MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
MODULE 2 : SOLAR ENERGY and Biomass Energy
Solar Energy: Introduction, Solar radiation at the earth’s surface, Solar radiation
measurements, Flat plate collectors, Focussing collectors, Solar pond, Solar electric power
generation-Solar photovoltaics.
Biomass Energy: Photosynthesis, photosynthetic oxygen production, energy plantation.
Bio Chemical Route: Biogas production from organic wastes by anaerobic fermentation,
Bio gas plants-KVIC, Janta, Deenbandhu models, factors affecting bio gas generation.
Thermal gasification of biomass, updraft and downdraft

QUESTION FROM PREVIOUS YEAR VTU QUESTION PAPERS

Note
• The number of marks for a particular question is being indicated in the bracket
• Number of Brackets will tell us about the number of time it has been repeated.

1. With the neat sketch explain flat plate solar collector[8m][6m][8m]

2. Briefly explain principle of working of solar cells [6m][4m]
3. Classify solar radiation measuring instruments. Explain any one instrument with neat
sketch [5m]
4. With a sketch explain the working of an instrument used to measure global radiation of
solar energy [8m][10m]
5. With a neat sketch explain the working of solar pond and photo voltaic cell [6m]
6. What are the main applications of the solar pond? Explain with the help of a neat diagram
, a SOLAR POND electric power plant, Draw concentric temperature profiles [8m]
[10m][6m][8m][6m][10m]
7. Sketch and explain the working of pyranometer . [6m]
8. What is the difference betweern a pyrheliometer and a pyranometer? Describe the
principle of angstrom Pyrheliometer [6m]
9. What is the principle of photovoltaic power generation? With a neat sketch explain the
working of photo voltaic cell.
10.Explain the principle of PV conversion [6m]

Write a short notes on

• Solar constant
• Direct radiation
• Diffused radiation
• Extra-terrestrial radiation
• Solar radiation at the earth surface
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
1. What is the difference between biomass and biogas? [4m][4m][6m][3m]
2. Explain the factors affecting biogas generation [6m][4m][10m][4m]
3. Give the list of the materials used for biogas generation [5m]
4. Explain the working principle of biogas production from the organic waste
[10m][10m]
5. Explain the principle of operation of a KVIC biogas digester with a neat sketch
[10m][10m][12m]
6. What is meant by anerobic digestion ? [4m]
7. what are the factors which affect biodigestion explain any two in brief [6m]
8. What is gasifier ? How are gasifiers classified ? with a schematic diagram explain the
working of downdraft gasifier,[or any one of the gasifeirs ][10m][10m]
[10m][10m][10m][10m][8m]
9. With a neat sketch explain the working of Updraft gasifier. Mention the temperature
ranges [7m]
10.Sketch and explain indian Type bio-gas plant [10m][8m]
11.Clearly describe the production of oxygen from the photo synthesis process [6m]
12.With a neat sketch explain the working of Fluidized Bed gasifier [6m]

Write a short notes on

· pyrolysis [3m]
· gasifiers [6m]
· anerobic fermentation[4m][3m][5m][3m]
· photosysthesis [4m][3m][5m][3m][4m]
· energy plantation[5m][5m][4m][5m]
· effect of temperature on biogas generation[5m]
· biogas plant [5m]
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
FUNDAMENTALS SOLAR RADIATION
Sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of fusion
reactions. It’s diameter is 1.39X106km, while that of the earth is 1.27X104 km. It subtends an
angle of 32 minutes at the earth’ surface. This is because it is also at large distance. Thus the
beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel.

“The surface of the earth receives about 1014 kW of solar energy from the sun. One square meter
of the land exposed to direct sun-light receives an energy equivalent of about 1 kW of power”

SOLAR CONSTANT

“It is the rate at which energy is received from the sun on a unit area perpendicular to the ray’s
of the sun , at the mean distance of the earth from the sun”.

