Unit 1
Unit 1
Unit 1
Ancient Administrative
UNIT 1 ANCIENT ADMINISTRATIVE System
SYSTEM
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Evolution of Ancient Indian Administration
1.5 Conclusion
1.0 OBJECTIVES
· Explain the central, provincial, local, and other fields of administration during
the Mauryan period, and
· Describe the central, provincial, local, and other fields of administration
during the Gupta period.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian administration, as we know, has its evolution that can be traced back to the
5000 years old Indus Valley Civilization wherein the King was all powerful and
everything in the Kingdom was carried out in his name. He was assisted by a
council of ministers, and also other functionaries and officers in administering the
Kingdom. In other words, in the ancient times, the powers of administering the
Kingdom were centralized in the institution of the King.
This was followed by the Vedic period. Early Vedic Aryans were organized into
tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called 'Rajan.' The main
responsibility of the Rajan was to protect the tribe. He was assisted by several
functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas
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(envoys), and spash (spies).
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Evolution of Indians However, a systematic model of administration came in with the coming of the Mauryan
Administration
and Gupta dynasties. Both the dynasties had elaborate governmental machinery that
carried out state functions in a highly organized manner. The Unit therefore tends to
discuss the administrative systems that prevailed during these dynasties.
We will just have a brief discussion about the evolution of the ancient administrative
system to begin with.
In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a
capital and rudimentary administrative system. The Rajan was seen as the custodian of
social order and the protector of 'rashtra' (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging.
Rituals in this era exalted the status of the King over his people. He was occasionally
referred to as 'samrat' (supreme ruler).
The Rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the
productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (bali) became a compulsory tribute. There
was no organized system of taxation. Sabha and samiti were still there but with the
increasing power of the Rajan, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age,
different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states (rajya), oligarchic states
(gana or sangha), and tribal principalities had started emerging.
Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralist and agricultural
way of life. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to chiefs and
priests, and barter system was there, wherein cattle were used, as a unit of currency. The
transition of Vedic society from semi
1 Vedas are liturgical texts containing details of life during this period that have been interpreted
to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. The Vedic
period, or Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE), is the period in the history of the north Indian
subcontinent between the end of the Indus Valley Civilization and second urbanization, which
began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain. c. 600 BCE. It gets its name from the Vedas. Around c.
1200–1000 BCE, Vedic Aryans spread eastward to the fertile Ganges Plain and adopted
iron tools, which allowed for clearing of forest and the adoption of a more settled,
agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterized by the
emergence of towns, kingdoms, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India.
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Nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade Ancient Administrative
System
and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the
Ganges valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and
usage of iron implements increased. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic
texts also mention about the usage of tin, lead, and silver.
Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. New crafts and occupations such
as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewelry, dying, and wine
making arose.
By the time the Mauryan dynasty came into power, the treatise of Kautilya, namely
Arthashastra' became a work on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy.
Kautilya, was a scholar at Takshashila University and was the teacher and guardian
of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. Indian administration system was well developed
and the treatise of Kautilya gives a very first detailed account of the same.
The Mauryan Period was the era of major development in Indian administration.
Decentralization was prevalent, as the village units played a very important role, as
the base of grassroots administration. Empire was divided into provinces, provinces
into districts, and districts into rural and urban centers for efficient administration.
A detailed account of the administrative system in the Mauryan period is given below.
We will now discuss the administrative systems. To begin with, is the central
administration system under the Mauryas.
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The King was the supreme and sovereign authority of the Mauryan administration.
He had the supreme executive, legislative, and judicial powers vested in him. He
was responsible for the safety and security of his kingdom. He laid down the
general lines of policy that was to be followed by all officials. He appointed ministers
and other officers of the royal administration. In addition, the King was the supreme
commander of the army and head of the entire military.
The Mauryan Empire (before Ashoka) was essentially a Hindu State. According to
the Hindu concept, the supreme sovereign of the State was 'Dharma' or law and
the King was to be its guardian. The King could never dare to defy the laws.
He was aided and advised by a 'Mantri Parishad' (Council of Ministers) and he was
to be guided by it in the conduct of day-to-day administration. This became more
of an obligation during times of emergencies (war or a natural disaster or health
epidemics). The Brahmins had a great influence on the King and the latter was
required not to disobey them. Instead, he always looked towards their support.
Also, as the powers of the Mauryan government were of a decentralized nature,
the provincial governor and provincial ministers had the right to be consulted by
the King, especially, in all provincial matters.
The number of ministers in the Council of Ministers varied and was not fixed.
