READING COMPREHENSION

FOR

ADVANCED A STUDENTS

SKILLS BOOKLET

INSTRUCTOR: Dr. Anna Lyubman

Spring 2021

Bar-Ilan University
For Internal Use Only

‫אילן‬-‫אוניברסיטת בר‬
‫פקולטה למדעי הרוח‬
‫יחידה לאנגלית כשפה זרה‬
‫לשימוש פנימי בלבד‬
 Contents / List of Topics
I. Annotating texts

II. Paragraph Structure: Main Ideas and Supporting Details

III. Vocabulary in Context

1. Definitions
2. Strategies for Unknown Words
3. Affixes
4. Context Clues

IV. Dictionary Use

V. Reference

VI. Sentence Structure

VII. Connectives
1. Introduction to Connectives
2. General Ideas – Specific Examples
3. Addition
4. Cause and Effect
5. Contrast
6. Comparison

7. Review of Connectives

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 Annotating Texts
How can annotating a text help me?
 It helps you to focus on the text – you are active instead of passive.
 It helps you to analyze the text.
 It helps you remember the material quickly and easily after time has passed.
 You will have the text and your notes in the same place.
What should I mark?
 Things that are important
-main ideas (of the text and of paragraphs)
-purpose/plan of the text
-conclusion
-topic of sections of the text
-structure of the text (if it’s not clear)
-key words, important phrases/ideas
-words that show the relationship between ideas in the text
(e.g. first, second, for example, however)
 Things that are confusing / unfamiliar
-ideas that you don’t understand and would like to clarify
-words you don’t know (if they seem important)
-write questions about the text (This is important for active reading!)
 Comments
-write comments on the side
-summarize parts of the text as you read
-try to connect this text to other things you have read

How should I mark the text?

Use any combination of the following techniques:
 Circle or put boxes or shapes around words and phrases
 Underline (but not too much - it can get messy!)
 Highlight
 Write in the margins and on the top and bottom of the page
The most common complaint about annotating is that it slows down your reading.

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Yes, it does. That’s the point.
Scanning for a Specific Detail
If we need to find a specific item of information—for example, a date, a figure, a name, or a
title, we can do so by scanning the paragraph (page), that is, by letting our eyes wander over the
text. We can locate the information we are looking for without reading all the text. The form of the
symbol (capital letters, numbers, punctuation) can help us to focus on the detail that interests us.

Activity 1. Read the questions posed and see how quickly you can find the answers in the
passages that follow. Look for clues that will help you to find the information.
Passage A
1. What were the export and import figures for the United States in 2010?
2. Which countries are the largest buyers of U.S. goods?
3. From which countries do the imports come?
4. What percentage of goods entered the United States duty free in 2010?

The United States carries on trade with most of the nations of the world. In 2010 its exports
were valued at approximately $98 billion and its imports at $100 billion. The leading exports
are industrial and electrical machinery, chemicals, grain, aircraft, and motor vehicles.
Canada and Japan are the largest single-country customers, buying about 30 percent of
the total. Some of the principal imports are coffee, sugar, tea, petroleum and fuel oil,
textiles, and motor vehicle products. They come from Europe, Latin America, Asia, and
Canada. For years the United States has been following a policy of promoting world trade
by lowering tariffs. This has gradually reduced U.S. duties on imports so that in 2010, 2
percent of all goods entered the country duty free.

Passage B
1. Who does the author quote to introduce the main point?
2. Which four books are mentioned?
3. Who are the authors?
4. When were the last three books published?

“Not acid, ‘speed or junk but school is the most destructive drug in America today.” This is
Anatole Broyard’s summation of the theme of Ivan Illich’s Deschooling Society. This
revolutionary concept is being heard more and more in a series of reevaluations of the

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 school system. In three books published in the 1960s, we find some of the forerunners of
Illich: How Children Fail by John Holt, Compulsory Miseducation by Paul Goodman, and
Death at an Early Age by Jonathan Kozol. The three provide us with a comprehensive view
of educational trends from 1-bit’s private school to Goodman’s public school to Kozol’s
segregated public school in Boston. All three recognize a failure in the educational system
that has perpetrated a heinous crime on the minds and hearts of America’s children.

Activity 2. Scan the next paragraph to find the following information.

1. The name of Laurence Sterne’s novel
2. The year in which the first parts of the novel were published
3. The way in which the book is described by different critics

Laurence Sterne was an English novelist who went far beyond the literary expression of the
eighteenth century. Tristram Shandy, whose first parts were published in 1759, is an
example of a book that defies categorization; Thought to be “merely a satire” by a leading
critic of the time, a “sentimental journey” by a fellow writer, an “epic of Rabelaisian
proportions” by a group of distinguished scholars, we are forced to consider it as all of these
and more. The scope of Tristram Shandy invites the scholar to read more and classify less.
It will be our task to analyze various aspects of Sterne’s novel to determine its romantic
elements and thus see it as a precursor to the nineteenth-century Romantic revolution.

Activity 3

Paying Up on Your Sleep Debts

By JANE E. BRODY
From The New York Times, January 26, 1994
Experts estimate that 100 million Americans maintain
a serious sleep debt by failing, night after night, to get
enough sleep.

1. ONE friend tells me he needs at least eight hours of sleep each night to avoid feeling
"dead tired" the next day. Another says that if she gets more than six hours a night she
wakes up "feeling like a lead balloon."
2. How do you know how much sleep is the right amount, and how can you adjust your
sleep schedule if you fail to get enough sleep now and then, or night after night?

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3. Researchers have a fancy way of judging how sleepy a person is at various times of
the day and night. Called the multiple sleep-latency test, it involves an assessment in a
sleep lab of how long it takes a person to fall asleep at two-hour intervals. Such studies
show that people generally have two especially sleepy times: at what most people think
of as bedtime, around 10 P.M. to 12 A.M., and in midafternoon, around 2 to 4 P.M.
4. They also show that a fully rested person will not fall asleep within 20 minutes at any
test session during the day, whereas a sleep-deprived person will fall asleep in three or
four minutes at every session, just as do people with the sleep disorders – narcolepsy
and sleep apnea. And when people who are sleep-deprived live in a sleep laboratory,
without any cues about day and night or alarm to arouse them, they will often sleep for
as many as 16 out of every 24 hours for days on end until they "catch up" on lost sleep
and gradually revert to a more normal sleep period of about eight hours.
. Dr. James Maas, a psychology professor and sleep researcher at Cornell University,
suggests this self-test: "If a warm room, heavy meal, boring lecture or meeting or a low
dose of alcohol makes you drowsy, you are sleep-deprived. A well-rested person will
become bored, annoyed, restless or fidgety, but not sleepy, under such circumstances."
6. Experts estimate that 100 million Americans maintain a serious sleep debt by failing,
night after night, to get enough sleep. They also say that most sleep-deprived people do
not realize just how prone to falling asleep at the drop of a hat they really are.
7. In a study by Dr. Thomas Roth at Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit, 100 young adults
were given a multiple sleep-latency test. Thirty-four percent of those who said they never
got sleepy during the day performed like a person with sleep apnea.
8. Dr. Maas, who produced "Sleep Alert," a film on sleep deprivation for public television,
gives these guidelines for good sleep:
9. *Know how much sleep you need. Most people get only seven hours of sleep each
night but need eight to eight and a half hours. If you are sleepy during the day, you are
not sleeping enough at night.
10. *Try to sleep in a continuous block. People need a long period of consolidated sleep;
sleep broken by frequent awakenings leaves people unrested no matter how long they
spend in bed.
11. *Go to sleep at the same time every night and wake up at the same time each
morning. "You should never need an alarm clock to wake up," Dr. Maas insists, unless,
of course, you have to catch a very early flight.
12. *Get daily physical exercise, which results in more restful deep sleep and also
decreases your total sleep need a little. But Dr. Maas cautioned against exercising within
three hours of bedtime, because exercise increases alertness and inhibits the ability to
fall asleep. He said the best time to exercise to induce restful sleep was between noon
and 6 P.M.
13. *If you have frequent or periodic insomnia, as one in three people does on any given
night, take a hot bath before bed, read a book for pleasure, write your worries down and
leave your notes on the nightstand, and be sure your bedroom is quiet, dark and cool. If
you toss and turn for more than 20 minutes at bedtime or during the night, get out of bed
and do something else until you feel sleepy again.

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 (Adapted from “Comprehension PLUS”, 1997, by J. Borenstein & S. Sandler

Paragraph Structure
Main Ideas and Supporting Details

Topics Versus Ideas

A topic is the general subject of something. It is usually written as a phrase.

An idea (or main idea) is what someone says about a topic. It is always written as a sentence (not

a question).

Practice: Next to each item below, circle “topic” or “idea.”

1. TOPIC / IDEA The accuracy of victims’ and bystanders’ descriptions of the criminal.

2. TOPIC / IDEA People often get mixed up about where they heard or saw something.

3. TOPIC / IDEA The human ability to acquire details during a crime.

4. TOPIC / IDEA The resemblance of a person in the lineup to the criminal.

5. TOPIC / IDEA Witnesses often choose the person in a lineup who most resembles the

criminal, even if the resemblance is not very strong.

