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Department of Distance and Continuing Education
University of Delhi
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B.A. (Hons.) Political Science

Semester-II
Course Credits-4
Discipline Specific Core Course (DSC-4)
PERSPECTIVES ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
As per the UGCF - 2022 and National Education Policy 2020
Perspectives on Public Administration
Editorial Board
Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout
Dr. Shambhu Nath Dubey
Dr. Mangal Deo
Content Writers
Dr. Shradhanvita Singh, Dr. Rinki, Anchal,
Dr. Neelam Jain, Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury,
Bijendra Jha, Isha Singh, Nilesh
Academic Coordinator
Deekshant Awasthi
© Department of Distance and Continuing Education

ISBN: ------------------------
Ist edition: 2023
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politicalscience@col.du.ac.in
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Table of Contents
Sl. No. Title Writer Pg.

No.
Unit-I Public Administration as a Discipline: Dr. Shradhanvita Singh 01
(a) Ancient roots of public Dr. Rinki
administration
(b) Modern PA: An overview of the
theoretical journey
(c) Principles of public administration
(d) Theorizing public administration
Unit-II Mainstream/Traditional Theoretical
Perspectives
(a) Scientific Management (F.W. Taylor) Dr. Shradhanvita Singh 15
Dr. Rinki
(b) Ideal-Type Bureaucracy (Max Anchal 22
Weber)
(c) Human Relations Theory (Elton Dr. Neelam Jain 34
Mayo)
(d) Rational Decision-Making (Herbert Dr. Devarati Roy 44
Simon) Chowdhury
(e) Ecological Approach (Fred Riggs) Bijendra Jha 63
Unit-III Contemporary Theoretical Perspective: Isha Singh 75
(a) New Public Management, New
Public Service
(b) Multiple Perspectives on
Governance: Good Governance,
Collaborative Governance, Network
Governance, Digital Governance

Unit-IV Gender Perspectives on Public Nilesh 95

Administration:
(a) Gender and Governance
(b) Gender Sensitivity and Participation
in Administration

Unit-I
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A DISCIPLINE
(a) Ancient roots of public administration
(b) Modern PA: An overview of the theoretical journey
(c) Principles of public administration
(d) Theorizing public administration
Dr. Shradhanvita Singh and Dr. Rinki
STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 History
1.3.1 Early Systems
1.3.2 Absolutist Traditions
1.4 Modern PA: An Overview of Theoretical Journey
1.4.1 Dichotomy: Wilsonian Approach
1.4.2 Classical Approach
1.4.3 Human Relations Approach
1.4.4 Behavioral Approach
1.4.5 Development Approach
1.4.6 Public Policy Approach
1.4.7 Political Economy Approach
1.5 Principles of Public Administration
1.6 Current Interpretations
1.7 Theorising Public Administration
1.8 Conclusion
1.9 Practice Questions
1.10 References
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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To study the:
• Ancient roots of Public Administration
• Theoretical Journey Modern Public Administration
• Principal and theory Public Administration
1.2 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will examine the development of public administration as a topic of study
throughout history and explain how various traditions have influenced it. In general, we have
identified three traditions in the development of public administration: absolutist, liberal
democratic, is carried out for goals rather than to explain the ramifications of their empirical
findings. We anticipate that the analyses will provide you a thorough understanding of the
Public Administration advances as they are seen in the context of the impulses or else be
behind you are introduced to public administration theory and practise in this section. Such
diversity resulted primarily from variations in the forces that shaped diverse societies at
various times, in addition to variances in their cultures and levels of development. Prior to
discussing about the importance of public administration, we shall discuss about the
evolution of public administration in great detail.
The scope and importance of public administration is widely recognized. The current
advances, with which our administration is actively involved, are scarcely affected by the
ones from the past. The difficulty is, however, whether we can remove the past from the
present without having an inadequate and partial grasp of it. The term "evolution" describes
how things develop over time. Studying the past or history becomes even more important
when the past, present, and future are viewed as a continuum. The past not only foreshadows
the present but also acts as its structural foundation. According to the E.H., history is a never-
ending conversation between the past and the present. In this way, studying history has value
for today. In fact, it is essential for comprehending the subject's current condition and the
important difficulties therein, the origins of which may be discovered in the past. The adage
"a phenomenon can be comprehended only in a historical context" is quite true. Once more,
studying the many stages and customs in the history of public administration may aid in
applying the "lessons" or signs of the past to the analysis of how the field is developing
today. In general, the study accomplishes both theoretical and practical goals. From a
theoretical perspective, it aids in placing the subject in a wider context, and from a practical
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perspective, it makes the knowledge more usable.

Public administration generally refers to the services provided by a government
organisation to its constituents. It is the outcome of an evolutionary process that may be seen
from two different angles: as a pursuit and as a topic for intellectual inquiry. The oldest
cradles of civilisation, the river civilizations of Egypt, China, India, and Mesopotamia, may
be identified as the origins of public administration as a distinct activity. Evidence in this
approach includes China's adoption of a system of public service recruitment through
competitive examinations and Egypt's development of a centralised bureaucratic
administration structure. Greece's city states, as well as the republics and kingdoms of India,
developed in antiquity. Along with expanding its scope, democracy's rise altered the
administrative system's very makeup. Resolution of problems that have emerged as a result of
industrial revolution, made the organisation and methods of administration more complex.
Thereafter, the upheavals produced by World War I and II gave rise to challenges of
reconstruction and rehabilitation and it became important for the administration to solve
them. Also, the administration had to take corrective action due to the economic crisis, which
included depression and inflation. The sphere of administrative activity widened as a result of
all these advances, which required meddling in every aspect of society. It would be
appropriate to highlight here that prior to World War I, the government was mostly national
in its approach and then with the developments of Information, communication and
technology administration had much more international influence.
1.3 HISTORY
1.3.1 Early Systems

