FLOW ASSURANCE &

SAND/WATER MANAGEMENT

Hybrid elastomers deliver

the best of both worlds
Advonces in swelloble elostomer pocker systems ore enhoncing long-term
well performonce of reduced costs for operotors by delivering greoter flexibility
in welldesign ond more relioble isolotion results.

providitg reliable, long-term isolation. Hybrid elastomer :

eliminate the uncertarnLy of fluid type and also address
the issue of absorption rates that vary dependirg on the
I ntroduced to the market in the early 2000s, swellable type of fluid present and temperature.
I elastomer packers are one-trip self-setting sealing prod- Designed for use with a variety of packer systems,
ucts used to isolate annular spaces between tubulars and the hybrid elastomers allow swelling to occur in a con-
open hole or casing and address inflow control perform- trolled predictable fashion depending on well condi-
ance, includirg sand management. They are increasingly tions. The hybrid elastomers also ensure long-term
being deployed as an alternative to conventional cement- isolation because they continue to swell while making
ing, mechanical, and openhole packer technologies. contact with wellbore fluids even after initial swelling.
Swellable packers traditionally have been used with The hybrid design is advantageous for numerous appli-
single-fluid actlation elastomers that expand in either cations, includirg cases where an operator needs a packe r.
hydrocarbon-based or water-based fluids. Oil-based elas- to swell quickly or before a well begins production. Using
tomers, initially designed with a man-made EPDM poly- the hybrid elastomer, the process can be expedited with-
mer material that swells naturally in oil, operate in a out occurrirg too quickly. The packer is initially placed
diffusion-absorption process in which swell time and vol- in brine where it begins swelling ata relatively slow rate .

ume are determined by temperature and hydrocarbon \Arhen the well comes online with higher-temperature
composition. The swell rate is faster at higher tempera- oil, the swelling process accelerates at a rate much faster
tures and in lighter hydrocarbons as well as in lower-vis- than with a conventional oil-elastomer packer.
cosity fluids. Another application is in oil wells where a water-produc-
A water-swellable elastomer is a nitrile-based rubber irg zo:ne develops. Deploying a hybrid elastomer provides
crosslinked with a super-absorbent polymer that facilitates a cost-effective alternative to runnirg a long series of oi1-
swelling. The swell rate is faster at higher temperatures based and water-based packers. The hybrid elastomer alsc,
and lower salinities. addresses the temperature limitation of water-based elas-
tomers, which are not recommended for use in environ-
A flexible qllernqtive ments that exceed I25"C (257"F) .

Among the breakthrough technologies that have A similar process is used for dry gas wells,
emerged in recent years is the dual-fluid-activated where swelling occurs at a fast rate due to
swellable hybrid elastomer that can swell in hydrocar- [he low viscosity of the fluid and the
bons or water or a combination of both. higher temperatures. When a
The fit-for-purpose method cross-links the super- nonviscous fluid enters
absorbent polyrner into the EPDM elastomer, providing a the matrix too
homogeneous blend of rubber that can swell at different quickly,
rates dependirg on specific well conditions. Hybrid elas-
tomers swell faster at hieher temperatures and in lighter The Genesis
oils and lower salinities, and can swell up to three swellqble pocker
times their original volume in oil and / or water. provides cosl-effeclive
Weatherford's hybrid elastomer tech- one-lrip, self-setting isolqtion with
nology is a swellable elastomer that is no moving mechqnicql components,
i
responsive to both oil and water in liquid, (lmoges courlesy of Weqlherford lnlernotiono t)
wet 3zS, or multiphase environments,

60 Novernber 20ll I EPmag.corm.

 FLOW ASSURANCE &
SAND/WATER MANAGEMENT

tion fluid was brine, and isolation was

required prior to the well coming online.
After brine samples were tested, it
was determined that the swelling time
would exceed the operator's require-
. Hybrid elastomer capable of . Swelltirne and volume ments. Further testing revealed the
" D iffusi on' a bsorption pro ce ss
swelling in either hydrocarbon governed by temperature and
'swetltime and volume or water-based solutions water salinity hybrid elastomer would provide similar
gaverned by temperature and
irydroc rbon c omposition
a ' Swell speed customizable . \rVill swell in water vflpor results to water swellable elastomers
for activation fluid Swell speed customizablo in the brines. Because the packers
" \Vill swell in condensate (independ ent swell control)
'
and wet gas r Used a$ flreon.s of swelling
. Element is single piee e of would be in the reservoir section, they
' Swell speed customizable rubber {not sections} would be in contact with the in situ
hydrocarbons, which would allow the
oil swellable components of the elas-
Weolherford's swellqble elqslomer options qre formulqled lo meel specific swelling tomer to swell concurrently, achievitg
objectives ond wellbote compqlibility issues. a faster swell to meet the customer's
requrrements.
- rplosive decompression can
occur. To avoid that risk, Through further well evaluation and discussion with
.:)ackers equipped with hybrid elastomers are swelled in the client, it was decided the sand control completion
-lo. clrocarbon fluid before the well comes
online. would use a combination of hybrid swellable and water
swellable packers for the required zonal isolation. The
Eiliminoting uRcertointy completion was run successfully, and the well was brought
Srrrce the hybrid elastomer was introduced inJanuary online within the required timeframe. To date, produc-
''n{,)9, it has been used with packer systems globally for a tion has exceeded expectations.
-'t"r-ret\/ of isolation operations, includitg sand control.
In one case, a major operator encountered sand influx Pushing the lechnologY
:-ltro a gravel pack that was interfering with production in The hybrid elastomer also is used with the swellable
-, rnzture oil well producitg water and sand offshore Azer'
Micro-Seal isolation system (MSIS), a low-pressure
rixUan. Swellable packers were selected as the most reliable packer designed to prevent micro-annular fluid and
::*--rlationoption, providing the operator with a five-week pressure migration.
- -rrnaround that could pass
through flowcontrol profiles The seal provides micro-annulus conformity and seal-
-rncl seal in the screen without requiring a workover. The irg in spaces that form after cementing and against the
:enredial technology was deployed through narrow 4Vz-tn outer d,iameter of the casitg. Each MSIS seal is equipped
- asrng. The swellable packer also allowed the well to con- with a slow-swelling FI2W2 hybrid elastomer that does not
rnue producitg during the activation phase. respond to fluids in the well when the pipe is run or
Because there was no clear evidence indicating when the cement is curing.
,.'ltether the fluid concentration was water- or oil-based, The technology also has been incorporated into the
-
lere \vas uncertainty over which kind of elastomer to ComboPac Open Packer system, a new concept that pro-
-:se , The Genesis Annulus Swellable Packer
(ASP) , suited vides a combination of a conventional compression set
_ _,r both openhole and cased-hole wells, was deployed
element and a conforming swellable elastomer packer
-,lrh a hybrid elastomer, which was able to provide a seal that can be used in both water and oil swellable versions.
:eqardless of fluid type. The system is designed for a broad range of nonuniform,
The operation was executed within the desired time- openhole environments and has a lower pressure rating
:railre. The sand was completely shut off within 30 days, and smaller outer diameter that can be installed in a vari-
evident wiithin that
n evi
,-lilr decreases Iin sand production ety of hole deviations. The system is effective for open-
:eriod. The client plans to install the hybrid elastomer hole completions and isolating sand screen sections and
:Ieckers in more wells in the same field. Flybrid elastomers in long horizontal wells.
:l>o can be used alongside water- or oil-based elastomers. Since it was introduced nearly three years ago, the
-\ -Qjor operator in West Africa require d zonal isolation hybrid elastomer has been deployed on more than 200
-r conjunction with an expandable sand screen (ESS) conventional packer systems and 400 MSIS systems world-
.,nc1 control completion using swellable packers as the wide. It is applicable for all well and reservoir conditions,
-nosr cost-effective solution. The plan initially determined and its use is expected to be expanded to additional mar-
-lle use of water swellable elastomers because the comple- kets with today's increasingly complex wells.

EPrnag.conr. I Novernber 20lI

 FLOW ASSURANCE &
SAND/WATER MANAGEMENT

Pipe-in-pi e riser syste r €il s

overco e / callenes
lnnovqtive construction techniques provide superior performonce.

Why insulote risers qnd bends?

