energies

Review
Battery Energy Storage for Photovoltaic Application in South
Africa: A Review
Bonginkosi A. Thango * and Pitshou N. Bokoro

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg,

Johannesburg 2028, South Africa
* Correspondence: bonginkosit@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27-65-564-7287

Abstract: Despite the significant slowdown of economic activity in South Africa by virtue of the
COVID-19 outbreak, load shedding or scheduled power outages remained at a high level. The trend of
rising load-shedding hours has persisted throughout most of the year 2022. Operational issues within
the South African power utility inflamed the unpredictable nature of generation capacity, resulting in
unscheduled outages at several generating units, mostly due to multiple breakdowns. To forestall
substantial spikes in energy costs, an increasing number of enterprises and homeowners have started
to gradually adopt renewable energy technologies to sustain their operational demand. Therefore,
there is an increase in the exploration and investment of battery energy storage systems (BESS)
to exploit South Africa’s high solar photovoltaic (PV) energy and help alleviate production losses
related to load-shedding-induced downtime. As a result, the current work presents a comprehensive
and consequential review conducted on the BESS specifically for solar PV application and in the
South African context. The research investigations carried out on BESS for PV application are
crucially examined, drawing attention to their capacities, shortcomings, constraints, and prospects
for advancement. This investigation probed several areas of interest where the BESS-PV scheme
is adopted, viz., choice of battery technology, mitigating miscellaneous power quality problems,
Citation: Thango, B.A.; Bokoro, P.N.
optimal power system control, peak load shaving, South African BESS market and status of some
Battery Energy Storage for
Real BESS-PV projects. The techno-economic case scenario has been proposed in the current research
Photovoltaic Application in South
Africa: A Review. Energies 2022, 15,
and results yield that lithium-ion batteries are more viable than Lead–acid batteries.
5962. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en15165962 Keywords: South Africa; load shedding; battery energy storage systems (BESS); photovoltaic (PV)

Academic Editors: Najib El Ouanjli,

Saad Motahhir and Mustapha
Errouha
1. Introduction
Received: 12 July 2022 The aging power plant infrastructure of the South African national electric utility,
Accepted: 14 August 2022 coupled with unscheduled blackouts, have hampered the power producer’s generating
Published: 17 August 2022 capacity for years, and these bottlenecks continue to be a major hurdle to future expansion.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral The utility issues, which include a congested electric grid, an outdated, unreliable, and
with regard to jurisdictional claims in inadequately maintained generating fleet, and a yearning for new generation capacity, have
published maps and institutional affil- been accentuated by the increasing load-shedding days since 2018, as shown in Figure 1 [1].
iations. Until significant supplemental wattage capacity is invested, their vulnerability to load shed-
ding will be incessant. Increasing levies by national power utilities and municipalities, in
addition to load shedding, have augmented the investment case for industries in renewable
energy generation and power efficiency initiatives [2,3]. To circumvent hefty increases in
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. electricity costs, an influx of major corporations is considering implementing alternative
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
energy sources to support their daily operations. PV grid-tied systems are playing a central
This article is an open access article
role in this shift in the South African energy sector on account of their environmental merits
distributed under the terms and
and attenuated carbon emissions [4,5]. Since the enactment of the Integrated Resource Plan
conditions of the Creative Commons
(IRP), in March 2011, by the Department of Energy (DoE), there has been a gradual increase
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
in the deployment of solar PV. The IRP 2019 steers the energy sector, with a transition from
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
coal power generation, increasing the adoption of renewables and thereby reducing South

Energies 2022, 15, 5962. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15165962 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies2022,
Energies 2022,15,
15,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 22 of
of 22
22

Energies 2022, 15, 5962 2 of 21

energy sector,
energy sector, with
with aa transition
transition from
from coal
coal power
power generation,
generation, increasing
increasing the
the adoption
adoption of
of
renewables
renewables and
and thereby
thereby reducing
reducing South
South African
African dependence
dependence on
on coal.
coal. The
The IRP
IRP
African dependence on coal. The IRP advocates for 7958 MW of solar PV to be generated advocates
advocates
for7958
for
by 7958of
end MW
MW of[6,7].
of
2030 solar PV
solar PV to
to be
be generated
generated byby end
endof
of 2030
2030 [6,7].
[6,7].

Figure 1.The
Figure The numberof
of daysof
of loadshedding
shedding inSouth
South Africa.
Figure 1.
1. Thenumber
number ofdays
days ofload
load shedding in
in South Africa.
Africa.

Thisload
This
This load shedding
loadshedding concurs
sheddingconcurs with
concurswith South
withSouth Africa’s
SouthAfrica’s power
Africa’spower utility
powerutility decaying
utilitydecaying Energy
decayingEnergy Avail-
EnergyAvail-
Avail-
ability
ability Factor
ability Factor (EAF),
Factor (EAF), which
(EAF), which estimates
whichestimates
estimates thethe performance
theperformance
performance of of electricity-generating
ofelectricity-generating stations
electricity-generating stations in
stations in
in
accordance with
accordance
accordance with the
with the electrical
the electrical energy
electrical energy they
energy they supply
they supply to
supply to the
to the national
the national grid.
national grid. In
grid. In 2021,
In 2021, 2020
2021, 2020 and
2020 and
and
2019,
2019, the
the EAF
EAF was
was estimated
estimated at
at about
about 61.8%,
61.8%, 65%
65% and
and 66.9%,
66.9%, respectively.
respectively.
2019, the EAF was estimated at about 61.8%, 65% and 66.9%, respectively. The EAF had The
The EAF
EAF had
had
comedown
come
come downrapidly
down rapidlysince
rapidly since2018,
since 2018,which
2018, whichwas
which was estimated
wasestimated
estimated at at about
atabout 71.9%,
about71.9%,
71.9%,justjust below
justbelow
belowthe the power
thepower
power
utility’s
utility’s 74%
utility’s74% target.
74%target.
target.InIn 2021,
In2021, a low
2021,aalowlowofof about
ofabout 53.3%
about53.3% was
53.3%was reported
wasreported
reportedon on a weekly
onaaweekly average
weeklyaverage
averageEAF.EAF.
EAF.
Figure
Figure 2 demonstrates interest
Figure 22 demonstrates interest
interest or or progress
or progress
progressin in terms
interms of renewable
termsofofrenewable
renewableenergyenergy
energyinin in South
South
South Africa
Africa
Africa in
in the
in
the the context
context
context of installed
of of installed
installed generation
generation
generation capacity.
capacity.
capacity. The The
The planned
planned
planned capacity
capacity
capacity bybyby 2030
2030
2030 is expected
is is expected
expected to
to contribute
to contribute
contribute about
about
about 10.5%
10.5%
10.5% of South
of of South
South Africa’s
Africa’s
Africa’s generation
generation
generation capacity
capacity
capacity [6,7].
[6,7].
[6,7].