The history of public administration is lengthy. The Greeks and Egyptians structured public
affairs by office in antiquity, and the chief officeholders were seen as being primarily in
charge of dispensing justice, upholding law and order, and supplying plenty. Under their
empire, the Romans created various administrative hierarchies for law, military affairs,
finance and taxes, foreign affairs, and internal affairs, each with its own primary officers of
state. This resulted in a more complex organisation. The Roman Empire was governed by a
complex administrative system, which was later replicated by the Roman Catholic Church. A
hierarchy of officers reported to the emperor through their superiors. The Byzantine Empire
in the east, where civil service authority was represented in the derogatory use of the epithet
"Byzantinism," carried on many of its customs after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in
the fifth century. The royal households of the Middle Ages gave rise to the early European
governmental organisations. Official responsibilities within the royal households remained
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vague up until the end of the 12th century, with many people holding the same position
frequently. The more clearly defined positions of butler (charged with providing wine),
steward (charged with making arrangements for feasts), chamberlain (frequently tasked with
receiving and disbursing money kept in the royal sleeping chamber), and chancellor (often a
clergyman with duties) were exceptions.
Beginning in the 13th century, the royal household's essentially domestic duties and
its state-related duties started to be divided. The traditional household positions frequently
vanished, turned into sinecures, or lost significance. The genesis of the contemporary treasury
or finance ministry can be linked to the chamberlain's office in the royal household because
that position had always been involved with concerns of state and survived to become the
most significant link between the old court offices and current ministries. In the middle of the
13th century, three institutions—the high court (which developed primarily from the
chancellery), the exchequer, and the collegial royal council started to take centre stage as the
principal entities for managing state affairs. Yet, the emergence of similar bodies in England
and France did not occur until the first half of the fourteenth century. They didn't become
separate political entities until the beginning of the 17th century in Brandenburg, which was
presided over by an elector (a prince with the power to choose the Holy Roman emperor),
and eventually served as the foundation for the Prussian state.
Modern ministerial structures in Europe emerged from the royal councils, strong
groups of nobles chosen by the monarch. These councils, which were composed of powerful
nobles, were established before the justice and treasury departments, which began in former
court offices. The monarchs' secretaries, who were first accorded low status within a council,
arose from the division of labour within these groups as perhaps the earliest modern-day
professional civil servants in Europe. Compared to the more transient nobility on the council,
the secretaries had a better understanding of the monarch's objectives and more experience
with specific concerns of state due to their proximity to the monarch and relative stability.
Staff members also helped them. Initially, geography was used to determine how secretaries
would divide up their responsibilities. Up until 1782, when the positions of home and foreign
secretary were established, England's regional allocation—with, for instance, a secretary of
the North and a secretary of the South—persisted. At the conclusion of the ancient régime in
1789, a more complicated division of territorial responsibilities among secretaries of state had
started to give way to functional responsibilities.
China's civil service, which was developed under the Tang (618-907) and Sung (960-
1279) dynasties, was unquestionably the longest-lasting in history. It was initially created
along with a centralised administration during the Han era (206 BCE-220 CE) (960–1279).
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The administrative structure was so effective that it persisted until 1912. The complete use of
civil service exams evolved during the Sung era. Three levels of written tests were used to
successively exclude candidates, with more over a hundred people starting the process for
each person who passed. The Chinese Classics were heavily emphasised since it was believed
that they helped develop the virtues of a good citizen, but there was also an effort to create
objective and meaningful assessments for practical skills.
1.3.2 Absolutist Traditions
The absolutist tradition, which predates the other Liberal Democratic traditions, will be
discussed in this part. The absolutist tradition refers to administrative customs of absolute
monarchical regimes, when all powers are vested in the monarch. Kautilya's Arthasastra, the
ancient Indian work that focuses the most on public administration, is the earliest work on the
subject. We focus on India in our discussion primarily for two reasons. The absolute
administrative practises of other Asian societies are not well known. Also, the pupils of ought
to be knowledgeable about their own customs in the area of public administration.
Tradition holds that Kautilya, often referred to as Chanakya and Vishnugupta, was the
Prime Minister who established the Dynasty of (Bihar). One could think of Arthasastra, a
work by Kautilya, as the Hindu equivalent of a textbook on political strategy. It deals
primarily with the Science Polity, which, according to Kautilya, is a combination of Science
Wealth and Science of (Economics) and (Statecraft), according to Manusmriti and forms a
trio with in dealing with the Dharma, Kama, and of that time. According to Kautilya, money
is the lifeblood of government, and it plays a crucial role in all of its operations. As a result,
his treatise approaches the issues of governance from the perspective of political economy.
Explains Arthasastra "as a very competent dissertation both on the gives concrete examples
of how these goals can be achieved ". The analytical text known as the Arthasastra
demonstrates extraordinary vision and mastery of detail. ' focus mostly on public science
issues, administration, public machinery, and one administration of personnel.
Kautilya highlights the significance of public administration. An administrator, in
accordance with this theory, may only embrace the art of public administration if he is
knowledgeable in the science of public. Thus, knowledge of the science of administration is
required of the King, the Prince, the High Priest, and the ministers. He emphasised that the
administration of the state is based on the concepts of authority and discipline. He believed
that concepts like hierarchy, coordination, and the division of labour were crucial to the
internal organisation process. Moreover, Kautilya is possibly the first person to have
considered the significance of statistics in administration. Kautilya undertook research and
didn't just accept the status quo out of a sense of duty or tradition. The Vedas were
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considered to be the only source of law by early Hindus. Yet, Kautilya outlined four separate
sources of law: sacred texts, Arthasastra regulations, conventions, and royal decrees. He
views each of these as having more authority than the one before it. He makes it clear that the
corporeal law should take precedence over the sacred law in cases where they contradict. The
secular tenor of Arthasastra elevates politics over religion. Political issues do not supersede
other considerations, according to Kautilya. The stability of the State, the King's position of
authority, and his material riches should all be priorities for him. To achieve this, he even put
forth a complex plan for hiring and educating spies. Some of Kautilya's ideas are referred to
as Machiavellian. It's noteworthy that H.V.R. Iyengar made the observation that Kautilya
"was honest and spoke clearly what currently is buried behind cloak of secret" in this context.
Kautilya's "Ideal State" was comparable to a contemporary welfare state run by an all-
powerful individual who explicitly compelled the state to pay for the upkeep of minors,
women, the elderly, the sick, and the disabled. For the advantage of the general populace, the
State was tasked with assisting agricultural fields, utilising the wealth of the forests, and
mining resources. The foundations of "Welfarisq" may be found in Kautilya's Arthasastra, in
fact. Kautilya favoured a monarchy-based strong central government. The origins and
arrangements of authority in the two systems differ, as it was noted, so "the principles
controlling the democratic Administration are in many aspects different from the ideas
underlying monarchical Administration detailed in Arthasastra." The king is at the centre of
the administrative structure as it is described in Arthasastra. His directives are without
question. His priorities come first. All institutions get their authority from him. As
monarchies faded, various "traditions" developed to comprehend democratic states'
administrative structures. Be aware, though, that the Public Administration traditions created
by are significant for emphasising the public and doing a thorough investigation of the art of
governance.
1.4 MODERN PA: AN OVERVIEW OF THEORETICAL JOURNEY
The origins of public administration as a distinct field of study can be seen in Woodrow
Wilson's 1887 article The Study of Administration. His essay represents the start of a
thorough research of the area of Public. Since then, the issue has been studied in stages, each
stage being characterised by a distinct paradigmatic approach. In the broad paradigm of
liberal democracy, seven phases are generally identified to comprehend the evolution of the
topic. Let's talk about each of them briefly.
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1.4.1 Dichotomy: Wilsonian Approach