HP /HT fields are technically more complex to develop
because of the inherently higher energy in the well fluic
and its multiphase composition. Managing the extreme
pressure and operatitg temperature must be based on
T h" never-ending battle to extract more reserves from
I mature provinces such as the UK sector of the North criteria such as corrosion, maintaining structural
Sea has seen new precedents set for temperature and integrity, and thermal management.
pressure requirements in rigid riser systerns. One particular challenge is managing pipeline shut-
The need to transfer multiphase products increasingly down. I-ess expensive solutions for managing the insttla-
from HP /HT wells back to shore makes this challenge tion of bends, such as wet coatings, compromise overaltr
even more demanding. In a recent project, for example, shut-down times due to reduced thermal efficiency.
riser materials were exposed to extreme temperatures Flowever, solutions such as "self-draining" spools pres-
ranging from 180'C to -30'C (356'F to -22"F) in certain ent a significant design challenge that can be mitigated
well conditions. by the inclusion of pipe-in-pipe bend,s, enabling the same
Flistortcally, industry consensus maintained that thermal integrity to be maintained in the whole line.
pipe-in-pipe systems able to withstand environrnental -fata Steel previously implemented a solution for pipe-
challenges such as corrosion, structural integriqz, and in-pipe bends for a North Sea development. But new
thermal management would be too costly and complex insulation techniques have since been developed that
to apply to riser systems. Flowever, companies now work give far superior insulation propertres.
closely with supply partners to engineer, procure, and
construct innovative pipe-in-pipe assemblies as a cost- Risers, spools, ond bends
effective solution to flow assurance rssues. The main challenge with the construction of pipe-in-
Pipe-in-pipe bends, while challenging technologically, pipe bends is how to pass the inner flowline bend into
can lead to simplification of overall pipeline design and the outer casirg pipe. It is important that pipe bends
can give better pipeline performance in times of opera- have a straight portion on the end to enable efficient
tion and shutdown. welding to the next pipe section, and this can present
the insertion of one bend into the other.
It is imporlqnl thot piBe bends hqve q The second construction challenge is efficient insula-
--------------t slroight porlion on the end lo enqble effi- tion. Wrapping or sheathing is simply not practical dur-
cienl welding to lhe nexl section. This cqn irg this operation because the insulation would occup\
presenl the insertion of one bend inlo the annulus of the assembly and prevent integration.
onolher. (lmoges courlesy of Tqlq Sleel)
lnsulqtion
A system developed by Tata Steel overcomes these prob-
polymer sea! lerns by deploying granular Nanogel insulation into the
at each end -i
annulus of the pipe-in-pipe system.
lnsulation Nanogel is made by first forming a silica gel then
expelling the water from the sili ca rnatrix. The resulting
material is granular with trapped nanopores of air,
inhibitirg heat transfer by conduction, convection,
and radiation (with the inclusion of an opacifier).
The deployment of a novel polyrneric bulkhead, cast
directly into the annulus, provides a solid barrier to

62 Novernber 20ll I EPmag.com

 FLOW ASSURANCE &
SAND/WATER MANAGEMENT

: -lin insulation, allowing for the reiative movement of after bending also need to be maintained following heat
-; lu.lrer and outer bends. The polymer is a "syntactic" treatment. For the inner clad bends, a full body quench
,;:e rial, silicone rubber r'vith glass microspheres dis- and temper (QT) heat treatment is applied at the SMGB
-, Se d through the matrix rvith high strength, flexibility, bending mill to guarantee homogenized material prop-
, - -i thermal efficiency. The tangent ends of the inner erties for the bends, fulfilling mechanical and corrosion
--
-i outer bends are held rigidly, ensuring the assembly requrrements.
-cl'ances achieved at manufactttre are retained when
- - r-rnit is transferred to the rvelding contractor for HP I HT mqleriql properties for pipe-in-pipe
- - rrporation into the pipeline spool or riser. Additional material complexities also have to be over-
; rrr the insulation to be effectivelr, deployed, provid- come. Generally inHP / FIT lines, there are challenges
-. consistent thermal performance, the annular gap because of corrosion, low temperature toughness, and
- -,r-rghout the assembly must be r-rniform. In this strength. These parameters require careful material
:.ance , it is important that the rnanufacturing toler- selection to maintain the balance of properties from the
-.-,-eS of the pipe and bends are controlled closely. outset throush to bend production.

Steel pipe End bend mqnufqcture

- . ie ther with Tata Steel, Eisenbau Krimer (EBK)
, -,:1 the pipe bending plant of Salzgitter Mannesmann
.-',,bblech (SMGB) have developed a series of controls,
- :h-tding a process and measurement system, to ensure
bend dimensions are controlled closely and mating
:rlclS can be produced, matched. and paired so the
, -)st accurate assemblv is produced.
Xrl respect to the process-related thinning in the extra-
s of the hot induction bends, the wall thickness for
-c jnner and outer mother pipes was increased accord-
-:h. To match precisely, the mother pipes have been
-rnufactured with the same ID as the riser pipes.
EBK supplies Tata Steel with mother pipe, which has
rterial properties that allow formation through hot
-luction benditg. The main material challenges are
-llsure the mechanical properties are suitable after
- lcling. Therefore SMGB is taking responsibility for

-e chemical design of the prematerial. This also involves

-- consideration of a series of heat treatment and form- Two l6-in. clqd bends qte illuminqled in lhe quenching tonk
- j processes. Eisenbau Kramer uses
a multipass welding ofter quslenitizqtion qt q pipe bending mill.
- rcess and steel plate from premium mills in Europe.
The manufacturing process at EBK generates pipe Thermal stresses need to be managed as the loads are
- rite closest dimensional control through a series of shared between inner and outer pipe. In addition, insu-
lcl-forming and sizing operations such as external lation can lead to extreme temperature being retained
. -ibration. in the pipe materials duritg operation and shutdown
\t the SMGB pipe bending plant, these special mother that can form challenging conditions for conventional
res are bent by hot induction bending. Heat is applied steel products.
-: (llrgh electrical induction to the mother pipe materi- HP /HT well environments present some of the most
s. and the pipe is slowly formed, giving the correct challenging and technologically demanding conditions
-: llnetry. In most pipeline applications, the critical for field developments, not least because the properties
-rne nsions are the positions and attitudes of the end,s in each reserve present significant challenges in terms
- rhe bends (center-to-end dimension) maintaining of material selection and design.
- overall geometry of the pipeline. Tata Steel and its supply partners have expanded capa-
F{orvever, with pipe-in-pipe bends, it is important that bilities further with the design and creation of cost-effec-
-e bend radius is accurately controlled to ensure the tive insulated pipe-in-pipe bends for risers and spools -
-;, bends can be integrated. The precise dimensions once considered too difficult to accomplish.

IFrnag.com I Novenrber 20ll 63

 OPTIMIZAIICN

From surlqce to seqfloor

Operotors ore using 'subseo foctories'to move processing from topsides to
the seobed for greenfield ond brownfield proiects.

h" vision of "subsea factories" on seabeds around the

T
I rvorld is one that is slowly becomirg reality. Although
the jigsaw of competing technologies needed to give an
operator a field development toolbox it can work with is
complicated, it is now increasingly achievable.
The importance of having such options at their dis-
posal - whether for subsea separation, boosting, or com-
pression - clear\y is recognized by all the industry's
n4jor players.
The rewards can be dramatic when the business case At the recent OTC Brasil show in Rio deJaneiro, the
is right. It is generally accepted that boosted wet tree company stressed in a presentation that it sees subsea
der,elopments can deliver between 5% and 20% higher processing very much as an enabling technology for
recovery rates than dty tree developments, for example. both greenfield projects (mainly those in northern, Arc-
Statoil has made no secret of its goals for advancitg tic, and deepwater areas) and brownfield developments
sr,rbsea processing technologies to improve recovery that lrr..'y otherwise be abandoned without being
tr om existing fields. On its Gullfaks South field, the exploited to the maximum. New technology develop-
company has worked with Framo Engineering since ment remains the k.y to openitig the door to innovative
l{l08 developing technology for compressing wet gas on ways of applying subsea processing.
,iire seabed. The field's current recovery rate is already Accordirg to Simon Davies, Statoil project leader for
62%, and the combination of subsea compression and subsea technology and operations, the vision of a "sub-
conventional low-pressure production in later phases sea factory" could drive the application of more sophis-
i: 'q cor-rld lift the total recovery rate to an outstanding 74%, ticated gas processing on the seabed (gas sweetening
accordirg to Statoil, which would increase production and gas dehydration). Longer and more remote step-
D) 106 Bcf (3 Bcm) of gas - an additional 6%. outs are driving interest in developing local, potentially
The standard industry solution has been to supply renewable power generation concepts, he added.
r-ornpression from a platform or onshore, but the closer Pumping and compression technology also will con-
: (lrnpression is placed to a well, the more gas can be tinue to evolve, Davies said, with more robust and sim-
=rtr acted. That's why companies like Statoil want
to place plified systems becomitg available that are capable of
-ire compressor on the seabed nearer to those wells. greater pressure boost while handling liquids without
the need for upstream scrubbing. Separation systems
I : ''ri!_: 1r' i: '
will become more sophisticated, and new materials -
including nanotechnology - also will have an increasing
role in tomorrow's systems.
As the industry finds and develops oil and gas reserves
in deeper, more rernote, and harsher environments, the
technological challenges, qualification requirements,
and technical risks of deplopng subsea processing will
increase, Davies said.
"However, the business upsides will also increase, and
there will almost certainly be areas where
subsea processing becomes an
igz-4 enabling technology, without
An orlisl's rendering of lhe Snorre, Vigdis, qnd Tordis field oper- which fields cannot be profitably
otions. (lmoge courtesy of Stoioil) developed," he concluded.