6. TOPIC / IDEA How reliable the eyewitness testimony is.

7. TOPIC / IDEA The difference between eyewitnesses and victims in remembering the suspect.

Now choose any two topics from the list above and rewrite them as main ideas. Each main idea

should be written as a sentence explaining what you would like to say about the topic.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________

Dr. Anna Lyuman

Adapted from Minna Lipner

 What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one idea. This main idea is usually located at
or near the beginning of the paragraph, but sometimes it appears in other places in the
paragraph. The rest of the sentences support or develop the main idea: they can be quotes,
explanations, proof, examples, causes, effects, comparisons, or contrasts. Sentences that
directly support the main idea are called major supporting details; sentences that expand on
major supporting details are called minor supporting details.

Different Paragraph Structures

1.
Main Idea

(Expansion / explanation of main idea)

Supporting Details

(Conclusion)

2.
Introduction / Supporting Details
Main Idea
Supporting Details

3.
Main Idea
Supporting Details

Main Idea

4.
Supporting Details
 Main Idea

5. Implied Main Idea

Supporting Details

6a. One Main Idea for 2 (or more) paragraphs: Type 1

Main Idea
Supporting Details

Supporting Details

(Main Idea)

6b. One Main Idea for 2 (or more) paragraphs: Type 2

Main Idea

Supporting Detail 1

Supporting Detail 2

What kind of information may be used as support?

 Examples and illustrations
 Data (facts, statistics, evidence from research, etc.)
 Quotes (what people say about the topic)
 Analysis of the topic
 Comparisons and contrasts
 Causes/reasons
  Effects/consequences
 Definition of terms
 Anecdote or story
Exercise 1
Read the following paragraph and fill in the information below describing its structure.

Health Care for the Poor

In view of the overwhelming health problems among the poor, it is important to make massive
efforts to prevent such problems, which is usually much less costly than treating them later on.
There are a couple of important approaches to take in working to prevent illness among the
poor. First of all, there should be a major focus on preventive health services to poor children
and their families. Such programs should include immunization schedules, along with parent
education on the need for such immunization and help in getting children to the clinics. The
clinics should emphasize dental care, an often neglected service. More extensive prenatal care
is needed. In addition, society must also fight the social conditions of poverty that breed
disease. We have to help more low-income people get better housing, free from the rats that
bite their babies and the lead paint that poisons their toddlers. We have to help people break
out of the cycle of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment if we are going to make the promise of
medical progress become a reality for all our citizens.

1. Copy the sentence from the paragraph that is the main idea. (Remember, the main idea is the
sentence that most or all of the other sentences support.)
________________________________________________________________

2. Fill in the major and minor supporting details: (A and B are the major details.)

A. ______________________________________________________________
1.___________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________
B. ______________________________________________________________
1. __________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________
 Exercise 2
Read the following paragraphs and underline the main ideas. Then answer the questions that
follow.
*Hint: If you are not sure if a sentence is the main idea, ask yourself: Does most or all of the
paragraph support this idea? If the answer is “yes,” then that is the main idea.

1. A growing body of experimental and human evidence has identified a number of significant
environmental risk factors as causes of cancer. They include past diagnostic and therapeutic
radiation; diets high in some fats and low in fresh fruits and vegetables; workplace exposure to
chemicals, dust, and fumes; pharmaceuticals; sunlight; and heavy alcohol drinking. Long-term, low-
level exposures to some environmental contaminants, such as small particulates, chlorination by-
products in domestic water, and organochlorine residues in animal and fish fat appear to increase the
risk of cancer in human populations, and extensive animal studies indicate a clear risk. Some
compounds may function by altering hormones, whereas others may directly affect gene expression.

Excerpted from: “An Ounce of Prevention” By D. L. Davis and H. P. Freeman, From Scientific American,
September 1994

What kind of support is there in this paragraph? ____________________________

2. In the face of danger, this short-lived reaction to stress helps you survive. If the stress response is
regularly tripped for the wrong reasons, however, it has the opposite effect. Indeed, researchers have
known for some time that chronic stress often leads directly to certain illnesses, including heart
disease, hypertension, depression, immune suppression and diabetes. Recently they have discovered
that stress also causes developmental abnormalities, unhealthy weight gain and neurodegeneration.
Fortunately, some of these new insights suggest better means for combating excess stress.

Excerpted from: “Don’t Stress” By K. Leutwyler, From Scientific American, January 1998

What is the function of the first sentence in the paragraph? _______________________

What is the function of the last sentence in the paragraph? _______________________

 3. Whatever the challenges of male-female friendship, researchers agree that to succeed as friends, both
genders have to openly and honestly negotiate exactly what their relationship will mean--whether sexual
attraction is a factor and how they'll deal with it--and establish boundaries. In Afifi's and Reeder's studies,
the friendships that survived--and even thrived--after sex or attraction came into play were those in which
the friends extensively discussed the meaning of the sexual activity and felt confident and positive about
each other's feelings. Once they got past that, they were home free. "If sex is part of the dynamic,
addressing it explicitly is the best strategy" for making sure the friendship survives, says Werking. "The
issue will fester if friends try to ignore it." So in the end, male-female friendship does have something in
common with romantic relationships: To work, communication is key. (Excerpted from: “Overcoming Sex:
Can Men and Women be Friends?” By C. Chaterjee,downloaded from
http://www.psychologytoday.com/menwomenfriends.html)

What 2 types of support are used in this paragraph? __________________________

Another pattern of paragraph structure: One main idea for several paragraphs
Sometimes, the main idea of a paragraph is developed in several paragraphs. That is, there is one
main idea for two or more paragraphs. This kind of structure may be used when each supporting
point is very long.
This structure may look like this:
a. Paragraph 1: Main Idea b. Paragraph 1: Last sentence of
First supporting detail paragraph = main idea
Paragraph 2: OR Paragraph 2:
Second supporting detail First supporting detail
Paragraph 3: Paragraph 3:
Third supporting detail Second supporting detail

Exercise 3
A. The paragraphs below, from an article on media violence, have one main idea. Read them, and
underline the main idea.
1. It is likely that all three of the explanations, the vested interests of the news media industry, a
misapplied fairness doctrine, and communication failures, are operative, in both the specific case of
research on media violence and aggression and more generally. The research community can do
relatively little about the first two. However, we believe that the research community can more
effectively present the research findings.

2. One major step would be to realize that the conservative scientist role and the public educator
role are two very different roles with different norms. When the U.S. Senate, CNN, The New York
Times, or the London Daily Observer asks researchers whether they believe that exposure to
violent media causes an increase in aggression, they are not asking for the overly conservative, self
defensive kind of answer that is appropriate when discussing their latest research projects at an
APA convention. They are asking for their opinions, based on their knowledge of the research
literature and their general knowledge of their scientific fields. This is not to say that scientists
should abandon all caution and deliver outlandish, quotable statements.

3. Another major step that researchers can take is to realize that the role of disseminating insights
gained from their research is a part of their job, along with restructuring evaluation systems so that
they explicitly include a public-education component. For the typical faculty member at a research
university, this suggests that departments need to add a public education efforts dimension to the
annual performance evaluations.

4. Finally, scientists must be willing to pay some of the unavoidable costs, both monetary and
personal, associated with educating the public. Other costs, such as time or having to deal with hate
mail, are costs that individual researchers may simply have to pay on their own. We believe that the
benefit to society of more effectively communicating to a broad general audience the knowledge
gained from psychological research is worth the cost.
Excerpted from: “Media Violence and the American Public: Scientific Facts Versus Media
Misinformation” By B.J. Bushman and C.A. Anderson, From American Psychologist, June/July 2001

B. Read the passage below and underline the main idea.

1. Observations by Dr. Morris and the staff of London Zoo have revealed that there are probably five main
ways in which animals try to overcome their monotony. The first is to invent new motor patterns for
themselves – new exercises, gymnastics, and so forth. They may also try to increase the complexity of
their environment by creating new stimulus situations. For example, large cats play with their food as
though it were a living animal, throwing up dead birds in the air, pursuing the carcass, and pouncing on it to
kill.

2. Alternatively, the animal may increase the quality of its reaction to normal stimuli. Hyper-sexuality is one
common response to this type of behavior. A fourth method, akin to some kinds of obsessive behavior in
man, is to increase the variability of its response to stimuli such as food. Many animals can be seen
playing, pawing advancing and retreating from their food before eating it: some even go further by
regurgitating it once eaten and then devouring it again, and so on. Lastly – and this kind of behavior can
most nearly be called neurotic – there is the development of full, normal responses to subnormal stimuli,
such as the camel's expression of sexual arousal when cigarette smoke is blown in its face, or the making
of mother substitutes out of straw, wood and such like.
The main idea of the passage is that _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Definitions in the Text

Technical and specialized terms are often defined in texts, since many readers are not familiar with
them. In the following sentences, underline the terms being defined once and the definitions twice.
Circle the clues in the sentences that helped you to find the definitions.