Figure 2.Installed
Figure Installed generationcapacity
capacity inSouth
South Africa[1].
[1].
Figure 2.
2. Installedgeneration
generation capacityin
in South Africa
Africa [1].
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22

Energies 2022, 15, 5962 3 of 21

It can be observed that coal generation is yet the main electrical power source, re-
sponsible for approximately 81.4% of the power fed to the grid, succeeded by renewable
energy sources, viz., solar and wind—responsible for approximately 6.7%. The increase
It can be observed that coal generation is yet the main electrical power source, responsible
in the deployment of renewable energies will aid in curbing not only the emission of
for approximately 81.4% of the power fed to the grid, succeeded by renewable energy sources,
greenhouse gases but also the dependency on coal generation and reduction in load shed-
viz., solar and wind—responsible for approximately 6.7%. The increase in the deployment of
ding. Commercial activities will be able to continue their operations with investments in
renewable energies will aid in curbing not only the emission of greenhouse gases but also the
BESS-PV scheme.
dependency on coal generation and reduction in load shedding. Commercial activities will be
Although solar PV is proliferating, it also poses operational challenges attributable
able to continue their operations with investments in BESS-PV scheme.
to its unpredictability and investment cost. Subsequently, solar PV exhibits variations in-
Although solar PV is proliferating, it also poses operational challenges attributable
herent to renewable energy. These variations can emerge at any interval from seconds to
to its unpredictability and investment cost. Subsequently, solar PV exhibits variations
minutes, necessitating the deployment of supplemental energy management devices. PV
inherent to renewable energy. These variations can emerge at any interval from seconds
systems
to minutes, arenecessitating
additionally the confronted
deployment by theof cost differential
supplemental during
energy peak hours devices.
management and the
PV systems are additionally confronted by the cost differential during peak hours andinte-
power quality given to the power grid. As a result, energy storage technologies are the
gral parts
power thatgiven
quality can support
to the powerPV systems
grid. Astoa be ableenergy
result, to provide
storageenergy for longer
technologies arehours
integralin
the absence of sunlight.
parts that can support PV systems to be able to provide energy for longer hours in the
absence In the literature [8], energy storage systems have been suggested as a mechanism to
of sunlight.
feasibly alleviate
In the literature faults
[8], [8]. These
energy issuessystems
storage are connected
have been to energy
suggestedpenetration levels and
as a mechanism to
feasibly alleviate faults [8]. These issues are connected to energy penetration levels PV
can equip solar PV with highly desired adaptability and robustness [9,10]. Solar andstor-
can
age systems,
equip solar PV inwith
this regard, endorseadaptability
highly desired power management,
and robustness such as load Solar
[9,10]. levelling or peak
PV storage
demand reduction, for power balancing and quality upgrades
systems, in this regard, endorse power management, such as load levelling or peak demand[11]. Consequently, these
systems provide
reduction, for power on-site load flow
balancing and control, allowing for
quality upgrades [11].power storage during
Consequently, low-de-
these systems
mand times
provide on-siteto load
be utilized duringallowing
flow control, peak hours [12]. As
for power a result,
storage South
during Africans can
low-demand lower
times to
rates
be associated
utilized duringwith peakelectricity
hours [12].consumption while Africans
As a result, South also enhancing
can lower therates
quality of the
associated
power
with grid [13].
electricity consumption while also enhancing the quality of the power grid [13].
The fundamental issue
The fundamental issue with
with solar
solar energy
energy is is the
the availability
availability ofof sunlight,
sunlight, which
which does does
not correlate
not correlate to to the
the demand.
demand. This This is
is particularly
particularly troublesome
troublesome for for residential
residential or or business
business
users, who
users, who areare frequently
frequently prohibited
prohibited from
from returning
returning surplus
surplus PV PV power
power to to the
the grid
grid that
that isis
generated when
generated when therethere is
is aa plethora
plethora ofof individual
individual loadload demand.
demand. Solar
Solar PV-battery
PV-battery systems
systems
permitthese
permit thesecustomers
customerstotostorestoresurplus
surplusenergy
energyfor forlater
laterusage,
usage, asas demonstrated
demonstrated in in Figure
Figure 3,
3, thereby
thereby enhancing
enhancing their
their solar
solar energy
energy consumption
consumption [14].[14].

Figure 3. Solar PV self-consumption in South Africa.

Figure 3. Solar PV self-consumption in South Africa.

A summary
A summary of of recent
recent related
related research
research works
works is
is tabulated
tabulated in
in Table
Table 11 to
to outline
outline the
the
contribution that can be made by the current study and the main focus thereof.
contribution that can be made by the current study and the main focus thereof.
This work has been organized as follows:
A brief account of solar PV and battery energy storage system technologies with their
crucial information is covered in Section 2. Research on battery storage systems applica-
tions is comprehensively detailed with supporting arguments and opposing arguments
in Section 3. Current status and some real PV-battery projects are discussed briefly in
Section 4. A simulation case scenario with a techno-economic analysis of two different
BESS-PV systems is performed to assess the economic performance in Section 5. Feasible
future courses and suggestions for the research on BESS-PV systems are also presented.
This review research is generally concluded in Section 6 by describing the importance of
the findings.
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 4 of 21

Table 1. Summary of recent related research works.

Ref. No Year Addressed Challenges Limitations Outcomes

An algorithm was proposed and tested in a
[15] 2021 Peak shaving Isolated microgrid system microgrid under different load conditions and
PV generations.
Hourly based energy
An energy management tool that suggests the
generation and
[16] 2022 BESS-PV sizing BESS-PV sizes in accordance with answering a few
consumption profiles of
straightforward energy consumption questions.
128 residents
Provides behind-the-meter application of BESS-PV
[17] 2021 Techno-economic analysis HOMER Grid software to efficaciously use renewable energy under the
conditions of various portions of renewable energy.
Reactive power control of smart inverters for
[18] 2021 Inverter Control MATLAB software BESS-PV to enhance the PV hosting capacity of
distribution networks.
BESS-PV under uncertainty using model
[19] 2021 Scheduling
predictive control.
The study aims to crucially examine BESS-PV
Peak shaving capacities, shortcomings, constraints, and prospects
PV-BESS sizing for advancement. Probed areas of interest: choice
Current Limited to South Africa
2022 Techno-economic analysis of battery technology, mitigating miscellaneous
Study BESS market
BESS-PV market power quality problems, optimal power system
BESS-PV Policies control, peak load shaving, South African BESS
market and status of some Real BESS-PV projects.

2. Solar PV and Battery Energy Storage System

The rooftop solar PV systems convert solar radiation into electrical energy that may
be consumed by South African residents, as shown in Figure 4 [20]. Any power that is
not utilized is fed into the main grid. To conserve energy generated throughout the day,
large-scale batteries can be coupled to solar PV systems. When the system is not producing
enough power, particularly at night or in adverse weather conditions, this energy may
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of be
22
consumed. Using the power generated by a solar PV system throughout the day alleviates
the amount of power purchased from the grid, lowering the energy costs.

Figure 4.
Figure SolarPV-Battery
4. Solar PV-Battery Energy
Energy Storage
Storage System.
System.