E.Pmnag.com I Novernber 201I 29

 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT

Managing sand through flow cont

in the modern completion
Operotors qre continuolly seorching for improved wqys of working smorter ond rnc';
efficiently while still enhoncing production.

greater reservoir penetrations and lorver Ci.,, . l

sures. This increased length and une\ren pI ri: t

along the well bore has resulted in an incrr.-:->:

A k"y question in the drive for enhanced production is control issues such as installation risk due ir,-, : I t''
f\ how best to control and. manage sand. Controlling and water influx due to reservoir heteroeen-i- --:
the flow of unconsolidated sand into the well is one of the
most critical challenges in a:ny sand face completion. The Conlrolling the sqnd
failure to address it correctly can have a significant impact The first step in any sand control applic?ir-,--
on productivitp well life, completion equipment life, and detailed exploration of the characterisuc-r r:, --
safety through the erosion of surface equipment as well as tion. There arevarious methods used to ie :.-
the environmental and financial impact of disposing of optimum sand control methods for each',.;o-' I ,

large quantities of sand. the formation sand grain size is essential t,-, -,--
selection, and laboratory technolos, is tr-.e*-i -. i'
lish the most suitable sand control metitoi
Traditional completion methods that zli*--,, :;,. "
reservoirs to be exploited often dramaticirnl"^ -:'
duction efficiency and are being replaced t-,', -: Ll

technologies that keep formation sand in pr*. - ,L

unduly restricting productivity.

Most options for completing sand-prone r-E:: '

physical restraint of sand misration. The-se r-- - '

o Resin injection, where a resin is injecte ,r. -: ilr r'"

mation to cement the sand grains irz ,\rri,,,

o Gravel pack, where a gravel slurrv in a *,.._- -r'
is pumped into the annular space ber,,n, r,': - ;
tzed sand screen and the open hole . crrJ; - r*
lar filter;
o Standalone screens, which are simple il---r.-,- , l, ,

suited for uniform formations, [picali.. , ]i

lnflow conlrol devices con be instqlled qs q stqndqlone oplion formity coefficient is calculated at less rlr-.'.- ri,

or in conjunction with q sqnd screen such qs lhe FloMqx Dulch o Inflow control device (ICD) screens. Cr:,,
Weqve sqnd conlrol screen. (lmoges courtesy of Tendeko) reduce or delay an influx of water br-rt -,,"-- -- ; i,

sand control benefits such as reducinE

'r . r,.l
In unconsolidated formations, high florv rates and draw- to near zero.
down pressures, pressure depletion. and \rater production
trigger sand production. Besides prematurelv killing r,r'ell Go with the flow
production, excessive sand production can cause erosion More recently, great emphasis has been pla; o " l

and the blockage of dolrrhole hardrr-are. irhich can dam- itg production by using ICDs in conjlurcn(: - - '
age or disable downhole and surface e quipnent. screen technologies. This Qpe of completic,,-- : i, r

Drilling technology has adr-anced to sr-rch ail e\tent drat been most prominent in the Middle East ar--,- ' i

horizontal and multilateral rvells are no\r the norlll. rrith br-rt is nou- gaining greater recognition elser,, r ;

z6 May 2012
 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT

Passive ICDs are used to enhance the performance of installing ICDs, a predetermined pressure dru- : ': 'rr"'

horizontal wells in unfavorable environments such as created between the reservoir and the cornpie:
nonuniform permeability and/ or pressure along horizon- This choking effect creates a back pressllre c'rl --- -
tal sections. The advent of passive ICD technology has dra- quality sections of the reservoir, allowing tighl-: *l: l

matically improved well productivity and wellbore cleanup, to contribute and even out the well's inflo\\-'DI- :- '
resulting in increased recovery and its associated benefits. will result in better coning control, therefore nl-., rr ,-

An ICD is deployed as a part of a well's completion to water breakthrough.

create an evenly distributed flow profile along a segmented AdCitionally, the FloCheck valve allott's for t'-' u '

producing zone. Each ICD placed along the zone creates a down capability without the need to deplor ar-- --
locahzed restriction to flow that is predetermined during string, the ability to set liner hanger/packers ''r-- l

the completion design. This restricted flow creates an addi- ical packers simultaneously against the valr-e- l- - lrr\

tional pressure drop, which balances the wellbore pressure control, and the ability to pressure-test the ttr-ll- ' -:-; *
drop. The resultant evenly distributed flow profile can out setting arry additional packers.
reduce water or gas coning and sand production and solve This has enabled ICD completions to be ils -;* '
other drawdovrn-relate d production problems. ing periods of high well losses without harinq ' I ' ' ;';;

Standalone ICDs canbe spaced throughout the comple- loss control material.
tion liner adjacent to the production or injection reservoir. The FloCheck valve also is a convergence 'i.,- l$'tti

They can be placed on everyjoint or run in combination basedonSeVeralimportantlessonslearnedi..-_-.

with btankjoints to provide the desired well compartmen- decade of ICD installations:
tahzatron and inflow profile. c DeploFng inner strings is sometimes lllcii- *- ' i,,

A well-designed ICD completion assisted by wellbore poor hole conditions;

hydraulic modeling calr promote production from the o Low bottomhole pressure can cause difi=e :o - :"'

entire length of the lateral and mitigate the effect of the irg due to inability to circulate;
severe pressure gradients, eliminate cross-flows existing in o Low bottomhole pressure can lead to mtir--:

openhole completions and, in certain cases, significant$ with inner strings to set mechanical pacli.:'
reduce rvater cut. o Inner strings take time to run and Call itrlo:l =.,, *'

ICD technology comes in a variety of modes: fixed, and stiffness; and

adjustable, and with shut-off capabilities in conjunction o Fluid loss during running of upper comT-'i-

with sliding sleeve technology. cult and cost$ to control.

-
Tendeka's ICDs can be installed as a standalone option The valve allows for circulation to the bott*-:-- l',ll

or in conjunction with a sandscreen in a FloRight ICD. By an inner string, permits the setting of mecirat--- -," ,, I

without an inner string, enables the spottinE - - - ' ,,';

and spacers prior to pulli^g out, and proriCe: -- -

control while running upper completion.

When used with ICD technology, FloCheci" -- 'n'-
the nozzIe, thus preventing arry fluid loss i'-1u1" -- ,. Iri
hole. Once production is initiated, the ball nt": -

off seat and the cage is shortly eroded on flt-rr,' :.*

both production and injection.
The company's ICDs achieve an even, cc)lls-!:: I

of fluid along each interval throughout the c --- -I l lll

string, improving performance, efficiencr-. ar- i : ' ,,

tion. Combined with a sand screen in an tDlt - l--r

reservoir, the reservoir fluid passes from the : - :- , li

through the screen and into the flow chaml-n": ' ' r.
is regulated by the ICD orifice. Along uith um-':"-
pressure drops in the production zo:ne are F;;.'l- r' ,

ing a more efficient completion.