1. A buyer’s market refers to a market in which the quantity of goods for sale surpasses the
amount that consumers are willing and able to buy at the existing prices.
2. A simile is a comparison between two things that is signaled overtly by words such as like or as.
3. Sampling means taking snapshots of an audio or video signal at rapid intervals, usually tens of
thousands of times per second.
4. A fluegelhorn is a valved brass instrument resembling a bugle with a wide bell that is used in
jazz and commercial music.
5. Many linguists are interested in semantics, i.e., the study of the meaning of linguistic
expressions.
6. Homeostasis, that is, the tendency of living organisms to maintain a balanced internal state for
optimal operation, allows organisms to function in a wide variety of environmental conditions.
7. The process of changing from one key to another in music is known as modulation.
8. In the 1930’s, doctors dealing with uncontrollable, violent patients would sometimes perform a
lobotomy: they would drive a tool through the person’s eye socket in order to sever the nerves
that connect the frontal lobes of the brain to the brain region that controls emotions.
9. Many tragic events throughout history have been blamed on groupthink, or a phenomenon in
which people become so involved with a group that they lose their capacity for sound judgment
and independent thinking.
10. After a coup d’etat (a forceful and unlawful change of government), a new government might be
formed by a junta, or group of military officers ruling the country after seizing power.
11. Stagflation, which occurs when economic stagnation and inflation occur simultaneously, is very
difficult to eliminate once it starts.
12. Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer was well known for his genre paintings – scenes of everyday
life – as well as his portraits, among which is Girl with a Pearl Earring.
 13. Emoticons, text-based faces and objects often seen in e-mails, are used to help the reader of a
text understand the emotions of the writer.
14. Free trade, international trade between countries without government interference or
restrictions, stands in stark contrast to protectionist trade policies, whereby governments
interfere in international markets through price setting and supply quotas.

Strategies for Unknown Words

When you see words in a text that you don’t know,

ask yourself:

1. Can I understand the text without knowing the meaning of this word? If the answer is yes, then
ignore the word and keep on reading.

Example: The thief walked casually through the town, careful not to attract any attention.

2. What do I know about the word? Is it a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb? Is it a negative or
positive word?

Example: He was known to be a parsimonious person and therefore had almost no

friends.

3. Does the sentence give me any clues to the meaning of the word?

Example: The Japanese had been preparing secretly for Pearl Harbor, but the actual attack
was entirely overt.

4. Does the word itself give me any clues to its meaning? Do I know any part of the word?

Example: He did not wish to relive the unpleasant experience.

5. Does it sound like a word I know in Hebrew?

 Example: Inflation has been a serious problem in the twentieth century.
Example: The speaker told many anecdotes about his travels in India.

AFFIXES: PREFIXES and SUFFIXES

Many words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to the root word. Knowing the meanings of
the prefixes and suffixes can help you to understand the definitions of words formed in this way.
Below is a list of common prefixes and suffixes.

Prefix/Suffix Usual Meaning Examples

un-, non-, in- not unchanged, nonviolent, inexpensive,
il-, ir-, im-, a- illogical, irresponsible, impossible, atypical
in- inside inborn, innate, incoming
de-, dis- reverses action of defrost, disconnect
verb (not)
re- again redo, retry
ante-, pre- before antedate, preread
post- after postdate, postwar
anti-, against antiwar, contradict, counterargument,
contra-,
counter-
pro- in favor of, supports pro-business, pro-choice,
pro-conservation
inter- between international
intra- within intravenous, intranational
mid- middle midday, mid-sentence, midnight
mal- bad, ill malfunction, maltreat, malnourish
mis- in the wrong way misunderstand, misplace, misguided
multi-, poly- many multipurpose, multimillionaire
polysyllabic, polyglot, polytheism
semi- partly, half semicircle, semidarkness, semi-annual
super- great amounts, super-efficient, superman, superhuman,
bigger, better, etc. superpower, superstar
sub- below subtitle, subnormal, subhuman, subway
 tele- distant telephone, telescope, telepathy
uni-, mono- one uniform, unicycle, monopoly, monotone
bi- two bicycle, biannual
trans- across translate, transportation
co-, con-, together, with co-author, cooperate, cohabit, connect,
col-, com- consensus, collect, community
en-, -en make enrich, sweeten
-ology study of psychology, physiology, biology
-er, -or, person who carrier, actor, driver, policeman, biologist,
does/knows
-man, -ist, mathematician, Machiavellian
something/
-ian profession/
in the style of
-ful with, has the quality careful, beautiful, harmful
-less without careless, hopeless, rainless
-ify, -ize to make simplify, unify, dramatize, equalize
-able, -ible can, having ability avoidable, lovable, noticeable
Affixes with Two Different Meanings
fore- a) before b) in front forehead, foresee
out- a) outside b) to do outgoing, outbuilding, output
better or more outdo, outrun, outsmart, outstare
over- a) over overrule, overview
b) too much overconfident, overweight
under- a) under underwater, underwear
b) not enough underpay, underpriced, underestimate
ex- a) former ex-husband, ex-friend, exit, exceed, excel
b) out, more than,
extra- extra-large, extra-curricular
very, outside
-ee a) someone who is employee, examinee, payee, interviewee,
affected by an action
absentee, divorcee, escapee
b) someone who
does an action
Suffixes often tell us what part of speech a word is:
Noun Markers Verb Markers** Adjective Markers Adverb Markers
*ment–improvement ate – liberate *al – accidental ly - slowly
*ness – happiness fy, ify – satisfy *ic – tragic
*ship – partnership ize – visualize able/ible–acceptable
*(a)tion (sion, cion) – en – weaken *ive – protective
celebration, politician
er/or – teacher *ous – serious
*ity – abnormality ful – peaceful
*ance/ence– **All of these verb less – homeless (without)
independence suffixes mean: “to
make”
WELCOME TO THE 21st CENTURY – THE CENTURY OF “LESS”!!

In this century,

Communication-Wireless Complaints-Baseless
Phones-Cordless Youth-Jobless
Cooking-Fireless Ladies-Topless
Food-Fatless Boss-Brainless
Sweets-Sugarless Jobs-Thankless
Labour-Effortless Needs-Endless
Relations-Fruitless Situation-Hopeless
Attitude-Careless Brain-Useless
Feelings-Heartless Salaries-Less & Less
Politics-Shameless
Education-Worthless
Mistakes-Countless
Exercise 1 Based on your knowledge of prefixes and suffixes, divide the bold words into their
components (roots + affixes), and then define them according to their meanings in the
sentences.
1. World War II happened because an amoral leader outmaneuvered his opponents and
came into power.
The word "amoral" means Lack of morality. Prefix "a" help us understand the word.
The word "outmaneuvered" means Maneuvering action. Prefix "out" and suffix "ed" help
us understand the word.

2. We have organized most of this clothing into categories, but some of these items are
unclassifiable – some of them are even unrecognizable!
The word "unclassifiable" means Cannot be classified. Prefix "un" and suffix "able" help
us understand the word.
The word "unrecognizable" means Cannot be recognizing. Prefix "un" and suffix "able"
help us understand the word.
3. The building collapsed when it was finished because no one had the forethought to
redesign the foundation after the top floors were changed.
The word "forethought" means Dedicate thought first. Prefix "fore" help us understand the
word.
The word "redesign" means Renew design. Prefix "re" help us understand the word.

4. Intraparty politics and the party leader’s lack of interpersonal skills caused the party
to call new elections.
The word "Intraparty" means Multiple faces. Prefix "in" help us understand the
word.
The word "interpersonal" means Personal contact. Prefix "inter" help us understand the
word.

5. The computer malfunctioned because there was a misprint in the instructions, and
people misused it.
The word "malfunctioned" means fault. suffix "ed" help us understand the word.
The word "misprint" means Typo. Prefix "mis" help us understand the word.
The word "misused" means Bad use. Prefix "mis" and suffix "ed" help us understand the
word.
6. The students sat in a semicircle, watching the film in the semidarkness.
The word "semicircle" means half circle. Prefix "semi" help us understand the word.
The word "semidarkness" means half dark. Prefix "semi" and suffix "ness"
help us understand the word.

7. With telecommunications technology, it is possible to transmit information from one

country to another.
The word "telecommunications" means Technology for distance electronic
communication. Prefix "tele" and suffix "s" help us understand the word.
The word "transmit" means Message delivery. suffix "it" help us understand the word.
8. Due to his overconfidence, the accountant underestimated the amount of money
needed for expenses and exceeded the budget by millions of dollars.
The word "overconfidence" means Lots of confidence. Prefix "over" help us understand
the word.
The word "underestimated" means Expressed contempt. Prefix "un" and suffix "ed" help
us understand the word.
The word "exceeded" means He deviated. Prefix "ex" help us understand the word.

9. The writer’s style was Agnonian.

The word "Agnonian" means Writes like Shai Agnon. suffix "an" help
us understand the word.

10. If we enlarge this room, it will enable us to have more company.

The word "enlarge" means have increased something. Prefix "en" help
us understand the word.
The word "enable" means to Allows something. Prefix "en" help
us understand the word.

11. The musician’s flawless performance seemed effortless.

The word "flawless" means to be perfect. suffix "less" help
us understand the word.
The word "effortless" means No need a lot effort. suffix "less" help
us understand the word.

