELF-ESTEEM AND SELF-CONFIDENCE actualization and in the treatment of psychic disorders.
Psychologists started to consider the relationship between
WHAT IS SELF-ESTEEM?  psychotherapy and the personal satisfaction of persons with
high self-esteem as useful to the field. This led to new
• Self-esteem is an individual's subjective evaluation of elements being introduced to the concept of self-esteem,
their own worth.  It encompasses beliefs about oneself (for including the reasons why people tend to feel less worthy and
example, "I am unloved", "I am worthy") as well as emotional why people become discouraged or unable to meet challenges
states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame.   by themselves. 
• Smith and Mackie defined it by saying "The self- • In 1992 the political scientist Francis Fukuyama
concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem, is the associated self-esteem with what Plato called thymos - the
positive or negative evaluations of the self, as in how we feel "spiritedness" part of the Platonic soul. 
about it."   
• As of 1997 the core self-evaluations approach
• Self-esteem is an attractive psychological construct included self-esteem as one of four dimensions that comprise
because it predicts certain outcomes, such as academic one's fundamental appraisal of oneself - along with locus of
achievement, happiness, satisfaction in marriage and control, neuroticism, and selfefficacy. The concept of core self-
relationships, and criminal behavior. Self-esteem can apply to evaluations as first examined by Judge, Locke, and Durham,
a specific attribute (for example, "I believe I am a good writer has since proven to have the ability to predict job satisfaction
and I feel happy about that") or globally (for example, "I believe and job performance. Self-esteem may be essential to self-
I am a bad person, and I feel bad about myself in general").     evaluation. 
   
Theories  "nice" or "bad". Individuals describe their ideal and real selves
in terms of disposition 
• According to Terror Management Theory, self-esteem
serves a protective function and reduces anxiety about life and for actions or as behavioral habits. The dreaded self is often
death.  Self-esteem is important because it shows us how we described as being unsuccessful or as having bad habits. 
view the way we are and the sense of our personal value.
Thus, it affects the way we are and acts in the world and the • Ego development stages: Individuals describe their
way we are related to everybody else.  ideal and real selves in terms of traits that are based on
attitudes as well as actions. The dreaded self is often
• Carl Rogers (1902-1987), an advocate of humanistic described as having failed to meet social expectations or as
psychology, theorized the origin of many people's problems to self-centered. 
be that they despise themselves and consider themselves
worthless and incapable of being loved. This is why Rogers • Self-understanding stages: Individuals describe their
believed in the importance of giving unconditional acceptance ideal and real selves as having unified identities or characters.
to a client and when this was done it could improve the client's Descriptions of the dreaded self-focus on a failure to live up to
self-esteem. In his therapy sessions with clients, he offered one's ideals or role expectations often because of real world
positive regard no matter what. Indeed, the concept of self- problems. 
esteem is approached since then in humanistic psychology as
Types 
an inalienable right for every person, summarized in the
following sentence: Every human being, with no exception, for People with a healthy level of self-esteem: 
the mere fact to be it, is worthy of unconditional respect of
everybody else; he deserves to esteem himself and to be • Firmly believe in certain values and principles, and
esteemed.  are ready to defend them even when finding opposition, feeling
secure enough to modify them in light of experience. 
Measurement 
• Are able to act according to what they think to be the
• Self-esteem is typically assessed using self-report best choice, trusting their own judgment, and not feeling guilty
inventories.    when others do not like their choice. 
• One of the most widely used instruments, the • Do not lose time worrying excessively about what
Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES) is a 10-item selfesteem happened in the past, nor about what could happen in the
scale score that requires participants to indicate their level of future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live
agreement with a series of statements about themselves.   in the present intensely. 
• An alternative measure, The Coopersmith Inventory • Fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not
uses a 50-question battery over a variety of topics and asks hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help
subjects whether they rate someone as similar or dissimilar to when they need it. 
themselves. If a subject's answers demonstrate solid self-
regard, the scale regards them as well adjusted. If those • Consider themselves equal in dignity to others, rather
answers reveal some inner shame, it considers them to be than inferior or superior, while accepting differences in certain
prone to social deviance.  talents, personal prestige or financial standing. 

• Implicit measures of self-esteem began to be used in • Understand how they are an interesting and valuable
the 1980s. These rely on indirect measures of cognitive person for others, at least for those with whom they have a
processing thought to be linked to implicit self-esteem, friendship. 
including the Name Letter Task. Such indirect measures are
designed to reduce awareness of the process of assessment. • Resist manipulation, collaborate with others only if it
When used to assess implicit self-esteem, psychologists seems appropriate and convenient. 
feature self-relevant stimuli to the participant and then measure • Admit and accept different internal feelings and
how quickly a person identifies positive or negative stimuli.    drives, either positive or negative, revealing those drives to
Shame  others only when they choose. 

Shame can be a contributor to those with problems of low self- • Are able to enjoy a great variety of activities. 
esteem. Feelings of shame usually occur because of a • Are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect
situation where the social self is devalued, such as a socially generally accepted social rules, and claim no right or desire to
evaluated poor performance.  A poor performance leads to prosper at others' expense. 
higher responses of psychological states that indicate a threat
to the social self namely a decrease in social self-esteem and • Can work toward finding solutions and voice
an increase in shame. This increase in shame can be helped discontent without belittling themselves or others when
with self-compassion.  challenges arise. 
Real self, ideal self, and dreaded self  Secure vs. defensive 
There are three levels of self-evaluation development in A person can have high self-esteem and hold it confidently
relation to the real self, ideal self, and the dreaded self. The where they do not need reassurance from others to maintain
real, ideal, and dreaded selves develop in children in a their positive self-view, whereas others with defensive high
sequential pattern on cognitive levels.  self-esteem may still report positive self-evaluations on the
Rosenberg Scale, as all high self-esteem individuals do;
• Moral judgment stages: Individuals describe their real, however, their positive self-views are fragile and vulnerable to
ideal, and dreaded selves with stereotypical labels, such as criticism. Defensive high self-esteem individuals internalize
subconscious self-doubts and insecurities, causing them to
react very negatively to any criticism they may receive. There others when evaluating self-worth. Others may measure their
is a need for constant positive feedback from others for these likability in terms of successes: others will accept themselves if
individuals to maintain their feelings of self-worth. The they succeed but will not if they fail. 
necessity of repeated praise can be associated with boastful,
arrogant behavior or sometimes even aggressive and hostile The three state 
feelings toward anyone who questions the individual's self-
This classification proposed by Martin Ross distinguishes three
worth, an example of threatened egotism. 
states of self-esteem compared to the "feats" (triumphs,
  honors, virtues) and the "anti-feats" (defeats, embarrassment,
shame, etc.) of the individuals. 
Implicit, explicit, narcissism and threatened egotism 
Shattered 
Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate
themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous, The individual does not regard themselves as valuable or
automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit lovable. They may be overwhelmed by defeat, or shame, or
self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self- see themselves as such, and they name their "anti-feat". For
evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem example, if they consider that being over a certain age is an
are subtypes of self-esteem proper.  anti-feat, they define themselves with the name of their anti-
feat, and say, "I am old". They express actions and feelings
Narcissism is a disposition people may have that represents an such as pity, insulting themselves, and they may become
excessive love for one's self. It is characterized by an inflated paralyzed by their sadness. 
view of self-worth. Individuals who score high on narcissism
measures, Robert Raskin's 40 Item True or False Test, would Vulnerable 
likely select true to such statements as "If I ruled the world, it
The individual has a generally positive self-image. However,
would be a much better place."  
their self-esteem is also vulnerable to the perceived risk of an
There is only a moderate correlation between narcissism and imminent anti-feat (such as defeat, embarrassment, shame,
self-esteem; that is to say that an individual can have high self- discredit), consequently, they are often nervous and regularly
esteem but low narcissism or can be a conceited, obnoxious use defense mechanisms. A typical protection mechanism of
person and score high self-esteem and high narcissism.  those with vulnerable self-esteem may consist in avoiding
decision-making.  
Threatened egotism is characterized as a response to criticism
that threatens the ego of narcissists;  Although such individuals may outwardly exhibit great self-
confidence, the underlying reality may be just the opposite: the
they often react in a hostile and aggressive manner.  apparent self-confidence is indicative of their heightened fear
of anti-feats and the fragility of their self-esteem. They may
Low  also try to blame others to protect their self-image from
situations that would threaten it. They may employ defense
Low self-esteem can result from various factors, including
mechanisms, including attempting to lose at games and other
genetic factors, physical appearance or weight, mental health
competitions in order to protect their self-image by publicly
issues, socioeconomic status, significant emotional
dissociating themselves from a need to win, and asserting an
experiences, social stigma, peer pressure or bullying.  
independence from social acceptance which they may deeply
A person with low self-esteem may show some of the following desire. In this deep fear of being unaccepted by an individual's
characteristics:  peers, they make poor life choices by making risky decisions. 

• Heavy self-criticism and dissatisfaction.   

• Hypersensitivity to criticism with resentment against Strong 

critics and feelings of being attacked. 
People with strong self-esteem have a positive self-image and
• Chronic indecision and an exaggerated fear of enough strength so that anti-feats do not subdue their self-
mistakes.  esteem. They have less fear of failure. These individuals
appear humble, cheerful, and this shows a certain strength not
• Excessive will to please and unwillingness to to boast about feats and not to be afraid of anti-feats. They are
displease any petitioner.  capable of fighting with all their might to achieve their goals
because, if things go wrong, their self-esteem will not be
• Perfectionism, which can lead to frustration when affected. They can acknowledge their own mistakes precisely
perfection is not achieved.  because their self-image is strong, and this acknowledgment
• Neurotic guilt, dwelling on or exaggerating the will not impair or affect their self-image. They live with less fear
magnitude of past mistakes.  of losing social prestige, and with more happiness and general
well-being. However, no type of self-esteem is indestructible,
• Floating hostility and general defensiveness and and due to certain situations or circumstances in life, one can
irritability without any proximate cause.  fall from this level into any other state of self-esteem. 

• Pessimism and a general negative outlook.   

• Envy, invidiousness, or general resentment.  Contingent vs. non-contingent 

• Sees temporary setbacks as permanent, intolerable Contingent self-esteem is derived from external sources, such
conditions.  as what others say, one's success or failure, one's
competence, or relationship-contingent self-esteem. Therefore,
Individuals with low self-esteem tend to be critical of contingent self-esteem is marked by instability, unreliability,
themselves. Some depend on the approval and praise of and vulnerability.  Persons lacking a non-contingent self-
esteem are "predisposed to an incessant pursuit of self-value". As narcissism 
However, because the pursuit of contingent self-esteem is
based on receiving approval, it is doomed to fail. No one Life satisfaction, happiness, healthy behavioral practices,
receives constant approval and disapproval often evokes perceived efficacy, and academic success and adjustment
depression. Furthermore, fear of disapproval inhibits activities have been associated with having high levels of self-esteem
in which failure is possible. "The courage to be is the courage (Harter, 1987; Huebner, 1991; Lipschitz-Elhawi & Itzhaky,
to accept oneself, in spite of being unacceptable. This is the 2005; Rumberger 1995; Swenson & Prelow, 2005; Yarcheski &
Pauline-Lutheran doctrine of 'justification by faith.'"   Mahon, 1989). However, a common mistake is to think that
loving oneself is necessarily equivalent to narcissism, as
Non-contingent self-esteem is described as true, stable, and opposed for example to what Erik Erikson speaks of as "a
solid. It springs from a belief that one is "acceptable period, post-narcissistic love of the ego". A person with a healthy self-
acceptable before life itself, ontologically acceptable". Belief esteem accepts and loves himself/herself unconditionally,
that one is "ontologically acceptable" is to believe that one's acknowledging both virtues and faults in the self, and yet, in
acceptability is "the way things are without contingency". In this spite of everything, is able to continue to love her/himself. 
belief, as expounded by theologian Paul Tillich, acceptability is
not based on a person's virtue. It is an acceptance given "in In narcissists, by contrast, an " uncertainty about their own
spite of our guilt, not because we have no guilt".  Psychiatrist worth gives rise to...a self-protective, but often totally spurious,
Thomas A Harris drew on Tillich for his classic I'm OK – You're aura of grandiosity" – producing the class "of narcissists, or
OK that addresses non-contingent self-esteem. Harris people with very high, but insecure, self-esteem... fluctuating
translated Tillich's "acceptable" by the vernacular OK, a term with each new episode of social praise or rejection."   
that means "acceptable". The Christian message, said Harris,
Narcissism can thus be seen as a symptom of fundamentally
is not "YOU CAN BE OK, IF", It is "YOU ARE ACCEPTED,
low self-esteem, that is, lack of love towards oneself, but often
unconditionally". A secure non-contingent selfesteem springs
accompanied by "an immense increase in self-esteem" based
from the belief that one is ontologically acceptable and
on "the defense mechanism of denial by overcompensation."
accepted. 
"Idealized love of self...rejected the part of him" that he
Importance  denigrates – "this destructive little child" within. Instead, the
narcissist emphasizes their virtues in the presence of others,
Abraham Maslow states that psychological health is not just to try to convince their self that they are a valuable person
possible unless the essential core of the person is and to try to stop feeling ashamed for their faults; such "people
fundamentally accepted, loved and respected by others and by with unrealistically inflated self-views, which may be especially
her or himself. Self-esteem allows people to face life with more unstable and highly vulnerable to negative information, tend to
confidence, benevolence, and optimism, and thus easily reach have poor social skills." 
their goals and self-actualize. 
WEEK 4
Self-esteem may make people convinced they deserve
happiness. Understanding this is fundamental, and universally WORKING ON ATTITUDES
beneficial, since the development of positive self-esteem
In psychology, attitude is a psychological construct, a mental
increases the capacity to treat other people with respect,
and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person.
benevolence and goodwill, thus favoring rich interpersonal
They are complex and are an acquired state through
relationships and avoiding destructive ones. For Erich Fromm,
experiences. It is an individual's predisposed state of mind
the love of others and love of ourselves are not alternatives.
regarding a value and it is precipitated through a responsive
On the contrary, an attitude of love toward themselves will be
expression towards oneself, a person, place, thing, or event
found in all those who are capable of loving others. Self-
(the attitude object) which in turn influences the individual's
esteem allows creativity at the workplace and is especially
thought and action. Prominent psychologist Gordon Allport
critical condition for teaching professions. 
described this latent psychological construct as "the most
José-Vicente Bonet claims that the importance of self-esteem distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary social
is obvious as a lack of self-esteem is, he says, not a loss of psychology." Attitude can be formed from a person's past and
esteem from others, but self-rejection. Bonet claims that this present.   
corresponds to major depressive disorder.[16] Freud also
 
claimed that the depressive has suffered "an extraordinary
diminution in his self-regard, an impoverishment of his ego on Definitions Social psychology 
a grand scale....He has lost his self-respect". 
 