Tendekq's FloCheck vqlve qllows for circulqtion to the boftom with-
oul qn inner slring. Once production is initiqted, fh€ bolt simply World firsl in Gulf of Mexico
comes otf-seql. Tendeka recentV d.ployed the world's first s[-r: -

78 May 20Lz
 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT

in a sandstone reservoir in the Gulf of Mexico company in the Middle East to manage water rn an open-
hole multilateral horizontal oil-producing well. That project
5r\-erely
-1 --/ depleted
---I- reservoir with difficult was another world first in that it allowed the deployrnent of
hu*r'' : nditions, the well was planned as a reentry out
- passive inflow control devices to manage inflow from two
":ner
,l**-1l- rvith a 4Yt-tn openhole, which negated the lateral wells connected to the mother bore.
:*i'entional technologies. Offset wells with sand The carbonate well had reache d 50% water cul Limited
i :-lrltliprnent installed experienced very high com- success was achieved with plugging it back to minimize
l:t .o--n and used a variety of high-rate water packs, water production, so it was decided to carry out a workover
and expandable screens.
llti-,r-." and install the ICDs to passively control inflow from the
. txpan\,'s solution was to provide inflow control laterals, uniformly produce from the mother bore, and
: ,:rJ sl ellable packers, which were installed in a 4]/a- reduce the potential for cross-flow between the laterals.
l*:- -'l'e section of the well. Coarse metal mesh sand Fourteen Tendeka FloMatik passive ICDs and six
utrs (T e Lrsed to minimize the plugging of sand and swellable packers were installed to compartmentalize the
-nn

un -:rrq rrell flowback, and the swellable packers were reservoir, and numerous wellbore hydraulic simulation
luirr*- n=leerre design, which were simple to deploy and runs were undertaken to match flow and pressure profiles.
i, -:rsrall. The new FloRight2%-rn ultra slim hole The project saw the ICDs create proportionate inflow
-*::ri s\stem was used across the 170-rn (560-ft) zone along the well and passively control influx from the later-
rtrr,--r of rnore than 4,000 m (13,125 ft). als with no cross-flow or packer leaks. A rate of 4,100 b/ d
- - D rtechnology used was based on a recent success- of oil with }Vo water cut was achieved, compared to 1,500
-,penhole reentry completion deployed by the b/ d before the workover.

:{om I May 2Ol2

il

r
 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT

WEA technique saves time, money

A new multispecies effluent test encomposses the ronge of responses
obtoined from higher order tests.

tests, MARA and LumiMARA, are based 6n d1c r-:',: I

microbial species to assess toxicity, and work to ai.;. . - ,,r,

cates that results obtained from these tests encLilTt-:;- -

range of responses obtained from more costlr al-- - - lr '-
Th. OSPAR Commission, the mechanism by which 15
I governments of the western coasts and catchments of consumirg higher order tests.
Europe cooperate to protect the marine environment of The company was formed 30 years ago to mzulaa: ' '
the northeast Atlantic, has been considering a risk-based IJK's National Collection of Industrial Food anC lv[:-"-l rrr-
approach to the monitoring of produced water dis- Bacteria. It has since growrr to offering a range r-,f - - : lrllr
charges. It seems likely an approach using whole effluent analysis and microbiological services to industr \ >r - - I '
assessment (WEA) alongside a single substance approach including oil and gas and houses the biggest ret-e:t-
could be introduced in the near future. The essential ele- collection of industrially and environmentallr- ld.,.-', - ri'
ment of \AIEA is the application of testing to a sample of microorganisrns in the IJK. There are approtirlr;*" - s
the whole effluent rather than individual substances strains in the collection, which have been isolate; -. rlrrl ldl

known to be within it. wide variety of environmental locations and Soun-i:': ' ri

According to OSPAR's2007 "Practical Guidance Docu- as the gills of marine fish and hydrothermal r-enrs ) rlilr""
ment on Whole Effluent Asessment," the added value of of these bacterra are regularly supplied to indr.LSE- : r

WEA is greatest in complex effluerm, which contain mix- use in antibiotic production, while others cotrlC v-:. '
tures of chemicals or require very detailed process-specific unique properties and commercial potential tha: ---r"
knowledg. to allow characterrzatron. Produced water would not yet been realized.
seem to fall into that category, as it consists of both natu- NCIMB used strains from the collection to Ce-, : r:: Tr
rally occurring and added chemicals, which can include MARA test. The microorganisms used were car e:', --'
biocides, defoamers, or scale and corrosion inhibitors, and selected to cover a wide genetic diversity and pT,,- --, r

its composition varies depending on location, formation spectrum of sensitivities to different compoltellb r - rr q

t1pe, and stage of production. Therefore, aWEA approach duced water.

to produced water testing can have the potential benefit of The MARA test comprises 10 bacterial species ,
providing a measurement of not only the effects of sub- yeast. A serial dilution of the effluent is prepzr t*1 ;r itllli-tfill

stances known to be present but also unknown substances

as well as the combined effects of all components.

A new qpproqch
The !\IEA approach involves using biological tests to
determine persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity
(PBT:criteria), and tests commonly applied to marine sys-
tems are based on the use of single species from different
trophic levels. For example, in the UK the Offshore
Chemical Notification Scheme requests ecotoxicity data
for offshore chemical products from an alga e (Skeletonema
costatum), a crustacean (Acartict tonsa)and a fish species
(e.g. Scophthalmus maximus). The bacteria I'ibro flsheri
also is commonly used as a single species test. This LumiMARA plqte imoge wqs coplured qfter 30 minriuunes iltr
Researchers at the UK-based compan)- NCIIIB Ltd. q
exposure lo two-fold dilution series of somple. The
have taken a new approach in der-eloping rrhat tL") lhe percenloge of inhibilion of bioluminescence is comntpwnuna
believe to be the only multispecies \\L\ tesl\ currendr- ogoinsl the conlrol row contqining no somple. (lmog,es
available. The Microbial Arrav for Todc Risk \sessment of NCIMB trd.)

80 May 20LZ I Eh"ary"

 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT

to microbial growth media in a microtiter plate, and inoc-

ulated with the array of microorganisms. The plate is
incubated for 18 hours at 30"C (86'F), with the addition
of a redox dy" that allows assessment of the amount of
growth, and scanned. The response of the bacteria can
range from no inhibition of growth to no growth, with
varying degrees of growth inhibition in between. The Terry Dondo, MARA R&D, qnd Emmq MqcGill, Oilfield Ser,u, loss,,

data are imported to image analysis software and plotted; exqmine lhe onolysis of q MARA plote using ihe MARA soliii'uu*rlr"nh

different strains will respond differently to different dilu-

tions of the effluent, so a toxicity rating for each strain bioluminescent strains. The plate is incubated t': r -
car' be calculated and used to create a toxicity profile for utes and read using a luminometer, and resttlm a: -
the effluent. to calculate a toxicity rating (for both tests an E[:
LumiMARA employs 11 naturally bioluminescent bacte- is calculated for each of the species, i.e. the conr f,-- "-
ria from a variety of habitats, including nine marine and of toxicant which induces a response halfir.ar- be t:, = -

two freshwater species. Bioluminescent bacteria emit light baseline and maximum) . Combined integrated r- --
as a result of a biochemical reaction. \Arhen these bacteria tion of all 1 1 species provides a unique toxiciq p r :-
are exposed to toxins, their luminescence is inhibited, the effluent being tested.
and reduction of light output can be used as a rapid and
direct measurement of toxicity. Different dilutions of the North Seq cqse study
effluent sample are added to a plate containirg the 11 Both MARA and LumiMARA have been tested

mpm*ntiv*.**nr/silfiefid * fra*Jine. co m

MOMHNT E

82 May 2012 | EPmlag

 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT

duced water samples from 15 North Sea oil and gas instal- used as an initial screenirg test before moving on -

lations, alongside established algae (Skeletonema costatum) itg that uses higher order organisms such as cnrs-L-1. -

and crustacean (Acartia tonsa) single species tests, as part and fish.
of a wider coordinated study to assess the role of WEA in
a risk-based approach to produced water monitoring. The AdditionEl benefits
offshore installations sampled included a mixture of oil The multispecies microbial approach to WF_-\ als,_, _ --:
and gas producers as well as early and late stages of pro- number of additional benefits and uses. The gror,,-r-,
duction and high and low water cut. of the different microbial species in the presence - ---
The microbes, the algae, and the crustacean used in the ent dilutions can be used to produce a dendograir- ,-

test all showed different degrees of sensitivity to the differ- ing unknown chemicals to standards and can prc,-, -- -
ent produced water samples, but for all of the produced insight into the mode of toxic action. The fingen-rr---- -:
water samples tested, the sensitivity of the algae and crus- duced from the multispecies tests are ideal tools ft- 1 -.-
tacean fell within the range of responses shown by the dif- ing comparisons to be made between samples, 1o,:;:
ferent microbial species. In other words, it appears that and time points as well as in response to chemicai r:-.
tests using a genetically diverse group of microorganisms ments. The tests also can be used to detect subCe - - -
can give results that are indicative of the response of the within the toxicity profile of samples, making Cte r-- :
wider ecosystem. As higher order testing can take up to abletoolintermsofidentifyinganyuneXpectedc---.,_
three days, the results suggest that multispecies microbial in composition of the produced water before dxei '- .

tests like MARA and LumiMARA can offer a fast, low-cost a bigger problem and for monitoring the effecur-e r--:" '

method for the WEA toolbox that could potentially be otherwise of a:ny remedial steps taken.