Exercise 2
Choose the word that best replaces the underlined word(s). Circle your choice
Example: John is too heavy.
* underweight * overweigh * mid-weight
t
1. The child has only become poorly accustomed to the new situation.
 * re-adjusted * well-adjusted * mal-adjusted

2. The new advertising seems to be having the opposite effect in regard to increasing sales.
* counterproductive * reproductive * underproductive

3. Snow storms can immobilize community services like home nursing and garbage collection.
* enable * disable * unable

4. The word ‘port’ comes from a Latin word that means ‘bring’ or ‘convey.’ Thus, a ‘seaport’
or an ‘airport’ is a place where objects are brought into a country or conveyed out.
* exported * imported * reported

5. When a person is unwillingly sent out of a country, we may not be sorry to see him go.
* supported * imported * deported

6. The file was supposed to be in the Desktop folder, but it was incorrectly put in My Documents.
* misplaced * replaced * pre-positioned

7. Some pupils dislike the classroom because they are overly restless.
* hyper-active * super-intelligent * ultra-modern

8. Many people who have lived a regular life find that when they reach the age of fifty, they
bemoan a sense of boredom and yearn for new experiences.
* non-life * pro-life * mid-life
9. My sister-in-law is divorced, but her former spouse is trying to get custody of the children.
* extradition * ex-husband * ex-manager

10. My father worked 16 hours a day, five days a week, in a factory for a small hourly wage.
He was underpaid and driven too hard.
* anti-labor * overworked * disallow
Adapted from: Words to Texts©2008 by Eli Ben-Joseph (pp. 26-29). All Rights Reserved.
 Guessing Vocabulary from Context / Context Clues
Below is a list of clues in texts that may help you guess the meanings of unknown words.
1. Explanations and Definitions: Sometimes an explanation or definition of a word is
given in a text; if you keep reading, the meaning becomes clear.

Example: The hippocampus, which is located in the medial temporal lobe of the
brain, is an important structure in memory processing.
Example: The salesman was very garrulous, talking endlessly about various
insignificant things.
Example: Plankton, i.e., minute plants and animals that float in the ocean, are a
significant source of food for many fish.
2. Examples: Examples of something may help you understand what it is; if you don’t
understand the example, knowing what it exemplifies may help you understand the
word.

Example: Such flowers as cyclamens and anemones are native to Israel.

Punctuation: Colons (:), dashes (-), commas (, ,), parentheses ( ), and semi-
colons (;) may mean that an example or explanation will follow.

Example: During the festival, the park was filled with vehicles of all types – cars,
trucks, buses, and motorcycles.
3. Cause/Effect: Understanding a cause/effect relationship in a text may help you
understand the meaning of an unknown word.

Example: The student’s writing was so incoherent that the teacher couldn’t understand a
single word of it.
4. Synonyms: Instead of repeating the same word in a text, writers will often use
synonyms. If you understand the synonym, you’ll understand the word.

Example: Proponents of legalizing drugs believe that it will result in less crime and
supporters of keeping drugs illegal believe that legalizing drugs will lead to more
crime.
5. Antonyms and Contrast: When you know what something is not, then you can
understand what it is.

Example: Tony thought his criticism was justified, but it was gratuitous.
Example: Although Ron was generally quite malleable, this time he refused to give
in.
6. Words in a Series: When words appear in a series in a sentence, they generally
have similar meanings.

Example: Most students go to university with the hope that it will lead to a lucrative,
profitable and rewarding job.

7. General Meaning of the Text: The general meaning of the text can help you
understand the meanings of unfamiliar words.

Example: The context of this word makes its meaning apparent.

Exercise 1. What is the meaning of the words in bold print? Circle your choice or
complete.

1.Assets such as good health, a loving family and a job you enjoy make life rewarding.
Assets are: a. things of value b. rewards on the job c. helpful people

2.Dan was nervous about answering detective Miller’s queries. Why was he
asking so many questions anyway?
Queries are: a. facts b. questions c. charges

3. Most of my history teacher’s lectures were tedious, but the one about what really
happened on Paul Revere’s famous ride was very interesting.
Tedious means: a. interesting b. long c. boring

4.The student’s writing was so incoherent that the teacher couldn’t understand a
single word of it.
Incoherent means: a. clear b. disconnected c. intelligible

5. Most Americans believe in the values of justice, democracy, and egalitarianism.

Egalitarianism means: a. advantage b. equality c. elitism

6. Helen was glad she had ample time to get ready for the afternoon exam. Then she
discovered her watch was incorrect – she was actually late for the test.
Ample means: a. no b. a lot c. little
7. Experts in kinesics, in their study of body motion as related to communication, hope to
discover new methods of human interaction.

Kinesics is ________________________________________________________
Exercise 2 The paragraph below is missing some words. Read the paragraph and try
to get the general idea. Answer the questions after the paragraph.
In Japan, the _______________ custom had survived revolutions, world wars,
industrialization and even the American occupation. Up until the mid-1960’s, Japanese
parents arranged proper marriages for their children through trusted
_________________. The ceremony was then ___________________, according to
Shinto law, by the bride and groom both drinking rice wine from the same wooden bowl.
This simple arrangement had _________________ for more than a millenium. There
was no tradition of romance, ________________, seduction and _______________ love
in Japan; and no tradition that required the gift of a diamond ________________ ring.
Then, in 1967, halfway around the world, a South African diamond company
________________ J. Walter Thompson, the largest advertising agency in the world, to
_____________ on a campaign to ________________ diamond engagement rings in
Japan. It was not an easy _______________. Even the millions of American soldiers
who lived in Japan for a decade had not resulted in any _________________ interest in
giving diamonds as a _________________ of love.
1. a. Which Japanese custom is described in this text?
Complete: This custom has to do with _________________________________.

b. How old is this custom? ___________________________________________

2. TRUE/ FALSE? Parents arranged marriages for their children through people they
had never met before.

3. Why did the bride and groom drink rice wine from the same wooden bowl?
___________________________________________________________________

4. Complete: Such elements as _______________________________ were not

necessary for the Japanese marriage.

5. What new custom was brought to Japan in the 1960s?

___________________________________________________________________

6. The text mentions two companies. What are they?

_________________________ __________________________

What is the relationship between them? ______________________________________

7. Complete: It was quite difficult to_________________________________________

Here is the entire paragraph. Read it, and try to guess the meanings of the
underlined words, which were missing above.

In Japan, the matrimonial custom had survived revolutions, world wars, industrialization

and even the American occupation. Up until the mid-1960’s, Japanese parents arranged

proper marriages for their children through trusted intermediaries. The ceremony was

then consummated, according to Shinto law, by the bride and groom both drinking rice

wine from the same wooden bowl. This simple arrangement had persisted for more than

a millenium. There was no tradition of romance, courtship, seduction and prenuptial love

in Japan; and no tradition that required the gift of a diamond engagement ring. Then, in

1967, halfway around the world, a South African diamond company retained J. Walter

Thompson, the largest advertising agency in the world, to embark on a campaign to

popularize diamond engagement rings in Japan. It was not an easy task. Even the

millions of American soldiers who lived in Japan for a decade had not resulted in any

substantial interest in giving diamonds as a token of love.

Text excerpted from: The Diamond Invention, by Edward Jay Epstein,

downloaded from http://www.edwardjayepstein.com/diamond/prologue.htm

Exercise by Minna Lipner

Questions by Dr. Anna Lyubman
 Dictionary Use

Exercise 1. . Use your dictionary to translate the underlined words (words with different
meanings). Indicate what part of speech they are.

1 a. Sam wasn’t content until he was sure that all the children were safe.
content: _____________________ _________
b. The programme was entertaining but had little content.
content: ____________________ _________
2 a. The students showed perfect discipline during the ceremony.
discipline: ____________________ _________
b. We discipline students who never work.
discipline: _______________________ ________
c. Courses in disciplines such as biology, chemistry and physics are part of John’s
scientific training at the University.
discipline: _____________________ __________
3. a. President Obama succeeded President Bush.
succeed: ______________________ _________
b. All the students succeeded in the final examination.
succeed: __________________________ _______
4. a. Have you seen the movie “The Sound of Music”?
sound: ____________________________ _________
b. Thank you for your sound advice on this issue!
sound:________________________ ___________
5. a. His illness stems from the period he lived in tropics.
stem: ________________________ __________
b. He cut the stems of the flowers.
stem: __________________________ ________
6.  a. He sprang to his feet when he heard about his admission into college.
sprang _________________________ _________
7. b. The spring broke, that’s why the handle of this door won’t hold.
spring ___________________________ _________
handle ___________________________ _________
c. The manager was unable to handle the situation anymore, so he resigned.
handle __________________________ _________
8. a. You must never abandon a friend in trouble.
abandon __________________________ _________
b. Idan Raichel’s singing is so emotional; he sings with so much abandon.
 abandon __________________________ _________
9. a. His reckless behavior may compromise the situation.
compromise _________________________ _________
b. Nobody ever gets everything one wants; we must all make compromises in life.
compromise ___________________________ _________
 10. a. The fallen trees bar the road so vehicles are directed to alternative roads.
bar ___________________________ _________
b. Would you like to go to a coffee bar now?
bar ___________________________ _________
by Dr. Anna Lyubman and L. Kravits

Subject: Examples and Uses

I, Subject (n.)
1. -What is the subject of the article?
-Mark studies a variety of subjects.
2. The subjects of this experiment were college students aged 20 – 25.
3. All the king’s subjects were ordered to gather on the main square of the
town.
II. Subject to (adj.)/ Be subject to
1. i. -The child is subject to colds in winter.
-In recent years, she has been subject to attacks of depression.
ii. -People in this area are subject to changes in the weather.
-The Yanomami are subject to environmental stress.
2. We are all subject to the laws of this country.
III. Subject (v.)
-Police subjected the suspect to hours of interrogation.
-Jane didn’t want to subject her little child to such a long journey.
-According to recent research, children under three years should not be
subjected to daycare.

Reference

What are references?