 
• An attitude is an evaluation of an attitude object,
False attempts  ranging from extremely negative to extremely positive. • An
attitude can be a positive or negative evaluation of people,
For persons with low self-esteem, any positive stimulus will
objects, events, activities, and ideas. It could be concrete,
temporarily raise self-esteem. Therefore, possessions, sex,
abstract or just about anything in your environment, but there is
success, or physical appearance will produce the development
a debate about precise definitions.  
of self-esteem, but the development is ephemeral at best. 
• Eagly and Chaiken, define an attitude as "a
Such attempts to raise one's self-esteem by positive stimulus
psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a
produce a "boom or bust" pattern. "Compliments and positive
particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor."  
feedback" produce a boost, but a bust follows a lack of such
feedback. For a person whose "self-esteem is contingent",   
success is "not extra sweet", but "failure is extra bitter". 
Jung's definition 
 
• Attitude is a "readiness of the psyche to act or react in • The classic, tripartite view offered by Rosenberg and Hovland
a certain way". Attitudes very often come in pairs, one is that an attitude contains cognitive, affective, and behavioral
conscious and the other unconscious. Within this broad components.  
definition Jung defines several attitudes. 
Attitude component model 
 
An influential model of attitude is the multicomponent model,
The main (but not only) attitude dualities that Jung defines are where attitudes are evaluations of an object that have affective,
the following.  behavioral, and cognitive components (the ABC model): 
• Consciousness and the unconscious. The "presence • Affective component The affective component of
of two attitudes is extremely frequent, one conscious and the attitudes refers to your feelings or emotions linked to an
other unconscious. This means that consciousness has a attitude object. Affective responses influence attitudes in a
constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, number of ways. For example, many people are afraid/scared
a duality particularly evident in neurosis".  of spiders. So this negative affective response is likely to cause
you to have a negative attitude towards spiders. 
• Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so
elementary to Jung's theory of types that he labeled them the • behavioral component The behavioral component of
"attitude-types".  attitudes refers to the way the attitude we have influences how
we act or behave. 
• Rational and irrational attitudes. "I conceive reason as
an attitude".  • Cognitive component The cognitive component of
attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we
• The rational attitude subdivides into the thinking and would associate with an object. Many times a person's attitude
feeling psychological functions, each with its attitude.  might be based on the negative and positive attributes they
associate with an object. 
• The irrational attitude subdivides into the sensing and
intuition psychological functions, each with its attitude. "There MODE model 
is thus a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive
attitude".  This is the theory of attitude evaluation (motivation and
opportunity as determinants of the attitude - behavior relation).
• Individual and social attitudes. Many of the latter are When both are present, behavior will be deliberate. When one
"isms".  is absent, impact on behavior will be spontaneous. The MODE
model was developed by Fazio.  A person's attitude can be
Factors Psychological 
measured in two different ways: 
• The attitude of a person is determined by
• Explicit measure - are attitudes at the conscious level,
psychological factors like ideas, values, beliefs, perception, etc.
that are deliberately formed and easy to selfreport. 
All these have a complex role in determining a person's
attitude.   • Implicit measure - are attitudes that are at an
unconscious level, that are involuntarily formed and are
• Values are ideals, guiding principles in one's life, or
typically unknown to us. 
overarching goals that people strive to obtain. 
Both explicit and implicit attitudes can shape an individual's
• Beliefs are cognitions about the world—subjective
behavior. Implicit attitudes, however, are most likely to affect
probabilities that an object has a particular attribute or that an
behavior when the demands are steep and an individual feels
action will lead to a particular outcome. Beliefs can be patently
stressed or distracted. 
and unequivocally false.  
Function 
• Another important factor that affects attitude is
symbolic interactionism, these are rife with powerful symbols Another classic view of attitudes is that attitudes serve
and charged with affect which can lead to a selective particular functions for individuals.  Daniel Katz classified
perception.   attitudes into four different groups based on their functions 
Family  1. Utilitarian: provides us with general approach or
avoidance tendencies 
Family plays a significant role in the primary stage of attitudes
held by individuals. Initially, a person develops certain attitudes 2. Knowledge: help people organize and interpret new
from his parents, brothers, sister, and elders in the family. information 
There is a high degree of relationship between parent and
children in attitudes found in them.  3. Ego-defensive: attitudes can help people protect their
self-esteem 
Society 
4. Value-expressive: used to express central values or
Societies play an important role in formatting the attitudes of an beliefs 
individual. The culture, the tradition, the language, etc.,
influence a person's attitudes. Society, tradition, and the  
culture teach individuals what is and what is not acceptable. 
Utilitarian People adopt attitudes that are rewarding and that
Economic  help them avoid punishment. In other words, any attitude that
is adopted in a person's own self-interest is considered to
A person's attitude also depends on issues such as his salary, serve a utilitarian function.  
status, work environment, work as such, etc. 
 
Structure 
Knowledge People need to maintain an organized, meaningful, components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive
and stable view of the world. Attitudes achieve this goal by process, or the way we think, about an issue or situation.  
making things fit together and make sense. Examples: 
By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change
• I believe that I am a good person.  may be possible, though affective and cognitive components
tend to be intertwined. In primarily affective networks, it is more
• I believe that good things happen to good people.  difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the
resistance to persuasion and attitude change. 
• Something bad happens to Bob. 
Components of emotion appeals 
• So I believe Bob must not be a good person. 
Any discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal; this
Ego-Defensive  
may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, blue,
This function involves psychoanalytic principles where people disturbed, haunted, and anger. Fear is one of the most studied
use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from emotional appeals in communication and social influence
psychological harm. Mechanisms include:  research. 

• Denial  Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals

include self-efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue involvement,
• Repression  and message/source features. Self-efficacy is a perception of
one's own human agency; in other words, it is the perception of
• Projection  our own ability to deal with a situation. It is an important
• Rationalization  variable in emotion appeal messages because it dictates a
person's ability to deal with both the emotion and the
Value-Expressive  situation.  

• Serves to express one's central values and self- Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from
concept.  memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude
about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the
• Central values tend to establish our identity and gain relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual.
us social approval thereby showing us who we are, and what Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude
we stand for.  access and attitude strength.  
An example would concern attitudes toward a controversial Attitude-behavior relationship 
political issue. 
The effects of attitudes on behaviors is a growing research
Change  enterprise within psychology. Icek Ajzen has led research and
helped develop two prominent theoretical approaches within
Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and an important
this field: the theory of reasoned action and, its theoretical
domain of research on attitude change focuses on responses
descendant, the theory of planned behavior. Both theories help
to communication. Experimental research into the factors that
explain the link between attitude and behavior as a controlled
can affect the persuasiveness of a message include: 
and deliberative process. 
• Target characteristics: These are characteristics that
Theory of reasoned action 
refer to the person who receives and processes a message.
One such trait is intelligence - it seems that more intelligent The theory of reasoned action (TRA) is a model for the
people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages.   prediction of behavioral intention, spanning predictions of
attitude and predictions of behavior. The theory of reasoned
• Source characteristics: The major source
action was developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975,
characteristics are expertise, trustworthiness and interpersonal
1980), derived from previous research that started out as the
attraction or attractiveness.  
theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and
• Message Characteristics: The nature of the message behavior. The theory was "born largely out of frustration with
plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes presenting both sides of traditional attitude– behavior research, much of which found
a story is useful to help change attitudes.   weak correlations between attitude measures and performance
of volitional behaviors" (Hale, Householder & Greene, 2003, p.
• Cognitive routes: A message can appeal to an 259). 
individual's cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. In
the central route to persuasion the individual is presented with Theory of planned behavior 
the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an
The theory of planned behavior was proposed by Icek Ajzen in
attitude changing conclusion. In the peripheral route to attitude
1985 through his article "From intentions to actions: A theory of
change, the individual is encouraged to not look at the content
planned behavior." The theory was developed from the theory
but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern
of reasoned action, which was proposed by Martin Fishbein
advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases,
together with Icek Ajzen in 1975. The theory of reasoned action
physician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases, film
was in turn grounded in various theories of attitude such as
stars are used for their attractiveness. 
learning theories, expectancy-value theories, consistency
Emotion and attitude change  theories, and attribution theory. According to the theory of
reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as
Emotion is a common component in persuasion, social positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others want
influence, and attitude change. Much of attitude research them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a
emphasized the importance of affective or emotion higher intention (motivation) and they are more likely to do so.  
Motivation and Opportunity as Determinants (MODE)  Some characteristics you may notice with aggressive
personalities: 
Russell H. Fazio proposed an alternative theory called
"Motivation and Opportunity as Determinants" or MODE. Fazio • They speak up when they have an idea, notice an
believes that because there is deliberative process happening, injustice, or see an opportunity to do things better. 
individuals must be motivated to reflect on their attitudes and
subsequent behaviors.   • They may come across as confident, demanding,
passionate, outspoken, or commandeering. 
Measurement 
• They’re much more likely to approach people in
In 1928 Louis Leon Thurstone published an article titled authority about problems. 
"Attitudes Can Be Measured" in it he proposed an elaborate
procedure to assess people's views on social issues. Attitudes • In the extreme, they may steamroll others, coming
can be difficult to measure because measurement is arbitrary, across as pushy or too harsh. 
because attitudes are ultimately a hypothetical construct that
 
cannot be observed directly. 
How to work with someone who tends to be aggressive? 
But many measurements and evidence proofed scales are
used to examine attitudes. A Likert scale taps agreement or Aggressive personalities don’t fear conflict, which can make
disagreement with a series of belief statements. The Guttman them valuable advocates for new ideas within the workplace.
scale focuses on items that vary in their degree of They fight for what they believe in, and they’re vocal about it.
psychological difficulty.   Knowing how to work with aggressive people can help you
channel their energy for the betterment of your team. 
Explicit 
 
Explicit measures tend to rely on self-reports or easily
observed behaviors. These tend to involve bipolar scales (e.g., How to motivate someone who tends to be aggressive at
good-bad, favorable-unfavorable, support-oppose, etc.). work? 
Explicit measures can also be used by measuring the
straightforward attribution of characteristics to nominate • When possible, give them some time and resources
groups. Explicit attitudes that develop in response to recent to work on passion projects they’ve advocated for. They’ll
information, automatic evaluation were thought to reflect appreciate the “yes” and being able to test out new ideas. 
mental associations through early socialization experiences.  
• Aggressive personalities appreciate an environment
Implicit  where they can speak freely, be honest about the problems
they see, and champion good ideas. Even if your corporate
Implicit measures are not consciously directed and are culture calls for more restraint, give your aggressive employees
assumed to be automatic, which may make implicit measures an outlet in one-on-one sessions with you. 
more valid and reliable than explicit measures (such as self-
reports). For example, people can be motivated such that they  
find it socially desirable to appear to have certain attitudes.  
How to give feedback to an aggressive employee? 
 
• Aggressive people appreciate directness. Be kind but
WORKING ON ATTITUDE  direct when you need to give constructive criticism. 

  They’d rather hear the bottom line than have you beat around
the bush. 
How to give feedback to a passive employee? 
• Some managers hesitate to give feedback if an
If you want to see your passive employees speak up more employee with an aggressive personality is coming on too
often in meetings, with customers, or on projects, tell them strong with peers. However, this kind of interpersonal coaching
directly. Be specific about what you’d like.   can be invaluable in helping people with aggressive
personalities succeed at work. 
 
 
What is the opposite of a passive personality? 
Assertiveness  
On the other hand, some people have no qualms about making
their opinions known. Let’s take a look at the aggressive Assertiveness is a skill regularly referred to in social and
personality trait and how it affects a person’s working style.  communication skills training. 
  Being assertive means being able to stand up for your own or
other people’s rights in a calm and positive way, without being
What does it mean to be aggressive at work? 
either aggressive, or passively accepting ‘wrong’. 
Aggressive people are assertive in their interactions with
 
others. They’re comfortable speaking up, especially when
they’re confident in their viewpoints.  Assertive individuals are able to get their point across without
upsetting others, or becoming upset themselves. 
 
 
What are the characteristics of an aggressive person? 
What is Assertiveness? 
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines assertiveness as: 2. Manipulative people do not understand the concept of
“Forthright, positive, insistence on the recognition of one's boundaries.  
rights”.  In other words: Assertiveness means standing up for
your personal rights - expressing thoughts, feelings and beliefs 3. A manipulator avoids responsibilities for his own
in direct, honest and appropriate ways.  It is important to note conduct by blaming others for causing it.  
also that:  By being assertive we should always respect the
4. Manipulative people prey on our sensibilities,
thoughts, feelings and beliefs of other people.  Those who
emotional sensitivity, and especially conscientiousness.  
behave assertively always respect the thoughts, feelings and
beliefs of other people as well as their own.  5. They will often talk about you behind your back the
same way they talk to you about others.  
 
6. Never waste your time trying to explain who you are
Passive, Aggressive and Assertive 
to people who are committed to misunderstanding you.  
Assertiveness is often seen as the balance point between
7. Characterize people by their actions and you will
passive and aggressive behavior, but it’s probably easier to
never be fooled by their words. Always remember that what a
think of the three as points of a triangle. 
person says and does are two very separate things. Observe
  someone closely, without making excuses for them—usually
what you see is what you get. 
Being Assertive 
8. If the individual put as much effort into being a good
• Being assertive involves taking into consideration your person as they do into pretending to be one, they could
own and other people’s rights, wishes, wants, needs and actually be a good person.  This is an essential point: Our initial
desires.  encounter and perception of someone strongly colors our
developing relationship with them. If we understood from the
• Assertiveness means encouraging others to be open beginning that a person is not who they seem to be, and is just
and honest about their views, wishes and feelings, so that both hiding behind a facade of what appears to be socially
parties act appropriately.  acceptable behavior, then perhaps we would be more-wary of
getting involved with them.  
Being Passive 
9. Regularly examine what you believe.
Responding in a passive or non-assertive way tends to mean
compliance with the wishes of others and can undermine
individual rights and self-confidence.   WEEK 5
 
Being Aggressive  TECHNIQUE IN PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT STAGE 2
- LEADERSHIP IN THE HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM
By being aggressive towards someone else, their rights and
self-esteem are undermined.  INDUSTRY

Aggressive behavior fails to consider the views or feelings of

Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill
other individuals. Those behaving aggressively will rarely show
encompassing the ability of an individual or organization to
praise or appreciation of others and an aggressive response
"lead" or guide other individuals, teams, or entire
tends to put others down. Aggressive responses encourage the
organizations.   
other person to respond in a non-assertive way, either
aggressively or passively.   
  Theories Early western history 
Submissive Behavior   
 Submissive (or passive) behavior means shying away from The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has
saying what you really mean and not seeking to achieve your continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Plato's
needs, particularly when someone else has conflicting needs. Republic to Plutarch's Lives have explored the question "What
A submissive person is a shrinking violet, avoiding upsetting qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this
others either because they fear them or they fear to hurt their search was the early recognition of the importance of
feelings.  leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the
characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that
 
leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the
Manipulative   "trait theory of leadership". 