Its standard value is 1367 W/m2

The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit having a very small eccentricity and the
sun at the foci. Consequently, the distance between earth and sun varies a little through the year.
Because of this variation, the extra-terrestrial flux also varies. The value on any day can be
calculated from the equation

𝐼 360(𝑛 − 2)
= 1 + 0.033 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝐼𝑠𝑐 365

360(𝑛)
~1 + 0.033 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
365

Where n is the day of the year

 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy

SOLAR RADIATION RECEIVED AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface is in the attenuated form because it is subjected to
the mechanisms of absorption and scattering as it passes through the earth’s atmosphere

Absorption occurs primarily because of the presence of ozone and water vapour in the atmosphere
and lesser extent due to other gases( like CO2, NO2, CO,O2 and CH4) and particulate matter. It
results in an increase in the internal energy of the atmosphere. On the other hand, scattering
occurs due to all gaseous molecules as well as particulate matter in the atmosphere. The scattered
radiation is redistributed in all directions, some going back to the
space and some reaching the earth’s surface.

“Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface without change of direction i.e, in line with
the sun is called direct radiation or beam radiation”

“The radiation received at the earth’s surface from all parts of sky’s hemisphere (after
being subjected to scattering in the atmosphere) is called diffuse radiation”

“The sum of beam radiation and diffuse radiation is called as total or global radiation.”
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION DATA
Measurement of solar radiation are important because of the increasing number of solar heating
and cooling applications , and the need for accurate solar irradiation data to predict performance
experimental determination of the energy transferred to the surface by solar radiation required
instruments which will measure the heating effect of direct solar radiation and diffuse solar
radiation. Measurements are also made of beam radiation, which respond to solar radiation
received from a very small portion of the curcum solar sky. A total radiation type of instrument
may be used for measuring diffuse radiation alone by shading the sensing element from the suns
direct rays

Two basic types of instruments are employed for solar radiation measurements

[1] a Pyrheliometer, which collimated the radiation to determine the beam intensity as a function
of incident angle and

[2] a Pyronameter, which measures the total hemispherical solar radiation called the solar
constant.

PHRHELIOMETER

A pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures beam radiation. In contrast to a pyranometer,

the sensor disc is located at the base a tube whose axis is aligned with the direction of the suns
rays. Thus diffuse radiation as esssentually blocked fro the sensor surface

Most pyreheliometer used for routine measurements operate on the thermopile effect and are
similar to pyronanometer in this respect . they differ in that mechanically they must follow the sun
to measure only direct sunlight and avoid the diffuse component. In practice direct solar radiation
is measured by attaching the instrument to an electrically driven equatorial mount for tracking the
sun. the diffuse component is avoided by installing a collimator tube over the sensor with a circular
cone angel of about 5˚
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
PYRANOMETER

A pyranometer is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation falling on a

horizontal surface over a hemispherical field of view. sketch of one type of pyranometer as installed
for measuring global radiation is shown in the following figure

Pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. It’s
temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals the rate of heat loss by
convection, conduction and radiation. The hot junctions of thermopile are attached to the black
surface, while the cold junctions are located under a guard plate so that they do not receive the
radiation directly. As a result an emf is generated. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 t0
10mv can be read, recorded or integrated over a period of time and is a measure of global
radiation.

The pyranometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation. This is done by mounting
it at the center of a semicircular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in such a way that it’s
plane is parallel to the plane of path of sun’s daily movement across the sky and it shades the
thermopile element and two glass domes of pyranometer at all the times from direct sun shine.
Consequently the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from the sky.
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
SOLAR COLLECTORS

Solar collectors are the devices used to collect solar radiation.

Generally there are two types of solar collectors. They are

1) Non-conventional type or Flat plate collector and

2) Concentrating or focusing collector.

In a non-concentrating type the area of the absorber is equals the area of the collector and since
the radiation is not focused, the maximum temp achieved in this type is about 100° C. on the
other hand in a concentrating type the area of the absorber is very small (50-100 times) as
compared to the collector area. This results in less loss of heat and also since the radiation is
focused to a point or a line the maximum temp achieved is about 350°C.