References are words that point (refer) to other words in the text – either one word, a group of
words, or a sentence (or sentences). Usually the word refers to something mentioned before it in
the text, but sometimes it refers to something that comes after it.

How do you know what the reference points to?

If you are not sure of what is being referred to by the reference word, try the substitution test:
Replace the reference word with the word(s) you think it points to and then read the sentence to
see if it makes sense in the context.

Examples:
-Stress is experienced differently by different people, but it does cause a number of physiological
changes in the body.
The reference word “it” refers back to “stress.”

-Though it may be tricky, men and women can successfully become close friends.
The reference word “it” refers forward to “men and women can successfully become close
friends.”

Some Common Reference Words:

Read the sentences below, and underline the referents for the reference words in bold.

1. it (they)

Example: Healthy alternatives to sugar exist, and they need to be made more accessible to
the public.

2. this (these), that (those)

Example: Some educational researchers maintain that early intervention programs for
disadvantaged children have long-term benefits. Other researchers disagree with this.

Example: Some educational researchers believe that early intervention can help
disadvantaged children and that decreasing class size in their schools will lead to enhanced
educational results. However, these ideas are the subject of much debate.
3. one (ones)

Example: There are many factors that may result in an innocent suspect being found guilty.
One is public pressure to catch the criminal.

4. such (+ noun)

Example: The number of hours people sleep may vary widely. Such variation may be the
result of various factors, such as different lifestyles and physical needs.

5. so

Example: Before reading a text, it is important to read the title and subtitles. Doing so may
help you understand the main idea.

6. the former, the latter

Example: Researchers compared orphaned rats and rats with mothers. The former were
found to have more cell death in several brain regions.

Example: Although Japanese students outperform Americans at early stages of education,

the latter catch up and even surpass the former in university.

7. there, then

Example: During World War II, 70% of the buildings in Berlin were destroyed by bombs.
People living there then lived in terrible conditions.
By Minna Lipner

Exercises 1

In the paragraphs below, what do the underlined words refer to in the text? Write your answers in
 the spaces below.

Two lawyers received a short notice asking them to prepare a report over the weekend. Each
had to do extensive research in a short period of time, but their reaction was different. The
stressed one experienced headaches and stomach upsets and could barely handle the
assignment. At the same time, the other saw it as a challenge and, being more relaxed,
completed a brilliant report. Obviously, perceiving a threatening situation the way the latter lawyer
perceived it enables one to perform such missions. (From: "The Power of Stress")

them _______________ it ________________

each ________________ latter _______________

one ________________ it __________________

other __________________ such ________________

By Esther Eisenberg
Exercise 2
Read the sentences below and answer the questions after each sentence. Identifying references
will help you find the answers.
1. It is not merely desirable but essential for a teacher to have a genuine capacity for sympathy—in
the literal meaning of that word; a capacity to tune in to the minds and feelings of other people,
especially, since most teachers are school teachers, to the minds and feelings of children. Closely
related with this is the capacity to be tolerant – not, indeed, of what is wrong, but of the frailty and
immaturity of human nature that induce people, and especially children, to make mistakes.
Which two qualities of a teacher are closely connected?
______________________________________________________________________
2. The nineteenth century saw the sudden growth of many cities with populations ranging from
100,000 to 8 million. An important reason for this development lies with the great advances in
technology that came during the second half of the eighteenth century and during the nineteenth
century.
What was one of the effects of the great advances in technology during the nineteenth century?
______________________________________________________________________
3. At about 3 months of age, a baby is likely to smile if somebody comes close and talks to him. This
shows that he is aware of the approach of the other person, that pleasurable sensations are
aroused.
 What kind of reaction shows that the baby is aware of the approach of another person?
______________________________________________________________________

4. Democratic discipline uses punishments and rewards, with more emphasis on rewards.
Punishments are never harsh. They are used where children willfully disobey their parents.
How do parents react when children refuse to obey them?
______________________________________________________________________

5. In the debate on genetically engineered food, proponents argue that such products will be
essential if we are too feed the world.
According to some researchers, what will be necessary to solve the problem of food shortage
and feed the world?
______________________________________________________________________________
6. According to the traditional assumptions about earning and buying, if people who have money
expect prices to go up, they will hasten to buy; If they expect prices to go down, they will postpone
buying. But research surveys have shown that latter is not always true.
Which traditional attitude is not supported by research data?
______________________________________________________________________
7. The employees were offered either a salary rise or a car. Most chose the former.
What did most workers prefer? ________________________________________________
Adapted from: Build It Up, by A. Levine, B. Oded, and S. Statman, Aviv Printers.

Exercise 3 WHAT’S HIDDEN BEHIND THE COLORED LENSES?

From Scientific American, May 1990
1. Wearers of rose-colored glasses are cheery, or so the cliché goes. But there may also be a
darker side to this. Many British physicians have long suspected that patients who favor tinted
lenses are abnormally prone to depression and hypochondria. So Robert Howard of the Maudsley
Hospital in London decided to test this notion. "I thought it was unfair to keep saying this without
any real proof," he says.
2. Howard and a colleague, Roland M. Valori, conducted an experiment with patients admitted to
local hospitals for physical complaints, such as heart pain and digestive distress. They gave
psychological tests to 20 patients who wore tinted glasses – ranging from lightly tinted to dark –
and 20 patients whose age and diagnosis were similar.
3. The researchers reported their findings in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. Their
conclusion: Tinted-glasses wearers displayed significantly higher levels of depression and
psychosomatic illness than the control subjects, as well as more obsessive-compulsiveness,
phobic anxiety, paranoia and even psychosis.
4. What underlies the correlation? Howard and Valori favor a theory set forth by physician
Patrick D. Trevor-Roper in his 1984 book The Eye and Its Disorders. He speculated that
"neurotics" wear tinted glasses in the hope that they will protect or conceal their "frail
sensibilities…from the light of day." Ironically, the glasses serve instead to "advertise" the
wearer's problems, Trevor-Roper noted.
5. In a letter to be published in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Howard asks U.S.
psychiatrists whether they have encountered anything like the tinted-glass phenomenon. He
suspects Americans who wear tinted glasses may have different symptoms. He observes, for
example, that the British rarely wear nonprescription sunglasses, whereas many Americans seem
to do so "as a kind of macho thing." He is particularly interested in Americans who wear mirrored
sunglasses. "I think you would probably find a high incidence of borderline personalities there," he
says.
6. "A lot of people have become very upset since the article was published," Howard remarks. It
didn't help that one London tabloid interpreted the finding to mean that anyone wearing colored
eyeglasses could be a psychotic killer. So far, two tinted glasses wearers have sent Howard hate
mail.
7. Howard also noted that four of his eight colleagues at the Maudsley Hospital once wore tinted
glasses (they stopped after his article appeared.) This fact seems to support another bit of
folklore: that psychiatrists are often as disturbed as their patients. "That's an obvious extrapolation
of our results," says Howard who is a psychiatrist, "but I don't really feel qualified to comment on
that."
Answer the following questions. Pay attention to the use of reference words.

1. In his study, Robert Howard wanted to test the idea that

__________________________________________________________________

2. Par. 4: “What underlies the correlation?” Which correlation is the writer referring to?
_________________________________________________________________

3. What does Patric Trevor-Roper see as ironic about wearers of tinted glasses?

Wearers of tinted glasses____________________ Yet, by wearing tinted glasses, they

_______________________________________.

4. Unlike British, Americans ___________________________________ to look

more man-like.

5. Who may have “borderline personalities”? _____________________________

6. a) What is Howard not ready to discuss? _______________________________

b) What fact supports this (your answer in 6a)? ______________________

________________________________________________________________

7. What is the main idea of the text?

a. American wearers of tinted glasses are as neurotic as British users.

b. Most psychologists are as disturbed as their patients.
c. Psychotic killers usually wear tinted eyeglasses.
d. Wearers of tinted glasses may be more depressed

Sentence Structure
UNDERSTANDING DIFFICULT SENTENCES: SENTENCE STRUCTURE
 Simple Sentences
Exercise 1: Label the subjects and verbs in the following sentences.
1. The use of animal organs for transplantation into humans has traditionally met with failure.
2. Jonathan Allen, a virologist at the South-West Foundation for Biomedical Research in San
Antonio, Texas, was recently quoted in Time magazine.
3. Over the last several decades, public awareness of the medical feasibility of organ
transplantation as a viable means of prolonging human life has increased.
4. This awareness, combined with a strong desire on the part of the medical establishment to
promote the technique of transplants, has resulted in the creation of a demand for suitable
donor organs that has far outstripped the limited supply.
5. Bored with hearing the same material explained again and again, the student looked for
alternative means of stimulation.
6. Attempting to add to the literature on weight disorders, the researchers studied a college
student sample of overweight men and women on diets to determine which factors lead to
successful weight loss.
7. Writing about citizens and their voluntary services to the needy is a good way to record official
appreciation.
8. What all these events have in common is that they interfere with or threaten our accustomed
way of life.
9. Whether a particular stimulus will be stressful depends on a person’s subjective appraisal of
that stimulus.
10. That the failure of the educational system in America is caused by the irrelevance of what is
taught in school is emphasized by Goodman, a prominent educator.