Manipulative people have mastered the art of deception. They  

may appear respectable and sincere but often that’s just a
Thomas Carlyle and of Francis Galton, whose works have
facade; it's a way to draw you in and ensnare you in a
prompted decades of research on the theory of leadership. In
relationship before they show their true colors. 
Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents,
1. Manipulative people either lack insight into how they skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power.
engage others and create certain scenarios, or they truly Galton's Hereditary Genius (1869) examined leadership
believe that their way of handling a situation is the only way qualities in the families of powerful men. Galton concluded that
because it means that their needs are being met, and that's all leadership was inherited. In other words, leaders were born,
that matters.   not developed.  
   
Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) believed that public-spirited The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral
leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people with theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane
"moral force of character and instincts to lead", and educating Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles,
them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of the based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for
University of Oxford) which further developed such goal achievement. 
characteristics. This vision of leadership underlay the creation
of the Rhodes Scholarships, which have helped to shape  
notions of leadership since their creation in 1903. 
Positive reinforcement 
 
B. F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and
Rise of alternative theories  developed the concept of positive reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in
Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common response to a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that
across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested behavior in the future.   
that people who are leaders in one situation may not
necessarily be leaders in other situations.    

  Situational and contingency theories 

Reemergence of trait theory  Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait
theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was
New methods and measurements were developed after these more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle
influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish trait theory suggested. Herbert Spencer (and Karl Marx) said that the
as a viable approach to the study of leadership. Equipped with times produce the person and not the other way around. This
new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following:  theory assumes that different situations call for different
characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single
• Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to
variety of situations and tasks.  the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a
leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the
• Significant relationships exist between leadership
situation in which he functions." 
emergence and such individual traits as: Intelligence, 
 
Adjustment, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Openness to
experience and General self-efficacy   The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's
effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational
 
contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership
Zaccaro noted that trait theories still:  style and situational favorability (later called situational control).
The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to
• Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the
"The Big Five" personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their
abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem- prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).  
solving skills. 
  
• Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple
attributes.  Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973) and
later with Arthur Jago (1988), developed a taxonomy for
• Do not distinguish between the leadership attributes describing leadership situations, which was used in a
that are generally not malleable over time and those that are normative decision model where leadership styles were
shaped by, and bound to, situational influences.  connected to situational variables, defining which approach
was more suitable to which situation. This approach was novel
• Do not consider how stable leader attributes account because it supported the idea that the same manager could
for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership.  rely on different group decision making approaches depending
  on the attributes of each situation. This model was later
referred to as situational contingency theory. 
Behavioral and style theories 
 
In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach,
theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors, The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert
evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a House (1971) and was based on the expectancy theory of
behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles. Victor Vroom. According to House, the essence of the theory is
David McClelland, for example, posited that leadership takes a "the meta proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in
strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and
self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is
essential.  instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and
work unit performance".  
 
  
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939
the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and Functional theory 
performance.  
Functional leadership theory is a particularly useful theory for This LMX theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership
addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to process is the leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, which
organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage
leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group (VDL) model. Both of these models focus on the interaction
needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done between leaders and individual followers.  
their job well when they have contributed to group
effectiveness and cohesion.     

  In-group members 

Integrated psychological theory  In-group members are perceived by the leader as being more
experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility
The Integrated Psychological theory of leadership is an attempt than other followers.  
to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits,
behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing  
their limitations, introducing a new element – the need for
Out-group members
leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward
others and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological Out-group members often receive less time and more distant
mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply exchanges than their in-group counterparts.  
the philosophies of servant leadership and authentic
leadership.   

  Emotions 

Integrated Psychological theory began to attract attention after Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden
the publication of James Scouller's Three Levels of Leadership process, with emotions entwined with the social influence
model (2011). Scouller argued that the older theories offer only process. In an organization, the leader's mood has some
limited assistance in developing a person's ability to lead effects on his/her group. These effects can be described in
effectively.  Scouller proposed the Three Levels of Leadership three levels: The mood of individual group members, The
model, which was later categorized as an "Integrated affective tone of the group and  Group processes like
Psychological" theory on the Businessballs education coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy.  
website.  
 
  
Neo-emergent theory 
The three levels in his model are Public, Private and Personal
leadership:  The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic
Leadership Programme) sees leadership as an impression
• The first two – public and private leadership – are formed through the communication of information by the leader
"outer" or behavioral levels. These are the behaviors that or by other stakeholders, not through the true actions of the
address what Scouller called "the four dimensions of leader himself.  
leadership". These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating
group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective  
unity or team spirit; (4) individual selection and motivation. Constructivist analysis 
Public leadership focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in
influencing two or more people simultaneously. Private Some constructivists question whether leadership exists, or
leadership covers the 14 behaviors needed to influence suggest that (for example) leadership "is a myth equivalent to a
individuals one to one.  belief in UFOs". 
• The third – personal leadership – is an "inner" level  
and concerns a person's growth toward greater leadership
presence, knowhow and skill. Working on one's personal Leadership emergence 
leadership has three aspects: 
 
(1) Technical knowhow and skill (2) Developing the right
The list includes, but is not limited to: assertiveness,
attitude toward other people – which is the basis of servant
authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character
leadership (3) Psychological self-mastery – the foundation for
strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity,
authentic leadership. 
intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-
  monitoring and social motivation.  

Transactional and transformational theories    

Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of two Assertiveness - The relationship between assertiveness and
different types of leadership, transactional that involves leadership emergence is curvilinear; individuals who are either
exchange of labor for rewards and transformational which is low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less
based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and likely to be identified as leaders. 
providing a group vision. 
 
 
Authenticity - Individuals who are more aware of their
Leader–member exchange theory  personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are
less biased when processing self-relevant information, are  
more likely to be accepted as leaders.   
Leadership styles 
 
 
Big Five personality factors - Those who emerge as leaders
tend to be more (order in strength of relationship with A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction,
leadership emergence): extroverted, conscientious, emotionally implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of
stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader.
stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups. Different situations call for different leadership styles.  
Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits,
 
does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership
emergence  • Autocratic or authoritarian - Under the autocratic
leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in
 
the leader, as with dictators.  Autocratic leaders do not ask or
Birth order - Those born first in their families and only children entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates.  
are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and
• Participative or democratic - The democratic
control in social settings.  
leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-
  making abilities with group members by promoting the interests
of the group members and by practicing social equality.  
Character strengths - Those seeking leadership positions in a
military organization had elevated scores on a number of • Laissez-faire or Free-rein - In Laissez-faire or free-rein
indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, leadership, decision-making is passed on to the sub-
bravery, industry, and teamwork.  ordinates.  

  • Task-oriented and relationship-oriented - Task-

oriented leadership is a style in which the leader is focused on
Dominance - they describe themselves as high in the desire to the tasks that need to be performed in order to meet a certain
control their environment and influence other people, and are production goal.  
likely to express their opinions in a forceful way – are more
likely to act as leaders in smallgroup situations.  • Relationship-oriented leadership is a contrasting style
in which the leader is more focused on the relationships
  amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the
overall well-being and satisfaction of group members.  
Emotional intelligence - Individuals with high emotional
intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to • Paternalism - Paternalism leadership styles often
people.   reflect a father-figure mindset.  The term paternalism is from
the Latin pater meaning "father". The leader is most often a
  male. This leadership style is often found in Russia, Africa, and
Pacific Asian Societies. 
Intelligence - Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit
superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), • Leadership differences affected by gender - Another
quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more factor that covaries with leadership style is whether the person
likely to emerge as leaders.   is male or female. When men and women come together in
groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men
  
generally assume an agentic leadership style. They are
Narcissism - Individuals who take on leadership roles in taskoriented, active, decision focused, independent and goal
turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or ones in oriented.  
which status is determined by intense competition among rivals
 
within the group, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, self-
absorbed, hostile, and very self-confident  Performance 
   
Self-efficacy for leadership - Confidence in one's ability to lead Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected
is associated with increases in willingness to accept a to contribute to organizational success. A toxic leader is
leadership role and success in that role.  someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an
organization, and who abuses the leader–follower relationship
 
by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition
Self-monitoring - High self-monitors are more likely to emerge than when he/she joined it. 
as the leader of a group than are low selfmonitors, since they
 
are more concerned with status-enhancement and are more
likely to adapt their actions to fit the demands of the situation.  Traits 
   
Social motivation - Individuals who are both success-oriented • Determination and drive include traits such as
and affiliation-oriented, as assessed by projective measures, initiative, energy, assertiveness, perseverance and sometimes
are more active in group problem-solving settings and are dominance.  
more likely to be elected to positions of leadership in such
groups. 
• Self-confidence encompasses the traits of high self- 2. Task Groups: 
esteem, assertiveness, emotional stability, and self-
assurance.   Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a
common task. Members are brought together to accomplish a
• Self-leadership -Self-leadership is a process that narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Examples
occurs within an individual, rather than an external act. It is an of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the
expression of who we are as people. Self-leadership is having improvement of a production process, or designing the syllabus
a developed sense of who you are, what you can achieve, under semester system. 
what are your goals coupled with the ability to affect your
emotions, behaviors and communication.   3. Functional Groups: 

  A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish

specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Examples of
The Importance of Leadership in Hospitality  functional groups would be a marketing department, a
customer service department, or an accounting department. 
 
  
The importance of the leadership qualities of managers in the
hospitality industry today can't be overestimated. The recent 1. Group Member Resources: 
economic downturn has made hotel accommodations a luxury
item with many travelers and its leadership that will bring 2. Group Structure: 
guests to the door. Managers who exhibit good leadership
• Group Size: 
qualities can make or break a business.  The leadership
qualities in hospitality industry managers are similar to the • Group Roles 
qualities of leaders in other successful businesses. Both
"people skills" and "business skills" are needed and a good • Group Norms - Norms define the acceptable standard
manager will exhibit both.  or boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behavior,
shared by group members. They are typically created in order
  to facilitate group survival, make behavior more predictable,
avoid embarrassing situations, and express the values of the
Choosing Leadership Styles 
group. 
Knowing which of the leadership styles works best for you is
• Group Cohesiveness - Cohesiveness refers to the
part of being a good leader. Developing a signature style with
bonding of group members or unity, feelings of attraction for
the ability to stretch into other styles as the situation warrants
each other and desire to remain part of the group. Many factors
may help enhance your leadership effectiveness. 
influence the amount of group cohesiveness – agreement on
1. Know yourself.  group goals, frequency of interaction, personal attractiveness,
inter-group competition, favorable evaluation, etc. 
2. Understand the different styles. 
3. Group Processes: 
3. Practice makes a leader. 
Decision-making by a group is superior, because group
4. Develop your leadership agility.  generates more information and knowledge, generates diverse
alternatives, increases acceptance of a solution, and increases
  legitimacy.  Decisions take longer time, minority is dominated,
pressure is applied to conform to group decisions, and none is
What is Group Dynamics? 
responsible for the decisions. Group processes also include
Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioral communication, conflict management, and leadership that we
patterns of a group. Group dynamics concern how groups are shall discuss in details in the chapters to follow hereafter. 
formed, what is their structure and which processes are
 
followed in their functioning. Thus, it is concerned with the
interactions and forces operating between groups.  Eight Cs for Team Building: 
   Successful team building, that creates effective, focused work
teams, requires attention to each of the following: 
 
 
 
1. Clear Expectations: 
Types of Groups: 
2. Commitment: 
One way to classify the groups is by way of formality – formal
and informal. While formal groups are established by an 3. Competence: 
organization to achieve its goals, informal groups merge
spontaneously. Formal groups may take the form of command 4. Control: 
groups, task groups, and functional groups. 
5. Collaboration: 
1. Command Groups: 
6. Communication: 
Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and
often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to 7. Creativity: 
that supervisor. An example of a command group is a market
8. Coordination: 
research firm CEO and the research associates under him. 
Readings in Philippine History

WEEK 1

HISTORIOGRAPHY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Historiography and Its Importance

       The term historiography is the craft of writing history. It is
the art of historical writing and communicating in writing what
the historian thinks he knows about the past. Thus, when we
speak of Chinese historiography, we refer to all or at least the
known written histories of China's people. Nigerian
historiography refers to the available historical works in Nigeria.
In another aspect, historiography is preoccupied with other
men's interpretation of history; it is studying other people's
understanding of the historical process and the historian's craft.
The historian's task is the trend of past events and the
historian's craft through the historical process.
       Simply put, his/her task is the discovery of what happened
in the past. Historiography does not deal with specific histories;
history does not seek to discover what happened in the past
nor account for past actions. However, it looks into what others
have said about history and how they have interpreted the
past. Therefore, historiography traces the trend of historical
thought in specific localities and the world at large. 
History and historiography as intertwined concepts 
       Historiography is the subject matter of history. In other
words, without the study of the past called history,
historiography would not exist. Thus, historiography is derived
from history, thereby showing its importance. In the next
portion of this study session, we shall examine the justifications
for history as an academic discipline and a worthwhile pursuit.
Importance of History behaves within our current setting. History offers the only
extensive evidential base for the contemplation and analysis of
 Knowledge of Society. History provides societies with how societies function. People also need to have some sense
of how societies work simply to run their own lives.
knowledge about themselves. A society can know itself
only by acquiring knowledge of its history. Society must 2. History Helps Us Understand Change and How the
know itself and understand its relationship with the past, Society We Live in Came to Be
other societies, and other cultures. History meets this        The second reason why history is inescapable as a subject
need; it makes people aware of the character of their own of serious study follows the first one closely. The past causes
the present and the future. Any time we want to know why
time by providing them with information about their past
something happened, that is, whether a shift in political party
that they can study and compare with other peoples' dominance in the American Congress, a significant change in
experiences.  the teenage suicide rate, or a war in the Balkans or the Middle
East, we have to look for factors that took shape earlier.
Occasionally, recent history will explain a significant
 Used in problem-solving. History is useful in meeting new development, but often we need to look further back to identify
situations and solving the present's problems because a the causes of change. Only through studying history do we
grasp how things change and begin comprehending the factors
full understanding of human behavior in the past allows us
that cause these changes and understand what elements of an
to solve present issues intelligently. institution or a society persist despite change.