2.1. Selection and Deploying a Solar PV-Battery System

A variety of factors will significantly affect which solar PV-battery system is ideal for
a household, including:
• Amount of power and time of consumption;
• Dimensions of available rooftop space;
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 5 of 21

2.1. Selection and Deploying a Solar PV-Battery System

A variety of factors will significantly affect which solar PV-battery system is ideal for
a household, including:
• Amount of power and time of consumption;
• Dimensions of available rooftop space;
• Positioning and direction of solar PV panels.
Understanding the amount of energy consumption in a household may facilitate the
evaluation of the impact of a solar PV system on the energy costs and establish whether
battery storage is a cost-effective option. To realize the best options, licensed solar installers
certified by South African PV GreenCard may further be consulted.

2.2. Emplacement of the Solar PV-Battery System

When solar PV panels are oriented directly toward effective solar irradiation between
09:00 a.m. and 15:00 p.m., they achieve the greatest power generation:
• The PV panels must not be exposed to any shade. Even if a single PV cell is obscured
by objects such as branches, roof vents, or satellite dishes, many other PV cells will
lose power. Due to variations in the flow of energy through the panel, the latter will
have a significant influence on the output of the panel.
• The efficacy of batteries can be affected by the temperature in the surrounding envi-
ronment.
• Batteries necessitate a setting or housing that is well-insulated and well-ventilated. A
battery enclosure should ideally be placed on the south or west side of a South African
building.

2.3. Connecting Solar PV-Battery System to the Power Grid

Under its jurisdiction to administer electricity tariffs in South Africa, the National
Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA) approved the establishment of a Renewable
Energy Feed-in Tariff (REFIT) for the country. The feed-in tariff obligates the Renewable
Energy Purchasing Agency (REPA), to purchase renewable energy from eligible producers
at preset rates [21,22].

3. Battery Technologies
3.1. Lead–Acid Battery
The lead–acid battery, created in 1859, is the first kind of rechargeable battery ever
developed [23]. Lead–acid batteries have a suboptimal energy density when compared to
contemporary rechargeable batteries.
Lead–acid cells are composed of lead alloy grids (solid electrodes) that operate as
current collectors and mechanically support the positive and negative active elements.
The grids are interlaced with a permeable, electrically isolator and arrayed as positive
and negative plates. The plate stack is embedded into an adequately contoured polymer
housing to embody the cell elements and the electrolyte with the coupled positive and
negative plates, terminals, a lid and venting arrangements. The construction of a lead–acid
battery is shown in Figure 5.
The operating voltage of the lead–acid cell is reasonably high at approximately 2.05 V.
The positive active material (PAM) is considerably permeable lead dioxide (PbO2 ) and the
negative active material (NAM) is delicately isolated lead. The electrolyte utilized in the
discharge process is thinned liquefied sulfuric acid (HSO4 ). HSO4 ions move to the negative
electrode during discharge, producing H+ ions and lead sulfate (SO4 2− ). Lead dioxide
reacts with the electrolyte at the positive electrode to yield lead sulfate particles and water
(H2 O), as shown in Figure 6. Both electrodes are discharged to a feeble conductor, lead
sulfate (PbSO4 ), and the electrolyte is incrementally diluted as the discharge progresses.
On charging, the reactions are reversible [24,25].
 current collectors and mechanically support the positive and negative active element
The grids are interlaced with a permeable, electrically isolator and arrayed as positive an
negative plates. The plate stack is embedded into an adequately contoured polymer hou
ing to embody the cell elements and the electrolyte with the coupled positive and negativ
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 6 of 21
plates, terminals, a lid and venting arrangements. The construction of a lead–acid batter
is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Lead–acid battery construction.

The operating voltage of the lead–acid cell is reasonably high at appro

V. The positive active material (PAM) is considerably permeable lead dioxi
the negative active material (NAM) is delicately isolated lead. The electrol
the discharge process is thinned liquefied sulfuric acid (HSO4). HSO4 ion
negative electrode during discharge, producing H+ ions and lead sulfate (SO
oxide reacts with the electrolyte at the positive electrode to yield lead sulfate
water (H2O), as shown in Figure 6. Both electrodes are discharged to a feeb
lead sulfate (PbSO4), and the electrolyte is incrementally diluted as the d
gresses. On charging, the reactions are reversible [24,25].
Figure 5. Lead–acid battery construction.
Figure 5. Lead–acid battery construction.

The operating voltage of the lead–acid cell is reasonably high at approximately 2.0
V. The positive active material (PAM) is considerably permeable lead dioxide (PbO₂) an
the negative active material (NAM) is delicately isolated lead. The electrolyte utilized i
the discharge process is thinned liquefied sulfuric acid (HSO4). HSO4 ions move to th
negative electrode during discharge, producing H+ ions and lead sulfate (SO₄²−). Lead d
oxide reacts with the electrolyte at the positive electrode to yield lead sulfate particles an
water (H2O), as shown in Figure 6. Both electrodes are discharged to a feeble conducto
lead sulfate (PbSO4), and the electrolyte is incrementally diluted as the discharge pro
gresses. On charging, the reactions are reversible [24,25].

Chemistry
Figure 6. 6.
Figure of lead–acid
Chemistry battery. battery.
of lead–acid
The most recent innovations [26,27] have used enhanced lead batteries in a variety
of grid-related plans as well as smaller-scale industrial and domestic energy storage ap-
plications. In recent years, systems with integrated super-capacitors have been described
in addition to conventional lead–acid batteries; they are commonly referred to as carbon-
enhanced (LC) lead batteries. These could have a negative electrode made of a mix of
lead–acid and supercapacitor negatives made of carbon. The positive electrode is exactly
like the one in a typical lead–acid battery in every way. The current tendency in operating
renewable energy sources,
Figure 6. Chemistry especially
of lead–acid solar PV sources, is for periodic discharges rather
battery.
than a continuous restoration of the battery to a full state of charge (SOC). This partial
state-of-charge (PSoC) behavior can be detrimental to lead–acid batteries since it induces
permanent corrosion of the negative electrode, and sustainable development strategies are
still being investigated [28,29].

3.2. Lithium-Ion Battery

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries store energy in positive electrode materials composed
of lithium extracts adequate for reversible physical adsorption of Li-ions and negative
electrode materials made of carbon and can properly support Li in the solid state [30]. Since
 are still being investigated [28,29].