The ministers had to qualify by showing their ability, especially in terms of religion
and money. In times of emergency, the King was always to be guided by the
majority decision of the Council of Ministers.
Besides, there was a well organized hierarchy of bureaucrats, who looked after the
executive, judicial, and revenue offices. The entire administration system was
organized into departments, each of which was headed by a Superintendent,
known as 'Adhyaksha.' The Adhyaksha was assisted by clerks, accountants, and
spies. In addition, there were two posts of high officials, namely the 'Samaharta'
and the 'Sannidhata.' The Samaharta was the collector general of revenue for the
Mauryan Empire. He had control over the expenditure part as well. The post of
Sannidhata was the officer-in-charge of the treasury and store. Besides, there were
other officers like Army Minister, Chief Priest, and Governor of Forts.
The Mauryan territory that was directly ruled by the King was divided into a number
of provinces called 'Janapadas.' Ashoka had five provinces with capitals namely
Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri, and Pataliputra. Each province was subdivided
into a number of districts and each district was again subdivided into a number of
units.
However, in addition to these centrally ruled Mauryan territories, there were vassal
states. They enjoyed a great deal of autonomy.
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Ancient Administrative
The provincial administration worked on similar lines of the central administration.
System
The Mauryan Emperor directly ruled the central and eastern parts of the Empire.
The other areas were ruled by the provincial governors. The provincial governors
were responsible for day-to-day conduct of administration of provinces. They
were expected to consult on important matters. (the central administration).
There were also the district officers, reporters, clerks, who helped in the smooth
running of provincial administration.
Village administration was in the hands of 'Gramani' and his superior was called
'Gopa,' who was in charge of ten to fifteen villages. Census was a regular activity
and the village officials were to number the people along with other details such
as their castes and occupations. They were also to count the animals in each
house.
The King was the head of the judiciary. He was the highest court of appeal and
personally listened to appeals of the people. However, since the Mauryan Empire
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Evolution of Indians was huge, it was not possible for the King to solve each and every case. So, he
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appointed judges for the pupose. They used to hear normal cases. However during
the reign of Ashoka, many reforms were introduced in the judicial system. For
example, granting of pardon was introduced in his time.
The Supreme Court was located in the capital and the Chief Justice was called
'Dharmathikarin.' There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and
districts under 'Amatyas.' In villages and towns, cases were settled by the
'Gramavradha' and 'Nagaravyavaharikamahamatra' respectively.
There was a Board of 30 members to look into matters pertaining to war. These
members were placed in six committees with five members in each. These
committees were responsible to manage the following wings of the military:
Navy
Transport and Supply
Infantry
Cavalry
War Chariots
War Elephants
Each of the above wings was under the control of 'Adhyaksha' or Superintendents.
The Mauryan Empire had the privilege of having successful administrators such
as Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. The administration of the Empire was
decentralized and the administrative powers were divided into administrative units.
However, these units were under a rigid central control.
Activity
Let us know about your view points on the similarities and differences between
12 Mauryan administrative system and contemporary administration of today.
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Ancient Administrative
1.4 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM DURING GUPTA System
PERIOD
The administrative system during the Gupta dynasty was found more or less similar to
that of the Mauryan Empire. At the time of the Gupta rule, there was political harmony
in ancient India. During this period, the Empire was classified into administrative
divisions like Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, and Mandala. This denotes the importance being
given to administrative decentralization. The administrative divisions helped the rulers
to systematically control their territories.
The period of Gupta's has been described as the golden age in ancient India.
There was consolidation of northern India under one political umbrella, which ushered
in an era of orderly growth and development.
Monarchy was the form of government during the Gupta Age and it has been hailed as
a benevolent monarchy. The King adopted pompous titles such as Parameshvara,
Maharajadhiraja, and Parambhattaraka. The King was the highest authority and wielded
wide powers to enable smooth functioning of the Empire.
He enjoyed political, administrative, military, and judicial powers. The theory of the
divinity of Kings was popular during this period, which added to the royal power and
prestige. They were looked upon, as Gods. Although the King possessed extensive
powers, he did not rule in a tyrannical manner. Council of ministers and several other
officials assisted the King in day to day performance of his duties.
The Gupta Kings appointed all governors and military and civil officials and the latter
were responsible to the King. The King conferred all honors and titles. The King was
the custodian of all land in the Empire. He looked into works like building of dams,
imparting of justice, recovery of taxes, and provision of shelter to the needy. The Kings
could never afford to be selfish despots. They had to be ruled, according to the principles
of 'Rajya Dharma.' There were also ministers and high officials to help and advise him
and he shared powers with them. The Emperor was assisted by a council of ministers
also known as Mantri Parishad.