In a flat plate collector the absorber plate which is a black metal plate absorbs the radiation
incident through the glass covers. The temp of the absorber plate increases and it begins to emit
radiation of longer wavelength (IR). This long wavelength radiation is blocked from the glass
covers which act like the Co2 layer in the atmosphere. This repeated reflection of radiation between
the covers and the absorber plate results in the rise of the temp of the absorber plate.

FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

The schematic diagram of a FPC is as shown in fig. it consists of a casing either made up of
wood or plastic having an area of about 2m*1m*15cm. I the casing insulator is provided at the
bottom to check conductive heat transfer. Mineral wool, glass wool, fibre glass, asbestos thermocol
etc. are used as insulator. Above the insulator the absorber plate is fixed. The absorber plate is
made of good conducting material like aluminum or copper. It is coated black to increase its
absorption property. Usually the black coating is done by chemical treatment. Selective coatings
which allow for maximum absorption of radiation and minimum amount of emission are applied
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
on to the absorber plate. The underside of the plate consists of absorber tubes which run along
the length of the plate. These plates are also made of the same material as that of the absorber
plate. Sometimes the plate itself is bent into the form of tubes. Through these tubes the heat
absorbing medium (water) is circulated. This medium will absorb the heat from the plates and the
tubes and its temp increases. This medium will absorb the heat from the plates and the tubes and
its temp increases. This way solar energy is collected as heat energy. Above the absorber plate
glass covers are provided. These glass covers help to bring out the greenhouse effect, thus
increasing the η of the collector. More than one cover is used to prevent the loss of radiation by
refraction.

Parameters affecting the performance of the FPC:

1) Selective coating
2) No. of covers
3) Spacing between the covers
4) Tilt of the collector
5) Incident radiation
6) Inlet fluid temperature
7) Dust collection on the cover plate

EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTORS (ETC)

 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy

Evacuated tube collectors are a way in which heat loss to the environment, inherent in flat-plates,
has been reduced. Since heat loss due to convection cannot cross a vacuum, it forms an efficient
isolation mechanism to keep heat inside the collector pipes. Since two flat sheets of glass are
normally not strong enough to withstand a vacuum, the vacuum is rather created between two
concentric tubes. Typically, the water piping in an ETC is therefore surrounded by two concentric
tubes of glass with a vacuum in between that admits heat from the sun (to heat the pipe) but
which limits heat loss back to the environment. The inner tube is coated with a thermal absorbent.
Life of the vacuum varies from collector to collector, anywhere from 5 years to 15 years. Flat-plate
collectors are generally more efficient than ETC in full sunshine conditions. However, the energy
output of flat-plate collectors is reduced slightly more than evacuated tube collectors in cloudy or
extremely cold conditions. Most ETCs are made out of annealed glass, which is susceptible to hail,
breaking in roughly golf ball-sized hail. ETCs made from ‘coke glass’, which has a green tint, are
stronger and less likely to lose their vacuum, but efficiency is slightly reduced due to reduced
transparency.

SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
These are the solar collectors where the radiation is focused either to a point (focal point of the
collector) or along a line (focal axis of the collector). Since the radiation is focused, the η of
concentrating collector is always greater than that of non-focusing or FPC.

This is because of the following reasons,

1) In case of focusing collector the area of the absorber is many times smaller than that of the
area of the collector. Where as in a non-concentrating type the area of the absorber equals area
of the collector. Hence here the loss of absorbed radiation is more compared to the concentrating
type.

2) In a concentrating collector since the radiation is focused, its intensity is always greater than
that in the non-focusing type. Because of these reasons the concentrating collectors are always
used for high temp applications like power generation and industrial process heating
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy

SOLAR POND TECHNOLOGY

• A salinity gradient solar pond is an integral collection and storage device of solar energy.
• By virtue of having built-in thermal energy storage, it can be used irrespective of time and
season.
• In an ordinary pond or lake, when the sun's rays heat up the water this heated water, being
lighter, rises to the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere.
• The net result is that the pond water remains at nearly atmospheric temperature.
• The solar pond technology inhibits this phenomena by dissolving salt into the bottom layer of
this pond, making it too heavy to rise to the surface, even when hot.
• The salt concentration increases with depth, thereby forming a salinity gradient.
• The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond remains entrapped there.
• The useful thermal energy is then withdrawn from the solar pond in the form of hot brine.
• The pre-requisites for establishing solar ponds are: a large tract of land (it could be barren), a
lot of sun shine, and cheaply available salt (such as Sodium Chloride) or bittern.
• Generally, there are three main layers. The top layer is cold and has relatively little salt
content.
• The bottom layer is hot -- up to 100°C (212°F) -- and is very salty.
• Separating these two layers is the important gradient zone.
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
What is a solar cell?