84 May 2012 | EP rrr;a !

 OFFSHORE
IOR/EOR

Subsea gas compression

to boost recovety rates
The introduction of subseo gos compression technology hos been one of the biggest
offshore stories of 2012 so for, representing o technologicol leop forword by the upstreom
industry thot could hold huge potentiol for further improving field recovery rotes.

o It offers a cost-effective development solution (capes

. It reduces operational costs (opex);
. It is advantageous to place the compressor close to

Th" queue of gas compresslon projects being formed the well;

. Production
I by Statoil as it seeks to meet the Nc rwegtan govern- is increased and accelerated;
ment's demands to further enhance production and
recovery rates from the country's continental shelf is
'nililil#: are reduced through lower enersr.

growing all the time. . There are no emissions or disposals to sea; and
The company is the first to admit that seabed com- . The process is safer due to unmanned operation.
pressron represents a major technological leap into the It is for the above reasons that Statoil has been at the
future for the E &P industry. But it is a milestone that forefront of subsea developments for decades, particr-r-
has long been a target for the operator as it stretches the larly in the area of subsea processing where it is ackno",n'.-
limits in its efforts to improve already tmpresslve recov- edged as a world-leader. Its historical track record is
ery rates from its gas fields. impressive, as the following milestones in subsea pro-
The reasons for developing subsea gas compressron cessing advances illustrate :

technologies are as follows, according to the company: . Hydrocarbon boosting on the Lufeng field offshort
. Gas fields require boosting of the reservoir flow as China;
reservorr pressure depletes; . Separation at the Troll pilot project and separatior-
o Subsea gas compression replaces the need for an off- and boosting at the Tordis project, both offshore
shore piatform or onshore compression facrhLy; Norway;
. Raw seawater injection at the Norwegian Tyrihans
[ullfaks fiEld l*y aui development; and
o Compression at the Gullfakr, Argurd, and Ormen
Lange pilot projects offshore Norway.
This year the company has managed to achieve 10 \'e r-':
of operation on the seabed for its Troll pilot project. ccilr-
cept selection approved for Gullfaks subsea compressit,'r--
final investment decision made on Asgard subsea com-
pression, and installation of the Ormen Lange field sut'
sea compression pilot (at the operator's test pit in
Nyhamna, Norwvf, for production operator Shell).

Asgord, Gulfoksn qnd Ormen Longe

Statoil's first subsea gas compression project to boost pr---
dr-rction rvhen need.ed will be on the Asgard. field., rr-her r -.
rrill have fivo massive 11.5-MW compressors placed lreal
The Gullfqks project otfshore Norwoy is Slotoil's second lorgesl the rvells to produce enough pressure to push the gas : -
subseq gqs compression project. According to lhe compon% the field's platform as natural pressure declines. The r,I.--
seobed gqs compression is o key elemenl iowqrd estqblishing the cial plan for development and operation was officiailr
reolity of q lrue 'subseq foclory.' (lmoges coudesy of Stqtoil ASA) appro\ ed br the Norwegian government in April.

78 August 2Ol2 | EPmag, cc tr"

 OFFSHORI
IOR/ECR

But the company's Gullfaks and Ormen Lange pilot Schlumberger's Framo Engineering is carrying out
projects also will see the technolos'used, with the com- the engineeritg, procurement, and construction of the
pany's Gullfaks South project in particular set to benefit compressor station, includitg the topsides power and
most in the short-term. control systems for Gullfaks C.
This field has already achieved an extremely impres- Margareth Avrurn, Statoil executive vice president,
sive recovery rate of 62%,but Statoil has said the combi- Technology, Projects, and Drilling, said in a press state-
nation of subsea wet gas compression and conventional ment, "Innovation and technology development are
low-pressure production in later phases could eventually essential to improved oil and gas recovery and extende cr
lift the total recove ry rate to 7 4%. This equates to what life for the fields on the Norwegian Continental Sheif
would be around 3 Bcm of increased gas production (an The development of subsea cornpression and processilL:
additional 6% of the field's reserves in the ground). is a central part of Statoil's technology strategy for lons-
terrn production growth. "

The subseo fqctory

It is essentially also a central part of the company's lonq-
stated ambitions to achieve what it dubs the "subsea fac-
tory" by 2020, just five years after it achieves the platttre'-
startup of its subsea gas compression technology on
Asgard and Gullfaks South. Statoil wants to achieve all
the elements it needs, including subsea gas compre s-
sion, to be able to install subsea factories on the seabe c
in challenging frontier areas such as the Arctic (quickL'
being opened up offshore Norway in the Barents Sea t .,
well as in remote deepwater regions around the world
On top of this, the company also sees the applicatiorr
of subsea wet gas compression as a typical solution for
small and medium-sized fields on its continental shelf.
where it can downsrze what is a flexible concept and
Eqch of the two Gullfoks South 5 MW wel gqs compressors will apply it on both new and brownfield developmentS. \r-rl---
be locqted by ihe 'L' qnd 'M'lemploles on lhe seobed qnd hqn- several such candidates already identified.
dle I0 MMcm I d ol gqs. The technology will help increqse recov' With seabed gas compression and the wider seabed
ery from lhe field by 22 MMboe (o 4"/" rise). processing spectrum of technologies becomitg increas-
ingly viable, Statoil's subseafactory vision is driving it
Statoil and partner Petoro will have to invest around inexorably toward the eventual application of more
US $490 million in this technology for Gullfaks South, sophisticated gas processing on the seafloor (gas s\feel-r--
with the aim of completing it in 2015 (the same year as irg and gas dehydration) and also toward the develop-
planned. for the completion of its Asgard gas compres- ment of local, potentially renewable power generatiotl
sion project) to extend the Gullfaks field's production concepts.
plateau. The main Gullfaks field itself began producing As pumping and compression technologies contin rte
26 years ago. to evoh,e, more robust and simplified systems also rrrll
The natural pressure in the Brent reservoir on the Gull- becont e avanlable that are capable of greater presstlre
faks South field will be decreasing considerably by 2015, it boost u'hile handling liquids without the need for
is estimated, which is when the compression project will upstream scrubbing. Separation systems will become
kick in. Although not quite on the same scale as Asgard, more sophisticated, and new materials - includitg 1la1--
the scale is still massive, involving fi,vo 5-megawatt (MW) otechnologr'- will play their part.
gas compressors installed in a subsea template in 135 m All these are seen by Statoil as technologies that call
(143 ft) water depth. Together thev rvill handle a flow rate enable it to achieve its goal of economically developirl.
of 10 MMcrn/ d of gas. Thev lill be tied in to existing fie1ds r-rsing its subsea factory concept by 2020, anC
templates and pipeline svstems aroLtnd 15 km (9 miles) pione ering rr'et gas compression projects like Gullfak-.
from the Gullfaks C platform facilin; rvhere power and Sor-rth rrill be a rital proving ground on the road tort ar.-
control modules will be integrated. that goa1"

80 August 20LZ I EPmagi,colri

 OFFSHORE
IOR/EOR

Mobile gas lift and well unloading

units combine best of both worlds
The gool of qll oil componies must be not only to find new reserves but to moximize
whqt they con extroct from existing moture ossets.

A common occurrence in mature oil fields around the

Aworld, is that many wells are no longer prod-ucitg.
This means these are either idle or producing next to no
oil, not only necessarily due to depleting reserves but also
because of declining reservoir pressure. Continuous
efforts are being made in the E&P sector to ensure incre-
mental production from these fields is optimtzed and the
maximum amount of recoverable oil extracted. The FSO Benchomqs Explorer hqs been receiving produclion

One innovation is being employed by Chevron on its from multiple plotforms on the Benchqmqs field in the Gulf ol
mature assets in the northern Pattani basin in the Gulf of Thqilqnd since 1999,wiih oil produclion levels slill strong
Thailand. The Benchamas field has 20 platforms and hun- becquse of Chevron's etforls to enhqnce lecovery rcles from
dreds of wells, with production processed on separate pro- ils exisiing reservoirs. (Photo courtesy of Tqnker Pocific)
cessing platforms and oflloaded to the FSO Benchamas
Exptorer. Benchamas and its satellites have produced more $2 million of investment and has a large topsides foot-
than 360 MMboe since first oil flowed in 1997. print, making it unattractive for low-cost operations such
An inevitable result on oil fields such as these is that as those in the Gulf of Thailand.
a high number of wells eventually lay idle or shut in The well unloaditg unit and compressor (WUUC) sr s-
because their economics are not good enough to justi$z tem, however, has a smaller footprint offshore than pre\l-
the installation of a conventional gas lift compressor or ous portable compressors and is therefore much more
electrical submersible pump (ESP) to bring the well back mobile. For example, each piece of equipmentweighs less
on production. Space and weight restrictions on many of than 8 metric tons and can be lifted with standard plat-
the existing wellhead platforms are other limiting factors. form cranes.