The Prime Minister of the state, known as Mantri Mukhya was among the prominent
ones in the council. The other portfolios such as military affairs, law and order matters,
and such others were held by different officials known as Mahasandhi Vigrahaka,
Amatya, Mahabaladhikrita, and Mahadandnayaka. All important matters were decided
in a joint sitting of the King and his ministers.
The King used to respect the opinion given by his ministers.
Being a benevolent monarch, the King was always concerned with the well being of his
subjects. He toured the country to keep himself abrupt with the social and economic life
of the people.
The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The Empire was
divided into divisions called 'Bhukth' and each Bhukti was placed under the 13
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Evolution of Indians charge of an 'Uparika.' The Bhuktis were divided into districts or Vishayas and
Administration
each Vishaya was under a Vishayapati. The Vishayapatis were generally members
of the royal family. They were assisted in the work by a council of representatives.
The city was governed by a Parishad and the head was known as Nagara
Rakshaka. Purapala Uparika was another officer and the Nagara-Rakshaka worked
under him. Also, there was a special officer, known as Avasthika, who acted as
the Superintendent of Dharamsalas.
The village was the smallest unit of administration. Gramika was the head of the
village. Other officials known, as Dutas or messengers, headman, and Kartri were
also there. Gramika was assisted by a village assembly. During the Guptas, the
rural bodies like Panchayats were in charge of the welfare of villagers. These rural
bodies comprised of the headman and elders of the villages. Hence, one can
construe that the Guptas promoted local participation at all levels of the
administration.
The duties of revenue administration were carried out by officials like Viniyuktaka,
Rajuka, Uparika, Dashparadhika, and such others. From among the 18 sources of
revenue, land revenue was the chief one. It was generally fixed at one-sixth of the
total production. Also, land revaluation was an important source of income. The
greater part of the revenue generated was spent on public welfare.
Land tax was levied on cultivators, who had no land rights. It was one sixth of the
total production. There were also other sources of income like income tax known
as Bhaga, custom duty, mint duty, inheritance tax, and gift tax. In addition to these
taxes, fine such as Dasaparadha that was imposed on the offenders, was a source
of income.
Salaries were usually paid in the form of land grants (in lieu of cash). Such land
grants gave the beneficiaries hereditary rights over the land. However, the King
had the power to take back the land. The lands given to the Brahmins had no tax
on them.
Waste lands were brought under cultivation and pasture lands were protected.
The Gupta rulers promoted irrigation facilities and this enabled increase in
agricultural production.
Judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in earlier times.
Several books on law were compiled during this period and for the first time civil
and criminal laws were clearly demarcated. Theft and adultery came under criminal
law and disputes regarding various types of property came under civil law.
14 Elaborate laws were laid down regarding inheritance.
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It was the duty of the King to uphold the law and deal with legal cases with the help Ancient Administrative
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of Brahman priests, judges, and ministers. The decision or the judgment of the court
was based on legal texts, social customs prevailing during those times, and discretion
of the King. King was the highest court of appeal. The guilds of artisans, merchants,
and others were governed by their own laws.
At the lowest level of the judicial system was the village assembly or trade guild.
These were the village councils, which were appointed to settle the disputes between
the parties that appeared before them. It is believed that mild punishments were
awarded to the guilty persons.
The Empire carried out trade activities with countries like China, Ceylon, several
European countries, and the East Indian islands. This made the Empire become
economically and strategically strong, which led to the annexation of new states and
thereby the expansion of the territorial boundaries of the Empire.
Activity
Let us know about your view points on the similarities and differences between the
administrative system of the Guptas and contemporary administration of today.
1.5 CONCLUSION
The above sections have mentioned about the administrative systems prevalent in
the Mauryan and Gupta kingdoms. The central, provincial, revenue, financial, judicial,
and local administrative systems have been dealt with in details. This makes one to
understand that both the administrative systems were monarchical yet not despotic.
The King was a benevolent monarch, who was concerned with the welfare of his
subjects. Both the administrations were the foundation of the ancient administrative
system and proved to be pointers for our present day administration.
Basham, AL, 1997, My Guruji and Problems and Perspectives of Ancient Indian
History and Culture, Abhinav Publications, India
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Evolution of Indians Bellah, 2011, citing the terminology of Brance Trigger, Understanding Early
Administration
Civilizations, http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vedic_period
Maity Sachindra Kumar, 1975, The Imperial Guptas and Their Times, CIR. AD
300-550, MM Publishers, N. Delhi
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