3.2. Lithium-Ion Battery

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries store energy in positive electrode materials composed
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 of lithium extracts adequate for reversible physical adsorption of Li-ions 7and of 21negativ

electrode materials made of carbon and can properly support Li in the solid state [30]
Since Li interacts severely with water, non-aqueous electrolytes are employed [31]. Thes
Li
areinteracts severely
ionizable withdiluents,
organic water, non-aqueous electrolytes
such as propylene are employed
carbonate, [31]. These
in solution withareadequat
ionizable organic diluents, such as propylene carbonate, in solution with adequate lithium
lithium salts. To improve the safety of the cells, the separators are microporous plasti
salts. To improve the safety of the cells, the separators are microporous plastic strips that
strips that may be covered with ceramic particles, as shown in Figure 7.
may be covered with ceramic particles, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure7.7.Chemistry
Figure Chemistryandand
principal components
principal of a lithium-ion
components battery.battery.
of a lithium-ion
Li-ion cells must be meticulously assessed in terms of safety. They have a high energy
Li-ion
density and acells must
volatile be meticulously
organic electrolyte. assessed in terms of safety. They have a high energ
density and a volatile organic electrolyte.
3.3. Sodium–Sulfur Battery
3.3. The
Sodium–Sulfur Battery
anodes of sodium–sulfur (Na-S) batteries are viscous liquid sodium and sulfur,
and they run at hot temperatures, around 300batteries ◦ C, to maintain the electrode’s
and 350 are
The anodes of sodium–sulfur (Na-S) viscous liquid sodium and sulfur
liquid and to provide strong ionic conductivity in the electrolyte, which is a ceramic
and they run at hot temperatures, around 300 and 350 °C, to maintain the electrode’s liq
material [32,33]. At processing temperature, the electrolyte is beta-alumina (b-Al2 O3 ),
uid
which and to provide
transmits sodiumstrong
ions.ionic
When conductivity
sodium and in the electrolyte,
sulfur are released,which
sodiumispolysulfide
a ceramic materia
is[32,33].
producedAt processing temperature,
[34]. They have theenergy
a far superior electrolyte is beta-alumina
density and durability(b-Al O3), which trans
over 2lead–acid
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
mits sodium
batteries. ions. When
To preclude sodium
cell defects fromand sulfur aresecurity
proliferating, released, sodiumand
is essential, polysulfide is produced
careful design
is[34]. TheyThe
essential. have a far superior
chemistry energy
and principal density and
components of a durability
sodium–sulfur over lead–acid
battery batteries. T
are shown
in Figure 8.cell defects from proliferating, security is essential, and careful design is essen
preclude
tial. The chemistry and principal components of a sodium–sulfur battery are shown in
Figure 8.

Figure
Figure 8. Chemistry
8. Chemistry and principal
and principal components
components of a sodium–sulfur
of a sodium–sulfur battery. battery.

Although Na-S batteries are made from abundant and inexpensive raw i
production processes, as well as the necessity for insulation, cooling, and tem
control, make them fairly pricey. They are more cost-effective in large units since
mal management of smaller batteries contributes to the cost relative to the batt
 Figure 8. Chemistry and principal components of a sodium–sulfur battery.

Although Na-S batteries are made from abundant and inexpensive

production processes, as well as the necessity for insulation, cooling, an
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 8 of 21
control, make them fairly pricey. They are more cost-effective in large unit
mal management of smaller batteries contributes to the cost relative to th
ume. As a Na-S
Although consequence,
batteries are they
made are
fromprimarily
abundant and employed
inexpensiveforraw
utility
items, load
the level
production
stations.processes, as well as the necessity for insulation, cooling, and temperature
control, make them fairly pricey. They are more cost-effective in large units since the
thermal management of smaller batteries contributes to the cost relative to the battery’s
3.4. Sodium–Nickel
volume. Chloride
As a consequence, Battery
they are primarily employed for utility load levelling in
big substations.
In Na-NiCl2 batteries, a beta-alumina electrolyte is employed; howev
is Sodium–Nickel
3.4. nickel chloride submerged
Chloride Battery in sodium aluminum chloride (NaAlCl4), a m
conducts
In Na-NiCl sodium ions,
2 batteries, as opposed
a beta-alumina to aissulfur
electrolyte electrode
employed; however, [35]. Nickel me
the cathode
is nickel chloride submerged in sodium aluminum chloride (NaAlCl4 ), a molten salt that
chloride are created when sodium reacts with nickel chloride during dis
conducts sodium ions, as opposed to a sulfur electrode [35]. Nickel metal and sodium
[36]. The
chloride system
are created whenstill
sodiumneeds
reactsheating,
with nickelinsulation, and
chloride during temperature
discharge [35,36]. Thecontrol
operates at a lower temperature than Na-S batteries (300° C)
system still needs heating, insulation, and temperature control even though it [37]. at
operates Compar
◦
a lower temperature than Na-S batteries (300 C) [37]. Compared to Na-S batteries, the
teries, the energy density is higher, but the battery life is longer. Figure 9 de
energy density is higher, but the battery life is longer. Figure 9 depicts the chemistry and
istry
main and
parts of amain parts ofchloride
sodium–nickel a sodium–nickel
battery. chloride battery.

Figure
Figure 9. Chemistry
9. Chemistry and principal
and principal components components of chloride
of a sodium–nickel a sodium–nickel
battery. chloride batter
3.5. Flow Batteries
3.5.Utility-scale
Flow Batteries
energy storage has some promise thanks to flow batteries. There are many
different compositions, but they all have energy-producing cells with electrode material
Utility-scale energy storage has some promise thanks to flow batte
stored remotely, making it possible for very large storage batteries to be made [38,39].
many different
Vanadium compositions,
redox batteries (VRB) are made butupthey allwith
of cells have energy-producing
carbon composite electrodescells wit
terial stored
submerged in a fluidremotely, making
containing aqueous aciditand
possible
vanadiumfor very
sulfate, withlarge storage
different valence batter
states separated by an ion-selective membrane. At the positive electrode during discharge,
V5+ is converted to V4+ , while V2+ is converted to V3+ at the negative electrode. The volume
of the vanadium sulfate solution, and hence the battery’s capacity, is potentially limitless
because it is kept in a storage tank. Recharging causes reverse reactions, which replenish
the materials. The batteries are complicated to use and made of heavy materials, but their
expected lifespan is very lengthy. Only a few prototype systems have been implemented
so far, and given the size of the battery, VRB batteries are only practical for utility energy
storage. Figure 10 depicts the chemistry and main parts of a vanadium redox flow battery.
 which replenish the so
been implemented materials. The batteries
far, and given arethe
the size of complicated
battery, VRBto batteries
use and are made
on
materials,
for utilitybut their storage.
energy expectedFigure
lifespan
10 is very lengthy.
depicts Only aand
the chemistry fewmain
prototype
parts syst
of a
been implemented
redox flow battery.so far, and given the size of the battery, VRB batteries are only
for utility energy storage. Figure 10 depicts the chemistry and main parts of a v
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 9 of 21
redox flow battery.

Figure 10. Chemistry and principal components of a vanadium redox flow battery.