NOUN GROUPS
A noun group is made up of a noun + all the words describing (modifying) it. There are several
different types of modifiers:

1. Adjectives:
nice friendly country; calm careful driver;
incompetent, corrupt, oppressive and unrepresentative government

2. V+ing form:
boring lecturer; developing country; convincing evidence

3. V3 forms:
bored student; wasted day; developed country; manufactured goods
*Combinations: privately owned press; fairly untroubled life; commonly held belief

4. Nouns: In any noun-noun group, the second noun is the head noun and the first noun
describes the second noun.
housework workhouse
school day day school
price list list price
horse race race horse
mortgage bank bank mortgage

5. Prepositional Phrases:
the car in the garage; the book about the pioneers; the man with the mustache in
the classroom

*Below is a list of some common prepositions:

about above across after among around
at before behind below beneath beside
between by down during except for
from in into of off on
over through to toward under up
with

Exercise 1. Identify the main noun in each of the underlined NOUN GROUPS.
1.The university entrance test on grammar and spelling was given in the administration
building.
 2. The Knesset law committee chairman added his voice to the chorus of critics of the
proposed legislation about stricter punishments for repeat offenders.
3. The exhausted London city tour guide is waiting for the lost group from Brazil in the tourist
information office on the corner.
Exercise 2. Rewrite the following:
1. suggestion for the improvement of the restaurant of the university
__________________________________________
2. party for the staff of the department
__________________________________________
3. letter of news of the organization
__________________________________________
4. campaign for the prevention of accidents
__________________________________________
5. committee for the curriculum of the department of history
__________________________________________

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

An adjective clause is a group of words containing a verb that describes a noun. It comes after
the noun it is describing. It is marked by the words who, whom, whose, which, that, when,
where.
The markers are used to describe different things:
Who/whom – to describe a person
Whose – to show possession
Which – to describe a thing (‫)דומם‬
That – to describe a person OR a thing
When – to describe a time
Where – to describe a place

Examples: The students who worked hard passed the test.

The student whose book was lost used his computer.
The movie which was reviewed on the website came out this week.
The friend that I told you about passed his driving test.
The day when I married you was the happiest day of my life!
The house where I was born has fallen down.
Identifying adjective clauses can help you in 2 ways:

1. It may help you find the main verb of the sentence – because you will know that the verb in
the adjective clause is NOT the main verb of the sentence.

2. If you have a long, hard sentence, you can first put the adjective clauses into parentheses in order to
shorten the sentence; then read the sentence without the adjective clauses and get the main
message; and finally, add in the adjective clauses.

Exercise 1: Circle the adjective clauses in the sentences below, and draw an arrow to the words that
they modify. Then underline the main verb of the sentence. The first one has been done for you.

1. Thirty-four percent of people who said they never got sleepy during the day performed
like a person with sleep apnea.
2. Reductions in the number of people who were suffering from infectious diseases stemmed
from public health programs that kept these afflictions from occurring in the first place.
3. According to the latest report, husbands who kill their wives are not treated more leniently than
men who kill strangers, despite the media myth to the contrary.
4. Virtually anything that sends the patient one of four messages – someone is listening to me;
other people care about me; my symptoms are explainable; my symptoms are controllable –
can bring measurable improvements in health.
5. The patients who said their doctors had listened closely to them also reported getting more
relief, and the difference was still measurable a year after the visit.
6. Sometimes the best strategy is to join a patient support group, where you can share your story
and learn from those of people in the same predicament.

REDUCED ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Sometimes, the adjective clause marker (who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where) and the verb
be are taken out. In other words, the adjective clause is reduced (made shorter).

Examples:
- The idea that the teacher explained was important for understanding the text.
 The idea the teacher explained was important for understanding the text.
 - The doctor who was available in the emergency room had not yet finished his training.
 The doctor available in the emergency room had not yet finished his training.
- The flowers which are blooming in the garden are my favorites.
 The flowers blooming in the garden are my favorites.
- The car that was taken by the thieves was found in an abandoned field.
 The car taken by the thieves was found in an abandoned field.

How can we identify reduced adjective clauses?

1. The most important way is by reading to the end of the sentence and seeing which words
go together.

2. There are some patterns to look for:

noun + Ving (example 3);

noun + V3 (with no helping verb) – (example 4);
noun + V3 + by… (with no helping verb); and
noun + adjective (example 2).

When you see these patterns, you know that the words after the noun are an adjective clause
modifying the noun.

Exercise 2: Circle the reduced adjective clauses in the following sentences. Then draw arrows to
the nouns that they modify.
1. Higher education obtained at a young age is often considered the key to economic stability.
2. One of the customers at McDonald’s sued the company for damages done in the course of
drinking hot coffee in her car.
3. The cookies made with whole wheat flour were uneaten at the end of the day.
4. The prison inmates were brought to the court by the policeman known to be kind.
5. Ballet dancers struggling to maintain slim, graceful bodies often suffer from eating problems.
6. The researchers investigating language problems visited the schools attended by children with
special needs in order to observe firsthand the influence of new techniques designed to
alleviate language problems.

Exercise 3. Read the following paragraph. Take all the adjective groups out, and translate the main idea
into Hebrew.

Dynamite
 On April 13, 1888, Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist and industrialist, who twenty years earlier had
mixed a capricious, extremely powerful oil called nitroglycerine with kieselguhr, a diatomaceous
earth, to create a baton shaped explosive which he called dynamite, woke to read his own
obituary in a French newspaper. The notice, placed inadvertedly instead of the obituary of an
older brother, who had died the previous day, described Nobel as a “merchant of death” whose
work with explosives was responsible, to a great extent, for Europe’s accelerating arms race.
_____________________________________________________________________________
From Bryan D. Salvatore ‘The Vehement Fire’

Expanded (Complex) Sentences

Exercise 1: Divide the following sentences into separate sentences. Circle the subordinators that
mark the beginnings of new sentences.
1. If there were no wireless internet access on the campus, the students would be very unhappy
despite the fact that this change might help them concentrate better during class.
2. After people have experienced a traumatic event, such as a car accident or terrorist attack,
they often seek help in the form of psychotherapy in the hope that this therapy will help them
overcome the distress that they feel as a result of their ordeal.
3. As people become more environmentally aware, they have started using environmentally
friendly products in their daily lives since they realize that the changes they make can have a
cumulative long-term impact on the world that we live in.
4. Because diet programs such as Atkins and Weight Watchers are advertised aggressively,
they are very popular even though these diet programs involve a slow initial weight loss period
before people can achieve their weight-loss goals.

CONNECTIVES

I. Read the following two paragraphs. Which one is clearer? Why?

1. Throughout the centuries, groups developed the ability to survive in certain climates. Various peoples may share
certain physical characteristics. They come from very diverse racial backgrounds. American Plains Indians,
Ethiopians, and Northern Europeans share the trait of a high-bridged, narrow nose. They all developed in cold, dry
climates or higher altitudes. A high, narrow nose is an advantage under these conditions. It allows the air in the
nasal passage to be moisturized before entering the lungs. The physical characteristics of these peoples are
conducive to their survival.

Circle the words in the paragraph below that don’t appear in the first paragraph.

2. Throughout the centuries, groups developed the ability to survive in certain climates. As a result, various
peoples may share certain physical characteristics even though they come from very diverse racial backgrounds.
American Plains Indians, Ethiopians, and Northern Europeans, for instance, share the trait of a high-bridged, narrow
nose because they all developed in cold, dry climates or higher altitudes. A high, narrow nose is an advantage
under these conditions, for it allows the air in the nasal passage to be moisturized before entering the lungs. Thus
the physical characteristics of these people are conducive to their survival.

II. Quickly scan the following paragraph. What is it about? How is it organized?

There are several cultural reasons why the aged are stigmatized and oppressed in American society. One reason is
that the members of our society are obsessed with youth. We have traditionally associated certain highly valued
traits with youth: beauty, health, happiness, usefulness, etc. Second, in our rapidly changing, highly technical
society, old people are considered unnecessary. Finally, the elderly are non-producers in a society where
production translates into value.
Adapted from: Ten Steps to Advancing College Reading Skills, by J. Langan, Townsend Press, NJ 1993

III. Try to predict the continuation of the following sentences. What helped you to guess?

1. Although I left my house late this morning, _______________________________

2. Sharona decided to go to the party because _____________________________

Connectives, which are also known as transitions or markers, have several functions:
*They connect ideas and show relationships.
*They can help us understand the organization of paragraphs and texts.
*They may help us predict what will come next in the text.