The founder of modern public administration, Woodrow Wilson, treated politics and
administration as distinct processes and made an effort to conceptually separate the two fields
of study. Another proponent of the dichotomy approach, Frank, made a similar attempt when
he stated that "politics has to do with policies or representations of state while administration
has to do the execution of these policies." This contrast is drawn between formulating and
implementing policies. Politics is seen to govern policymaking, whereas public
administration governs its implementation, based on their institutional settings, politics and
administration. The placement of is associated with higher levels of government where major
decisions regarding the allocation of values would be made, On the other hand, the site of is
associated with the executive branch of government—the bureaucracy. It was stated that the
administrative processes possess a certain regularity and concreteness that can be properly
explored. Thus, it is feasible to create a science of administration.
1.4.2 Classical Approach
This is characterised by the propensity to develop a "Science of Management" and to
strengthen the idea. The "Public" parts of public administration were essentially neglected,
and efficiency and economy were the main priorities. The 'value' questions weren't addressed
considered crucial to the emerging field of administration. Politics was viewed as irrelevant
as it was practised by politicians. Interest turned to scientific management in order to manage
the "company" effectively. Principles were developed for use by practitioners of ready-made
aids. The business schools and administrative practitioners collaborated to highlight the
mechanical untouched by the political preferences and shortcomings of classical approach
which focused just on the structures of the organization.
1.4.3 Human Relations Approach
The experiments helped to establish the Human Relations Approach to management as a
movement. This method of analysis focused on the formation and impact of work groups in
the formal setting, the phenomenon of leadership and conflicts, and the cooperation and
cooperation between individuals in the organisational betting. Its impact on the public was
much more widespread in the post war period than before. In other words, human relations
highlighted the significance of the social and workplace variables while highlighting the
limitations of the notion in "Scientific Management." "people-side of enterprise".
By bringing in, the psychologist increased the focus on humans. Further information
regarding human sensitivity. It relates to (1) increased output or efficiency, and (2) increased
happiness of the informal and increase their self esteem. The porpgators use this strategy for
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enhanced self-awareness. Abraham Douglas Rensis and Argyris Chris are the main
propagators of this approach. The human relations method has come under fire for its
deceptive approach.
The movement's purported goal is to manipulate people to increase productivity in
organisations. It is also criticised for failing to consider the influence of the institutional and
social system as an integral part of the organization.
1.4.4 Behavioral Approach
Simon puts forward very different view of previous Public Administration. In public
administration, it establishes the of scientific analysis. Some of the classical "Principles," in
Simon's opinion, were "no more than proverbs" because they were not derived scientifically.
In addition to rejecting the dichotomy, he introduced positivism to the study of policymaking
and the relationship between means and aims. Administrative Behaviour argued in favour of
the application of scientific principles in public administration, reflecting the viewpoints and
methodology of behavioralism in psychology and social psychology. The main emphasis is
on "Any "theory," as Simon pointed out, is engaged in decision-making. The core of
administration is decision-making, and administrative philosophy must be formed from the
logic and psychology of human choice."
Simon's method expanded the subject's horizons by connecting it to psychology, sociology,
economics, and political science. He distinguished two streams of thought that were mutually
helpful as the "discipline" evolved. One was focusing on creating a pure science of
administration, which required a solid foundation in social psychology, while the other was
creating a wide spectrum of values and formulating recommendations for public policy.
Simon thought the second strategy was analytically broad. He was concerned that public
administration may lose its identity in the second method since it would entail the absorption
of all of political science, economics, and sociology. Yet, he supported their coexistence.
1.4.5 Development Approach
During the development of the Third World and growing acceptance of the majority of study-
related theories, an approach to administration emerged. Robert Dahl once said, "The study
of Public Administration inevitably must become a much more broadly based discipline,
resting not on a narrowly defined knowledge of techniques and processes, but rather the
varied historical, sociological, and other'conditioning factors,,." This idea has been taken up
as a challenge, and efforts have been made in the study of Public Administration in the
developing countries in an effort to "establishing about administrative behaviour which
transcends the traditional boundaries of the profession."
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Development administration and comparative public administration are the results of efforts.
1.4.6 Public Policy Approach
Public policy has become more important as a result of social anxiety over social
engineering. Perspective has also influenced the study of. The public policy method is
compatible with administrative analysis because the politics-administration distinction has
been abandoned. The requirements for an intimate relationship between politics and
administration were revealed by the real world. The promotion of policy research is gaining
traction as governments attempt to adopt more and more welfare programmes. At present
point, there is no doubt that the study of public administration is becoming more and more
relevant, although its methods as a study are no longer as common as they once were in the
administration dichotomy. According to several Public Administration specialists, discipline
has improved but is currently experiencing an identity crisis.
1.4.7 Political Economy Approach
The political approach to the understanding of administrative issues is what administration
study is all about. This is connected to the proximity of Political Science and Economics in
the of improved theoretical clarity and policy direction. By experimenting with the
application of economic ideas and models to political concerns, economists like Anthony
Downs and Gordon have crossed the line. As a result, Administration, a subfield of political
science, has evolved towards collaborating with economics. The growth of public
administration as outlined above demonstrates how, after beginning with an assertion of
identity, it has progressed towards assimilating concepts, methodologies, and approaches
from many Social Science disciplines.
1.5 PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
The study and practise of public administration were primarily pragmatic and normative
throughout the 20th century rather than theoretical and value-free. This may help to explain
why, in contrast to several social sciences, public administration emerged without much
concern for an all-encompassing theory. There wasn't much interest in a theory of public
administration until the middle of the 20th century and the spread of Max Weber's theory of
bureaucracy. Yet, the majority of following bureaucratic thought was focused on the private
sector, and nothing was done to link organisational to political philosophy.
Economy and efficiency—or the delivery of public services at the lowest possible
cost—have long been regarded as important principles in public administration.
Administrative reform has typically had this as its professed goal. Efficiency is a key
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objective despite growing concern over other types of values, such as being responsive to
public needs, pursuing justice and fair treatment, and involving citizens in political decision-
making. Public administration has long concentrated on issues of formal structure in its
preoccupation with efficiency and progress. Reorganization is usually believed to be able to
at least partially fix administrative problems. Several organisational principles came from the
military, while others came from private industry. They include, for instance, grouping
similar activities into a single unit, equating responsibility with authority, ensuring unity of
command (only one supervisor for each group of employees), limiting the number of
subordinates reporting to a single supervisor, and distinguishing between line (operating or
end-purpose) activities and staff (advisory, consultative, etc.) activities.
These and other public administration principles, according to some detractors, are
only valuable as broad guidelines for specific organisational contexts. They hold that
organisational issues vary, as does how rules should be applied in diverse circumstances.
Nonetheless, despite considerably more in-depth investigations of organisational behaviour in
succeeding decades, the aforementioned ideas are still relevant today.
The stress of public administration has also been placed on employees. Civil service
reform has been a part of administrative reform in the majority of nations. The trend
historically has been towards "meritocracy"—the best candidate for each position,
competitive entrance exams, and selection and promotion based only on merit. The
consideration of elements other than academic excellence, such as individual attitudes,
motivations, personalities, interpersonal interactions, and collective bargaining, has
grown.The budget has also evolved into a key tool for setting priorities, managing ongoing
projects, coordinating the work of the administration and the legislature, and establishing
control and responsibility. Beginning centuries ago, especially in the Western world, the
struggle for budgetary dominance occasionally served as the primary interaction between
kings and subjects. Britain invented the present executive budget system in the 19th century,
where the executive makes recommendations, the legislative approves funding, and the
executive monitors expenditures. The budget evolved as the main tool for legislative
oversight of administration, executive control over departments, and departmental
management over auxiliary programmes in the United States during the 20th century. It has
taken on a comparable role in many of the world's emerging nations.
1.6 CURRENT INTERPRETATIONS
The aforementioned classical approach to public administration likely reached its pinnacle
development in the United States during the 1930s, but since then, through educational and
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training initiatives, technical support, and the efforts of international organisations, it has also
spread to many other nations and become accepted doctrine. Governments with a British or
continental-legal viewpoint have rejected some of its features, and even during the 1930s, it
was under attack from a number of directions. Since then, the field has been extensively
studied. The orthodox concept was based on the idea that administration was only the
execution of other people's public ideas. This point of view holds that administrators should
aim for maximum effectiveness while being impartial in regards to beliefs and objectives.
However, it became increasingly clear during the Great Depression of the 1930s and even
more so during World War II that many new policies originated within the administration,
that most significant administrative decisions contained implicit policy and value judgements,
that many administrative officials worked exclusively on policy, and that, to the extent that
public policies were contentious, such work invariably involved administrators in politics. It
was believed that administration's purported separation from politics and policy was false.
Hence, there has been growing concern with since the 1930s. Although many people believe
the idea of a value-free, impartial government is unworkable today, no truly adequate
alternative has been presented. Particularly in democratic governments, how to ensure that
professional administrators make accountable and responsive policy decisions and how to
coordinate their work with the policies of politically elected or appointive officials continue
to be major concerns.
New informational technologies, such as national income accounting and the
monitoring of gross national product as a key indicator of economic health, were adopted
with government efforts to counteract the Depression. The applied methods of fiscal and
monetary policy are now recognised public administration specialty. Most governments
employ economists in crucial positions, and many other administrators are required to have a
basic understanding of how government actions affect the economy. The United States, Great
Britain, France, Sweden, and other Scandinavian countries were among the pioneers in the
development of economic planning methods. In many developing nations, this kind of
planning now dominates public administration.
1.7 THEORISING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
The new public management initiative was the first wave of public-sector reform (NPM). It
was influenced by concepts from public choice theory and neoliberalism. NPM initially
expanded throughout industrialised, Anglo-Saxon states. Subsequently, it extended to
developing and post-transitional states as well as through much of Europe—though France,
Germany, and Spain are frequently considered as staying largely unscathed by it. Fiscal crises
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in industrialised nations provided the motivation for NPM. As state income were reduced by
the oil crisis and public spending as a percentage of GDP increased due to the development of
welfare services, talk of an overburdened state increased. The end result was a cost-cutting
drive. NPM was one suggestion made. The driving force behind NPM in developing and
transitional governments was primarily external factors, particularly Plans formulated by the
government with structural adjustment.
Marketization and corporate management make up the two key components of NPM.
Privatization is the most extreme example of marketization. Assets are transferred from the
government to the private sector through privatisation. Floating them on the stock exchange
allowed certain states to sell different nationalised industries. Some state-owned businesses,
like management buyouts, sold their stock to the employees. Others were sold to specific
businesses or groups of businesses. Railways, electricity, water, waste services, and
telecommunications were among the sectors that saw significant privatisations. Lesser
privatisations included hotels, parking lots, and convention centres; both local governments
and central states were equally inclined to sell these assets.
Privatization is still a very uncommon kind of marketization. These additional
methods often use contracting out, quasi-markets, and consumer choice to incorporate
incentive structures into the delivery of public services. Public services are being
"marketized" in an effort to increase their effectiveness and accountability to the public, who
now have more options for service providers. Contracting out, internal markets, management
contracts, and market testing are a few prominent forms of marketization. Contracting out,
commonly referred to as outsourcing, entails the state entering into a competitive agreement
with a private firm to deliver a service. The private entity may be for-profit or nonprofit;
occasionally, it is a business quickly established by persons who previously rendered the
service as employees of the public sector. When departments are able to buy support services,
internal marketplaces develop. The operation of a facility, such as an airport or convention
centre, is transferred to a private corporation under the terms of a management contract.
Market testing, often referred to as managed competition, takes place when the rules
controlling the provision of a service are chosen through competitive bidding against other
private-sector providers of the same service.
1.8 CONCLUSION
In this chapter at last we can say that marketization, service orientation and Clientele are the
key components that have emerged out of the New Public Management. Supporters have
provided their own way explanation for the said purposes. The focus of NPM is only on
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providing high quality services rather than providing effective alternate policies. They believe
that if policy makers are not concerned with the different kind of service providers then they
have to pay more attention to needs of the Clientele.
1.9 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the Ancient roots of Public Administration.