 A bridge of all disciplines. As a mediating discipline, 3. Importance of History in Our Own Lives
history is also useful because everything has a history.        The two fundamental reasons for studying history underlie
Medicine, banking, legal practice, teaching religion, specific and relatively diverse uses of history in our own lives.
A well-told history is beautiful. Many of the historians who most
commerce, etc., have history. Thus, history, as a appeal to the general reading public know the importance of
discipline, covers a wide range of issues. A nurse would dramatic and skillful writing and accuracy. Biography and
military history appeal in part because of the tales they contain.
find a knowledge of the history of nursing in her locality
History as art and entertainment serves a real purpose on
useful, while military personnel can also find the history of aesthetic grounds and the level of human understanding. Well-
the force invaluable. Therefore, history becomes a told stories reveal how people and societies have functioned
and prompt thoughts about the human experience in other
meeting ground for different disciplines, thereby making it times and places. The same aesthetic and humanistic goals
fascinating. inspire people to immerse themselves in reconstructing
relatively remote pasts, far removed from the immediate,
Why Study History? present-day utility. Exploring what historians occasionally call
the "pastness of the past," that is, how people in distant ages
       According to Peter Stearns (1998), we should study history constructed their lives, involves a sense of beauty and
because it is essential to individuals and society and harbors excitement and ultimately another perspective on human life
beauty. We can discuss the subject's real functions in many and society.
ways because of different historical talents and paths to
historical meaning. All definitions of history's utility, however,
4. History Contributes to Moral Understanding
rely on two fundamental facts.
       History also provides a terrain for moral contemplation.
1. History Helps Us Understand People and Societies Studying the stories of individuals and situations in the past
allows a history student to test their moral sense and hone it
       In the first place, history offers a storehouse of information against some real complexities that individuals have faced in
about how people and societies behave. Understanding the challenging settings. People who have weathered adversity not
operations of people and communities is difficult, although only in works of fiction but in historical circumstances can
several disciplines attempt it. Exclusive reliance on current inspire. "History is teaching by example" describes this use of a
data would needlessly handicap our efforts. How can we study of the past, that is, a study of certifiable heroes (i.e., the
evaluate war if the nation is at peace other than using historical great men and women of history) who successfully worked
materials? How can we understand genius, the influence of through moral dilemmas and ordinary people who provide
technological innovation, or the role that beliefs play in shaping lessons in courage, diligence, or constructive protest.
family life if we do not use what we know about past
experiences? Several social scientists attempt to formulate
5. History Provides Identity
laws or theories about human behavior. However, even these
recourses depend on historical information, except for limited        History also helps provide identity, which is one reason all
artificial cases in which scientists can do experiments to modern nations encourage its teaching in some form. Historical
determine how people act under certain circumstances. data includes how families, groups, institutions, and whole
Significant aspects of a society's operation, such as mass countries were formed and how they have evolved while
elections, missionary activities, or military alliances, cannot be retaining cohesion. For many Americans, studying one's family
set up as precise experiments. history is the most obvious use of history because it provides
facts about genealogy and (at a slightly more complex level) a
       Consequently, history must serve, however imperfectly, as
basis for understanding how the family has interacted with
a replacement for experiments. Data from the past must serve
considerable historical change. Family identity is established
as our most vital evidence in determining why our society
and confirmed. Many institutions, businesses, communities,
and social units, such as ethnic groups in the United States, partisan claims about the glories of national or group identity.
use history for similar identity purposes. Defining the group in The study of history for no reason undermines loyalty or
the present pales compared with the possibility of forming an commitment, but it teaches the need for assessing arguments
identity based on a rich past. Nations also use identity history and provides opportunities to engage in debate and achieve
and abuse it occasionally. Narratives that tell the national story, perspective.
emphasizing distinctive features of the national experience, are
meant to provide an understanding of national values and a        Experience in Assessing Past Examples of Change.
commitment to national loyalty. Experience in assessing past examples of change is vital to
understand the difference in society today; it is an essential
skill in our "ever-changing world." The analysis of change
6. Studying History Is Essential for Good Citizenship
means developing some capacity for determining the
       A study of history is essential for good citizenship. The magnitude and significance of change because some changes
need for good citizenship is the most common justification for are more fundamental than others. Comparing specific
history in the school curricula. The advocates of citizenship changes to relevant examples from the past helps history
history also hope to promote national identity and loyalty students develop this capacity. The ability to identify the
through a history spiced by vivid stories and lessons in continuities that always accompany even the most dramatic
individual success and morality. However, the importance of changes also comes from studying history, similar to the skill to
history for citizenship goes beyond this narrow goal and can determine the probable causes of change. Learning history
even challenge it at some points. helps one determine if one main factor, such as a technological
innovation or a deliberate new policy, accounts for a change or
       The history that lays the foundation for genuine citizenship whether because generally, several factors combine to
returns to the essential uses of the study of the past. History generate the actual change that occurs.
provides data about the emergence of national institutions,
problems, and values because it is the only significant        Hence, the study of history is crucial to developing a well-
storehouse of such data. History also offers evidence about informed citizen. It provides necessary factual information
how nations have interacted with other societies, providing about our political institutions' background and about the
international and comparative perspectives essential for values and problems that affect our social well-being. It also
responsible citizenship. Studying history also helps us contributes to our capacity to use evidence, assess
understand how recent, current, and prospective changes that interpretations, and analyze change and continuities. No one
affect citizens' lives are emerging or may emerge and what can ever deal with the present as the historian deals with the
causes are involved. Studying history also encourages habits past—we lack the perspective for this feat, but we can move in
of mind that are vital for responsible public behavior, whether this direction by applying historical habits, and we will function
as a national or community leader, an informed voter, a as good citizens in the process.
petitioner, or a superficial observer.

History Is Useful in the World of Work

What Skills Does a Student of History Develop?
       History is useful for work. Its study helps create exemplary
       What does a well-trained student of history, schooled to businesspeople, professionals, and political leaders. The
work on past materials and case studies in social change, learn number of explicit professional jobs for historians is
how to do? The list is manageable, but it contains several considerable, but most people who study history do not
overlapping categories. become professional historians. Professional historians teach
at various levels, work in museums and media centers, do
       Ability to Assess Evidence. The study of history builds historical research for businesses or public agencies, or
experience in dealing with and assessing various types of participate in the growing number of historical consultancies.
evidence, that is, the kind of evidence historians use in shaping These categories are essential to keep the necessary
the most accurate pictures of the past that they can. Learning enterprise of history going, but most people who study history
how to interpret past political leaders' statements helps form use their training for various professional purposes. History
the capacity to distinguish between the objective and the self- students find their experience directly relevant to jobs in
serving among statements made by present-day political multiple careers and studying law and public administration.
leaders. Learning how to combine different kinds of evidence, Employers often deliberately seek students with the kinds of
such as public statements, private records, numerical data, and capacities historical study promotes. The reasons are not hard
visual materials, develops the ability to make coherent to identify; history students acquire a broad perspective that
arguments based on various data. This skill can also be gives them the range and flexibility required in many work
applied to information that is encountered in our everyday life. situations by studying different phases of the past and various
societies in the past. These students develop research skills,
       Ability to Assess Conflicting Interpretations. Learning the ability to find and evaluate sources of information, and the
history means gaining skill in sorting through diverse, often means to identify and evaluate diverse interpretations. Work in
conflicting interpretations. Understanding how societies work, history also improves basic writing and speaking skills. It is
which is the central goal of studying history, is inherently directly relevant to many analytical requirements in public and
imprecise. The same is also correct for understanding what is private sectors, where the capacity to identify, assess, and
going on in the present day. Learning how to identify and explain trends is essential. Historical study is an asset for
evaluate conflicting interpretations is an essential citizenship various work and professional situations. 
skill for which history, as an often-contested laboratory of
human experience, provides training. Studying different        Still, historical study generally does not directly lead to a
historical interpretations is one area in which the full benefits of particular job slot as the students of some technical fields do.
historical study occasionally clash with the simplistic analysis of However, history particularly prepares students for the long
the past to construct identity. Experience in examining past haul in their careers, its qualities helping adaptation and
situations provides a constructively critical sense applicable to advancement beyond entry-level employment. In our society,
many people who are drawn to historical study worry about its  Autobiographies and memoirs
relevance. In our changing economy, people are concerned
about future job opportunities in most fields. However,
historical training is not an indulgence; it applies directly to  Books, articles, or news stories written at the time of the
many careers and can help us in our working lives. event
       Why study history? The answer is because we must gain
 Diaries and journals
access to the laboratory of human experience. When we study
history reasonably well and acquire some usable habits of
mind and some necessary data about the forces that affect our  Data and original research
lives, we emerge as people with relevant skills and an
enhanced capacity for informed citizenship, critical thinking,  Speeches and interviews
and simple awareness. The uses of history are varied.
Studying history can develop several "salable" skills but must  Letters and memos
not be pinned down to the narrowest utilitarianism. Some
history that is confined to personal recollections about changes  Government documents from that period
and continuities in the immediate environment is essential to
function beyond childhood. Some history depends on personal  Census statistics
taste, where one finds beauty, the joy of discovery, or
intellectual challenge. 
 Organizational records from that period

 Documentaries that rely on primary source materials

FOUNDATION OF DATA
 Photographs
Primary Source(s)
 Art (from a period)
 It is a document created during the time of your research
subject about your research subject. These documents  Maps (from a period)
are directly connected with the events or people being
 Personal narratives 
researched (Concordia University Texas Library, 2020).
 Internet communications (including listservs and emails)
 It contains original information that is not derived from
interpretation, summarizing, or analyzing someone else's  Any of the above reprinted in the original format and
work (Eastern Institute of Technology, nd). language
Questions to Ask When Determining If Something is a
 These are firsthand accounts created when a historical
Primary Source:
event occurred or are records of original ideas. It consists
of information that has not been analyzed, commented on,  Was the author the first to create this research? 

or interpreted. It can be biased, depending on the  Is the information uninterpreted data or statistics?
viewpoint of the author. These sources are valuable
because they give an exact account of historical events or  Is the source an original work?

new ideas (Westminster Giovale Library, nd)  Did the information come from personal experience?

 These sources are original or new materials, such as an

activist giving a speech, a scientist conducting original
Why Use Primary Sources?
research, a student drawing original conclusions from
others' works, an artist creating a piece of artwork, or your        Sources that present new research, original conclusions
based on the data, or an author's actual perspective are useful
grandmother writing an autobiography. Primary sources for your needs. The use of these resources allows one to
are firsthand and not interpreted by anyone else; they interpret the information instead of relying on the
interpretations of others, which s is why your instructors may
offer a personal point of view and are created by require you to find original research for your assignments.
witnesses of, or participants in, an event (except in cases
Note: Given that primary sources reflect the true meanings and
of historical research written after the fact). Researchers ideas introduced by authors, the information itself may not be
also create primary sources (Saint Mary's University of completely objective, well-reasoned, or accurate.

Minnesota, 2013). Secondary Source(s)

 It is a document created at a much later than the period of

Example of primary sources: the event being researched by someone who did not
 experience the said event. These documents have no  Analysis of a clinical trial 
direct personal connection with the events or people being
 Commentaries 
studied, but they may benefit from being able to put the
event "in context" or perspective (Concordia University  Literature reviews and meta-analyses 
Texas Library, 2020). Questions to Ask When Determining If Something Is a
Secondary Source:
 These works have been based on primary or secondary
sources. These sources are generally an interpretation, a  Did the author consult multiple sources to create this
summary, an analysis, or a review (Eastern Institute of work?
Technology, nd).
 Is this information an interpretation or paraphrasing of
 It offers commentary, analysis, or interpretation of the another author's work?
primary sources. These sources are written many years
 Did the information come from second-hand reporting?
after an event or by people that are not directly involved in
the event. These sources are often written by people who  Is the source a textbook, review, or commentary?
have expertise in the field and can be biased, depending Why Use Secondary Sources?
on the author's viewpoint (Westminster Giovale Library,        Secondary sources are best for uncovering the
nd). background or historical information about a topic and
broadening your understanding of a subject by exposing you to
 These sources interpret, include, describe, or draw others' perspectives, interpretations, and conclusions.
However, critiquing an original information source (primary
conclusions based on works written by others. Authors source) is a better option if you plan to reference it in your
use secondary sources to present evidence, back up work.
arguments and statements, or represent an opinion using
and citing multiple sources. Secondary sources are often WEEK 2
referred to as "one step removed" from the actual
THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO
occurrence or fact (Saint Mary's University of Minnesota,
THE PHILIPPINES as an archipelago
2013).
        As an archipelago nation, the Philippines has more than
Example of secondary sources:
7,100 islands with a coastline that stretches 10,850 miles. The
archipelago has no land boundaries. Taiwan is the nearest
 Encyclopedias country to the north, Brunei, and Malaysia to the southwest,
Indonesia to the south, Vietnam to the west, and China to the
 Chronologies  northwest. The South China Sea surrounds the Philippines in
the west, the Pacific Ocean in the east, the Sulu and Celebes
 Biographies Seas in the south, and the Bashi Channel in the north. These
tropical and mountainous islands have a land area of 115,831
 Monographs (a specialized book or article) square miles. Also, the country comprises three major regions:
Luzon, the largest island in the north; the Visayas, which is an
 Most journal articles (unless written at the time of the island group in the center; and Mindanao, which is the largest
island in the south. These regions have distinct political, social,
event) and cultural differences. The capital city of the country is
Manila in Luzon, where the climate is always tropical and warm
 Most published books (unless written at the time of the because the Philippines is 5° to 20° north of the equator. The
Philippines is a part of the Southeast Asian nations. Its
event)
neighboring countries are Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Vietnam, Thailand, Brunei, East Timor, Cambodia, Laos, and
 Abstracts of articles Myanmar. It has a strategic location and is open to diverse
cultural influences coming from Asia and beyond. Filipinos are
 Paraphrased quotations primarily Malay people. Additionally, the archipelago lies on the
edge of the so-called Ring of Fire, a chain of active volcanoes
 Dictionaries marking the intersection of two tectonic plates. The presence of
the Ring of Fire makes the possibility of an earthquake or
 Textbooks volcanic eruption an ever-present danger and the islands are
originally volcanic and primarily mountainous. It has been said
 Webpages that the highest point in the country is the peak of Mount Apo in
Mindanao, which is 9,692 feet above sea level, followed by
Mount Pulag in Luzon, which is 9,324 feet above sea level. The
 Documentary movies
worst recorded calamity in the Philippines occurred in June
1991 when Mount Pinatubo in central Luzon blew up, thereby Sea helped de-escalate tensions in the Spratly Islands, but it
causing widespread devastation. did not establish a legal code of conduct. In 2005, China’s, the
Philippines’, and Vietnam’s national oil corporations inked a
        The archipelago is geologically a part of the Philippine collaborative agreement to conduct maritime seismic research
Mobile Belt, situated between the Philippine Sea Plate, the in the Spratly Islands.
South China Sea Basin of the Eurasian Plate, and the Sundra
Plate. The Mindanao Trench (also known as the Philippine         The same claim was placed on the Malaysia’s Sabah
Trench) is an 820-mile submarine trench found in the east of state. The Sultanate of Brunei granted this region to the
the Philippine Mobile Belt and a part of a collision of tectonic Sultanate of Sulu as a reward for assisting him against his
plates. The Galathea Depth, which is the deepest point in the enemies. In 1878, the Sultanate of Sulu leased Sabah to the
Philippines Sea Plate, has 34,580 feet. The Philippine Fault British North Borneo Company for 5,000 Malaysian ringgits per
System comprises a network of seismic faults that produce year and firearms to fight the Spaniards. Sabah became a
several earthquakes each year, most of which are British crown colony in 1920. Sabah was formally handed to
undetectable. Malaysia by the British in 1963. Violent mass deportations of
Filipinos living in Sabah sparked debate about the assertion in
2003. Malaysia still pays the annual rent of 5,000 Malaysian
ringgits (approximately US$1,500) to the Sultan of Sulu’s heirs.
Topography
        The Philippines lies between Taiwan and Borneo in the
Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea. Nearly 3,000 islands
 