• Solid state device that converts incident solar energy directly into electrical energy

Advantages:

1. Efficiencies from a few percent up to 20-30%

2. No moving parts

3. No noise

4. Lifetimes of 20-30 years or more

How Does It Work?

• The junction of dissimilar materials (n and p type silicon) creates a voltage

• Energy from sunlight knocks out electrons, creating a electron and a hole in the junction

• Connecting both sides to an external circuit causes current to flow

• In essence, sunlight on a solar cell creates a small battery with voltages typically 0.5 v. DC
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL:
Solar energy can be directly converted to electrical energy by means of photovoltaic effect.
“Photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force (EMF) as a result of
the absorption of ionizing radiation.”
“Devices which convert sunlight to electricity are known as solar cells or photovoltaic cells”.
Solar cells are semiconductors, commonly used are barrier type iron-selenium cells.
• Iron-selenium cells consist of a metal electrode on which a layer of selenium is deposited.
• On the top of this a barrier layer is formed which is coated with a very thin layer of gold.
• The layer of gold serves as a translucent electrode through which light can impinge on the
layer below.
• Under the influence of sunlight, a negative charge will build up on the gold electrode and a
positive charge on the bottom electrode.
• This difference in charge will produce voltage in proportion to the suns radiant energy
incident on it.
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
Basic photovoltaic system for power generation

This system consists of the following:

1. Solar array (solar cells)

2. Blocking diode
3. Battery storage
4. Inverter
5. Switches and load center
• In the solar cell array due to photovoltaic effect electrical power (D.C.) will be produced in
proportion to the suns radiant energy incident on it.
• This generated power will be stored in the battery storage.
• A blocking diode ensures that the battery would not discharge power back to solar array
during the period when there is no sunlight.
• An inverter converter converts the D.C power to A.C. and sends it to the load center.
• From the load center A.C. power is distributed accordingly with the help of switches.
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy

CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION

The characteristics of the photovoltaic cell will be evaluated from the following parameters

i) Irradiance (sunlight intensity or power), in Watts per square meter falling on a

flat surface. The measurement standard is 1 kW per sq. m. (1,000 Watts/m2)
ii) Air Mass refers to “thickness” and clarity of the air through which the sunlight
passes to reach the modules (sun angle affects this value). The standard is 1.5.
iii) Cell temperature , which will differ from ambient air temperature. STC defines
cell testing temperature as 25 degrees C.

The classification of the photovoltaic cells can be done as fallows

 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy

SOLAR CELL: MODULE, PANEL AND ARRAY CONSTRUCTION

The basic element of a PV System is the photovoltaic (PV) cell, also called a Solar Cell. An example
of a PV / Solar Cell made of Mono-crystalline Silicon is shown in Fig. 3 below. This single PV / Solar
Cell is like a square but with its four corners missing (it is made this way!).
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy

To increase their utility, a number of individual PV cells are interconnected together in a sealed,
weatherproof package called a Panel (Module). For example, a 12 V Panel (Module) will have 36
cells connected in series and a 24 V Panel (Module) will have 72 PV Cells connected in series

To achieve the desired voltage and current, Modules are wired in series and parallel into what is
called a PV Array. The flexibility of the modular PV system allows designers to create solar power
systems that can meet a wide variety of electrical needs. Fig. 5 shows PV cell, Panel (Module) and
Array
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
Photosynthesis and oxygen production:

Photosynthesis is the process in which radiant solar energy of sun is absorbed by the
green pigment chlorophyll in the plant and is stored within the plant in the form of energy
rich compounds like sugars and starches. So we can harvest and burn such plants to burn
to produce steam in a similar manner as in thermal power stations ultimate to produce
electric power. Such an energy plantation would be a renewable resource and an
economical means of harnessing solar energy. How ever photosynthesis concept is less
attractive as the average efficiency of solar energy conversion in plants is about 1%
compared to 10% for photovoltaic cells. In photosynthesis reaction , water and CO2
molecules broken down and a carbohydrate is formed with the release of pure oxygen with
the absorption of sunlight by the chlorophyll in plants. The process can be expressed as

CO2 + H2O + Light + Chlorophyll (H2CO)6 + O2 + Chlorophyll

Or 6CO2 + 12H2O C6 H12 O6+ 6H2O + 6O2

The chlorophyll activated by the absorption of sun light and passes its energy on to the
water molecules. The hydrogen atom is then released and reacts with the carbon dioxide
molecule to produce H2CO and oxygen. H2CO is the basic molecule in the formation of
carbohydrate. The necessary conditions for photo synthesis are

1) Light : Only a part of the solar radiation (40 -45%) of 400 700 Ao wave
length is used in photosynthesis. This range of light is called photo synthetically
active radiation (PAR) .
2) CO2 concentration: Carbon dioxide is the primary raw material for photo
synthesis. It is observed that if CO2 concentration is increased , increase in the yield
of several crops , upto a certain limit.
3) Temperature: Photosynthesis is restricted to the temperature range which
can be tolerated by the proteins i.e. 0oC to 60oC .

The process of photosynthesis has two main steps:

1) Spliting of H2O molecule into H2 and O2 under the influence of chlorophyll and
sunlight. This phase reaction is called light reaction. O2 escapes and H2 is
transformed in to unknown compounds.
2) In the second phase , hydrogen is transformed from this unknown compound to
CO2 to form starch or sugar. Formation of starch or sugar are dark reaction not
requiring sunlight.

Energy plantation:
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
Energy plantation is the method of tapping maximum solar energy by growing plants.
Photosynthesis occurring in naturally , stores more than ten times much energy annually ,
in plant farm than is consumed by all mankind. But very little of this energy is tapped. Fuel
wood accounts for about 60% of all energy consumed in the country . Social forestry
programme comprises the schemes a) Mixed plantation on waste lands, and b)
Reforestration of degraded forests. Jojaba evergreen shrub around 1.7 m height grows wild
in the semi-arid region of USA . Its seeds contain about 50 to 80% of oil and its plantation
in USA . The tree species namely Acacia, Tortila, Albizzia , Lebbak, Prasois, Juliflora and
likewise have been identified adaptable to the hot – arid regions in our country. The plant
namely Erythrina and Leocaena which are known to be fast growing plants are proposed
for the subtropical regions . Ethyl alcohol , the most promising compound, for mixing with
gasoline, can be easily prepared from starch and carbohydrates available from plants on
other sources of bio- mass. Sycamore is a promising tree that yield up to 16 ton / acre per
year . All of it is used except the foliage, which contains nutrients and is returned to the
soil. A harvesting sycamore produces a number of sprouts that are themselves ready for
harvesting in 2 to 3 years.

Up to 1990-91 over 14 lakh family size bio gas plants have been set up in the country by
DNES only. Its annual production of 1100 million cubic meters of gas equivalent to 38.18
lakh fuel wood is saved . The benefits to society from the biogas plants already in excess
of Rs 300 corers per year. Under programme on improved chulhas (NPIC) 42 lakh tones
of wood saved . The value of this is equivalent to 168 corers per year. The DNES taken up
projects worth 5 MW aggregate capacity split into mechanical and electrical application
systems through gasifiers/ stirling engines working on biomass at various locations in the
country. Under the biomass programme energy plantation projects have been taken up
with a view to fulfill the needs of fuel , fodder , and power generation together with good
potential for rural employment. Very encouraging results have been obtained in the
production of fast growing species of biomass in the arid areas.