10. Chemistry andand

principal components
Figure 10.
Figure Chemistry
Another kind principal
of flow battery isofthe
a vanadium
components of a redox
zinc–bromine flow battery.
vanadium redox2)flow
(Zn-Br battery.
battery, as show
11. Zinc bromide
Another kind ofisflow
synthesized when
battery is the Zn reacts(Zn-Br
zinc–bromine with2 )Brbattery,
2 withinas the
showncell.
in Br2 is in
Another
cells
Figure with
11. Zinc kind
carbon of
bromide flow battery
electrodes andiswhen
is synthesized athe zinc–bromine
microporous (Zn-Br
plastic
Zn reacts with Br 2) battery,
separator
2 within as2 shown
in Br
the cell. an aqueo
11.
asZinc
is bromide
injected into
an organic cellsis synthesized
with
complexing carbon when
electrodes
agent Zn reacts with Br2 within the cell. Br2 is inj
and
[40,41]. a microporous plastic separator in an
aqueous solution as an organic complexing agent [40,41].
cells with carbon electrodes and a microporous plastic separator in an aqueou
as an organic complexing agent [40,41].

Figure
Figure Chemistry
11.11. and principal
Chemistry components
and principal of a zinc–bromine
components battery.
of a zinc–bromine battery.
Metallic Zn is formed on charging, and while Br2 is housed in tanks, the Zn electrode
Figure 11.aChemistry
Metallic
enforces limit on isand
Znthe principal
formed
capacity for components
onany
charging, of while
and a The
specific design. zinc–bromine
Br2 is
price battery.
is housed
cheaper in tanks,
than VRB the Z
batteries,
enforcesbut a the average
limit on thelifetime is less. for
capacity The any
discharge of bromine
specific design.is a The
perceived
pricethreat
is cheaper
that Metallic
must be avoided. Zn-Br2 batteries, like otherand
flow while
batteries, have only beenin
employed
batteries, but the average lifetime is less. The discharge of bromine is athe
Zn is formed on charging, Br 2 is housed tanks,
in moderate numbers for utility usage. There are a few similar types of flow batteries, such
Zn
perce
enforces
that
as musta limit
iron–chromium
on the capacity
be avoided.
batteries;Zn-Br
however,
for anylike
2 batteries,
they are not
specific
other
broadly
design. The price
flow batteries,
utilized.
is only
have cheaper
been
batteries, but the average lifetime is less. The discharge of bromine
The technical comparison of the aforementioned battery technologies has been tabu- is a perceiv
that
latedmust be avoided.
as demonstrated Zn-Br
in Table 2. 2 batteries, like other flow batteries, have only been e
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 10 of 21

Table 2. Technical comparison of battery technology in South Africa [23–37].

Sodium–Nickel Zinc–BROMINE Vanadium

Battery Lead–Acid [23] Lithium-Ion [24] Sodium–Sulfur [25]
Chloride [26] [27] Redox [28]
Energy density
80–90 250–693 110 100–120 15–65 15–25
(Wh/L)
Nominal cell 3.6/3.7/3.8/3.85,
2.1 1.78–2.208 2.58 1.8 1.15–1.55
voltage (V) LiFePO4 3.2
Specific energy
35–40 100–265 150 350 60–85 10–20
(Wh/kg)
Self-discharge
1%/day 5%/day 20%/day 5–20%/day 10%/day
rate
Cycle >12,000–
<350 400–1200 4500 4500 >2000
durability 14,000
Charge/discharge
50–95% 80–90% 80% 85–95% 75.9% 75–80%<
efficiency
- Long life
- High number - Operate at
- Fire of charge and −20 ◦ C to
- Low cycle
protection discharge 60 ◦ C
and - Utility-scale to be proven
Key - Large-scale cycles - Recyclable
calendar life - Low energy density (More
Challenges controls - Ability to - No fire
- Self- Storage Space)
and - Self- discharge fully hazards
discharge - Electrolyte Leak and
Limitations discharge with no effects - −80% Depth
- Lead Mechanical Pumps
- Temp on the of discharge
toxicity
sensitivity performance. - Expensive
- Low energy to to use
size ratio

4. Battery Storage Systems Applications

The fixed resolutions comprising deconcentrated generation, management, and control
tactics for power supervision and storage assisted to establish the concept of smart networks.
The intellect of these networks is not just about the reduction the technical restrictions
but also manufacturing the electric system to be greener, more competent, compliant
to the customer desires, and consequently cost-effective. These networks aggregate the
employment of information technology personnel, allowing two-party communication
between the energy network and the construction customers, which results in detection
on both sides, making the network intelligent as they are more competent and elastic than
the conventional energy network [42,43]. Consequently, intelligent networks unlock the
industry to new utilization with comprehensive interdisciplinary influences due to their
capability to safely provide and integrate more sustainable power sources, grid-based
generators, and elegant buildings [43]. Hence, extraordinarily dependable communication
will be imperative to transfer a substantial volume of information. Thus, communication
and system engineering will play a substantial function in the integration of elegant
buildings and energy systems [43]. Numerous alterations in the electric network have
been taking place since the development of the smart network concepts, resulting from a
reorganization in the sector and technological developments.
These amendments also produce regulative alterations and can generate numerous
intrinsic advantages to energy generation networks through the amenities given by these
networks. Nonetheless, energy storage is unconstrained in gathering long-term alterations
in energy output generated by short-term irregular intrinsic renewable sources. These
networks submit significant characteristics to the electrical network and consumers. Energy
storage networks may have very different applications and capabilities and, thus, have a
slow or fast response [43]; a few of these services as explained below.
The applications of BESS are highlighted below in summary format. The economic
value proposition for some applications is presented, with formulas.
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 11 of 21

4.1. Regulation
Regulation involves handling energy flow with other command areas to merge
planned flow and instant fluctuations in demand. The primary motive for regulation
is to preserve frequency and voltage inside industry-conventional standards [44]. In realis-
tic conditions, this application is marked by the constant balance between the provision
and need of electricity, concerning the frequency or load, and the regulation of operating
(low) and responsive powers (high) [45]. Voltage regulation is a necessity in the electric
energy system [45]. This application comprises the supervision of reactivity, generated by
grid-connected apparatus that produces, sends, or employs electricity and frequently has
or presents features for instance inductors and capacitors in an electric circuit [44]. Hence,
these energy plants (reactive energy—VAR) might either be substituted by energy storage
tactically located within the network at central positions or across the supplied method,
embedding various VAR support storage networks closely to large loads [44].
Furthermore, the frequency response operation, which is like regulation, excludes the
fact that it reacts to system requirements in an even shorter time, in the order of seconds to
below one minute, when there is an unexpected loss of frequency response [45].

4.2. Integration of Renewable Power Generation

Energy storage completes load smoothing produced by the intermittence of wind
and PV networks [46]. In this operation, within minutes, there is a load ramp support to
react to a fast or at random floating load outline [46]. Consequently, renewable energy
production can be controlled, smoothed, and expeditious, particularly in distant areas [46].
Additionally, diverse modes of process must merge to reach feasibility, for instance, energy
quality control, load supervision, and others are considered next [46].

4.3. Energy Arbitrage

Energy arbitration is where energy is kept throughout low production expense/tariff
time for transmission at high production cost/tariff time. Accordingly, the network’s incom-
petence does not surpass the cost distinction, so the business case could be positive. The
general formulae for value realization over the life of the asset are shown in Equation (1).