2. Describe the overview of the Theorical Journey of Modern Public Administration.
3. Critically examine the Principles of Public Administration.
1.10 REFERENCES
1. "Random House Unabridged Dictionary". Dictionary.infoplease.com. Retrieved

2014-08-23.
2. ^Handbook of Public Administration. Eds Jack Rabin, W. Bartley Hildreth, and
Gerard J. Miller. 1989: Marcel Dekker, NY. p. iii
3. ^Robert and Janet Denhardt. Public Administration: An Action Orientation. 6th Ed.
2009: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont CA.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b Kettl, Donald and James Fessler. 2009. The Politics of the
Administrative Process. Washington D.C.: CQ Press.
5. ^ Jerome B. McKinney and Lawrence C. Howard. Public Administration: Balancing
Power and Accountability. 2nd Ed. 1998: Praeger Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Shafritz, J.M., A.C. Hyde. 2007. Classics of Public Administration.
Wadsworth: Boston.
7. ^ "Electronic Records and Document Management Systems: A New Tool for
Enhancing the Public's Right to Access Government-Held Information?" (PDF).
Retrieved 2017-04-29.
8. ^ "What Is Public Administration?". UNC-MPA. Retrieved 2023-01-15.
9. ^ Appleby, Paul 1947. "Toward Better Public Administration", Public Administration
Review Vol. 7, No. 2 pp. 93–99.
10. ^ Clapp, Gordon. 1948. "Public Administration in an Advancing South", Public
Administration Review Vol. 8. no. 2 pp. 169–75. Clapp attributed part of this
definition to Charles Beard.
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11. ^ Carroll, J.D. & Zuck, A.M. (1983). "The Study of Public Administration
Revisited". A Report of the Centennial Agendas project of the American Society for
Public Administration. Washington, DC; American Society for Public Administration.
12. ^ Shields, Patricia. 1998. "Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science: A Tool for Public
Administration" Research in Public Administration Vol. 4. pp. 195–225.
13. ^ Shields, Patricia. 1998. "Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science: A Tool for Public
Administration", Research in Public Administration Vol. 4. p. 199.
14. ^ Jump up to:a b "Public Administration | the Canadian Encyclopedia". Archived
from the original on March 28, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2018.
15. ^ Haveman, R. H. (1987). Policy analysis and evaluation research after twenty years.
"Policy Studies Journal", 16(1): 191–218.
16. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Kettl, Donald F. "The Future of Public Administration" (PDF). H-
net.org. Retrieved October 25, 2010.
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Unit-II: Mainstream/Traditional Theoretical Perspectives

(a) SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (F.W. Taylor)
Dr. Shradhanvita Singh and Dr. Rinki
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 F.W. Taylor: His books and Methods
1.4 Scientific Management Approach
1.5 Principles of Scientific Management: F. W. Taylor
1.5.1 Science of Work and its Development
1.5.2 Scientific Selection and Development of Workmen
1.5.3 Combining Science of Work and Scientifically Selected Workers
1.5.4 Workers and Management: Division of Responsibility
1.6 Scientific Management Movement
1.7 Criticism and Disagreement
1.8 Conclusion
1.10 References

To study the:
• Traditional and theoretical perspectives of Public Administration.
• F.W. Taylor's scientific management theory.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Scientific Management Approach is of vital significance in administrative management. This

approach evolved during the later nineteenth century. Scientific management approach takes
care of complex situation emerging due to mechanical advancements. Frederick Winslow
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Taylor is viewed as one of the forerunner of the scientific management, who cleared path for
further research. F.W. Taylor was brought into the world in a German town on March 20,
1856. He got his experience in two European states. As an architect he was involved in the
improvement of many innovations, he concocted a few devices to build the creation. A
portion of the significant instruments he created were cutting apparatus, a warmth treating
device, a steel hammer, water driven force stacking hardware, exhausting and turning
factories and so forth. He was constantly keen on enhancing the methods of the board. He
underscored on the logical method of building up the apparatuses just as logical method of
playing out the work. He has energy for proficiency and logical method of work in the
associations. From USA, it spread to other countries including former USSR, where it took
shape as Stakhanovite Movement during 1920-1940.
According to Taylor, “the same principles can be applied with equal force to all social
activities: to the management of our home: the management of our farms: the management of
the business of our tradesmen, large and small of our churches, our philanthropic institutions
our universities and our governmental departments.”
1.3 F.W. TAYLOR: HIS BOOKS AND METHODS
Taylor’s theory of Scientific Management is first of its kind where he has highlighted the
issues of economy, efficiency and effectiveness. His major thrust was at improving the
productivity in the organization. Some of the significant works of Taylor reflects in his earlier
writing and other issues which he has highlighted.
The vital observation of Taylor on Scientific Administration methodology are included
in his major works in which he has specified following assumptions.
1. There should be standard time to finish any particular work.
2. Differential piece wage rate system.
3. Right men at right place.
Taylor also made certain assumption in his theory of Scientific Management which are as
follows:
1. Taylor laid emphasis that the functioning of any organization can be improved with
the application of Science;
2. A good worker accepts the directive from the management;
3. Man is motivated by monetary factors.
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Taylor's stay in an organization, his perception and investigation of various tasks in various
manufacturing plants brought into his notice the imperfections in their administration. These
were: absence of lucidity of obligations by laborers and administrations, absence of norms of
work, limited yield due to welding of work, absence of occupation clearness which advances
fastening of work, absence of logical base for choices, absence of division of work, and
arrangement of laborers at various positions without thinking about their capacity, abilities
and inclination.
Taylor depends on broad examination of investigations spread over long 26 years. He
examined instruments for cutting of steel, contemplated movement and observed how
workers handle materials, machines and apparatuses while on work. Taylor found out the
most ideal approach in accomplishing various tasks. He came to the conclusion that right
persons should be selected for various tasks. During his experiments in the industrial
organizations, Taylor came across a soldiering phenomenon, which is a tendency on the part
of workers to restrict the output. He classified this phenomenon into two kinds; natural
soldiering and systematic soldiering. The former is the result of personal factors like habit to
take it easy, not to over exert and so on, while the latter is the result of organizational and
social factors. He observed that workers practice systematic soldiering to meet the
expectation of supervisor at lower levels. He felt hat the fundamental way of increasing
efficiency of organization lies in the reduction of soldering through scientific techniques.
1.4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT APPROACH
As referenced over the scientific administration approach created in the beginning stages of
mechanical transformation. It attempted to address a portion of the issues of modern culture.
The fundamental worries of mechanical community were to mend productivity, lessen
expenses of creation to reap the benefits. This can be done by two long methods. So, it is
identified with humanizing the innovation thus leading to effective administration of laborers.
The other is with development of new market. Taylor, though this Scientific Management
method attempted to link it with contemporary culture. Henceforth, it is stressed on scientific
methods on getting things done and overseeing associations.
1.5 PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT: F. W. TAYLOR
Taylor in his theory of Scientific Management laid four principles which he regarded as
crucial for increasing the productivity within any organization. These are as follows
1. Develop scientific approach in various management tasks.
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2. The rigorous assortment of workforce and their continuous training.