Exercise 1. Circle the connective word that best fits the context. Then indicate the relationship
between the ideas.
1. Many products are named after people. (However / For example / Whereas), the guillotine is
named after Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, an 18th-century French medic and politician, who
proposed beheading as a more humane method of capital punishment.
Relationship: ______________________________

2. Originally, type was set by hand, one letter at a time. Today, (therefore / in contrast / for
instance), computers do much of this work.
Relationship: ______________________________

3. The fire had quickly destroyed nearby telephone lines. (Consequently / Because /
Nevertheless), witnesses were unable to call the fire department to report the blaze.
Relationship: ______________________________

4. Advances in medical technology have forced doctors to redefine when death actually occurs.
(As a result / In addition / Previously), the definition of death had seemed simple.
Relationship: ______________________________

5. Paranoid people often believe that someone is plotting against them. (Moreover / Despite this
/ Before), they may believe that everyone is talking about and staring at them.
Relationship: ______________________________

6. Many people in the company had to work overtime in September (because / indeed / as well
as) many of them took summer vacations in August.
Relationship: ______________________________

7. You must maintain your car regularly by changing the oil. (Similarly / On the contrary /
Therefore), you must watch what you eat and exercise to maintain your health.
Relationship: ______________________________

Study the following table:

*Words with more than one meaning
 TIME / ORDER ADDITION COMPARISON CONTRAST
*first one *like *but
*then not only(…but also) just like however
*next also just as…so yet
*since besides equally although
before apart from correspondingly (even) though
after aside from *as (…as) instead
*as as well as likewise rather than
until too similar(ly) still
previously another/other neither…nor conversely
*while in addition *both nevertheless
when additionally in the same way nonetheless
often moreover in a similar way notwithstanding
frequently furthermore in a similar on the other hand
rarely *next fashion/manner despite
seldom firstly, second(ly) in spite of
*first, second, third *while
first of all, second of in contrast (to)
all on the contrary
last of all unlike
finally more than
And (tall)er…than
*(both) whereas

ILLUSTRATION CAUSE (REASON) EFFECT (RESULT)

*like *as consequently
for example *since as a consequence
for instance for as a result
to illustrate because (of) result in
such as stem from resulting
*thus arise from bring about
including result from cause
that is as a result of lead to
e.g. as a consequence of therefore
i.e. on account of *thus
namely owing to so
specifically due to such/so…that (C+E)
in particular on the grounds that *then
a case in point inasmuch as hence
: if…(*then) (C +E) thereby
- originate in accordingly
( ) has its roots in give rise to

Cause and Effect

Connectives / transition / markers of cause indicate that the reason for something will follow, and
transitions of effect show that the result of something will follow.

Note that sometimes the cause comes first, and sometimes the effect comes first. There
is no difference in meaning.
 Sick people who laugh a lot may recover more quickly because laughter increases the
production of new immune cells in the body.
 Because laughter increases the production of new immune cells in the body, sick people who
laugh a lot may recover more quickly.
Cause Effect
_________________________________  ___________________________________

Sometimes, there is more than one cause, or more than one effect.
 Some scientists believe that in the coming century, there will be more droughts as well as
rising sea levels due to global warming.
Cause(s) Effect(s)

__________________________________ ___________________________________
 Violent conflicts and political or religious persecution in a country may result in increased
immigration to more peaceful or tolerant regions.
Cause(s) Effect(s)

___________________________________ ____________________________________

In some cases, a marker of time may indicate a cause/effect relationship.

 When it rains a lot in the desert, there are flash floods.
Cause Effect
_________________________________  ___________________________________
Sometimes there is a cause/effect relationship with no explicit marker of cause/effect. In many
cases, the verbs indicate the relationship.
Some words that may indicate cause/effect relationships:
trigger necessitate produce influence overwhelm
disrupt disturb contribute create attribute
 Lots of exercise and fresh air contributed to Sam’s quick recovery.
 Cause Effect
________________________________  ____________________________________
Exercise 2: Circle the marker that shows cause or effect. Answer the question.
1. As a consequence of his bad behavior, he was confined to his room for the evening.
- What was the result of his behaving badly?
______________________________________________________
2. Due to the devaluation, Tomer no longer had enough money to fly home.
- What caused Tomer's problem?
____________________________________________________
3. Inasmuch as a six day week is tiring, it makes sense to introduce a shorter working week.
- What is the cause of the problem?
__________________________________________________
4. New measures have been introduced, since most of the workers are dissatisfied.
- What did the workers' complaints result in?
__________________________________________________
5. The fact that Karl Marx had an illegitimate son was not known in his lifetime because the
Socialists wanted to protect his reputation.
In an attempt to protect Marx’s reputation, the Socialist party __________________
___________________________________________________________________
6. Owing to the fact that academic achievements demanded of the lower-class child are beyond
his or her capacity, it is common to find pupils with a sense of alienation from school or with bitter
resentment against the middle class personnel who staff the school system.
What are the consequences of the high academic demands on children from lower classes?
____________________________________________________________
7. Dehydration stems from lack of liquids in the body.
- What is the cause of dehydration?
_________________________________________________
8. Nine-tenth of the serious controversies which arise in life result from misunderstandings.
What causes most controversies?
___________________________________________________________________
9. Her claim was rejected by the board on the grounds that she had not paid her premium.
Why did the board reject her claim?
___________________________________________________________________
10. Increasingly acid rain and the destruction of plant and fish are some of the most alarming
consequences of industrial pollution.
What are the effects of pollution caused by industry on the environment?
___________________________________________________________________
11. Farmers look forward to favorable weather conditions which will contribute to good harvests. A
good harvest ensures an adequate supply of food for local consumption.

Good harvests

Exercise 3: Find the cause and the result and circle the marker.
1. The change in weather led to the cancellation the picnic.
2. The crops failed and consequently, there was a sudden rise in prices.
3. Internal control over behavior comes from educating children to
behave in a proper manner and from showing them the rewards for doing so.
4. Natural gas prices are at their lowest point in more than 10 years, due to too much supply and
too little demand.
5. The high growth rates result partly from declines in infant and child mortality rates due to
improving health practices.
6. The loss of social support results in isolation, which contributes to depression and to difficulty in
accomplishing family tasks.
7. Contributing to shame and depression is the patients’ sense of guilt.
8. The above-average number of domestic abuse cases that were reported stemmed from the
atypical population living in the area of the study.
Adapted from Minna Lipner

Exercise 4: Read the text below and answer the questions.

The Effects of Advertising on Women

Adapted from: J. Moore, The Effects of Advertising on Women, Justice #29 March 2002

1. The anxiety girls and women experience from feeling unattractive is arguably one of the most
pervasive and damaging consequences of advertising. Only one body type is almost always
presented in the media and in advertisements -- that of a very tall, thin woman -- a woman who
would meet the criteria for anorexia as 15% below normal weight (APA 1994). In reality, this
unhealthy body shape is unattainable for 99% of women (Kilbourne 1997). Many times, even
these "beautiful" women are deemed not good enough for advertisements. Photographs are
airbrushed or otherwise altered to remove any lines, bumps, or lumps - anything less than
"perfection." If the ideal of beauty is physically unattainable, then consumers will never be able to
attain the image they want, and therefore there will be an endless demand for new beauty
products. This is the reason for the incredible proliferation of the weight-loss, fashion, and
cosmetics industries, which are among the largest and most profitable consumer industries.

2. Another serious problem is the fact that ads almost always portray women as sex objects, in
order to increase the appeal of their product. This significantly affects the way women think about
themselves, particularly young women, since it is during the adolescent stage of life that young
people develop their sense of self and identity. This sends the underlying message to women and
girls that the only important thing about themselves is the way they look, causing many women to
believe that their self-worth is dependent upon attention from men. Commodification of women as
sex objects has another very detrimental effect on girls and women. The constant abuse of
women's sexuality to sell products in the beer, sports, film and music industries, for example, has
completely distorted our understanding of sexuality and gender roles. In addition, the
commodification of women undoubtedly contributes to the high incidents of rape and physical
assault in our society. In the US, a woman is raped every 3 minutes, and 55% of women report
having experienced rape and/or physical assault in their lifetime (Sisterhood Is Global Institute,
1998).

Circle or highlight all of the words that point to causes and effects in the paragraph. Then answer
the questions.

1. According to the writer, what is one of the worst effects of advertising on women?
________________________________________________________________
2. Fill in the chain of causes and effects below to explain why advertisements are filled with
“perfect” women with a very tall, thin shape.

Consumers will
never be able to
attain the image
they want.
3. Why do advertisers choose to depict women as sex objects?
________________________________________________________________

4. List the consequences of this depiction.

a. ______________________________________________________________;
thus, a lot of women believe that attention from men determines _____________.
b. ______________________________________________________________
c._______________________________________________________________.

5. Why are young women especially vulnerable to this depiction?

___________________________________________________________________
By Minna Lipner
Adapted by Anna Lyubman

Markers of Contrast

When you see a marker of contrast in a text, it means that two things are being contrasted; that is,
they are different from one another.
Example Unlike his father, Larry decided to study at university.

Some markers — although, in spite of, despite, yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding —
do more than indicate a contrast. They indicate that what happens in reality is a surprise, given
our expectations.
Examples
1. Although trade union movements are intended to serve the interests of the workers, they are
often influenced by political considerations.
2. In spite of the continued existence of corruption, the President’s economic moves are
beginning to pay off.
3. Notwithstanding a steady decline in numbers, the school has had a very successful year.

Exercise 5.What is being contrasted? Which marker is used to show the difference?
1. Unlike sports, politics, entertainment, the arts or the law, teaching does not give rise to “stars”.
Nobody ever got a Nobel Prize for teaching achievements.
2. The refrigerator repair service is governed by regulations of the Industry and Trade Ministry,
whereas air-conditioning servicing is not.
3. Contrary to popular notions, Americans continue to show remarkable financial responsibility:
almost all consumers pay their bills on time.
4. Professional writers do not wait for inspiration. On the contrary, they stick to a strict schedule of
writing.
5. Reporters, as opposed to opinion journalists, traditionally have tried to keep their personal
feelings and opinions out of their reports.
6. There is a considerable consensus in support of our criminal laws; however, attitudes toward
others may vary from apathy to active opposition.

Exercise 6. For each of the sentences below, choose its logical continuation.

1. Notwithstanding the scientists request for secrecy, the container holding radioactive material
a. was brought in through a side road in the middle of the night.
b. was driven through the town in the middle of the day.