Bio gas production from organic wastes by anaerobic

fermentation

Bio gas is the mixture containing 55-65 % of methane, 30 -40 % of carbon dioxide and
the rest being the impurities. Bio gas can produced from anaerobic decomposition of plant
and human waste. Its calorific value is between 20935 KJ/Kg to 23028 KJ/ kg or 38131 KJ
/ m3 . Bio gas is produced by digestion, pyrolysis or hydrogasification. Digestion is a
biological process that occurs in the absence of oxygen and in the presence of anaerobic
organisms at ambient pressures and temperatures of 35 – 70oC. The container in which
this digestion takes place is known as the digester. Bio gas is generated through
fermentation or bio digestion of various wastes by a variety of anaerobic and facultative
organisms. Anaerobic fermentation produces CO2, CH4, H2 and traces of other gases along
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
with a decomposed mass. In bio gas plant the main function is to generate methane and
hence anaerobic digestion is used. Here complex organic molecule is broken down to sugar
, alcohols, pesticides and amino acids by acid producing bacteria. These products are then
used to produce methane by another category of bacteria. The anaerobic digestion or
fermentation consists of three phases.

1) Enzymatic hydrolysis: Where fats, starches and proteins contained in cellulosic

biomass are broken down into simple compounds.

2) Acid formation : Where the micro organisms of facultative and anaerobic group
collectively called as acid farmers, hydrolyse and ferment used to break simple compounds
in to acids and volatile solids. The initial acid phase of digestion may last about two weeks
and during this period a large amount of carbon dioxide is given off.

3) Methane formation: Where organic acids formed above are then converted into
methane and carbon dioxide by the anaerobic bacteria called methane fermentors. For the
efficient fermentation these acid farmers and methane fermentors must remain in a state
of dynamic equilibrium. The methane forming bacteria are sensitive to pH ,and conditions
should be mildly acidic (pH 6.6 to 7.0)

The general equation for anaerobic digestion is

CxHyOz + [ x – y/4 – z /2] H2O [ x/2 – y/8 + z/4 ] CO2 + x/2 +y/8 –
z/4] CH4

Foe cellulose this becomes

(C6H10O5)n + n H2O 3n Co2 + 3n CH4

Some organic material (lignin) and all inorganic inclusions do not digest. The reaction is
exothermic. Gas yield is about 0.2 to 0.4 m3 per kg dry digestible input at STP .

Advantages of anaerobic digestion:

1) The bio gas generated is having appreciable value of calorific value and can therefore
, be used as an energy source to produce steam or hot water.

2) It produces smaller quantity of excess sludge.

3) The running cost are very less compared to aerobic conversion.

4) Since the system is enclosed the odours are contained.

 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
5) A well adopted anaerobic sludge can be presented unfed for a considerable period of
time without appreciable deterioration.

6) It reduces the number of pathogens produced, so reducing subsequent disposal

problems.

7) The sludge produced has higher nitrogen content giving it increasing value as a
fertilizer.

8) The nutrient requirement is low.

Floating drum biogas plant: (KVIC)

It mainly consists of two parts 1) Digester or pit 2) The gas holder or the gas collector.

Digester:

Digester is also called fermentation plant, it is a sort of well of masonry work, dug and built
below the ground level. The depth of this well varies from 3.5 m to 6 meters, and diameter
from 1.35 m to 6m , depending on the gas generating capacity and the quantity of raw
material fed for each day. The digester well is divided in to two semi cylindrical
compartments by means of partition wall . The level of the partition wall is lower than the
level of the digester rim .Two slanting cement pipes reach the bottom of the well on either
side of the partition wall. One pipe serves as the inlet and the other as outlet. An inlet
chamber near the digester at the surface level serves for mixing dung and water which is
done mechanical or manually. The mixture of dung and water in the proportions of 4:5 by
volume, called slurry, flows down the inlet pipe to the bottom of the primary compartment
of the digester. The digester is designed to hold the 60 days raw material. The outlet
chamber is again at surface level, just a few cms below the level of the inlet chamber. If
both compartments of the digester are full and more slurry is added from the inlet, then
equivalent amount of fermented slurry flows out of the outlet and discharged in to the
composite pit.