out of the more than 7,000 islands in the Philippines are
        The Philippines is located within many of Southeast Asia’s named. The 11 largest islands account for more than 90% of
main bodies of water, such as the South China Sea, Philippine the total land area. More than 70% of the population resides on
Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, and Luzon Strait. The coastlines the two largest islands, that is, Luzon and Mindanao, which
of many islands are irregular, with numerous bays, gulfs, and together comprise more than 70% of the land area. 
inlets. Manila Bay is the most commercially important coastline
        Luzon, which is the largest island, has an area of 104,690
because of its naturally sheltered harbor. The largest gulfs,
square kilometers (40,421 square miles). Three parallel
Leyte and Panay gulfs, are in located the Visayan Islands. The
mountain ranges run from north to south in Luzon. The longest
Philippines’ large rivers are generally not navigable, except for
range, which is the Sierra Madre, is on the east coast. The
short portions. Streams are subject to typhoons and flooding
Cagayan River Valley, which separates the Sierra Madre from
during the monsoon season. The longest river is the Cagayan
the western Cordillera Central range, is on the west coast.
River in north-central Luzon, which flows northward to the sea.
Mountainside rice terraces create deep steps into the slope of
Other long rivers in Luzon are Agno and Pampanga rivers,
the Cordillera Central, which is more than 6 meters (20 feet)
which cross the central Luzon Valley. Chico River flows
high. Luzon’s highest peak, that is, Mount Pulag, is 2,930
through the Cordillera Central in northern Luzon and irrigates
meters (9,613 feet) high. The Zambales Mountains are in the
the mountainsides. Pasig River, one of Luzon’s shortest rivers,
westernmost part of Luzon and ends at Manila Bay. The
flows through Manila, thereby giving it commercial significance.
southern end of the island, which is called the Bicol Peninsula,
It originates in the island’s largest lake, Laguna de Bay, and
is mountainous and has many volcanoes. Southeastern Luzon
empties into Manila Bay. Mindanao has two main rivers. The
has the low-lying Ragay Hills and a 91-meter (299-foot) deep
Mindanao River (Rio Grande de Mindanao) receives the waters
river gorge. Luzon has two lowland areas, that is, the Central
of Pulangi River. Agusan Rivers flows north into the Bohol Sea.
Plain and the Cagayan Valley. Central Plain is the largest at
The largest lake in the Philippines is Laguna de Bay, a
240 kilometers (149 miles) long and 64 kilometers (40 miles)
freshwater lake located 13 kilometers (8 miles) southeast of
wide. The plain has many swamps because it is only slightly
Manila. Its surface area is 922 square kilometers (356 square
above sea level. Cagayan Valley has an area of 10,360 square
miles). Sewage and toxic waste from the surrounding urban
kilometers (4,000 square miles). Mindoro is the island to the
areas contaminate its water. Taal Lake, 56 kilometers (35
southwest of Luzon; its land area is 9,736 square kilometers
miles) south of Manila, occupies a vast volcanic crater and
(3,759 square miles). A mountain range runs from north to
contains an active volcano. Lake Lanao is the largest lake in
south across the island with coastal plains on either side. The
Mindanao and the source of the Agusan River, which exits the
highest peak, that is, Mount Halcon, is 2,587 meters (8,488
lake at the Maria Christina Falls. Lake Lanao is 347 square
feet) high. As the largest island, it is composed of six main
kilometers (134 square miles) in area.
regions, namely, the National Capital Region, Cordillera
Controversial Territory Administrative Region, Ilocos (Region 1), Cagayan Valley
(Region 2), Central Luzon (Region 3), Southern Tagalog
        The Philippines’ territorial sea claims extend 100 nautical (Region 4), and Bicol (Region 5). 
miles off the coastline all around the country under the 1898
Treaty of Paris. A 1978 presidential decree increased the share         The Visayan island group includes more than half the
to 285 nautical miles into the South China Sea, encompassing Philippine islands. Seven of these islands are populated. The
the disputed Spratly Islands, known as the Kalayaan group has a total land area of 61,077 square kilometers
(Freedom) Islands in the Philippines. The United States (23,582 square miles). The major islands are Samar (13,079
indicates that the claim is excessive, thereby violating the square kilometers), Negros (12,703 square kilometers), Panay
international freedom of navigation. However, the Philippines (11,515 square kilometers), Leyte (7,213 square kilometers),
also claims sovereignty over its continental shelf, extending Cebu (4,421 square kilometers), Bohol (3,865 square
200 nautical miles from its coastline, under the United Nations kilometers), and Masbate (3,268 square kilometers). The
Convention on the Law of the Sea. However, China, Malaysia, easternmost islands of Samar and Leyte are connected by a
Taiwan, and Vietnam make similar claims. The islands at stake bridge. Samar and Leyte have dense jungle forests, and each
are those with underwater oil and natural gas resources. The has a central mountain range. Southern Samar has rocky hills.
2002 Declaration on the Behavior of Parties in the South China Chocolate Hills, which is cone-shaped mounds covering 52
square kilometers (20 square miles), is located southwest in forests in a given area without replanting trees, although they
Bohol. Chocolate Hills range from 50 meters to 200 meters are required by law to do so at present.
(164–656 feet) high and are covered in vegetation that turns
brown during summer. The rest of the island consists of         Specifically, the two distinct seasons in the country are
plateaus. To the west is Cebu, which is a long, narrow island wet and dry. The wet season is generally the time for rice
with a hilly interior. Negros, which is the island to the west of planting. The population as of the 2000 census is 76.5 million
Cebu, is primarily lowlands. The volcanic rock Tablas Plateau and is concentrated in 12 major islands, which constitute 95%
is located in the southwest. Negros has one high volcanic of the available land space. This value represents an increase
mountain range. Panay is the westernmost island in the of 11.5% or 7.9 million over the 1995 census count of 68.6
system; it has a hilly western coast and northern lowlands. million people. The population grew at a rate of 2.36% annually
Masbate is located in the north of Visayas and has hilly areas. between 1995 and 2000. If the annual growth rate continues to
Palawan is a part of the Calamian Islands in the eastern increase at 2.36%, then the Philippine population is expected
Philippines. The total land area of Palawan is 11,655 square to double in approximately 29 years. The life expectancy at
kilometers (4,500 square miles), 8–48 kilometers (5 to 30 birth for the total population is estimated at 68.12 years.
miles) wide, and more than 442 kilometers (275 miles) long.
        Another problem is that several corrupt timber magnates
Mountains run the entire length of the island, surrounded by a
and Filipino politicians conspire in illegal timber export.
narrow coastline. The highest peak is 2,085 meters (6,841 feet)
Deforestation continues to be one of the major sources of
high. The major region comprises three main regions, namely,
ecological damage in the country, thereby threatening all
western (region 6), central (region 7), and eastern Visayas
animal and plant species. Resource-rich marine mangroves
(region 8).
and coral reefs are also rapidly disappearing due to huge
        Mindanao, which is the country’s second largest island, commercial trawling, aquaculture, pollution, and illegal fishing
has a total land area of 94,630 square kilometers (36,537 practices that include the use of cyanides and dynamite to
square miles). The Pacific Cordillera range lies on the island’s increase the catch. 
eastern coast. Agusan River separates itself from the
Race and Ethnicity 
Cordillera central range to the west. Mount Apo in the central
mountain system is the highest elevation in the country at         The most significant ethnic minority in the Philippines is
2,804 meters high (9,199 feet). The two ranges end in the Chinese. Many Filipinos have Chinese ancestry only because
Bukidnon-Lanao Plateau, which has several deep canyons and of intermarriage. However, the colonization of the islands by
extinct volcanoes. The plateau has an elevation of 609 meters the Spaniards (1565–1898) and Americans (1898–1946) has
(1,998 feet). The Davao-Agusan Trough is a lowland area in influenced the development of Philippine society and culture.
the east that becomes flooded seasonally. South-central Up to 170 different spoken languages and 500 dialects exist
Mindanao has two marshes. Western Mindanao, which is a across the archipelago, all belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian
mountainous area, is called the Zamboanga Peninsula. The linguistic family. While the majority of Filipinos can speak the
Sulu Archipelago is southwest between the Zamboanga national language, called Tagalog, and they share the same
Peninsula and Indonesia. It comprises more than 800 small national identity, each group tends to identify with the primary
islands with a total area of approximately 4,144 square language group to which it belongs. The two principal
kilometers (1,600 square miles). Mindanao consists of the languages are Tagalog, which is spoken in the provinces
following regions:  western Mindanao (region 9), northern around Manila, and Cebuano, which is used throughout the
Mindanao (region 10), southern Mindanao (region 11), central Visayas and Mindanao. Other major languages are Ilocano,
Mindanao (region 12), and Autonomous Region in Muslim Hiligaynon, Bicol, Waray, Kapampangan, and Pangasinense.
Mindanao.  But at the same time, English is widely used throughout the
islands and the language of education and trade. It is
Climate and Environment
understood by 40% of the population and serves as the lingua
        As a tropical climate country, the Philippines remains hot franca in the government, business, mass media, and
and humid throughout the year. The monsoons blow from the academia. 
southwest from May to October and from the northeast from
        These tribal groups are historically and culturally different
November to February. The western part of the country has
from the mainstream group of Filipinos and have long struggled
two seasons. One is summer, which is the rainy season, and
to keep their land and cultural identity intact. The Philippines is
begins in May and ends in November. And the other is winter,
the only Christian nation in Asia. More than 60% of Asia’s
which is the dry season in most of the Philippines, and starts in
Christian population lives in the Philippines, and their number
December and ends in May. December through February is
is increasing. In 1986, over 50 million people in the Philippines
cool and dry, but March through May is hot and dry. The
were Christians. By the 1990s, this number reached over 65
tropical storm season lasts from June to October, with most of
million. Approximately 11 million people in the Philippines are
the storms coming from the southeast. Unfortunately, typhoons
non-Catholic Christians, practicing in over 350 organizations,
annually lash out in the islands, especially those closest to the
most of which operate under the umbrella organization of the
Pacific. Even a weak typhoon can now cause flash flooding
National Council of Churches in the Philippines. The largest
and tragic loss of human life and property because of
denomination includes the gospel-style Philippines for Jesus
deforestation.
Movement and the Iglesia ni Cristo. The largest religious
        An example is what happened when Typhoon Uring hit minority group is the Muslim population, with Islam being a
Ormoc, Leyte, on November 5, 1991. The land of the much older presence than Christianity. The estimates of the
Philippines is characterized by irregular coasts, alluvial plains, Muslim population range between 3.9 million and 7 million or
narrow valleys, and rolling hills and mountains running from 5%–9% of the population. Approximately 94% of these Filipino
north to south. It used to have a lush and tropical forest cover Muslims are concentrated in the western and southern parts of
with a diverse ecosystem. However, deforestation reduced Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and the southern part of
forests to only 19.4% by the end of the 20th century. Palawan. 
Deforestation occurs when lumber companies cut down all
        Anthropologists believe that the islands of the Philippines
are being inhabited for 250,000 years. The inhabitants were
the Aetas, Malays and Indones who came to the Philippine prehistoric animals were found in the Cagayan Valley in
islands in different time periods. It is now believed that these northern Luzon. At the end of the ice age, when the seas
ethnicities did not come in batches. Instead, they arrived in the began to rise again, the Philippines became an archipelago
islands around the same time and repeated the process surrounded by water. It was already inhabited by small groups
through the country’s pre-colonial history. The different groups of hunters and gatherers who were self-supporting and self-
adapted to the unique environment of the island they inhabited. sufficient.
For instance, some Aeta groups became masters of fishing.
This is suggestive of the idea that the culture of one ethnicity is         Approximately 7,000 years ago, food crops such as rice,
not inferior or more advanced than the other.  millet, and legumes began to be developed in northeastern
India, Burma, Thailand, and China, one of the earliest cradles
        To add to all the information above, the basic unit of the of the Neolithic or agricultural revolution. Linguists have studied
Philippine society is the nuclear family, with the father as the the movement of these migrating populations by tracing the
head; the family includes extended relatives of husband and spread of their language, that is, Austronesian, which refers to
wife. Social stratification is governed by wealth and education, a related group of languages spoken by the peoples of
which is a by-product of Spanish and American influences. The Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Taiwan as well as in
upper class constitutes 11% (e.g., professionals, civil servants, parts of Vietnam. It is also the language of Polynesians found
teachers, and business people), and the lower class comprises in the Micronesian islands and some of the Melanesian groups.
89% (e.g., farmers, laborers, fisherman, merchants, etc.). The recovery of the widely separated Austronesian language
Literacy is substantially higher in the Philippines than in other must have a common source that preceded the discovery of
countries in Southeast Asia. According to the 2002 census, the Indo-European language family. Moving beyond Austro-Tai
95% of the total population 15 years of age and over can read into Austronesian proper, the reconstruction of linguistic
and write in at least one language. Literacy ranges from 91.5% prehistory, which is most widely used today, is based on a
in the Greater Manila area to 55%–65% in the rural family tree of subgroups and a hierarchy of protolanguages
countryside. Therefore, a large proportion of the nation’s extending from Proto-Austronesian. Blust's (1984)
population uses some form of mass communication. In 2003, reconstruction favors a geographical expansion beginning in
26 broadsheets are being released (newspapers and tabloids), Taiwan (the birthplace of Austronesian languages, including
12 of which are written in the English language. A total of 366 PAn), then encompassing the Philippines, Borneo, and
AM and 290 FM radio stations and 75 television and broadcast Sulawesi, and finally bifurcating, one branch moving west to
stations also existed in 2003. The Philippine press is one of Java, Sumatra, and Malaya, and the other branch moving east
those that enjoy the most freedom worldwide because of its into Oceania. The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian
propensity for muckraking, which is a legacy of American vocabulary, which is generally related to this early Taiwan-
journalism.  Luzon phase, indicates an economy well-suited to marginal
tropical latitudes with rice, millet, and sugarcane; domestication
of dogs and pigs; and the use of watercraft. The Malayo-
WEEK 3 Polynesian (MP) subgroup later split into various lower-order
Western and Central-Eastern branches as a result of further
colonization excursions across the Philippines into Borneo,
PREHISTORY AND ANCESTRY Sulawesi, and the Moluccas. The Moluccas are thought to be
where the Central-Eastern MP split, and Eastern MP
Prehistory of the Philippines and Southeast Asia encompasses all Austronesian languages of the Pacific
Islands, with the exception of a few in western Micronesia. The
        The early history of the Philippines has a remarkable vocabulary of Proto-MP, which is a linguistic entity that might
blend of the antiquity of Southeast Asia due to the modern have been located somewhere in the Philippines, is of
delimitation of the region. It is connected with the prehistoric considerable interest because it contains several low economic
times of China. It was distinct to its geographical area, indicators that were absent earlier and more northerly Proto-
including Burma, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Austronesian stage (Bellwood, 2006).
Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Many
questions about the study of pre-colonial settlements in the         Several proto-Austronesian speakers carried the rice
Philippines are unanswered. A considerable number of the culture across the sea to northern Luzon, Philippines from
early evidence of the coastal communities that may have Taiwan at approximately 3,000 B.C.E. Essentially, rice is a
existed and used by modern archaeologists to learn more tropical and subtropical crop whose cultivation depends on
about these settlements was washed away when the seas rose water. Southeast Asia is in a monsoon zone and has soggy soil
due to global warming at the end of the last ice age, that is well suited for rice farming. Rice can be cultivated in two
approximately 17,000 years ago. The warm and humid climate ways, as follows: Dry rice cultivation is a form of shifting
in the tropical zone has a disintegrating effect on bamboo and agriculture that involves planting rice on the dry ground either
other plant-like materials used by early inhabitants to build their by sowing in the wind or planting seeds in holes punched by
homes, make tools, and write. Ethnographers have unevenly digging sticks after the existing vegetation has been cut. Wet
studied different ethnolinguistic and cultural groups. American rice cultivation involves the use of germinated seeds that are
archaeologists of the colonial era (1898–1946) tended to planted in a seedbed. When these rice plants are
interpret their findings in a continuous spread and overlay of approximately a foot high, they are transplanted. Fields are
human settlements that reached into the distant past. In the often plowed with the help of a carabao, which is a buffalo-like
south, the Sunda Shelf connected the Philippines with Borneo, animal in the Philippines. Considering that wet rice irrigation
Java, and Sumatra, with the entire peninsula of Malaysia, and planting involve remarkable cooperation between many
Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia. Northern Luzon was linked groups of people, it expanded upon the earlier settlement
to Taiwan and formed the entryway to a broad land corridor patterns and increased the population. 
leading into China. We know that people lived in Java and
China around the mid-Pleistocene or during the ice age         Most of the descendants of the MPs were seafarers, who
approximately 300,000 years ago as their remains, along with carried their traditions through the entire expanse of the Pacific
stone implements and the bones of extinct animals, were Ocean. Many theories exist about the movement of peoples of
found. Similar stone tools and fossil remains of large the Pacific from the coast of South Asia through the major
archipelago of Southeast Asia in the western borders of the legendary swords, icons, and relics that accorded a spiritual
Pacific in Neolithic times. Most of these theories are based on essence that filled them and their people with sacred power.
the existence of cultural traits or artifacts of material culture However, although rajahs could pass down their titles and
that exhibit similar characteristics as reported from wealth to their children, they could be usurped from power
archaeological sites in these areas. The close relationship when strong leaders emerged. Thus, the office of rajah or chief
between the early peoples of the Philippines and Polynesia is could be either inherited or achieved through competition in
demonstrated by the similarities in the types of stone tools and early Philippine society. Kinship still played an integral role in
pottery they used. Other similar artifacts made from shells have the development of local hierarchies. In contrast to Northeast
been found in profusion in the archaeological sites of Oceana. Asia (e.g., China, Korea, and Japan), a large and impersonal
Domesticated plant and animal evidence are also conclusive. state bureaucracy never developed in the Philippines; instead,
One of the oldest domesticated plants is the taro. The numerous competing centers of power whose rulers strove not
differentiation and distribution of this plant have been traced by to colonize their neighbors but to include them in their networks
archaeologists as moving from south Asia going north to Japan of kith and kin were established. Communities of relatives and
and south into New Caledonia, New Zealand, and Fiji. Only friends were developed as children grew up and got married,
three animals, that is, dog, pig, and chicken, are domesticated thereby building their homes adjacent to parents on either side
from Southeast Asia to Polynesia. These animals have of the family. The boundaries separating these communities
originated from Southeast Asia. Thus, the early Southeast were in a state of fluidity and shifted as new alliances were
Asian seafarers were highly skilled canoe builders and formed, histories coalesced, and new leaders emerged. 
navigators who sailed across the Pacific by using their bodily
senses as their compass at a time when almost all of the         Local leaders were distinctive because they can entice
Europeans thought such travel was impossible. In the last followers who cooperated in religious and scholarly, ritual,
2,000 years, we can see archaeological and linguistic evidence agricultural, commercial, and military matters. Such leaders
for the existence of a world maritime trade economy, which replaced or incorporated the previous ancestral line of the
was similar to that of the Mediterranean (only much larger in community into their own by achieving the title of village
scale) and connected the Philippines to China, India, and the ancestor. These leaders cultivated followers by engaging in
Arab and Persian lands. Hindu, Buddhist, Taoist, and reciprocal exchanges. They possessed divine spiritual force,
Confucian influences were absorbed and transformed in the which enabled them to maintain harmonious social interactions
Philippines through an interactive process of adoption and inside and between groups, as well as between the earth and
adaptation. At approximately 1,200 C.E., Islam began to the universe. The collapse of a monarch's network of
spread to Southeast Asia as several sultanates also developed reciprocity and exchange, or the anarchy that occurred in times
in the Philippines, especially southern Mindanao. of natural tragedy, signaled the decline of a ruler, and people
flocked to follow a new authority. Personal authority was seen
differently in Southeast Asia than it is in the Western
perspective. Power was an existential fact, not an abstraction
Trade and Rise of Local Rulers as it is in Western social theory. Indigenous signs indicated a
powerful ruler. A powerful leader was seen as pure in terms of
        The warm and tropical monsoon winds, blowing from the his or her ability to concentrate and disperse power, not in a
northeast in northern winter, and the southeast during the moralistic sense. The ability to manage one's environment and
northern summer contributed to the development of a one's inner self are inextricably linked. The following are the
prosperous and growing regional trade economy. Considering apparent signs of a leader: one had “radiance” about them, one
that these winds have regularly reversed direction every who was sexually fertile, and one who had surrounded oneself
season, the early Southeast Asians learned to plan their with sacred objects, and people who held unusual power to
seafaring journeys following the changing winds. They could absorb it vicariously. Leaders wore and distributed “magic”
sail with relative ease across a large expanse of ocean to visit amulets, uttered formulaic prayers, and believed that their
trading partners and relatives. Then, after resting for a while, weapons and personages, were invincible in times of battle.
they ride home with the wind. The relative ease and safety with Locals, on the other hand, saw defeat in combat or a decline in
which people could travel encouraged increases in material a ruler's wealth as indicators of a leader's waning inner
and cultural exchanges. The tropically rich vegetative cover strength. Hence, the projection and recognition of charismatic
and congenial topography of the islands made it relatively leadership and authority around the Philippine archipelago
comfortable to walk on foot or sail. Many islands around the were a local matter. Social transformations occurred as foreign