2. Although the government levied high taxes to limit the number of the cars on the road,
a. the number of car sales has continued to increase.
b. the number of car sales has dropped significantly.

3. Public figures in America live under constant threat of assassination. Nevertheless,

a. they are prepared to make speeches in crowded public places.
b. they travel everywhere with an entire crew of secret service agents.

4. Despite the Administration’s concern about the talkative federal employees,

a. the frequency of leaks from Government officials has decreased.
b. the frequency of leaks from Government officials has not changed.
 Markers of Comparison
When you see a marker of comparison in a text, it means that two things that are similar are being
compared. Thus, you must understand:
a. which two things are being compared, and
b. what is similar about them.
Examples:

 A rose is the visible result of a multitude of complicated occurrences in the depths of the
earth and in the air above. Similarly, a work of art is the product of strange activities in the
human mind. (Adapted from Clive Bell)

Which two things are being compared?

________________________________ and _______________________________
What is similar about them? _____________________________________________
 My neighbor has as many chins as a Chinese phone book.
Which two things are being compared?
________________________________ and _______________________________
What is similar about them? ____________________________________________

Exercise 7: Each of the following sentences contains a comparison. Read the sentences and circle
any marker of comparison. Then explain: a. which two things are being compared, and b. how
they are similar.
1. Children grow into responsibility as unconsciously as they grow in height and weight.
Which two things are being compared?
_________________________________ and ______________________________
What is similar about them?
___________________________________________________________________
2. There are “born teachers” just as there are “born statesmen” or “born musicians”.
Which two things are being compared?
_________________________________ and ____________________________________
What is similar about them? ___________________________________________________
3. As in previous studies, this study showed that people driving while talking on cell phones were
involved in more car accidents than people who weren’t talking on the phone while driving.
Which two things are being compared?
________________________________ and _______________________________
What is similar about them? ____________________________________________
4. The writer Napoleon Hill once said: “Just as our eyes need light in order to see, so our minds need
ideas in order to conceive.”
Which two things are being compared?
_______________________________ and _______________________________
What is similar about them?
___________________________________________________________________
5. In terms of their effects on society, the impact of Gutenberg’s printing press in the 15th century
was as significant as the Internet has been in the last century.
Which two things are being compared?
________________________________ and _______________________________
What is similar about them? ___________________________________________________________
6. Similar to alcohol consumption, smoking can cause health problems when people smoke too
much.
Which two things are being compared?
_____________________ and _____________________
What is similar about them? Both _______________________________________
7. Soldiers in the army fight harder when they are treated well and when their commanders maintain
their calm. In a similar fashion, human immune cells function better when they are protected from
toxins and undue stress.
Which two things are being compared?
______________________________ and _________________________________
What is similar about them? __________________________________________________________
8. Neither students in Israeli universities nor their counterparts in American colleges feel that
university education adequately prepares them for the real world.
Which two things are being compared?
_______________________________ and _______________________________
What is similar about them?____________________________________________
By Minna Lipner with Anna Lyubman

General Ideas and Illustration

Exercise 8: Read the following paragraph, circle the transitions, and then answer the
questions.
1.
Biologically, men and women are different in various ways. 2.
The differences in anatomy are
the most obvious. 3.Specifically, they have different reproductive systems. 4.
Another
important anatomical difference is men’s greater strength. A second way in which men and
5.

women differ is in their genes, which carry the hereditary blueprint for physical development.
Genes are carried by chromosomes.
6. 7.
The genes of males have two different chromosomes
8.
(XY), while females have two similar ones (XX). In addition, more than thirty hereditary
disorders, including hemophilia and webbing of the toes, are found only in men. 9.
Finally,
there are also differences between men’s and women’s hormones – the chemical substances
which our glands secrete. While both sexes have some “male” and “female” hormones,
10.

women have more “female” hormones and men have more “male” hormones. 11.Experiments
with animals have shown that male hormones can increase aggressiveness.
Paragraph from Ten Steps to Advancing College Reading Skills, by J. Langan, Townsend Press, NJ 1993

Questions
1. Differing reproductive systems is mentioned as an example of:
__________________________________________________________________
2. What are two examples of hereditary disorders?
__________________________________________________________________
3. According to the text, what are hormones? ________________________________
4. For each of the following general ideas taken from the text, write the numbers of the sentences
that support it.
a. Biologically, men and women are different in various ways. ______________
b. The differences in anatomy are the most obvious. ________________
c. A second way in which men and women differ is in their genes…. ____________
d. Finally, there are also differences between men’s and women’s hormones… _____
5. What is the main idea of the paragraph?
__________________________________________________________________
Exercise by Minna Lipner
 Connectives of Addition
When you see a transition of addition in a text, it means that something is being added to what
was said before.
Exercise 9. Read the paragraph below. Circle the markers, and answer the questions.
The family is sometimes described as the backbone of society. It performs several essential
social functions that are not equally provided by any other structure. For example, the
socialization process of new members of each generation occurs first and foremost within the
family. Peer groups, schools, churches, and the mass media also play their roles in instructing
children to be integrated and functioning members of their society, but such socialization remains
primarily a family function. The family also helps regulate sexual activity within a society. The
taboo against having sexual relations with or marrying close relatives encourages the continual
forming of new ties outside the family, thereby strengthening the larger society. In addition,
families function as providers of social placement. That is, children automatically inherit many
important social determinants, such as race, religion, and social class, according to the family to
which they are born. The family is expected as well, although not always realistically, to provide
material and emotional security to its members. The family is usually a person’s most important
primary group, and family members generally have intense and enduring relationships with one
another that are expressed in both material and emotional terms.
Paragraph From Ten Steps to Advancing College Reading Skills, by J. Langan, Townsend Press,
NJ 1993

Questions
1. How many family functions are listed in this passage? ____________________
2. Besides socialization and regulating sexual relations, what other social functions does the
family perform? _______________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. What is the main idea of this passage?
a. Like peer groups and schools, the family helps people become integrated in society.
b. The most important relationships are formed within the family.
c. The most important social functions are provided by the family.
d. The family is the basis of any society.
Questions by Anna Lyubman
 REVIEW OF CONNECTIVES

Exercise 1
How Consistent is Human Behavior?
Adapted from Introduction to Psychology, ed. by Ernest R. Hilgard

I. Read the text and circle all the transitions. Then answer the questions that follow.

1. In studying personality, psychologists try to discover regularities in behavior. An assumption that

is basic to most personality theories is that people behave consistently. But the empirical
evidence for personality consistency is slim. Research over the years has failed to demonstrate
much consistency in human behavior either over time or across situations. For example, one of
the earliest studies of “moral character” in children found very low correlations between different
measures of honesty – a child might lie to a teacher but not to a parent, cheat in the classroom
but not on the playground (Hartshorne and May, 1928; 1929). Studies of other personality traits
including self-control, cooperativeness, and submissiveness have also demonstrated little cross-
situational consistency.

2. How do we explain the discrepancy between the data and our intuitive assumption that
personality is consistent? One possibility is that the consistency assumption is wrong. Behavior
is largely situation specific, and we attribute more consistency to a person’s behavior than actually
exists. There are numerous reasons why we may do so (c.f. Bem and Allen, 1974). We will
mention only three. First, our preconceived notions of how people behave may lead us to
generalize beyond our actual observations. That is, we may fill in missing data according to our
“implicit personality theories” of what traits and behaviors go together (Schneider, 1973).
Specifically, stereotypes of how a “homosexual” or a “career woman” or an “athlete” behave may
cause us to attribute greater consistency to a person’s actions than observations warrant.
Furthermore, our own presence can result in people behaving in certain ways. Thus, our
acquaintances may appear to be behaviorally consistent because we are present as a stimulus
during every observation we make. They may behave quite differently when we are not observing
them. Lastly, because the actions of another person are such a salient feature of any scene, we
tend to overestimate the extent to which behavior is caused by personality characteristics or
attitudes and underestimate the importance of situational forces that may lead the person to act
as he does (Jones and Nisbett, 1971). Observing someone behaving aggressively, we assume
that the person has an aggressive disposition and will behave similarly in other settings – even
though the situational factors may be quite different.
Questions
1. a. How many groups of studies are cited in paragraph 1 to support the main idea of the
paragraph? ________________
b. Which words signal the list of studies? _________________________________
2. What does the dash ( - ) in paragraph 1 indicate? __________________________
3. Self-control, cooperativeness, and submissiveness are all examples of
______________________ ___________________ (2 words) that show
SOME / VERY LITTLE consistency across _______________________________.
4. Paragraph 2 mentions 3 reasons why ___________________________________
5. Which words signal the reasons? _______________________________________
6. Why do we generalize beyond our observations?
__________________________________________________________________
7. a. Copy the explanation in the text of what it means to generalize beyond our observations.
__________________________________________________________________
b. Give an example of generalizing.
__________________________________________________________________
8. According to the second reason, what makes people behave in certain ways?
__________________________________________________________________
9. What kind of relationship is indicated by the word “thus” in paragraph 2?
____________________________
10. What is the relationship between the last two sentences of the article? (Notice that without a
transition, it’s much harder to figure out!) ____________________________
Vocabulary
attribute (n., v.) consistency cross-situational consistency
correlation personality traits discrepancy
consistency assumption situation specific preconceived notion

By Minna Lipner