3. Combination of scientific approach and rationally chosen workforce.
4. Fixing the obligations of the employer and employees.
1.5.1 Science of Work and Its Development
Taylor observed that scientific approach is a must in dealing with workforce. He believed that
systematic observation is helpful in finding out the most appropriate way of doing a job. He
attempted to replace the old thumb rule method. This need gathering, recording and
tabulating various work experiences and finally formulating rules based on them. These rules
are to be applied in actual work situation. This will ensure diminishing unnecessary criticism
of the supervisor.
1.5.2 Scientific Selection and Development of Workmen
There should be scientific approach in selection of work force and continuous development
of work culture. Taylor believed that each worker his or her potential for growth. There must
be systematic training. Scientific approach implies that right person should be selected for
right job. Proper environment should be created so that workers accept the new methods,
tools and conditions enthusiastically. Opportunities should be created for workers to develop
their new capabilities to the fullest extent.
1.5.3 Combining Science of Work and Scientifically Selected Workers
The third principle of Taylor’s Scientific Management is about the combination of first and
second principles. Thus he emphasized on bringing together and science of work with the
scientific selection and development of work force. This provides the firm basis to his idea of
Scientific Management.
1.5.4 Workers and Management: Division of Responsibility
Taylor emphasized on a conductive atmosphere of shared responsibility by the proper
division of work between the employer and workers. In the prevalent practice, workers were
always blamed for occurrence of any problem in the organization. Hence, Taylor preferred an
equal division of responsibility between the two which can prevent one section to be
overburdened. Such sharing of responsibility is important for creating a stress free
environment for workers in an organization.
1.6 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT MOVEMENT
The very first person to talk about Scientific Management in 1910 was Louis Brandies.
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Taylor stressed on the universal applicability of his principles of Scientific Management. He

felt that his work covered the whole sphere of commercial management. Techniques
developed by Taylor were termed as Task System or Task Management. His ideas were
developed extensively by his peer group members including Henry Grantt, Frank Gilbreth
and Lillian Gillberth etc.
Thus, scientific management became a ‘movement’ in itself and left a mark as the first
systematic theory of the organization. It gave a solution to many industrial organizations
around the world through utilization of scientific and objective principles. Post 1917, after the
Bolshevik Revolution, Lenin introduced Taylor’s techniques in Russia. This system is viewed
as “a combination of subtle brutality of bourgeois exploitation and variety of its greatest
scientific achievements”. Taylor’s ideas and techniques gathered momentum and support all
across Russia and the Communist Party fully supported the rational movement. Besides,
Taylor’s ideas were introduced in the curriculum for education and training of engineers for
further dissemination of his work.
Reinhard Bendix, in his book Work and Authority and Industry, said that “by
maximizing the productive efficiency of each worker, scientific management would also
maximize the earning of workers and employers. Hence, all conflict between capital and
labour would be resolved by the finding of science.”
1.7 CRITICISM AND DISAGREEMENT
Scientific Management, is criticized on following grounds

1. It was criticized on the grounds that it only focusses on the lower level of the
organization and entirely neglects the issues pertaining at the higher apex of the
organization. Thus, this approach neglects one set of factors in an organization which is
important for its functioning.
2. The Scientific Theory of Management neglects the human side of the organization. It
focuses too much on the formal structure of the organization and neglected the informal
side of it which is also an important aspect of organization setup. It tends to treat
workers as machines. Social and psychological factors also play their own roles in work
management. The Scientific Management Theory does not focus on these vital aspects.
3. Many scholars have criticized Scientific Management as it has simplified the concept of
human motivation. Taylor has laid more emphasis on the monetary factors than the
social and psychological factors. The Hawthorne experiments revealed that set of factors
that are responsible for the healthy functioning of the organization can be different from
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the monetary factors.

4. Taylorism received great opposition from trade unions as the concept of mental
revolution calls out for a cooperative relation between the two which makes the role of
trade unions as irrelevant but this was not entirely true.
5. It was opposed by managerial group as managers were losing out on their discretion and
they were being asked to share their responsibilities. Professor Robert Hoxie put forward
his strong opposition to Taylor by arguing that Scientific Management only focused of
mechanistic facts and neglected the social and psychological facts and orientation.
1.8 CONCLUSION
Taylor’s theory of Scientific Management apart from being the first coherent theory, also
offered solutions to the problems of industrial organizations. The benefits received from the
Taylorism are huge and it also helped many organizations to overcome its issues of
productivity. Taylor was the first administrative thinker to firmly rely on the principle of
science and one best way of doing things. Taylor believed that these principles have universal
application and can be applied to all organization irrespective of its nature. His theory of
Scientific Management focused on the problems of workers. Taylor’s concept of differential
piece wage rate system, mental revolution, propagation of science of work, economy,
effectiveness and efficiency makes his theory of Scientific Management different from other
classical theories.

1. Explain the traditional and theoretical perspectives of Public Administration.
2. Critically analyze the Scientific Management Approach of Public Administration.
3. Describe about Scientific Management Movement in Public Administration.
1.10 REFERENCES
• Ali, Shun Sun Nisa, 1977, Eminent Administrative Thinkers, Associated Publishing
House, New Delhi.
• Bertram, M. Gross, 1964, The Managing of Organisations, The Administrative
Struggle, The Free Press of Glencoe, Collier-Macmillan., London.
• Bhattacharya, Mohit, 1981, Public Administration: Structure, Process and Behaviour,
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The World Press Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata.

• Braverman, Harry, 1979, Labour and Monopoly Capital, The Degradation of Work in
the Twentieth Century, Social Scientist Press, Trivendrum.
• Clegg, Steward & David Dunkerley, 1980, Organisation, Class and Control,
Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.
• Prasad, D. Ravindra, V.S. Prasad and P. Satyanarayan, 2004, Administrative Thinkers
(Ed), Sterling Publishers, New Delhi. Pugh, D.S., 1985, Organisation Theory:
Selected Readings (Ed), Penguin Books, Middlesex, England.
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(b) IDEAL-TYPE BUREAUCRACY (Max Weber)

Anchal
STRUCTURE

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Max Weber: His Life and Writings
2.4 Bureaucracy: Meaning
2.5 Max Weber on Authority
2.6 Types of Authority
2.7 Max Weber: The Concept of Bureaucracy
2.8 Max Weber: Characteristics of Bureaucracy
2.9 Max Weber: Limits on Bureaucracy
2.10 Max Weber’s Bureaucracy: Criticism
2.11 Conclusion
2.13 References