Value = Energy Supplied × Peak Rate − Energy Consumed × O f f − Peak rate (1)

where,
Energy Supplied = Energy Consumed × E f f iciency o f BESS

4.4. Peak Clipping

The release of energy at a certain volume factor during peak times can be employed to
lessen peaking volume thus saving costs. The general formulae for value realization over
the life of the asset to the generator are expressed as follows in Equation (2).

Value = Demand Reduction × Di f f erential Cost o f Peaking Generation (2)

The general formulae for value realization over the life of the asset to the end consumer
are expressed as follows in Equation (3).

Value = Demand Reduction × Demand Charge ( R/kWh) (3)

The energy arbitrage and peak shaving are demonstrated in Figure 12.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 12 of 21

Figure
Figure12.
12.Peak
Peakshaving
shavingapplication
applicationfor
forBESS.
BESS.

4.5.Spinning/Instantaneous
4.5. Spinning/InstantaneousReserves
Reserves
BESS techniques have
BESS techniques have an anextremely
extremelyquick
quickresponse,
response,farfarfaster
fasterthan
thansynchronous
synchronousnet-
net-
works[47].
works [47].Fast
Fastdistribution
distributioncan
canhave
haveextra
extraprofits,
profits,mainly
mainlywhen whenlinked
linkedwith
withtraditional
traditional
non-instantaneous spinning resources,
non-instantaneous resources,forfor
example,
example,gas gas
turbines that may
turbines that well
maytake minutes
well take
to achieve
minutes rated output.
to achieve rated output.

4.6.Frequency
4.6. FrequencySupport
Support
BESSvolume
BESS volumecan
canbebeemployed
employedininenergy
energymode
mode(short
(shortduration),
duration),asasa asource
sourceororload,
load,
to supply fast volume support that can capture frequency excursions [48]. Frequency
to supply fast volume support that can capture frequency excursions [48]. Frequency must must
function under the rate of change in the frequency curve. The general formula for value
function under the rate of change in the frequency curve. The general formula for value
realization is shown in Equation (4).
realization is shown in Equation (4).
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Value==𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Investment𝑖𝑛
in𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 Reserves
Traditional Spinning 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠−−Equivalent
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑆
BESS li f𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
ecycle cost𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (4)
(4)

4.7. Voltage Support

4.7. Voltage Support
Equally, BESS volume can be employed in energy mode (short duration), as a generator
Equally, BESS volume can be employed in energy mode (short duration), as a gener-
or load, to supply fast voltage aid that can restrain frequency excursions. This can be battery-
ator or load, to supply fast voltage aid that can restrain frequency excursions. This can be
operated volume energy or non-battery-reactive energy in static VAR compensator mode.
battery-operated volume energy or non-battery-reactive energy in static VAR compensa-
tor
4.8.mode.
Quality of Supply/Critical Power
BESS can be employed to ride short-duration quality of provision phenomena for
4.8. Quality of Supply/Critical Power
instance voltage dips and flicker.
BESS can be employed to ride short-duration quality of provision phenomena for
4.9. Capex
instance Deferral
voltage dips and flicker.
BESS can be employed to increase volume and support the network at crucial periods
4.9.
of the day,Deferral
Capex thus evading what can be an expensive investment in infrastructure development.
TheBESS
general
canformula for value
be employed realization
to increase volumeis shown in Equation
and support (5).
the network at crucial periods
of the day, thus evading what can be an expensive investment in infrastructure develop-
ment. The =
Value investment
general in traditional
formula in f rastructure
for value realization − Equivalent
is shown BESS
in Equation (5).li f ecycle cost (5)
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 – 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑆 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
4.10. PV Smoothing (5)
PV smoothing refers to the practice of storing solar energy throughout the day for
release at peak demand periods. With the help of this operation, services can maximize
the amount of solar energy that the network will allow, allowing for both provision and
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 13 of 21

storage. The non-violation of network inertia constraints is the main emphasis of everything
here [49].

4.11. Wind Energy Firming

It is possible to size battery storage to accommodate varying wind production. The
BESS is charged when the wind exceeds the set limit. When production falls below a
certain threshold, it is released. In a manner similar to PV, adequate storage can render
wind dispatchable.

4.12. Backup Supply

In UPS mode, a BESS solution can be employed as a backup energy source. There
are numerous engineering production inroads in the SA market in the backup energy and
energy security market [50]:
- Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and lead–acid battery techniques, which are the most attempted
and verified, remain the leaders in this market;
- There are other storage skills available, but they either do not have present pilot
projects in SA, or they have not exhibited promise in medium-to-large-measure storage
applications when compared with their direct competitors.
A look into the BESS market in South Africa is illustrated in Table 3.

Table 3. BESS in South African Market [50].

Operation Installation
Replacement
Battery Current Cost Range and Mainte- and Other
Application Major Advantage Cost
Technology Limitations (R/kWh) nance Cost Charges
(R/kWh)
(R/kWh/Year) (EUR/kW)
- Low energy
density
- Time tested - Heavy
Backup power, - Economical - Damage the
Lead–Acid - Advanced environment 200–R1000 1773 143.59 426
UPS
technology - Confined full
discharge
cycles
- Expensive
- High energy
- Transport
density
constraints
- Minimal
Industrial- - Advancing
maintenance
Li-ion scale storage, chemical 4000–R10,000 7000 0 287.17
- Renowned in
Backup, UPS combina-
the market
tions and
- Continually
develop-
evolving
ments
- High depth of
discharge
- Adjustable
Industrial-
Vanadium electrolyte
scale storage, tanks Accessing markets 21,793–25,146 23,000 - -
Redox
Backup power
- Unlimited
storage
potential

Due to the fact that networks are typically developed specifically for each applica-
tion, hydrogen storage and vanadium redox flow batteries have not gained the necessary
access to markets. These situations often involve substantial capital-scale applications,
and the viability of the project is determined throughout its life cycle by the levelized
cost of storage (LCOS). Initial analysis shows that lithium iron technology may have the
most significant commercial presence. Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4 ) is currently the
dominant technology, mostly because of its low production costs, established performance
rankings, and evaluated effective stability. The majority of Li-ion-linked base systems are
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 14 of 21

used in off-network applications where the end-user has limited or no access to service
energy or where energy security is crucial for the continuity of business operations. These
outcomes often take the shape of a hybrid mini-network with integrated renewable produc-
tion (mostly solar PV), diesel production, and battery storage (see this case study). Energy
storage system installation has increased in high-end homes and businesses as a way to
mitigate the effects of load shedding.
Some of the technical challenges can be circumvented as tabulated in Table 4 using the
relevant application, control algorithm and duration, which is critical.

Table 4. BESS control algorithms and application.