Two qrtificiql lift techniques combined Pilot test

Chewon and its partners have achieved a dramatrc In 2009, a small portable gas compressor was built after slr
improvement in production levels in the field ateaby months of studies and design work. The system began a
combinitg two production enhancement methods for oil pilot test inJuly that year on the remote REX wellhead plai-
wells into one system - mobile well unloaditg units with a form on the Benchamas field in the 2,460-sq-km (950-sq-

gas lift compressor system. It is the combination of these mile ) BB / 32 block, where many wells had been shut in as
two forms of artificial lift techniques acting simultaneously these no longer flowed hydrocarbons to surface naturallr
that makes the system effective in mitigatitg the inherent The svstem underwent a successful trial on the field.
problem in many mature oil wells, which is the rapid allorring n ells to be subject to very low backpressure at srril.-
decline in reservoir pressure and increase in water pro- face u-hile also being gas-lifted using captured gas from
duction leading to short well life. Both of these produc- the unloading system that would otherwise be vented,
tion enhancement techniques are widely used in the A three-phase separator and surge tank are incolporztf rr.
industry, but each has its own inherent challenges off- ro separare fluids from the production stream, with an irlle -

shore, where cost and space are such limiting factors. pressure as lorv as 30 psi. Liquids are pumped back into tht
For gas lift compressors these factors are a big hurdle: a procir,rction pipelin e atsystem pressure while the associate '
:

typical gas lift compressor usuallv reqnires more than US gas { arorind 2 MMcf/ d) is captured from the producion

August LOLZ I EPmag, corn

82
stream in a three-stage recipro cat- rate of more than 1,000 b/d of oil
ing compressor, compressed to riore than two years after the
approximately 1,100 psi, and \\I UC pilot system began, far
directed to a gas lift manifold that exceeditg expectations.
distributes the gas to four oil wells Cherron said the development
for injection into the annulus for of the \AUUC system has taken this
gas lifting. Using the pilot system, drilling project from a sub-eco-
F +r
ftis added 2,100 b/ d of incremen- u -J,-+ nomic program to a m{or success,
tal oil production from the wells, The Benchomqs field is locoted iinr tslo'cks B,8i 32 ond more than tripling the predrill
rr-hich can be both flowing to the B9A in the norlhern Pqtton[ tsosiirr ofiishcre Thoillqnd. re co\-erv estrmates.
\\UU separator (20 psi to 50 psi (Mqp courlesy of Ktis En'etgy') The system also now underpins
sr-rction pressure) and gas-lifted at tirture development drilling in this
dre same time, creating a closed-loop gas lift system. r- r. -:1-r:i lte accessing of reserves that other-
----,- . r'r-rraineC untapped because of poor fluid
Outstqnding resulls - - - -- l'ecor-eties, long distances from the
The production results and system reliability have beet-r - :::-r-. *'-e:lorlTi. and the economic constraints
outstanding, accorditg to Chewon. After two and a half -: - : :]irr:rnal gas lift compressor and/ or
\-earsof operation, the unit has had 97% reliabilitv and
added 903,000 bbl of incremental oil in total from the -- -:.- -,-- 1 e n-tiron mental benefit of the system
four wells. Those wells continue to produce at a combine cl i - ,,-- : :--\,'e nted the release of more than 1.5

EPrnag. corn I Augu st 2012 83

 OFFSHORE
IOR/EOR

Bcf of greenhouse gas that would otherwise have been slickline and electric line simultaneously while operatirg
vented to the atmosphere. the unit. Again, this is said. to be critical by Chewon in off-
shore environments like the Gulf of Thailand where fre-
System rnobility o key qspect quent well interventions are required.
The.system's mobility also is a unique aspect, according to At a total operating cost during the pilot trial of
the companf, because it is modular and carr be rigged up $7,000 /day, and based on the production gains achieved.
or down in a single 12-hour shift offshore. This enables this equates to a total cost of ff7 /bbl over the pilot period.
the unit to service multiple wellhead platforms for maxi- making it a highly economic venture.
mum usage, supporting a low-cost "pay-as-you-go" rental There are now three WUUC units operating on
model for the equipment. Chewon's Gulf of Thailand oil fields, and numerous
This is a vital aspect in the Gulf of Thailand where the additional candidate platforms will benefit from the
subsurface environment is highly complex and difficult to installation of such systems.
image on seismic. Reservoir volumes and future produc- The \MUUC system has the potential to be applied in
tion rates are hard to predict, and designitg artificial lift multiple offshore locations globally, adding significant oi1
systems can be challenging. These subsurface factors production and unlocking reserves while reducing green-
make the above business model more attractive by mini- house gas emissions.
mizing financial risk and enabling flexibility to mobllize
the unit when required. Editor's Note: Excerpts for this articl"e haue been taken from OTC
Its small footprint offshore (80 sq m or 861 sq ft) also 2012 FaFs, 23079 presented by Jarrad fuxilius, Tipparat
allows the flexibility to perform work activities such as Wamanon, and Akshay Sahni of Chnron.

LA$T!
Relief Valve
No fluid irnpingement on the
seat, piston or seal.

Opens at a preci$e $et

retracting the piston to
shelter in rnitlisecond$.

Change the pin or pin set point

in less than a minute.

A pressure range from

500 psig to 15,000 psig

Over 1.200 servrce.

: 1,3. 7,+,1?.ieS,j" FAx 4*5.f*-t.i?4 ?

:..+ 5: - ilkl*fi#n:* trt"y"'*K F3:?&
=:-

84 August 2012 | EPmag.corn"

 OILFIELD
CHEMICALS

MEOR improves
oil and gas recovety
The use of microbes rother thon chemicols brings mony benefits.

TABIE l. Crude composition oflen chonges qfter lreotmeni rol' 3d

hours. (Doto courlesy of Sepcor)

icrobial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR) is the con-

cept of using microbiological technology in oil Untreoted 29.27% 47,6X",

reservoirs to improve the recovery of oil and gas trapped Treoted 22.91% 54.53'"
in the porous media of the formation. This technique of % Chqnge 287" decline 147" increo s:
using nature to improve oil and gas production is an old
and seldom-used technology. Through the 'B0s and '90s This treatment has many advantages over con\ e r--
several formulations were used in an attempt to reduce tional chemic al treating and hot oiling. Primarih . :: -
viscosity, paraffins, and asphaltenes. The results were use of microbes reduces downtime, treating the rc - -

mixed. Not every oil or gas well treated showed irnprove- cause of the problem by digesting long-chain hr Cr -:
ment. This was primarily due to the nature of the bons while cleaving them into shorter molecules. 5---.
microbes used at tlrat time. cell organisms proliferate and adapt quickly in the
Microbial formulations of that period were simply not presence of asphaltenes and long-chain waxy param-- '
robust enough to thrive and grow in the varying condi- while producing errryrrres, surfactants, alcohols. ar,, j
tions of the different oil and gas fields. Today this issue polysaccharides. The organisms are chosen to rriths -,
has been solved through long-term research in the study high temperatures and pressures and to survive ira r. -
of cultures designed for survival in various crude and ety of conditions, includirg changing hydrocarbon -
well conditions. Microbes have been selected from a positions and acidities. This reduces downtime. rrc : -j
variety of environments of hot sulfurous deposits, oil the root issue, impacts the long-term viability of thr - -

pits, underwater samples, river water, and sewage treat- has better economics, and is a sustainable gre en tec---
ment plants and cultured to produce the most robust nology that does not require hazardous chemical sr - --
strains that can survive in a multitude of environments. age or disposal.
Microbial formulations in 2012 are designed to survive
in a large range of temperatures, acrdtty, crude composi-
tion, and viscosities. Current microbial solutions are
proving to be consistent in improving well conditions
and production rates.

New formulEtions
These new formulations use a combination of
autotrophic, heterotrophic, aerobic, and anaerobic
microbes. Autotrophic bacteria use inorganic materials
as a source of nutrients, such as carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. Fleterotrophic bacteria met abohze organic
materials, such as hydrocarbons (saturated and unsatu-
rated), organic acids, and amines. Aerobic bacteria use
dissolved oxygen in the respiraton'process. Anaerobic
bacteria live in the absence of oxvgen by decomposing
chemical species containing ox\-gen, such as sulfate. TABLE 2. over o four-monih period in q wyoming oil field, pro,c'-ro:
carbon ate, phosph ate, and nirrates. tion increcsed 6,8% ofter lreqlmenl.