archipelago are interconnected by landfills and waterways with influences were selectively reinvented, and they were specific
well-sheltered bays and protected harbors. Trade over land to the conventions of a particular community.
and sea brought new people in contact with one another,
ranging from upland hunters and gatherers and horticulturalists
to the complex chiefdoms and states of South, Southeast, and
Northeast Asia. Maritime trade encouraged widespread social, Indian and Chinese Influences
cultural, and economic changes throughout the region. It
introduced new people to different religious and political         Some of the earliest known influences came from Hindu
backgrounds who shaped, as they were shaped by, the and Buddhist traders and monks who exchanged textiles and
development of local histories and hierarchies.  other sacred gifts for local and Chinese wares. They introduced
new religious rituals and political forms of behavior. However,
        The geographical boundaries between these communities the inhabitants of the Philippine islands did not blindly accept
or mandalas were porous and fluid; foreigners could become the Hindu belief system and way of life; instead, they
friends or even family if they marry by engaging in trade or an selectively integrated what they perceived to be useful Hindu
apprenticeship to share sacred knowledge. New leaders who notions into their already existing animistic beliefs and
recognized a potentially powerful trade partner who promised practices. Early local rulers adopted Hindu titles, such as rajah,
to bring in prestige goods could arise. These rulers and accompanying accouterments to enhance their spiritual
occasionally took Indic titles, such as rajah, which was derived and political power. The term Visaya (Vijaya), which seemed to
from Sanskrit, to distinguish their descendants as members of refer to the central group of the islands in the Philippines, is
a royal lineage. They traded valuable heirlooms, such as suggestive of her place in the Hindu tributary system. Few
known Hindu artifacts include the 1,790-gram 21-karat gold of Malacca. In 1405, he swore his allegiance to the Chinese
Hindu goddess of Agusan, which is on display in the Chicago emperor, for which he had rewarded a seal of investiture,
Natural History Museum. The scarcity of ancient Hindu, thereby recognizing Malacca as an independent kingdom.
Buddhist, or shamanistic scripts and material remains may be Parameswara’s maneuver infuriated the Javanese and
attributed to the fact that Spanish colonizers destroyed pagan Siamese; the latter royal courts claimed that the island was
icons and books in their wake. In contrast to Bali, Indonesia, their territory, but they felt helpless to do anything about it for
Hindu temple complexes were never built in stone in the fear of antagonizing the powerful Chinese. Afterward, Malacca
ancient Philippines. However, substantial archaeological and became a favorite stopover for Muslim traders to sit out the
historical evidence indicated the existence of many small long monsoon season. In 1414, they encouraged the prince to
trading centers that specialized in the production of prestige adopt Islam and form a marriage alliance with one of the
goods (e.g., potteries, textiles, medicinal plants, and decorative Muslim princesses of Pasai. Malacca soon became one of the
plumes) for trade and exchange as tributes. One of the earliest greatest sea emporiums in Southeast Asia, overshadowing its
known maritime Southeast Asian states to do business with neighboring ports. 
traders in the Philippines was the Sri-Vijaya Empire from
Indonesia, which controlled east-west trade through the Strait         Courtly demeanors and the court language, that is, Malay,
of Malacca for 400 years from 700 C.E. to 1,100 C.E. Sri- which once served as the language of trade and
Vijaya was close to southern Philippines and located at the communication throughout much of Southeast Asia, began to
southernmost tip of Sumatra, inland along the Musi River, be replaced by Arabic as Arabic beliefs and practices gained in
which flows out into the Malacca Strait, at the crossroads of ascendance. However, the Vijayan courtly demeanor that is
sea trade. The Sri-Vijaya had a powerful navy that punished based on loyalty, marriage alliances, and trade never went
pirates and protected foreign ships by allowing them safe away but remained alongside new Islamic forms. Therefore,
passage through the straits. Sri-Vijaya became one of the most one of the earliest sultanates to develop in the Philippines was
important clearinghouse centers for exchange and export to the Sulu island chain, which was off the coast of Borneo. Islam
the west. The river provided inhabitants with access to a wide was introduced there by early Chinese traders and Muslim
variety of products and offered them a safe and secure harbor. missionaries during the Ming dynasty in the 14th century.
At first, this community was self-sufficient in food production. However, in 1450, the Sumatran sultan, Sayyid Abu Bakhr,
However, over time, the population multiplied and expanded its married a local princess that Sulu became a prominent center
territory further upriver to the coasts.  of Muslim trade and culture. Rulers living across the sea on
Mindanao and elsewhere in the Philippines soon realized that
        Sri-Vijayans formed a pact with the Javanese, who then they could benefit by participating in the growing Muslim trade
supplied them with rice. Although these two communities did networks. They could gain wealth and further solidify their
not always agree with each other and even fought power by surrounding themselves with large armies and
occasionally, they mostly prospered together in peace and slaves, which strengthened their ability to collect tribute and
harmony through marriage and trade alliances. The Sri-Vijaya build new alliances. Although Muslim rulers believed that all
Empire began to decline in the 1400s when the Chinese came were equal in the eyes of one God and did not believe in
to dominate Southeast Asian sea trade. A sudden increase in slavery, and only debt bondage and freed slaves once
the population during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 C.E.) in converted, they still believed they could capture and enslave
combination with the frequent outbreaks of infectious diseases, non-Muslims. While this created a new dichotomy between
such as the measles and smallpox epidemics in 1407, 1410, Muslims and non-Muslims, the division between slaves and
1411, and 1413, may have further instigated the Chinese to masters existed long before the arrival of Islam in Southeast
search for additional sources of supplies, especially medicinal Asia.
herbs. Famous mariners, such as General Zheng He, who
commandeered the emperor’s fleet of 48 treasure ships in Ancient Asian Slavery Systems
1409, began to develop an elaborate set of tributary networks
        Diverse religious and philosophical traditions exerted
through the use of diplomacy; force, if needed; and the giving
influence over the formation of different slavery systems in
of tribute to local rulers, who acknowledged China’s supremacy
Southeast Asia. While the institutionalization of slavery may
in return. Local ambassadors and dignitaries were escorted
have nothing to do with Buddhism and Confucianism as
back with the tribute missions to pay homage to the Chinese
envisioned by the founders, namely, Buddha and Confucius,
emperor. They were treated with remarkable hospitality and
respectively, Confucianism and Buddhism still advocated a
accorded the full dignity and splendor of their rank and title.
specific social order of hierarchy, that is, that of serving the
Only local rulers who were recognized by the Chinese emperor
king. While Buddhism diverged from Hinduism, it continued to
were allowed to participate in its expanding network of trade
be informed by Hindu cultural ideas and practices. The
and exchange. Thus, local and competing Philippine leaders
Buddhist occupation with merit making and harmonious
could build up their power and notoriety with their place in the
coexistence with all life forms, coupled with Hindu notions of
celestial order of the Middle Kingdom.
caste and hierarchy, coalesced with the open system of slavery
Coming of Islam as practiced in ancient Thailand. In comparison, the Chinese
Confucian interest in following lines of authority through kinship
        Islam was transmitted to Sumatra and Java by Arab and that ranked people according to age level and that placed
Persian traders and missionaries in the 13th century, although ancestors over the living, seniors over juniors, males over
earlier Muslim trading sites existed in the region. As Islam females, and male scholars over commoners, fit with the
began to spread rapidly after the death of Prophet Muhammad closed system of slavery in ancient Vietnam. Hinduism,
in 632, Arabia emerged as one of the most important centers of Buddhism, and Chinese Confucianism influenced the
commerce and culture. Arab and other Muslim traders and development of different Southeast Asian systems of slavery.
sailors were the intermediaries between Asian merchants and This was the case in the precolonial Philippines, where a
European traders. As these Muslims converted local rulers and mixture of Hindu/Buddhist, Confucian, and Islamic notions was
their retainers, their trade networks also expanded. One of the selectively integrated into already existing systems of debt
earliest rulers to convert to Islam was the banished prince of bondage. A basic understanding of the distinctive differences
Palembang origin, Parameswara, who ran away from the between Buddhism and Confucianism, as illustrated by the way
Javanese court to settle in a small fishing village on the island of ancient Thailand and China, is important to understanding
this chapter’s closing discussion on the early Philippine system war and conquest, such as tens of thousands that were taken
that already existed in contrast to Spanish colonial Christianity. by the Siamese in the wars against the Khmer Empire in the
14th century, this was by far the most common because
Thai Buddhist Slavery population may decrease that only an outside infusion of
bodies could maintain the community. Frequent warfare was a
        Thai history has long been influenced by Buddhist and
form of competition for a loyal following, not a territory, and
Hindu social teachings. In contrast to India or China, where
helped reproduce the local population, which was often
genealogical links are largely traced through the male lines,
ravaged and depleted by the spread of diseases such as
genealogies are traced bilaterally through the male and female
malaria and smallpox, famines, floods, droughts, and raids.
side of the family in Thailand. Thai daughters, not sons, are
These slaves were then redistributed among nobles according
expected to take care of their parents when they get old. This
to their rank, while some were donated to temple services.
horizontal status accorded to both sexes is offset thus far as
These slaves were commissioned by the king to build new
Thai females always were considered a property of either their
temples in distant and remote regions to win the local
father’s household or husband’s household. Female slaves
community’s support and loyalty. Slaves served another
were definitively valued for their contribution to sexual
function as a form of exchange and tribute. Thus, the use of
reproduction and as second wives and concubines, although a
slaves became more than the acquisition of a labor force and a
father or husband who sold his daughter or wife into bondage
replacement population. However, a political and economic
in times of starvation or financial hardship in former times could
exchange that was used to pay off debts influenced the political
keep her at home as long as he paid the interest on the loan. A
atmosphere. Thai slaves were mainly absorbed and absolved
free person previously had to demonstrate that he was over his
instead of freed or made kin. While the entire subject is
head in debt and desperately poor before he could legally sell
complicated, the groundwork here is enough to distinguish the
any member of his household or himself into slavery;
Thai system of slavery from the Euro-colonial type. We now
otherwise, he would be severely punished according to the law.
turn to a discussion on the ancient Chinese and the Philippine
Buddhism also mitigated some of the harsher effects of slavery
systems of slavery.
as it was viewed as meritorious, and slaves had some rights
against owners who transgressed the boundaries of their Early Chinese Slavery
sexual rights. Slaves could also possess private properties,
some of which were entrusted in positions of authority over         China has been long influenced by Confucian social
other slaves and free clients. Historically, Thais practiced an teachings. In contrast to Thailand, where the family tree is
open-ended form of slavery that was theologically oriented traced bilaterally through the male and female lines, in China,
around Buddhist ideas of a galactic order, and even the king of genealogical links are recorded over the generations through
Siam was said to be a slave of Buddha. Similar to India, male ties. Chinese females are perceived as outsiders; they
Thailand has a philosophy of a coming of a just and righteous are nameless in ancestral rites, and their primary role is to bear
king. In times of judicious and benevolent kingship, social life is male heirs. A female could enter into domestic household
said to be replete with a bountiful harvest and harmonious service as a maid or child servant. In that case, she might be
relationships that produce a popular feeling of well-being. adopted as a younger sister and become part of the family.
Conversely, duplicitous, selfish kingships mark times of bad Alternatively, she would be arranged into an exogamous
harvest and social disruption. The ancient system of slavery in marriage, occasionally as a child bride. Meanwhile, the bride
Thailand, similar to precolonial Philippines albeit in a different price for the first wife was high, it was transformed into a
guise, was a form of debt slavery; men and women could “buy” dowry, and the marriage rite itself marked the transference of
their freedom.  certain rights and privileges to her. By contrast, the primary
role of second wives was to produce sons, while concubinage
        Laws that guaranteed basic rights are in place. Free was for pleasure. Matchmakers arranged the sale of maids,
clients and slaves were often perceived to be living on the brides, concubines, and prostitutes privately. Slaves in ancient
same level in terms of status. Occasionally, slaves (e.g., China found themselves in a closed system. As a rule, slaves
temple slaves) held substantially higher stations than those in China were born as slaves or purchased as children, in
who were free of bondage. The king held most slaves and addition to the purchase of concubines by the wealthy. While
divided them between princes (and leading monks) in the potential for slaves to alter or change their status was open
exchange for their loyal service in governing the kingdom. in Thailand, that opportunity was extremely limited in China.
Slaves were a symbol of luxury and wealth, but Thai society Given that China is a strictly patriarchal society, any inclusion
was not oriented around slavery as an economic system of males into the lineage would constitute a threat to existing
because slaves worked alongside free clients. Typically, heirs because this would cause further division of property at
freemen and their families were self-sufficient subsistence the death of the clan head. Therefore, males who were not
farmers who worked the king’s land and who could be called, purchased as children for replacement heirs (indicating the
within reasonable guidelines, by royal administrators to provide absence of other heirs) were suspended in permanent slave
food and labor on construction projects for the kingdom. The status, although eunuchs were of high status because they
Thai system of slavery might be “feudal” in nature. The slave were loyal and powerful (e.g., they generally served the
had many of the same modes of entry into slavery that were emperors royal court). Watson explained that girls had more
found in China, that of conquest, war, capture, and being freedom than boys did once they became slaves because boys
“sold,” but there is the added aspect of the debt slave, who would enter their new life either as an heir or lifelong servant.
may or may not be redeemable. Being redeemable means that Females had more tangible opportunities for improving their
one’s debts might eventually either be worked off or paid off, situation through marriage. Chinese women were considered
and the condition of slavery diminished, and the slave freed. as belonging to, rather than being in, the kinship line even
Other forms of slavery, such as judicial or temple slaves, are when they married within it. Given that they did not have any
not commonly found in China. The temple slaves were on inheritance right that would have been recognized or
occasion those who placed themselves into service because supported, they were not considered a threat. Therefore, they
the life of the temple slave might be viewed as better than the had more social mobility than men did. China created its supply
life of the freed person occasionally. Slaves were exempt from of slaves from within by creating stratification within its social
mandatory labor requirements, and those services they provide structure; taking its slaves from within that created a “lower”
were lighter than other forms of slavery. Regarding slaves of class. 
        The stigma attached to the status of a slave did not only male ancestor; instead, important genealogical claims were
last a lifetime but for subsequent generations of slaves. This based on achieving a founding line of descent and establishing
phenomenon can be traced back to the Chinese practice of fictive kin relations horizontally in the present. This emphasis
ancestor worship. The Chinese viewed belonging to a lineage on the present had an impact on how the master-slave bond
as a requirement for being considered a civilized person. Given emerged locally, where social relations, not private property,
that the males were carriers of the lineage, even the poorest were highly valued. Customary interactions between masters
farmers would resist selling their sons until all the daughters and slaves in this context were mutually respectful. The coming
and even the wife were sold. For example, they would sell their of the Spanish colonizers to the Philippines with their different
sons to save them from dying from starvation. This attitude habits and worldview was an affront to the cultural ethos and
resulted in a few males on the market. Thus, males were common sense of mutual well-being. Spanish colonial
priced high. This practice repeatedly disrupted the male slaves’ processes profoundly and irreversibly disrupted and altered
ancestral lines. Thus, the slaves, in essence, never developed local practices, and the effect of this influence should not be
a family line, and their hereditary relatives remained unknown. underestimated. However, local motifs and customary forms of
In some modern cases, the ancestral line might be invented to behavior continued to re-emerge in new guises and resisted
conceal a lack of ancestry. This slave market system based on the colonial design.
use value and not exchange value was transformed when the
European colonizers came to China. The Europeans brought
and introduced their habit of buying and selling slaves as if
WEEK 4
they were only material objects, which was an affront and
contrary to ancient Asian codes, which provided slaves with PRIMARY & SECONDARY SOURCES: HISTORICAL
certain rights and social security. CONTEXT
Ancient Philippine Slavery A Historian's Critical Questions
        The Philippines experienced a mélange of religious and         Students who study history sometimes confuse sources
philosophical influences before the colonial period. Underlying with evidence. Good historical sources merely provide raw
Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic faiths were widespread and information that scholars can reconstruct into evidence.
intermingled with indigenous beliefs and practices that were Historians use reconstructed historical evidence to make
informed by animistic nature worship. The economy was historical arguments about what happened in the past. To
engaged in a maritime trade economy that extended far collect evidence, historians examine sources by reading
beyond Southeast Asia. Local communities were dispersed closely and asking critical questions. 
along estuaries of rivers and coastal shores, with each
settlement scattered to protect the residents from the possibility         Students of history should also note that sources of
of offshore slave raiders. Each community’s individual history history are subjective. Meaning, persons who document and
was made up of a complex of local histories wherein leaders interpret history usually have his/her unique point of view about
were legitimated by their followers, relative to even wider what is happening.
concentric networks or mandalas, of power. Chiefdoms
existed, that is, the office of the chief was ordinarily inherited,         We get historical information from primary and secondary
and a redistributive system wherein slavery was a key sources. Analyzing historical information includes answering
component was in place. However, as a check on their the following:
authority, the office of the chief (rajah or datu) was also
achieved, and the center of redistribution shifted as new  Who produced this source, and what is his/her
leaders emerged.  background? Is the author’s biography (i.e. point of view
        The system of slavery in the Philippines was a far- and personal experience) relevant to comprehending this
reaching and complex system that differed dramatically from, source? Was the author biased or dishonest? Did he/she
and existed in utter contradistinction to, the Euro-American
transatlantic slave trade system. In contrast to the European have a plan/agenda? 
colonial system where slaves were supplied in the market,
slaves in the Philippines often shared the same ethnicity,  When and where was this source created? Is it similar to
language, and descent as their masters. Parents frequently
other sources from the same period? In what ways is it a
arranged the marriage of their young children by turning over
several slaves in good faith. Men often sold themselves into product of the time, place, or context in which it was
slavery to their fathers-in-law as a form of bride price, which created?
was similar to what Jacob did for the hand of Rachel and Leah
as told in the Bible. Almost everyone was indebted to someone
else to some degree, and slavery in this sense was endemic.
 What motivated the author to create this source? Who
Generally, slaves took a good deal of satisfaction in being was his/her intended audience? And what’s the point? Is
attached to their masters. Various types of slaves ranged from
the author’s purpose (or argument) stated explicitly or
those captured for ransom in raids at one extreme to those
who sold themselves into slavery to someone for whom they implicitly? Was it meant to be used in a public or private
felt a debt of gratitude from the heart in other extremes. Except setting? Is it a scholarly work, a work of fiction, a work of
for those living inside their master’s house, slaves were
expected to support themselves, working part-time for their art, or a piece of propaganda?
owners, while the owners themselves were generally enslaved
to other masters. Kinship played an important role in the  How does this source compare to the other sources
development of debt bondage on the islands. Family networks you’ve looked at for this study? Is it biased toward a
and lineages were traced bilaterally through both the female
and male lines. This phenomenon diminished the importance particular argument? Incorporate or neglect significant
of status based on lineage connections to a single female or pieces of evidence? Does it structure its argument
 according to similar (or different) periods, geographies, 1. P – Purpose of the maker in preparing the source
participants, themes, or events?          Knowing the purpose of the author or maker of a primary
source includes finding out the role or place of that person in
the society he/she lived in. The social structure and culture of
Sources of History
the maker will help us form a basis for the development of the
source. 
1. Primary Sources of History
        Primary sources are materials produced in the period 2. A – Arguments and strategies used to achieve
studied. They reflect the immediate concerns and perspectives these goals
of those who are experiencing the historical events studied.
Typical examples of primary studies are diaries,         What ideas are the maker trying to convey by
correspondence, dispatches, newspaper editorials, speeches, documenting a historical event or period? You may also ask
economic data, literature, art, and film. This type of historical who the maker’s audience is and what is the maker’s strategy
source allows the historian to see the past through direct in communicating to his/her audience. For instance, Anne
participants' points of view.  Frank, who lived in the Nazi Period in Germany, made a dairy.
The diary contents are most probably intended for her private
        The primary sources used in this research are from the reading. At present, historian now know that Anne’s father
time period under consideration. These sources include edited some pages to remove sensitive content. Knowing these
witnesses and artifacts. Familiar primary sources include details helps us read between the lines and assume the
newspapers, correspondence, memoirs, laws, official “unwritten.” This analysis also enables us to know how credible
documents, and published works. or reliable the source is.