Battery
Application Control Algorithm Duration
Technology
Output power smoothing [51] ANN and grid-exchanged power profile 8760 h
Stochastic optimization-based battery operation
Peak generation/load shaving [52] 24 h
framework
Frequency regulation [53] State-machine-based coordinated control 24 h
Li-ion Voltage and frequency regulation [53] Fuzzy logic-based intelligent control technique 18 s
PV plant dispatchability [54] Optimal power control strategy 72 h
Fault-ride-through [55] Master–slave control mode 18 s
Black start [56] Stratified optimization strategy 60 min
Energy arbitrage [57] Classification-based scheme 21 months
Output power smoothing [58] Simple moving average 10 s
Frequency regulation [53] Step-wise inertial control method 100 s
Lead–Acid Fault-ride-through [55] Supervisory control system 240 s
Black start [56] A copula selection and goodness-of-fit-based method 80 min
Dynamic program approach [59] Dynamic program approach 720 h

It can be observed that by using a Li-ion battery over a Pb acid battery, the issues of
power smoothing, load shaving, frequency regulation, PV plant dispatchability and energy
arbitration can be circumvented.

5. Current Status and Some Real PV-Battery Projects

This segment examines some South African situations wherein energy storage systems
have been used conjointly with PV generation, highlighting their modes of operation,
energy storage forms, and current outcomes.

5.1. Canadian Farm

The Canadian farm, located in Lephalale, Limpopo, South Africa has a System size
(kW + kWh) of about 200–1200 kWh and is equipped with a BESS as described in Table 5.

Table 5. BESS Canadian farm in Limpopo, South Africa.

Technology Description Quantity

Batteries 7.4 kWh Solar Md Li-ion 156
8 kVA inverters SMA 21
Inverters
50 kW grid-tied inverter 2
Dimension 40-foot containerized solution
Annual energy stored (kWh) 2200
Electricity tariff reduction (%) 100

5.2. Botha Huis

Botha huis, located in Mosselbay, South Africa has a capacity of 13.2 kWp (kW + kWh)
and is equipped with a battery energy storage system as described in Table 6.
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 15 of 21

Table 6. BESS Botha Huis, Mosselbay, South Africa.

Technology Description Quantity

270 W × 60 cells of
PV modules 49
polycrystalline
Batteries BYD B-Box 2 × 2.56 kWh
Inverters 8 kVA 1
Annual energy yield (kWh) 15,018.1 kWh
Annual energy stored (kWh) 3312.2 kWh
Electricity tariff reduction (%) 70

5.3. Matjhabeng Solar PV with Battery Energy Storage Systems Project

The Matjhabeng 400 MW Solar Photovoltaic Power Plant with 80 MW (320 MWh)
battery energy storage systems (henceforth referred to as the “Project”), which is situated
north and south of the town of Odendaalsrus in the Free State Province, has been proposed
by SunElex Energy (Pty) Ltd. (the Applicant). The planned project will be designed to
meet the energy needs of the Matjhabeng Local Municipality and will produce electricity
for delivery to the regional or global grid. Locality map of the project’s Phase 1 and Phase
2 sites show in Figure 13. The two (2) phases listed below will be used to develop the
proposed utility-scale project:
• Phase 1: A 200 MW solar photovoltaic system with a 40 MW (160 MWh) battery energy
storage system (referred to as the “Phase 1 Site”), which is located on a site south of
Odendaalsrus;
• Phase 2: 200 MW of solar photovoltaic capacity with a 40 MW (160 MWh) battery
energy storage system (on the site north of Odendaalsrus, referred to as the “Phase
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22
2 Site” in the following). The project’s electrical output will be fed into Eskom’s
pre-existing 132 kV distribution network.

Figure13.13.
Figure Locality
Locality map
map of of
thethe project’s
project’s Phase
Phase 1 and
1 and Phase
Phase 2 sites.
2 sites.

5.4. Planned BESS Projects

Eskom, a state-owned enterprise has recognized 24 sites in the Western Cape Prov-
ince, South Africa, where the planned BESS projects will be realized with a capacity of
about 148.5 MW. The following criteria were contemplated in the choice of fitting sites:
 Energies 2022, 15, 5962 16 of 21

5.4. Planned BESS Projects

Eskom, a state-owned enterprise has recognized 24 sites in the Western Cape Province,
South Africa, where the planned BESS projects will be realized with a capacity of about
148.5 MW. The following criteria were contemplated in the choice of fitting sites:
- Vicinity of electricity clienteles to existing PV generators;
- Decrease in energy supply losses;
- Peak load abatement on severely loaded network components;
- Abatement in congestion of upstream high-voltage networks;
- Enhancement of local network characteristics and quality of supply;
- Peak load abatement where the peak load is coincident with the national system peak
(i.e., winter evenings);
- Accessibility of sufficient MV connection capacity for the BESS;
- Accessibility of sufficient space at the substation for the deployment of BESS contain-
ers.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 2
A view of one of the sites planned for BESS implementation, Eskom Paleisheuwel, is
shown in Figure 14.

Figure
Figure 14.14. Eskom
Eskom Paleisheuwel,
Paleisheuwel, Western
Western Cape Cape province.
province.

6.6.Deployment
Deploymentof of
Utility-Scale Battery
Utility-Scale Energy
Battery Storage
Energy Storage
The Eskom BESS project involves implementing outcomes at several locations in
The Eskom BESS project involves implementing outcomes at several locations in va
various operating units (OUs). Sizes of the results range from 1 MW to 60 MW. The
ious operating units (OUs). Sizes of the results range from 1 MW to 60 MW. The standar
standard size of an installation is 4 MW/16 MWh, which equals an estimated total of
size
90 of an installation
installations. is 4 MW/16
To optimize MWh, which
the usefulness equalsallanresults
of the BESS, estimated totalaofprimary
will have 90 installation
function and supporting roles that are “stacked benefits” in nature. As an illustration, a and sup
To optimize the usefulness of the BESS, all results will have a primary function
porting
unit roles
designed that arefor
primarily “stacked benefits”
capex deferral duringin nature. Asin
peak times anthe
illustration,
winter will abeunit designed pr
available
marily
for for capex
operations such asdeferral during
frequency peak
support times
at any inand
time thepeak
winter will be
clipping available
in the summer.forTheoperation
maximum discharge period will be 4 h. Figure 15 illustrates the steps used
such as frequency support at any time and peak clipping in the summer. The maximum to appear in a
technical investigation.
discharge period will be 4 h. Figure 15 illustrates the steps used to appear in a technica
investigation.

Conducting Concept designs,

Identification of Identification of Contracting and
business case specifications and
use cases potential sites deployment
analysis permitting
 size of an installation is 4 MW/16 MWh, which equals an estimated total of 90 installations.
To optimize the usefulness of the BESS, all results will have a primary function and sup-
porting roles that are “stacked benefits” in nature. As an illustration, a unit designed pri-
marily for capex deferral during peak times in the winter will be available for operations
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 such as frequency support at any time and peak clipping in the summer. The maximum 17 of 21
discharge period will be 4 h. Figure 15 illustrates the steps used to appear in a technical
investigation.

Conducting Concept designs,

Identification of Identification of Contracting and
business case specifications and
use cases potential sites deployment
analysis permitting

Figure 15. Process flow for the BESS project.

Figure 15. Process flow for the BESS project.