Gas holder : It is a drum constructed of mild steel sheets, cylindrical in shape with a conical
top and radial supports at the bottom. It sinks into the slurry due to its own weight and
rests upon the ring constructed for this purpose . As the gas is generated the holder rises
and floats freely on the surface of the slurry. As the pipe is provided at the top of the holder
for flow of the gas for usage. To prevent the holder from tilting a central guide pipe is
fitted to the frame and is fixed at the bottom in the masonry work . The holder is capable
of holding pressure equivalent upto 9 cms of water column. The holder also acts as the
seal for the gas .
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
The construction of this plant is very simple and the gas comes out with constant pressure.
The only maintenance required is the painting of the gas collector at regular intervals

Advantages:

1) It has less scum trouble.

2) No separate pressure equalizing devices are required.

3) In it the danger of mixing oxygen with the gas to form an explosive mixture is minimized.

4) Higher gas production per cum of the digester volume is achieved..

5) No problem of gas leakage.

6) Constant gas pressure.

Disadvantage:

1) It has higher cost , as cost is dependent steel and cement.

2) It has poor insulation aginst heat and hence it troubles in colder regions and periods.

3) Gas holder requires painting once or twice in a year .

4) The overall maintenance cost of the plant is more compared to fixed dome type

Dome type – Janata Model Biogas Plant Construction

 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy

The design of this plant is of Chinese origin but it has been introduced under the name
“Janata biogas plant” by Gobar Gas Research Station, Ajitmal in view of its reduced cost.
This is a plant where no steel is used, there is no moving part in it and maintenance cost is
low. The plant can be constructed by village mason taking some pre-explained precautions
and using all the indigenously available building materials. Good quality of bricks and
cement should be used to avoid the afterward structural problems like cracking of the dome
and leakage of gas. This model have a higher capacity when compared with KVIC model,
hence it can be used as a community biogas plant. This design has longer life than KVIC
models. Substrates other than cattle dung such as municipal waste and plant residues can
also be used in janata type plants. The plant consists of an underground well sort of digester
made of bricks and cement having a dome shaped roof which remains below the ground
level is shown in figure. At almost middle of the digester, there are two rectangular openings
facing each other and coming up to a little above the ground level, act as an inlet and outlet
of the plant. Dome shaped roof is fitted with a pipe at its top which is the gas outlet of the
plant. The principle of gas production is same as that of KVIC model. The biogas is collected
in the restricted space of the fixed dome, hence the pressure of gas is much higher, which
is around 90 cm of water column.

Advantages:

1) It has low cost compared to floating drum type.

 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
2) It has no corrosion problem.
3) The plant is well insulated against the heat and hence constant temperature
can be maintained.
4) Almost all bio mass can be fed.
5) No maintenance.

Disadvantages:

1) This plant construction requires skilled masons.

2) Gas production per cum of the digester volume is less.
3) Scum formation is problem as no stirring arrangement.
4) It has variable gas pressure.

Deenbandhu biogas plant :

Deenbandhu model was developed in 1984, by Action for Food Production (AFPRO), a
voluntary organization based in New Delhi. Schematic diagram of a Deenabandhu biogas
plantentire biogas programme of India as it reduced the cost of the plant half of that of
KVIC model and brought biogas technology within the reach of even the poorer sections of
the population. The cost reduction has been achieved by minimizing the surface area
through joining the segments of two spheres of different diameters at their bases. The cost
of a Deenbandhu plant having a capacity of 2 m3/day is about Rs.8000-00. The Deenbandhu
biogas plant has a hemispherical fixed-dome type of gas holder, unlike the floating dome of
of the KVIC-design is shown. The dome is made from pre-fabricated ferrocement or
reinforced concrete and attached to the digester, which has a curved bottom. The slurry is
fed from a mixing tank through an inlet pipe connected to the digester. After fermentation,
the biogas collects in the space under the dome. It is taken out for use through a pipe
connected to the top of the dome, while the sludge, which is a by-product, comes out
 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
through an opening in the side of the digester. About 90 percent of the biogas plants in
India are of the Deenbandhu type.