To study the:
• Meaning and evolution of Bureaucracy
• Max Weber's theory of Bureaucracy
• Characteristic and limits of Bureaucracy
2.2 INTRODUCTION
The German sociologist Max Weber’s thoughts has influenced generations of scholars on
bureaucracy and formal organization. He occupies a central position in the bureaucratic
model and tries to study it in a theoretical framework. He was the first one to use and
describe the term bureaucracy. It is also called the bureaucratic theory of management or the
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Max Weber’s theory. His formulation deserves careful analysis as his writings covered a
wide range of subjects including economics, sociology and administration. He also outlined
the impact of religion on the growth of capitalism and his thoughts are the larger
considerations of socio-economic and historical forces that led to the growth of complex
organizations. His thoughts represent the macro view of all these aspects. Weber believed
that bureaucracy helps in administering and establishing the organization in the most efficient
manner.
2.3 MAX WEBER: HIS LIFE AND WRITINGS
Max Weber (1864-1920) was born in a business family involved in textile manufacturing in
western Germany. He studied law from the University of Heidelberg after completing his
preliminary schooling in 1882. He completed his doctorate and worked as an instructor in
University of Berlin and wrote number of papers on law highlighting the social, political and
economic factors. In his writings, Weber main focus was on analytical and systematic study,
he always preferred to gain knowledge through practical experience as he was of progressive
outlook. His major writings include ‘The Theory of Economic and Social Organizations’,
‘General Economic History’ and ‘Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism’.
2.4 BUREAUCRACY: MEANING
Bureaucracy simply means ‘Desk Government’. Vincent De Gourney, a French national was
the first one who coined the term ‘bureaucracy’ in 1745. After him, several French writers
were involved in popularizing the word bureaucracy but as a term it was used in 19th century.
The famous economist J.S. Mill and the sociologists like Mosca and Michels extensively
wrote on bureaucracy. For Weber, bureaucracy is an “administrative body of officials”, who
all are needed to bring out the efficiency in the organizations. In his opinion there is a lot of
economic competition in the modern era, due to which capitalist organizations required a
highly efficient kind of organization system. The bureaucratic principles gave a scope to the
organization to go ahead with economic planning and maintain the stability in the market.
Weber observes, “The capitalist system has undeniably played a major role in the
development of bureaucracy. Indeed, without it capitalist production could not continue…Its
development, largely under capitalistic auspices, has created an urgent need for stable, strict,
intensive and calculable administration.” (Weber, 1953, p. 48) He further said that
“capitalism is the most rational economic basis for bureaucratic administration and enables it
to develop in the most rational form, especially because, from a fiscal point of view, it
supplies the necessary money resources”. (Weber, 1953, p 48)
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2.5 MAX WEBER ON AUTHORITY
Weber tried to explain bureaucracy as a sociological phenomenon; where theory of

domination can be understood in general context. Domination basically refers to a power
relationship that is authoritarian power of command between the rulers and the ruled. But
power is accepted, only when if it is justified and legitimate. Authority legitimizes the
exercise of power, where a person willingly complies with commands or orders; and on the
basis of this belief Weber identified three types of legitimation, each correspond to a
particular type of authority.
2.6 TYPES OF AUTHORITY
i) Charismatic authority
ii) Traditional authority
iii) Legal-Rational authority
i) Charismatic authority: The term charisma can be defined as ‘gift of grace’. The
charismatic leader holds some personal qualities which makes him different from the
common man. He may be a hero, masiha or a prophet and by virtue of his magical powers he
has a wide acceptance which forms the basis of legitimate system. People follow his
commands or order without questioning him, they believe in his extraordinary capabilities.
The disciples of the charismatic leader have full devotion in him; however they don’t have
any special qualification or status. The administrative apparatus in this type of authority is
unstable and is very loose as the disciples work in accordance to the likes and dislikes of the
leader.
ii) Traditional Authority: Traditional Authority derives its legitimacy from the goodness of
the past where actions are based on customs and traditions. Individuals who exercise this
authority are referred as masters and those who obey the masters are called followers. The
masters have authority by virtue of his status which he inherited from the previous rulers; and
his commands are obeyed by the followers who have personal loyalty towards him and faith
in traditional status including household officials, relatives and personal choices of masters.
iii) Legal Rational Authority: Under legal rational authority, rules are applied judicially and
are applicable on all the members of the organization. In modern society, this authority plays
a dominant role. It is legal as it is based on systematic rules and procedures and it is rational
because it is well defined and more in accordance to proper channel to achieve an end. The
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members who exercise this authority are referred as superiors, who follow an impersonal
order; and others include the administrative staff who obeys the laws. Strict adherence to
rules and procedures delimit the authority of the superiors.
2.7 MAX WEBER: THE CONCEPT OF BUREAUCRACY
For Weber, in the administrative staff the appointed officials is referred as bureaucracy.
Bureaucracy explicitly includes the appointed officials and elected representative has no role
to play in it. Weber considers that legal rational authority which is based on rules, norms and
procedures holds a predominant position in bureaucracy. For Weber: "Bureaucratic
administration means domination by the force of knowing: that is its fundamental character,
specifically rational" (Cruz, 1995, 689).
“The development of the modern form of organization concurs in all sectors with the
development and continuous expansion of bureaucratic administration […] Because the
bureaucratic administration is always observed under equal conditions and from a formal and
technical perspective, the most rational type [...] The main source of the superiority of
bureaucratic administration lies in the role of technical knowledge, which, through the
development of modern technology and economic methods in goods’ production, has become
absolutely indispensable [...] Bureaucratic administration fundamentally means the exercise
of domination based on knowledge. This is the trait that makes it specifically rational. It
consists, on the one hand, of technical knowledge, which is, per se, sufficient to ensure a
position of extraordinary power for bureaucracy. On the other hand, it should be considered
that bureaucratic organizations, or those in power who use it, tend to become even more
powerful by the knowledge that comes from the practice that they attain in the function.”
(Weber, 1966, pp. 24-26)
The bureaucracy presented by Weber is an ideal or a mental map of a fully developed
bureaucracy, which means that it is an abstract and cannot be found in reality. This ideal type
model of Weber is based on the studies of ancient bureaucracies of Egypt, Rome, China and
Byzantine Empire. It was also influenced by the modern emerging trends of bureaucracy in
Europe during the 19th and early 20th century. He believed that in modern state system the
ideal type of bureaucracy should be followed which is based on the rationalization of
collective activities and assures the predictability of the behavior of employees.
According to Weber, “Bureaucracy is by far the most efficient instrument of large-scale
administration which has ever been developed and the modern social order has become
overwhelming dependent on it… this type of organization is in principle applicable with
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equal facility to a wide variety of different fields. It may be applied in profit making business
or in charitable organizations, or in any number of other types of private enterprises serving
ideal or material ends. It is equally applicable to political and to religious organizations with
varying degrees of approximation to a pure type; its historical existence can be demonstrated
in all these fields.” (Weber, 1946, pp. 329-340)
2.8 MAX WEBER: CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY
According to Weber the bureaucratic rationality in organization consists of following main

characteristics as depicted in figure 1 also.
1) Division of work with high specialization: The task of the organization should be
divided on the basis of number of specialized function. Every employee is specialized
and efficient in one type of job. This ensures increased productivity and efficiency of
the organization as a whole.
2) Functions defined by law (formalized written rules and regulations): Bureaucracy
operates in accordance to complete strict adherence to formal rules. These written
formal rules and regulations have been stressed by Weber so that personal favors,
arbitrariness, or gratitude may not infringe the working of the organization; and the
conduct of the organization is based on the defined technical rules or norms.
3) Hierarchy of authority (Observance of legitimate order): Hierarchy holds an important
position in rational type of bureaucracy. The concept of hierarchy holds lot of
importance as administrative system is heavily structured in subordinate services and
management positions. Each lower office is under the control and supervision of higher
one. This system offers the governed to appeal to the higher authority against the
decision of the lower authority in a regulated manner.
4) Assessment and selection of employees for their technical competence: The employee is
appointed on the basis of free and fair selection and this selection is based on tenders,
exams and diplomas which also requires special training programs for the candidates.
The assessment is based purely on the capabilities and performance of the candidates.
5) Formal social relationship according to the position held: The concept of impersonality
should be followed in bureaucratic form of organization. The relationship is based on
formal social aspect and not on irrational sentiments; there is no space for personal likes
and dislikes. The commands of the superior to the subordinate are based on impersonal
order.
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6) Employees’ regular wage: The employee wage is in the form of the fixed salaries which
are given in accordance to the nature of the job and responsibility. The salaries are
given according to the internal hierarchy of the organization; moreover, there are
chances of career advancement through promotion on the basis of seniority and merit.
7) Separation of ownership and the employee function: There must be a complete
separation between the ownership and employee function. The personal demands and
interests should be kept separate and not to interfere with the organizational activities,
since no employee can be the owner of his or her position.
8) Regular career of employees’ overtime: The promotion of the employees is based on the
objective criteria and not on the discretion of authority which helps in the enhancement
of the regular career advancement of employees over the time.
Source: Adapted from Ferreira et al., 2004, pp. 24 and 25.