(Mariano Peji and Filipino sailors at the U.S. Naval Academy (Anne Frank's Diary, The History Channel, 2018)
posed in basketball uniforms circa 1926, UMD Libraries Digital
Collections Filipino American Community Archives)
1. P – Presuppositions and values
        Looking at the primary source above, we can make
        We can also analyze a primary source by examining how
assumptions about the American Occupation in the Philippines.
the beliefs of the maker differ or are similar to ours. This
First, we can say that the sport basketball has reached our
process highlights the values of the maker. At times, it may be
shores. Another assumption we can make is about how
uncomfortable to us to read about slave-raiding of ancient
Filipinos dressed when playing sports. Lastly, we may be able
Filipino tribes, but we consider their behavior as a product of
to assume some information based on the building behind the
their time because they value different things (i.e. familial ties
people in the picture.
and food production).

2. Epistemology
(The Royal Kandit, Villegas, 2004)
        An epistemological reading of a primary source will give
        Non-text materials are also considered as primary us information that can be factually proven. These facts are not
sources of history if they were made by people experiencing explicitly shown in the material. For instance, we can date
the historical events in question. The golden Royal Kandit Anne Frank’s diary using the material of the paper or the ink
shown above is an artifact dating from between the 10th and that was used. 
13th century and was found in Surigao. It is made of gold,
about 74 centimeter, and weighs about a kilogram. If we 3. R – Relate to other texts 
analyze the information about the golden belt, we may ask
questions about how ancient Filipinos in Surigao were able to         We can infer some things from reading various
craft and own ornate pieces of precious gold. primary sources from different makers or writers. We can
do this by highlighting repetitive themes across sources.
Evaluating Primary Sources An example would be the current reading of Ferdinand
        Like an investigative report, historical arguments try to Magellan’s purpose in coming to the Philippines: some
establish how things may have happened. Still, we have to be historians suggest that he came for trade and not as a
careful with interpreting primary sources as these are not conquistador, effectively dating the Spanish Colonization
perfect documentations of historical events. Thus, we should of the Philippines to 1565 instead of 1521. (Gerona, 2021)
also compare sources with each other to check their Secondary Sources of History
credibility. 
        Another source of history is secondary sources. If you
        A fair reading of history involves asking questions about tried to answer the questions above or made interpretations
historical sources. You can be a critical reader if you use your about the primary sources in the previous photos, the
historical imagination and envision what could have happened documentation of your ideas can be considered a secondary
if historical characters were in different circumstances. Primary source of history.
source analysis will help you gather information about details
that can be put together to form an idea of a historical event or         Secondary sources are materials produced after the
period. period that is studied and is made by a person who did not
experience the historical events he/she was writing about.
        Professor Patrick Rael, who was a Professor of History at Secondary source creators typically lived during the time
Bowdoin College, developed an acronym for evaluating period being examined, but their work was based on a primary
primary source texts (PAPER) (Rael, 2004):
source. Historians use secondary sources to learn how other  The evidence that the maker or author cited to support
historians have viewed the past.
his/her argument 
        Historians using secondary sources consider the historical
subject with ample background of the sources' origin and  The parts of the material that makes the argument weak 
generally select, analyze, and incorporate evidence (derived
from primary sources) to make an argument. Works of scholars
 The structure and form of the source (text, art, film, etc.) 
are the most common secondary sources. 
 Any competing material that affects the way the material