Factors affecting biogas generation.

Factor # 1. Effect of Agitation on Biogas Yield:

Mixing greatly helps to ensure intimate contact between micro-organisms which leads to
improved fermentation efficiency. Mixing can be carried out in a number of ways.For
instance, if slurry is fed every day instead of feeding periodically at a certain interval, it
causes more frequent contact between micro-organisms thus giving desired mixing effect.
It can also be achieved by carrying out certain alterations in inlet and outlet pipes of a plant.

Factor # 2. Effect of pH of Digester Contents on Biogas Yield:

Biogas production is greatly influenced by pH of digester contents. It is essentially a

measure of acidity and alkalinity of a solution. A pH value of 7 is regarded as neutral, less
than 7 as acidic and greater than 7 as alkaline.

During anaerobic fermentation, micro-organisms require, a neutral or mildly alkaline

environment for efficient gas production. A too acidic or too alkaline environ-ment is viewed
as detrimental for bacterial activity. A pH between 7 and 8.5 is optimum range for increased
gas yield.

The pH of digester contents is mainly affected by the amount of carbon dioxide and volatile
fatty acids produced in digester as intermediate products during fermentation.

Factor # 3. Effect of C: N Ratio on Biogas Production:

For efficient plant operation it is necessary to maintain proper composition of feedstock so

that ratio of carbon to nitrogen in feed remains within the desired range. Both carbon and
nitrogen provide requisite nutrients for efficient functioning of anaerobic bacteria. Carbon
provides necessary energy to micro-organisms for their sustenance whereas nitrogen helps
in building their cell structures.

Factor # 4. Effect of Loading Rate on Biogas Yield:

Loading rate normally expressed as amount of waste materials fed per unit volume of
digester capacity is an important parameter that affects gas yield. Gas output is commonly
expressed as m3 of gas produced per kg of volatile solids destroyed. A number of studies
have been carried out to analyse the impact of varying loading rate on gas yield

Factor # 5. Effect of Salinity on Biogas Yield:

 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy
B.J. Mehta, et al., studied the effect of salinity on biogas yield which was found, to have
negative impact on gas output. Tap water, brackish water (1 per cent sulphur) and sea
water (3.5 per cent sulphur) were used for the preparation of cowdung slurry. Biogas output
was found to be inversely related to the salinity of cow manure slurries prepared with tap
water, brackish water and seawater. Addition of sea mud was found to have no significant
impact on biogas yield from saline slurries.

Factor # 6. Effect of Inhibitory Factors and Materials Affecting Microbial Activity:

There are several factors and class of materials which act as inhibitor to bacterial activity
during anaerobic fermentation. When these chemicals and factors reach certain level,
bacterial activity almost stops thereby severely affecting gas yield. For example, when
volatile acid concentration reaches a value of 200 ppm, or ammoniacal nitrogen
concentration exceeds a value of 1500 ppm, microbial activity is greatly retarded.

Thermal gasification of biomass

Biomass gasification is a process of converting solid biomass fuel into a gaseous combustible
gas (called producer gas) through a sequence of thermo-chemical reactions. The gas is a
low-heating value fuel, with a calorific value between 1000- 1200 kcal/Nm3 (kilo calorie per
normal cubic metre). Almost 2.5-3.0 Nm3 of gas can be obtained through gasification of
about 1 kg of air-dried biomass. Since the 1980's the research in biomass gasification has
significantly increased in developing countries, as they aim to achieve energy security.
TERI independently began research work in gasifier technology in the mid-1980s. Since,
the gasifier technology has been customized for a range of direct-heat application and tested
successfully in the field. Silk processing, large-cardamom drying and gasifier-based
crematoria are a few examples of the applications worked on at TERI. This technology is
slowly replacing both traditional biomass use and gas-powered systems, as it provides an
excellent de-centralized source of energy at an affordable cost. Apart from rural households,
biomass fuels are the main source of energy to a large number of small, rural and cottage
industries.
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Module 2 : Solar Energy and Biomass energy