Step 1:
Step 1:
Wherever possible, supply-delayed investment and congestion supervision were
givenWherever possible,these
priority because supply-delayed
are the most investment and congestion supervision were given
enticing applications.
priority
Step 2: because these are the most enticing applications.
Active OU recognized potential sites, where appropriate. Substations located in elec-
Step 2:
trically distant
Active OUoperational
recognizedunits were sites,
potential chosen in cases
where where local
appropriate. improvements
Substations could
located in
not be immediately
electrically realized. Prioritizing
distant operational areas that
units were chosen relieve
in cases congestion
where upstream and
local improvements re-
could
duce
not befailures was one
immediately endeavor.
realized. In addition
Prioritizing areastothat
replacing
relievepeak energyupstream
congestion (kWh) and
anddemand,
reduce
these locations will supply gains and losses (kW).
failures was one endeavor. In addition to replacing peak energy (kWh) and demand, these
Step 3: will supply gains and losses (kW).
locations
Step 3:
In this stage, the business benefit of installing BESS is compared to other viable options
(such as adding new supply/transmission substations and feeders, installing voltage
regulators, adding more peaking power generators, etc.), as well as whether the investment
will be recouped within a reasonable amount of time. The case for the project is made
on the basis of both direct and indirect benefits, such as lower distribution costs for bulk
purchases and lower production costs overall.
Step 4:
Conducting technical due diligence on potential locations is the first stage of this
cycle. This entails showcasing a number of system planning studies, such as the worst case
(maximum charging and discharging) load flows, dynamic time-series training, and quality
of distribution studies. Conceptual plans for efficient locations have been carried out. These
are based on standard BESS yard and station yard layouts, but the winning engineering,
procurement, and construction (EPC) contractor are responsible for finishing them at the
detail design stage. This phase also saw the creation and approval of the following technical
specifications:
BESS equipment;
AC equipment;
General BESS and substation yard;
Protection and control;
Distributed energy resources management system (DERMS);
Application performance monitoring (APM) tool.
In order to ensure a smooth transition between system circumstances and BESS station-
ing, the DERMS will be implemented into the SCADA. A “BESS fleet” will be successfully
run by it. The life management of the BESS divisions is important, since some interactions
tend to diminish over time, making the technical advancements less fully implementable.
Therefore, it is crucial to check the unit’s longevity, especially the chemical storage unit.
The APM tool is used to achieve this. Authorizing involves locating land and directing
environmental impact assessments in accordance with the relevant laws.
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 18 of 21

Step 5:
The preparation of bid documents (bills of quantities and assessment criteria) in
accordance with the provided templates is part of the contracting phase. Eskom has
provided the necessary technical paperwork and validated the possibility for each location.
The list of required documentation includes, among other things:
1. A planning report showing the use case;
2. Business case and system limits;
3. System diagrams for the anticipated BESS and substation yards;
4. Several service technical conditions.
Primary assessment, technical assessment, and finally economic development assess-
ment make up the evaluation criteria. The development stage takes into account energy
and capital costs.

7. Results and Discussion

In this section, to provide a significant innovation and contribution in the field of
implementing battery energy storage for photovoltaic applications, a techno-economic
analysis of two battery technologies incorporated with the Photovoltaic Grid-Connected
System is carried out by adopting the HOMER-Pro-software with contemplation of actual
load profiles and resource data. Consequently, the BESS-PV incorporated with a Li-ion
battery brought forth a LCOE of 5.46 R/kWh in comparison with the BESS-PV system
embedded with a Pb-acid battery postulating a LCOE of 5.8 R/kWh. Conversely, a total
present cost (TPC) of the BESS-PV system with Li-ion batteries turned out to have a total
of about R245,774 in comparison to the BESS-PV system with Pb-acid battery yielded a
TPC of R257,841. The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) outcome of the current study is
proved to be favorable. The comparative analysis of Pb-acid and Li-ion battery technology
in reference to various measure of effectiveness is tabulated in Table 7.

Table 7. Pb-acid vs. Li-ion battery technology in reference to various measure of effectiveness.

Battery Number of Converter Total TPC Operating PV Fraction

PV (kW) LCOE (R)
Technology Battery (Units) (kW) (R) Cost (%)
Li-ion 10 6 5 24,577 5.46 13,757 90
Pb-acid 10 10 5 257,841 5.8 27,157 91

As observed above, for each type of BESS with similar input PV, the number of
batteries, converter parameters postulated, the state of charge (%), battery capacity (Ah),
and lifetime (years) feature an output of Li-ion batteries (100%, 167, 11) is discovered to be
enhanced compared to a Pb-acid battery (100%, 83, 4). Moreover, as shown in Table 8, it
could be absorbed as evidence for Li-ion batteries to be exploited in solar PV generation
due to their enhanced energy capability.

Table 8. Pb-acid vs. Li-ion battery technology in reference to techno-economic analysis results.

Battery Energy in Energy Out Storage Depletion Losses Annual Throughput Estimated Life
Technology (kWh/Year) (kWh/Year) (kWh/Year) (kWh/Year) (kWh/Year) (Year)
Li-ion acid 1898 1712 3.7 192 1804 11.2
Pb-ion acid 2129 1707 4.1 427 1908 4.1

By this investigation, the results lead to the conclusion that the BESS-PV system with
Li-ion batteries necessitates about 41% fewer batteries in comparison to Pb-acid batteries
and is supplementary in the establishment of an unswerving power source with lower
expenditure. Furthermore, Li-ion battery technology delivered lower TPC and LCOE, and
the BESS-PV system that has a higher solar PV fraction necessitates a greater number of
Energies 2022, 15, 5962 19 of 21

batteries reciprocally. Generally, considering the standard application scenario investigated,

Li-ion batteries are ascertained to be lucrative in both technical and economic countenances,
and thus, they are advisable as a fill-in workable solution in combating the problem of load
shedding in South Africa.

8. Conclusions
In the South African context, as well as in many other countries, electricity supply
capacity could be best increased by promoting the diversity of energy sources in the
generation. In this generation mix, renewable energies and particularly PV solar are one
of the leading renewable sources of energy despite challenges related to their inability to
meet the base load demand of electricity. Therefore, large-scale PV solar projects for reliable
electricity supply require both in-depth knowledge pursuit as well as financial investment
in energy storage technologies. This work discusses the knowledge gap in the three critical
areas concerning the implementation of large-scale electrical energy storage in the South
African context.
Based on the proposed case scenario, Li-ion batteries are ascertained to be lucrative
in both technical and economic countenances, and thus, they are advisable as a fill-in
workable solution in combating the problem of load shedding in South Africa. Some of
the technical challenges, i.e., output power smoothing, load shaving, frequency regulation,
PV plant dispatchability and energy arbitration can be circumvented using the control
algorithms furnished and their corresponding duration thereof.
As a proposal, further investigations should be conducted in order to crack the problem
of economic viability under distinctive application set-ups.

Author Contributions: B.A.T., conceptualized, carried out the investigation, wrote and prepared the
article. P.N.B. was responsible for reviewing, editing, and drafting closing remarks of the article. The
published version of the article has been reviewed and approved by all authors. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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