86 September 2012 | EPmag E rrs.

 OILFIELD
CHEMICALS

TABIE 3. MEOR cqused chonges in crude composilion qnd properlies in this

lest. than 100 ppm. Using specialrzed strains. c,--
spills, halogen-containing compounds. an,-:
TPH are controlled through the clearing _

68-450 A 497" 18% 18% hydrocarbons to smaller and smaller piece s

69-455 1trO/ Emulsions are broken by the strength o: --
B 417" tJ/o 1 67"
microbes in the oil /water interface, sllrfac.-,,
63-471 327" 277" 13"/"
production, and elimination of free ox\-q-r-
This happens through the reduction of si-"r.--
Applicqlion tension at the otl/water interface by surfactants. c,e ---' -

Administered downhole, the microbes are dispersed irg of the naphthenic acid chain by digestion, re Cr. -- ,-
throughout the well bore and mixed with the produced of inte rfacral tension between oil and water, anC ba r - -

fluids. As the regenerating biochemical multiplies, it res- ial ingestion of salt. This effect either reduces or rc . -

olubili zes crystallized paraffin / asphaltene molecules to the need for costly demulsifiers in breaking tough r--
prevent costly deposition. Paraffin/ asphaltene also is sions. The product rnay be used in oil/water separa:
resolubilized in surface equipment by inhibitirg the for- weirs, or waste effluents or in a:ny water / oil-u,ate r -\.,-: .:
mation of deposits throughout the pumping system, where emulsions are a problem.
includirg flowlines, heaters, and storage tanks. Microbial technology's annual treating costs are 1 --
Changes to crude composition and properties are sig- compared to a chemical treating program and prcrrl -

nificant after treatment rn 24 hours (Table 1) . Typical many additional benefits. It can be part of a gree n -rr-
gains in oil production through several test wells aver- sustainable prograrn with benefits of increasing pr'_ -.
aged a 25% tncrease in production over an untreated tion and extendirg the life of the wells.
well (Table 2).
Microbial treatment of crude oil results in significant
changes in composition and properties. The decrease in
the viscosity, asphalt content, and cloud point leads to
significant savings in production and pumping costs
(Table 3).
The polysaccharides produced during treatment and
colonizatrort end up coating metallic surfaces. This pro-
duces a protective film over metal surfaces, protecting
against corrosion. Water quality at knockouts went from
1,000 ppm with chemical treatmenrs to 98 ppm with
microbial treatments. Excess water was less than 10 ppm
total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), easily conforming
to Department of Environmental Quality discharge stan-
dards. Injection pressure was reduced by I0%, allowing
an additional 1,500 b/d of water to be reinjected. Grind-
outs at knockout went from 1.5% to 3 % to less than I7o.
Weight loss coupon measurement at knockout went
from 5.5 mils per year (-py, a measurement of lost
thickness due to corrosion) to 1.5 -py.
Microbes can be combined with chemical treating
programs for corrosion and optimized for maximum
protection. Though not compatible with quaternary
amines, they are very compatible rvith gluteraldehyde-
based chemicals.
Other benefits of MEOR include reducing HrS
through digestion, encapsulation. and conversion to
stable sulfur salts. In man\- cases. the effect is significant.
In test cases, HrS was reduced from 1,600 ppm to less

88 Septernber 2012 | EPmas ;: n

SURFACE SYSTEMS
& SOLUTIONS

COzcompression
solutions advance
The qpplicotion of new technology extends the reoch of CO, compression'

by srvelling the oil and reducing its viscclsitl'.

This technique also can be used in natural gas fle -' "
to recover ad,d.itional gas from exploited fields' Tjre
elimination of coo frorn the atmosphere is a rr-elcLrlr- :
Tn enhanced oil recovery (E,OR) and carbon capture
Iuna storase (CCS), the trad.itional approach to CO, side effect.
compression has been to use catlng
.t'.'t

compressors, but recent inve aled this Gompression benchmqrk

technology has several limita the sig- In2006,MANDiese1&Turbodeliveredthethirdltt;...
nificant restriction of Volume flows due to their rnechan- an eight-stage integrally geared compressor for corlli- :'
ical design. irg CO, to 187 bar, a record achievement for this te rr-
For this reason, centrifugal systems have become a ogy in the gasification ind,trstry. Two prototypes of tl-L-' !
promisirg solution for future CO, projects. Centrifugal tlpe compressor had been in continuous operatloll i
compressors fall into one of two technology groups, the same customer in North Dakota since 2001.
namely single-shaft centrifugals and multi-shaft integral- The clelivery consisted of a full package, inclr"rdin:
gear centrifugals. compressor core unit, driver, proCeSS gas coolers' ltit' -

oil system, process plplng and auxiliaries, and the T-

-

In EOR, lvhen water injection is used to push the

remainirg oil out of a reservoir, it leaves a significant bolog control sYstem.
residue behind.. CO, flooding is a significantly more In this project, CO, is compressed to 187 bar auci ^.
effective method. Oil and CO, mix above a pressllre into a 330-km (205-mile) pipeline that runs north ir-.
known as rhe minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) . Canacla and encls at EnCana's \A/eyburn oil field. rr-1-i.' -

At or above the MMB CO, acts as a solvent, sweepitg it is injectecl into the field. The results at \AreYbttrtr h:'
the reservoir ancl leaving very little residue behind. At been spectacular. The field currently is producir-rs
pressures below the MMP, CO, also assists oil production 28,000 b/ d of oil. This represents an 18,000 b/ d

The GO, lrom Dqklolq Gqsificotion Co. is tronspcfie':

lo the WeYburn field in Conccr;
 r - ?FACE SYSTEMS
1 SCLUTIONS

rncrease over the 10,000 b/ a that would be produced

rr-ithout the CO, flood.

Trqditionql qpproqch
The traditional approach to Co, compression has been
ro use high-speed reciprocating compressors, with the
rrain reasons being:
' Flexibility with regard to pressure ratio and capacrty
(if equipped with variable speed drive or valve
unloaders);
o Short delivery times;
. Lightweight skid-mounted units that can be relo-
cated at will; and
' Famiharrty of the field operators with these
machines and their suppliers.
By comparison, centrifugal compressors offer:
. Higher capacity volume flows;
. Superior efficiency;
. Oil-free compression;
' Higher speed that is betrer matched ro rhe high-
speed driver commonly used in the 10-40 MW Chollenges for offshore CO2 compression
range; and overall, for volume flows >L2 kg/s and pressures up to
o Extended intervals between overhauls.
250 bar, integral-gear compressors have a definite advan-
tages over reciprocating or supersonic technologies and
Cenlrifugol options inline centrifusals in most CO2 service. Inline compres-
\\'ithin the centrifugal compressor markets, there are sors require approximately twice the number of stases
nvo technologies, namely single-shaft (in line, between that integral-gear compressors require, leadirg to one
bearings) centrifugals and multi-shaft integral-gear cen- or two additional casings. Another advantage of integral-
trifugals, both of which have been manufactured by gear compressors is their higher efficiency, which they
\L\N and have been used in CO, service. deliver without addi tional maintenance requirements.
The company has come to the conclusion that, for For future offshore CO, compression systems to be
rnost high-flow onshore Co, applications, the multi- installed more regularly on platforms, FPSOs, and sub-
shaft integral-gear design offers higher efficiency. The seainstallations, several challenges will have to be over-
reasons include: come. These include space restrictions, yaw and roll on
t optimum impeller flow coefficient because opti- FPSOs, and a need for high reliability and very high
mum speed can be selected for each pair of pressure levels.
impellers; To date, most compressor manufacturers have pre-
. Axial in-flow to each stage; ferred to use inline barrel compression systems for off-
. The ability to use shrouded or unshrouded shore high-pressure CO, applications and in situations
impellers; rvhere the pressure is >250 bar. One example of the off-
o Smallhub/ tip ratio; shore installation of this type of compression system at
o Intercooling after each stage (impeller) ; these presslrre levels is on an FPSO that will be produc-
o External connection after each stage. rr-hich allorrs
ing offshoreBrazrl in a 550-bar COrcompression train"
more flexibility in selecting the pressure ler-el for the \\hile there has been some application of this technol-
dehydration system if applicable: og\- offshore. future research work will have to be done
o Practically no limit to the possible number of srages
to effectir-elv transfer experience from onshore CO, sys-
in one machine; and terns to the offshore environment and improve the exist-
. The ability to direct-drive b) a for,rr-po1e electric ing compressor design.
motor on the bull-gear or a stealll trirbine rln (lrf e
of the pinions. Includes excerpts -fro* OTC Brasil paper 22559.