The above mentioned characteristic clearly highlights, Weber’s theory of bureaucracy as
ideal, pure, neutral, efficient, hierarchical and rational and inevitable in contemporary society.
He referred the ‘ideal type’ of bureaucracy as an ultimate efficiency machine. Weber said
“Experience tends universally to show that the purely bureaucratic type of administrative
organization... is, from a purely technical point of view, capable of attaining the highest
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degree of efficiency and it is in this sense formally the most rational known means of
carrying out imperative control over beings. It is superior to any other form in precision, in
stability, in the stringency of its discipline and in its reliability. It thus makes possible a
particularly high degree of calculability of results for the heads of organization and for those
acting in relation to it. It is finally superior both in intensive efficiency and in the scope of its
operations and is formally capable of application to all kinds of administrative task.”
(Maheshwari, 1992) When Weber characterizes bureaucracy as value neutral, he
conceptualizes bureaucracy as a form of social organization which can be examined from
three different points of view. First is the structural view which gained maximum importance.
The features like division of work and hierarchy are included under the structural aspect.
Secondly, bureaucracy can be viewed in terms of behavioral characteristics; and includes the
characteristics like objectivity, precision and consistency. To quote Weber, “when fully
developed, bureaucracy also stands in a specific sense under the principle of sine ira ac
studio. Its specific nature, which is welcomed by capitalism, develops the more perfectly the
more the bureaucracy is ‘dehumanized’, the more completely it succeeds in eliminating from
official business love, hatred, and all purely personal irrational, and emotional elements
which escape calculation. This is the specific nature of bureaucracy and its special virtue.”
(Gerth and Mills, 1946, p. 215) Lastly bureaucracy is defined from the instrumental point of
view which includes the achievement of purpose. In the opinion of Peter Blau, “the
organization that maximizes efficiency in administration or an institutionalized method of
organized social conduct in the interests of administrative efficiency.” (Blau, 1956, p. 60)
2.9 MAX WEBER: LIMITS ON BUREAUCRACY
While emphasizing the importance and need of bureaucracy, Weber was aware of the fact
that bureaucracy has an inherent tendency of accumulation of power. Albrow also pointed out
that due to this issue Weber considered number of mechanisms to limit the scope of system of
authorities in general and bureaucracy in particular. These mechanism falls into five major
categories.
i) Collegiality
ii) The Separation of Powers
iii) Amateur Administration
iv) Direct Democracy
v) Representation
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Collegiality: The principal of collegiality is opposite to monocratism. In monocratic

bureaucracy Weber pointed out that at each stage of the official hierarchy there is only one
person but the moment more than one person get involved in decision making the collegial
principal come into being. Collegiality helps in limiting the role of bureaucracy but it also
results in to the disadvantage in terms of speed of decision and fixing of responsibility.
The Separation of Power: Separation of power meant dividing the same responsibility or a
function between two or more bodies. All the involved bodies have to make compromises, so
that they can reach to a decision. This will help to make bureaucracy free from monopoly of
decision by a single body; however, such a system is inherently unstable.
Amateur Administration: Under amateur administration, administration is run by those
people who have public esteem to command, general confidence and their activity is basically
unremunerated. But this system lacked in the expertise of professionals and experts which
modern society requires.
Direct Democracy: Direct democracy also limitize the power of bureaucracy, as under this
system officials are guided by and answerable to an assembly. It may take many forms like
short term of office, selection by lot and possibility of recall. But this system is successful
only in case of small organizations and in local governments.
Representation: Elected representatives of people shares the authority of bureaucracy which
helps in limiting or controlling the power of bureaucracy. But there is a possibility that these
representatives being bureaucratized. However, Weber believed that through the
representation, there is a greatest possibility of a check on bureaucracy.
Thus, Weber was conscious about the excessive authoritarian role of bureaucracy and that is
why he wants to limit the role of bureaucracy. There is a need to control the administrative
apparatus.
2.10 MAX WEBER’S BUREAUCRACY: CRITICISM
Weber’s bureaucracy is marked with several criticisms which mainly revolve around the
bureaucratic design, authoritative norms, administrative efficiency; and concept of rationality,
individuality and reliability.
Weber theory failed to take in to consideration the individuals and their behavioral
aspects within the organization. It is constructed as an ideal which cannot be found in reality.
Carl J Friederich observes the term ‘ideal type’ is unfortunate in that the entities to which it is
applied are certainly not ‘ideal’ even in a platonic ‘ideal’ sense; there is, more particularly
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nothing ‘ideal’ about bureaucracy. Furthermore, if they were ‘ideal’ they would not be
‘types’ since ‘types’ derive their significance from the empirical reality which they typify…
But Weber, instead of thus proceeding by empirical observation and analysis of the
ascertainable givens of such experience, set forth his ‘ideal types’ as mental constructs which
are neither derived by a process of deductive ratiocination from higher concepts, nor build up
from empirical data…” (Friederick, 1963, pp. 469-70)
Critics are of the opinion that Weber’s theory is not fit for the task which involves
innovation and creativity as it is fit for routine and repetitive work of the organization
following strict rules and regulations. Robert K. Merton viewed that no doubt strict rules and
regulations; and impersonality helps in maintaining reliability and predictability of employee
behavior but it results in to rigid and formal structure in an organization and loss of
organizational effectiveness. Weber emphasized on specialization and differentiation and the
focus is on decentralization and delegation of responsibilities. The outcome is that there is a
goal displacement as mentioned by Philip Selznick. There are differentiated goals of different
sub units and the goals of the organization as a whole takes a second place as the focus of the
employees is on the goal of their sub units.
To quote Merton, “An effective bureaucracy demands reliability of response and strict
devotion to regulation. Such devotion to the rules leads to their transformation into absolutes;
they are no longer conceived as relative to a given set of purposes. This interferes with ready
adaptation under special conditions not clearly envisaged by those who draw up the general
rules. Thus the very elements which conduce towards efficiency in general produce
inefficiency in specific instances. Those very devices which increase the probability of
conformances is also lead to an over concern with strict adherence to regulations which
induces timidity consumerism and technicism”. (Merton, 1957, p. 156)
Another criticism was posed by Alvin Gouldner, he viewed that rules and regulations of
the organizations tend to highlight the minimum levels of acceptable behavior or
performance. If the focus of the superiors and subordinates is more on the rules and
regulations and less on the organizational goals then this would result in to goal displacement
of the organization marked with apathy and constant rifts amongst the superiors and
subordinates. Victor Thompson also put forward his argument that superiors are dependent
on the lower level specialists for the fulfillment of the organizational goals. They try to
formulate more and more rules and regulations to escape from the insecurities and their
answerability towards the performance of the organization. There is complete formal
structure followed by Weber in his theory, he failed to recognize the informal relationship
which plays an important role in the growth of an organization. Lloyd Rudolph and Susanne
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Rudolph pointed out that, “Formal rationality (and technology) can contribute to
organizational efficiency, but can also contribute to organizational ineffectiveness by
building up the sources of alienation and resistance, and fuelling the struggle for power
against authority. The Persistence or retention of patrimonial elements in bureaucratic
administration can mitigate if not eliminate the struggle, just as the presence of bureaucratic
features in patrimonial administration can (and did) enhance its efficiency and effectiveness”.
(Rudolph and Rudolph, 1979)
Weber equates the authority of the administrative staff with the technical superiority,
Talcott and Parsons criticized this aspect as it leads to internal inconsistency. According to
them, it is not always possible that those who possess authority to give orders are equally
good in their technical skills. Another important drawback of Bureaucracy is that employees
do not get opportunity to express themselves, their opinions or decision making abilities do
not hold any value. As a result employees feel disheartened and demotivated. With the course
of time they are not bothered about rules and regulations and started boycotting them or
simply criticizing them.
2.11 CONCLUSION
Despite of several criticisms, many empirical researches have accepted the importance of
Weber theory of bureaucracy. It is of great benefit for managing the large scale organizations
which includes multi-level hierarchy, work based on well-structured established rules and
procedures; and also helps in increasing overall efficiency. In the present day administration
also the utility of Weber’s theory of bureaucracy is clearly visible. It is beneficial in both the
societies whether it is capitalist or socialist. In free economy where state has a minimum role
to play, bureaucracy performs some of the necessary functions of the state and fulfills day to
day requirements. He is a first theoretician who gave a theoretical base to bureaucracy and
highlights its importance in maintaining the organization in an efficient manner.
1. Explain the meaning and evolution of Bureaucracy?