(5000 Php Banknote with Lapulapu and the Philippine Eagle, being studied is structured
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, 2021)
 How different or similar to works on the same topic is the
        A common secondary source of history are Philippine
banknotes. The 5,000-peso banknote shown above shows a material.
realistic sketch of Lapulapu. The way he looks in the banknote
is informed by investigating the bodily adornment customs and Credibility and Reliability
the physical characteristics of Visayans. It is NOT a
photograph of Lapulapu. In other words, the banknote does not         Aside from analyzing the content of sources, historians
give a perfect picture of what Lapulapu looks like because it is also examine the credibility and reliability of historical sources.
only a rendition.
A. Credibility
          Credible sources are those that are transparent about
approaches, biases, and points of view. They do this by
        The book cover in the photo shows a volume of highlighting what is not known at the moment and what are
secondary historical material written by Rolando Borrinaga. He accepted as facts while making arguments. 
conducted a modern and Waraynon reading of the
correspondence among Waray, Bicolano, Tagalog, and B. Reliability 
Cebuano revolutionaries in the Spanish and American Colonial         Reliable sources are those that are relay as facts those
Periods. His opinions and inferences are informed by other that can be verified with evidence. For example, dates in
primary sources such as maps, laws, and photographs.  historical material can be corroborated by other materials such
as laws or new reports.
        Secondary sources are also reliable sources of
information, despite them being mere copies of primary WEEK 5
sources. They are reliable because they tend to be informed by
analysis of culture and historical periods. Secondary works PHILIPPINES HISTORICAL SOURCES
such as scholarly work usually show readers what part of the
A. Book or article
work are facts and what are opinions or intelligent guesses.
Secondary sources will alert you to any historical Bangka, Kaluluwa, at Katutubong Paniniwala
controversies, disagreements, or key questions that historians
are grappling with. Additionally, makers of secondary sources Maria Bernadette L. Abrera
are not emotionally tied to the period they are examining. 
        Similar to primary sources, we need investigative skills in         Since the fifteenth century, variously characterized as a
reading secondary historical material. Secondary sources can small and light vessel to a large commercial boat, “bangka” has
be interpreted in different ways since each reader will know a been the general Philippine name for all types of seacraft. This
different set of information and will have a different point of name does not exist in seventeenth-century Visayan and Bikol
view. We need to think through the material and connect it to dictionaries; instead, the term “baloto” arises, which is similar in
other sources. We also need to be careful in distinguishing appearance and function to the bangka.
between scholarly and non-scholarly secondary sources.
        The bangka’s ceremonies demonstrate that it is more than
        When we join history classes, we are usually asked by our a water vessel in Philippine culture: it is a storehouse for an
teachers to explore the discussions of other scholars by writing entire indigenous society’s belief system. The entire procedure
essays. Our historical essays can be considered as secondary is enveloped with rituals and religious implications, from the
sources, as long as we provide enough information about the selection of the tree to its fall, digging out, or hewing into
following:  planks, through the construction, and finally to its launching
into the sea. The bangka reflects the indigenous animist belief
 Maker or writer of the source/material system in a clear and obvious way. The funeral ceremonies
and the use of the bangka as a vessel to transfer the deceased
 The maker’s or author’s expertise, training, and theoretical to the next life are examined, exposing Filipinos’ worldview.
These all indicate the belief not just in the bangka as a “soul
approach  boat” but in a “soul of the boat” itself.

 The maker’s or author’s explanation of why and how the Visit this site for full
text:  https://bangkanixiao.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/abrera-
events happened bangka-kaluluwa-at-katutubong-panininwa.pdf

 The maker’s or author’s argument or point of view about

Massive Balangay “Mother Boat” Unearthed in Butuan
the historical period or event talked about 
By Timothy James Dimacali
Published August 9, 2013 4:04 pm | Updated August 16,         “Kung ano ba talaga ang uring pamumuhay meron ang
2013 12:00 am  mga ninuno natin, ito ang kasagutans a ‘missing link’ ng
kultura natin,” Absite added.
Link:
http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/science/321334/ma         “The ability of Filipinos to construct or build large boats is
ssive-balangay-mother-boat-unearthed-in-butuan/story/ not new… Before the Chinese arrived in the Philippines,
Filipinos traveled to China via the Butuanons,“  Bulonia
         The world’s largest sailing vessel is being uncovered in emphasized.
Butuan City, Mindanao, and it has the potential to rewrite
Philippine maritime history as we know it. The plank vessel,        Historians, including Bolunia, warn that much more work is
which is thought to be roughly 800 years old, could be needed before the boat can be definitively dated and identified.
centuries older than the ships used by European explorers in
the 16th century when they first discovered the archipelago         “The newly-discovered boat will require more technical
that was eventually dubbed Las Islas Felipinas after a Spanish verification to establish its connection and relationship with the
monarch. other boats already excavated, so that we can know its date,
boat typology, and technology,” said Dr. Maria Bernadette L.
Abrera, professor and chairperson of the Department of History
at the University of the Philippines-Diliman, in an email
         The discovery also supports notions that the Philippines, interview.
and especially Butuan, was an important center for Southeast
Asian cultural, religious, and commercial interactions.        “We have to be cautious,” said Ramon Villegas, a
researcher who has studied pre-colonial Philippine history
         Dr. Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia, a National Museum extensively. “There hasn’t been enough study time (the
archaeologist who leads the study team at the site, says the artifacts). It may be a Chinese junk or a Spanish boat.”
recently discovered “balangay” is gigantic in practically every
way.        Aside from carbon dating to identify the age of the wood,
the building techniques used, as well as the type of wood itself,
         As though grabbing a Coke can, she raises her hand and must all be determined before a definitive conclusion can be
folds her fingers into a circle. Bolunia explains, “That’s simply reached.
one of the treenails utilized in its construction.”
       Dr. Jesus Peralta, an archeologist and anthropologist,
         A “treenail” is a wooden peg or dowel that is used in notes, “Everything depends on the construction, on how the
place of iron nails in boat construction. boat was built, before you can legitimately term it is a
‘balangay.’” He stated that he has yet to see the newly
         Bolunia creates an onionskin piece of paper with a
discovered boat.
meticulously inked map of the archeological site. An
approximately pea pod-shaped boat wreck around 15 meters        Nevertheless, the boat’s proximity to prior sites of buried
long sits in the upper corner, one of eight similar-sized balangays is likely to cause consternation among academics.
balangays discovered at the site since the 1970s. But just next
to it, discovered only in 2012, are the ruins of a ninth balangay        Bolunia said without hesitation, "It’s a ‘mother boat,’ and
that appears to be so large that it could easily house the it’s transforming the way we think about ancient Filipino
smaller boat twice over – and that’s just the part that’s been sailors.” 
excavated so far.
Changing the Course of Philippine History
         The boat is expected to be at least 25 meters long,
despite the fact that it has yet to be entirely excavated.        It has long been known that Filipinos journeyed throughout
Southeast Asia in groups called balangays as early as the 10th
         Aside from the treenails, the planks themselves are as century, reaching Champa on Vietnam’s eastern coast.
wide as a man’s chest – approximately twice the width of those
used in other balangays on the site. According to Bolunia, the        The term “barangay” – the Philippine government’s
planks are so massive that they can no longer be copied smallest administrative decision – perpetuates the impression
because there are no more trees large enough to make boards that these flotillas are made up of similarly-sized small vessels.
that size today.
       However, according to Bolunia, this latest discovery
implies that these were likely only support vessels for a much
bigger main boat, where trade items and other supplies were
Visiting the Site likely stored for safekeeping.
        On August 14, GMA News went to the site and discovered        The discovery also implies that Filipino seafarers were
the excavation site was soggy, requiring more digging and significantly more ordered and structured than previously
investigation. Bolunia, on the other hand, assured that for the assumed.
time being, preserving the antiquities in this state is actually
beneficial to their conservation. “We just leave it alone and let Butuan As A Major Center of Culture and Trade
the water seep in since it’s better protected that way than if it’s
       This balangay “confirms past excavation discoveries
dried. It would disintegrate if you expose it without adequate
about Butuan’s position as a commerce and population center
conservation,” she revealed to GMA News.
in precolonial Philippines,”  Abrera told GMA News.
       The Butuan Museum’s officer-in-charge, Jorge Absite, is
       “The harbor of Butuan has maintained long-standing
optimistic that the new discovery may reveal more about our
trading ties with Champa and Guandong” (China). “You can
forefathers. The Butuan Museum is in charge of overseeing the
trace the significance of (the newly discovered boat) by using it
preservation and management of the balangay excavations
as an archeological key to the period when Butuan was a busy
and any objects discovered there.
link to the pan-Asian cultural and commercial
intercourse,” historian Arnold M. Azurin told GMA News        “That’s especially true for a boat this big,” she explains,
through Facebook chat. referring to the massive balangay.
       Indeed, Filipino seamen from Butuan were exploring Asia        The Sama-Badjao of Sulu continue to use boatbuilding
over a thousand years ago, long before our Chinese neighbors: techniques that are very similar to those used in the Butuan
the Song Dynasty reported the arrival of a diplomatic boats today.
delegation from the “Kingdom of Butuan” as early as 1001.
       In 2010, replica balangays created by Sama-Badjao
        “In 1003 AD, a Butuan chieftain petitioned the Chinese artisans and operated by Filipino explorers completed a
Imperial Court to allow his people to send their goods directly 14,000-kilometer journey across Southeast Asia,
to Guandong rather than utilizing Champa as the demonstrating the genuine balangays’ seaworthiness and the
entrepôt*(major trading post),” Azurin continued. traditional woodcraft used to build them.
       The petition was denied, according to Azurin, since the        The 15-meter-long “DiwatangLahi,” one of the boats, is
Court insisted on regulating trade through Champa. now on permanent exhibit outside the National Museum in
Manila.
       He also believes Butuan may have played a significant
role in the spread of culture and religion in the Philippines, long
before Christianity or even Islam arrived.
AUTHOR’S ARGUMENT AND POINT OF VIEW
       “The boat’s deeper meaning could be that it was one of the
first carriers of Hindu-Buddhist cultural impact in the  The idea or belief that an author wishes to persuade
Philippines, long before Islam and Christianity arrived. Many
experts believe that the baybayin script arrived in the same readers to believe is referred to as the author’s argument.
way that Champa did. As a result, you can enrich our Identify the Issue
forefathers’ cultural inheritance,” Azurin remarked.
 The author’s problematic topic is referred to as the tissue.
Older than Magellan and Jung He
The death penalty, gun regulation, foreign policy, and
       While the newfound boat has yet to be precisely dated, its abortion are all examples of contentious issues.
structure and proximity to a balangay from the 1200s strongly
suggest that it is a balangay from the same era.  “Is the author writing a contentious issue?” you might

       If this is the case, the boat predates Magellan’s arrival and wonder.
death in the Philippines in 1521, as well as the Chinese Determine the Author’s Point of View
explorer Zheng He’s trip across Asia in 1400, by hundreds of
years.
 The author’s argument expresses his or her point of view
        “For over a thousand years, trade and settlement patterns on a particular topic.
and routes across Asia connected select islands (of the
Philippines), particularly those with adequate harbors and a
 “What is the author’s position on the issue?” you might
constant supply of local products,” Azurin explained.
wonder.
        “The mention of slaves-for-sale in Magellan’s chronicler
Pigafetta’s account of the first circumvention is especially Step 1: Determine the Author’s Premises
interesting: Raja Humabon boasted to Magellan that some
boatloads of slaves had just left Cebu for Cambodia and  The author’s assumptions are things he takes for granted
Champa – likely in need of warm bodies for their succession
without providing any evidence (to put it another way,
wars, or new stonecutters for their megalithic shrines,” he
continued. what the author believes or accepts as factual and uses to
       Could balangays of Filipino craftsmen have aided in the support his argument).
construction of ancient Asian temples like Angkor Wat?
 “What does the author take for granted?” you might
       “Given that archeologists such as Robert Fox, H. Otley
Beyer, and others have pointed out that various islands in the wonder.
southern Philippines had communities related to these areas,”
he added, “that’s a plausible conjecture.”  The entire argument will be flawed if the author’s
assumptions are irrational or inaccurate. Unless readers
Continuing A Seaworthy Tradition
recognize the author’s preconceptions, they may be
       According to Dr. Bolunia, the “mother boat” and the
smaller balangays in Butuan were “clearly intended for mislead.
exploring the high seas.” Step 2: Determine the Different Types of Assistance
       Their overall design and construction, she claims, are
more adapted to navigate deep ocean waters than shallow  The types of evidence that the author employs to support
rivers. A quarter rudder and sails would also indicate a his or her argument are referred to as types of support.
seagoing vessel, however these have yet to be discovered,
according to Dr. Bolunia.
 “What kind of backup does the author present to back up
the argument?” you might wonder.
 Research findings, case studies, personal experience or
observation, examples, facts, analogies, expert testimony,
and views can all be used as evidence.
Step 3: Determine the Support’s Relevance

 Relevance refers to how closely the support relates to the

argument.

 “Is the support directly tied to the argument?” you might

wonder.

 Unless the author is a specialist, his or her personal

experience or viewpoint may be irrelevant.
Step 4: Assess the Author’s Objectiveness

 When the author’s argument is supported by facts and

other obvious proof, it is objective.

 “Does the author give facts and clear proof as support?”

you might wonder.
Step 5: Assess the Completeness of the Argument

 If the author provides appropriate support and defeats

opposing ideas, the argument is complete.

 Authors occasionally fail to provide adequate support.

 Authors sometimes omit material that would undermine

their position. If they stated and countered their point, it
would be more powerful.
Step 6: Check to See if the Argument is True

 If an argument is logical, it is legitimate (has validity).

 “Is the argument logical (well-reasoned)?” you might

wonder.
Step 7: Assess the Credibility of the Argument

 If an argument is believable, it has credibility (convincing).

 “Is the author’s argument credible?” you might wonder.

 Because an argument that is not valid will not be

believable, validity and credibility are tightly linked.