E Prnag. corn I lanu ary 2012

63
 STIMULATION
TECHNOLOGY

letting technology
irnproves production
Hydrojetting odvonces improve SqudiAromco's gos well performonce.

timulating horizontally drilled producing

Q
tJ gas wells is a necessity for operatirg com-
panies as their output is regularly impacted
by either drillirg damage or lower than
expected reservoir qualiry. Stimulation, how-
ever, presents a considerable challenge as
wellbore accessibility is difficult in wells
drilled in deeper formations with relatively
low permeability and HP /HT characteristics.
Nternative techniques, based on hydrajet-
ting technology, have been applied by Saudi
Aramco on a number of horizontal gas pro-
ducers. The results so far have encouraged
the company to push ahead with work on This chqrl shows q compqrison of hydroulic frqcluring treqlments in 'wuerllis mtffni
enhancing its ability to effectively stimulate similqr reservoir chorqcierisfics. Wells D, E, qnd F were perforoted with
complex and difficult-to-access multilateral tionql perforoting guns qnd chorges, while Wells A, B, qnd C were sloilliilec
completions. o hydrojetting lool. Well B is in both sides of the plol becquse, qs wos @rrsc 'h
Conventional perforating and stimulation cqse in Well D, no odequole injectivily wqs reqched during cqlibrcriiolr"l
methods such as bullheading acid at high lhe jobs were qborled. The plol shows lhqt in lhe slotled wells the h
pressure and rate conditions and performing were implemenled per design, while lhe opposile wqs lrue in oll of ttre
coiled tubing (CT) acid washes had nor been pedoroled wells. (lmoges courlesy of Squdi Aromco)
as successful as expected when applied in sin-
gle and dual-lateral completions.
This was not entirely surprisirg given the
difficulty of placing treatment fluids in tar-
geted zones needing stimulation; along
lengthy openhole horizontal completions;
and in the presence of thief zones, rvashouts,
and highly heterogeneous reservoir condi-
tions. The problems associated r,vrth initiating
and extendirg hydraulic fracturing treat-
ments in these wells, drilled in some of the
tightest formations and perforated lith con-
ventional methodologies, led to the search for
new methods of overcoming the high fractlrre
initiation pressure experienced.
Saudi Aramco decided to field tesr a hr-dra-
jetting tool for the first time in a verrical gas This chorl compores pre- ond posl-slimulqtion rqles qnd flowing wellill'rrrm
producer rvith reservoir characteristics similar sures for wells in which hydrojetting lechnology wqs used.

72 Septernber 20ll I EPui"srrg;'

l$

tr

tr STIMULATION
tr
TECHNOLOGY
ff

ffi

ffi

to other wells where attempts to perform proppan -

hydraulic fracturing treatments had resulted in prr---,-*

ture screenouts. It also was used to perform prop:r ."--
and acid stimulation treatments in a number of rrlr r:"-
performing vertical and horizontal openhole pr-*_*t. : '

fi
with excellent results.

Breqking new ground

il
HydraSetting itself is not a new technology - its ach-r*-- -rrr,,'.ri
began to be recognized and developed in the late l: l, .
The technology applies a high-velocity stream *-,, -l , I

carrying small abrasive particles to create slots alt-:--. r" rt

horizontal section of a well prior to performing p,r--:r rlrl

acid stimulation treatments. The acid is displaceC -- r'

zones most in need of stimulation, resulting in inl:: ' r

well productivity.
A typical bottomhole assembly run on CT and r,rsot .,iir
itg the operation comprises a hydrajetting tool. a LT rr,'
nector, a motor head assembly, an anchor to prevet . i- -,.,J
movement, a multicycle incremental tool to set nr-rlr_:.,
precisely on target, and ajetting sub with multrple r- :-"'ir.l
The jetting velocity of the type of tool used on Sr
Arabia's gas fields ranges from 6,100 m/sec ro 9.1_'_-
m/sec (20,000 ft/ sec to 30,000 ft/sec) and eXe rLS ; r " r, *
sure of approximately 4 million psi. The tool is des,<- ,r'r,
to withstand differential pressure greater than 1tJ. * r * ,,,i,

and has a temperature rating of about 177"C (35r_ 'F

Field triqls
In the first field trial, the hydru3etting technolos ,,,":.:
tested in a vertical exploration well drilled in a dej- " :,";.:r ir.

stone reservoir to a depth of more than 4,900 m ^'. i' ,ri

ft). The well required hydraulic fracturirg stimuxa: .

and had similar reservoir characteristics to other l'r-,-l

conventionally perforated wells. In the convenrior-.'- -
perforated wells, the hydraulic fracturirg attemplS ----L Lrr

be aborted when the maximum allowable dorrnht-,'-6 - ",*-

sure was reached either before initiating a fractLlre - I i;
screenirg out prematurely early into the treatmen:
A hydrajetting tool was used to create long large-,-:-"r
ter slots using an abrasivejetting slurry, which reCt:- -,
the fracture initiation pressure. The jetting-indr-rce ; , ,ii
achieved deep and clean penetration with a minin,:
crushed zone effect as the jetting slurry cut thror-t'-r:- " ,,
forrnation and circulated debris out through the C T
annnlus. A proppant hydraulic fracturirg treatrnei-- - , *
then performed. The well flowed at a post-fracrure -- r"
nercial gas rate and opened the door for further xtr - -- r u,,,

og) applications.
\fter this test, Saudi Aramco undertook another ---r,-'
on a highlv deviated well drilled into a tight sand-.r - :- -

74 September 201I I EPuaa$ *M.

 There is more

--' -,r a total measured depth of 4,560 m (14,960 The hydrajetting application also resulted in an esti-
, el1 \\-as perforated using conventionai perforat- mated 30% cost saving over the cost of perforating using
:ihead of a planned proppant fracturitg treat- conventional guns run on CT.
:- after conducting an injectivity test and
. -ire maximum allowable surface treatment Tbchnical information supplied courtesy of Saudi Aramco.
. : -l 12,000 psi at a maximum
--- rere of only 4bbl/rnin, the
:l ' -,b \ras aborted.
- -.11e tdng approach was used
: --rtelttion of overcoming the
:-- --,:lr,tced stress,
- -:,-rre Pressure effect, and
reducing the
Al I the right pieces in all the
- --: ',r ellbore communication
:-rr-oir. Eight zones were
-

:---,-L rhe planned proppant

".---
a :reatment was imple-
-:sr-rlting in a post-fracture
- 15 \IMcf/d.
:r:ing technology also was
- --- a highl;' slanted well com-
----. ch-ral casing strings. A
. . r irighly slanted cased gas
: - ! in Saudi Arabia have been
,- -1 r-rsing conventional perfo-
-- --rs rttn on wtreline or more
- -l CT. However, both
--,-s har-e proven challenging
: _,
,slr,r.grrireline, the most
--- rroblems encountered are Fugro Gravity & Magnetic $etvices.
- l',',idr the yo-yoing effect World's leading provider of potential field$ geolCIgic soXutions'
----rd bv the cable due to the
--- .ension changes found in
-rn{le or dogleg sections, At Fugro Gravity & Magnetic Services, we ensure that all the pieces of
your oil and gas exploration program fit per{ectly together with the most
---l l esult in stuck or experienced staff and the best solutions, such as:
- -able. In deep wells, the
-:ilrltot reach the targeted u FALCON'* - the world's highest resolution gravity data"
normally used. But this
r;-T is * MagGUBE'. - a new twlst on directional drilting accuracy.
. rme-consumi^g and costlY. * LCT SOFTWARH'* - 3D earth model simultaneous joint inversion.
- , fu a_letting approach was * DATA RICH - non-exclusive data and interpretations.
.--:e cl in Well K, a gas
:-- ilnlled with a total MD The difference is clear * enhancing the value of your
-- : 4 .570 m (15,000 ft) and seismic by providing a better geologic sclution and
ultirnately reducing risk. A per-fect fit.
- .-- -e angle . A27-rn (90-ft)
- -,le \\-as then slotted with a
- --u{ tool after completing 12
Acquisition * Prscessing . lnterpretatitln o $oftware . Nsn'Exclusive Data
- ::rEes in record time. A CT
, -i ',ras performed, and the well

production atan initial gas

-r-
- \I\Icfld with a flowing rvell-
, - llrrre of 2,500 psi.

I Septernber 2 0l I
*e4!l#

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 COMPRESSOR FIELD LOGSHEET
DATE : 14-Jun-12

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