2. Examine the Max Weber's concept of Bureaucracy?
3. Critically analyze the characters and limits of Bureaucracy?
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2.13 REFERENCES
• Albrow, M. (1978), Bureaucracy, The Macmillan Press Ltd., London

• Bhattacharya, Mohit, 1981, Public Administration: Structure, Process and Behaviour,
The World Press Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata.
• Braverman, Harry, 1979, Labour and Monopoly Capital, The Degradation of Work in
the Twentieth Century, Social Scientist Press, Trivendrum.
• Lakshmanna, C. and A.V. Satyanarayana Rao, 2004, Max Weber, in D. Ravindra
Prasad, V.S. Prasad and P. Satyanarayan (Eds), Administrative Thinkers, Sterling
Publishers, New Delhi.
• Clegg, Steward & David Dunkerley, 1980, Organisation, Class and Control,
Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.
• Cruz, M. B. (1995). Teorias sociológicas. Os fundadores e os classics in Sociological
theories: The founders and the classics, Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian.
• Ferreira. J. M. C. (2004). Abordagens clássicas [Classic approaches]. In J. M.
Ferreira, J. Neves, & A. Caetano (Coords.) Manual de psicossociologia das
organizações [Handbook of psychosociology of organisations]. Lisboa: McGraw-Hill.
• H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, Bureaucracy (Ed.), From Max Weber: Essays in
sociology, Oxford University Press, 1946
• Friederick, Carl J., (1963), Man and his Government, New York, McGraw Hill.
• Maheshwari, S.R. (1992). Bureaucracy on Bureaucratic Theory, Employment News,
17-23, October
• Merton, R. (1957), “Social Theory and Social Structures”, Free Press, Glencoe, III
• Blau, Peter M. (1956), Bureaucracy in Modern Society, Random House, New Jersey
• Rudolph L and Rudolph S. (1979), Authority and Power in Bureaucratic and
Patrimonial Administration: A Revisionist Interpretation of Weber on Bureaucracy”,
World-Politics
• Weber, M. (1946), The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations, translated by
A.M. Henderson and Talcott parsons, New York
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• Weber, M. (1953), “The Monocratic Type of Bureaucratic Administration”, in Dwight

Waldo (ed.) “Ideas and Issues in Administration”, McGraw- Hill, New York
• Weber, M. (1966). Os fundamentos da organização burocrática: Uma construção do
tipo ideal in The basics of bureaucratic organization: A construction of the ideal type.
AAVV. Sociologia da Burocracia. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar Editores.
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(c) HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY (Elton Mayo)

Dr. Neelam Jain
STRUCTURE

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Professor George Elton Mayo
3.4 Early Experiment
3.5 The Hawthorne Experiment
3.5.1 The Great Illumination Experiment (1924-27)
3.5.2 Relay Assembly Study (1927-32)
3.5.3 Human Attitudes and Sentiments (1928-31)
3.5.4 The Bank Wiring Observation Study (1931-32)
3.6 Main Findings of Hawthorne Experiments
3.7 Chester I Barnard’s Contribution to Human Relations Theory
3.8 The Essence of Human Relations Approach
3.9 The Human Relations vs. Classical Theories
3.10 Evaluation of Human Relations Approach
3.11 Conclusion
3.13 References
To study the:
• Evolution of Human Relations theory in Public Administration.
• Elton Mayo's theory of human relations.
• Contribution of Chester Barnard's in human relations theory.
• Comparison in between classical and human relations theory.
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3.2 INTRODUCTION
The Human Relations theory is a path-breaking theory in the organization with its emphasis
on the human side of management and organization. The human relation movement come as
a criticism of classical theories, particularly, Scientific Management theory propounded by
Frederick W. Taylor. The Great Depression and economic damage of 1920s to 1940s lay bare
the shortcomings of earlier approaches to management. During this period, there was a
growth of labour unionism and an increasing demand of improved work conditions, labour
rights and social security. Such issues created a gap between the managers and labourers and
there was need of increased communication for developing more humane way of addressing
various problems of organization.
The Human Relations theory views organization in a holistic social perspective and
highlights the limitations of mechanistic approach to labour productivity and efficiency of an
organization. The pioneer of this theory was Professor George Elton Mayo. He is regarded as
the father of Human Relations approach to organization. In collaboration with his colleagues
of Harvard Business School, Mayo conducted series of experiments in this field.
3.3 PROFESSOR GEORGE ELTON MAYO
Professor Elton Mayo was born in Australia in 1880. He studied Psychology and Philosophy
at University of Adelaide. He joined as lecturer in Logic, Ethics and Psychology at the
University of Queensland in 1911. Later on he was elevated to the rank of professor of
Philosophy there. He pioneered research on psychoanalytic treatment of shell-shock. His
research findings from the study in the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company
throw light on industrial and organizational psychology as well as certain aspects of
sociology.
3.4 EARLY EXPERIMENT
In 1923, Mayo conducted his first research in a Textile Mill near Philadelphia. It was later
termed as ‘first inquiry’. This research site was a highly organized sector. The environment
for workers there was conductive. Despite this, the general labour turnover (absenteeism) in
all the departments was estimated to be approximately 5 per cent per annum. Again in the
mule-spinning department the turnover was approximately 250 per cent. Various incentives
were provided to the workers to improve the situation, however, without much success.
Subsequently, Elton Mayo and his team studied the multi-spinning department from various
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directions. On the basis of his research, he found that workers suffered from fatigue or lack of
adequate rest and there was a need of introducing rest periods to them. The motivating effect
of the scheme was tremendous. Mayo’s study was comprehensive in nature. It took into
account production levels, rest periods, working conditions, occasional accidents etc. By
delegating the decision of resting periods to the workers, the management in the Textile Mill
set in motion the social interaction between management and workers. It started a new
beginning.
3.5 THE HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENT
The Hawthorne Plant of Western Electrical Company at Chicago happened to be one of the
progressive firms in the US. It was reputed for better working environment, favourable
workings hours and various facilities. But from the early 1920s, the firm was reduced to
moderate level of productivity. The management of the firm attempted every positive change
to improve productivity as suggested by the Scientific Management theory and Classical
theories of organization but the result were not satisfactory. Under this circumstance, the
management of the firm had approached Harvard Business School to find out the solution of
the problem of low productivity. Hence, Elton Mayo and his associates took this
responsibility and conducted a series of experiments and put forward their Human Relations
Approach to organization. The notable studies of this Hawthorne experiment are as follows.
3.5.1 The Great Illumination Experiment (1924-27)
In this experiment, two groups of female workers who were engaged in assembling telephone
relays, were placed in two separate rooms. One was a test room and another was a control
room. The object was to study the level of production. The hypothesis was that the level of
productivity corresponds positively with the enhanced degree of illumination. The control
group remained with constant illumination of the level and the type with which the two
groups started. Experimental changes were introduced periodically in the test group’s room.
Then slowly a change was effected in the working conditions. Its object was to mark the
effect of this change on the output. The research work continued for two years. It was
observed that regardless of the level of illumination, production increased in both the control
and experimental groups. The findings were a bit surprising. Then the rest periods were
deliberately altered. Change was also effected in wage payment, duration of work, room
temperature, humidity etc. to assess their impact on productivity. However, quite contrary to
the expectations of the researchers, the groups kept a steady growth rate. The researchers
concluded that the better communication between managers and workers during the
experiment and increased attention to the worker’s situation by the research group led to the
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positive result.
3.5.2 Relay Assembly Study (1927-32)
With a view to critically analysing the hypothesis on illumination theory and assessing the
impact of variety of factors on productivity, two new groups were formed. It was based on
the two hypotheses which were proposed by the researchers after the illumination study:
The first hypothesis: Firstly, it was found that the individual wage enhancement
stimulated increase in the output.
The second hypothesis: Secondly, it was observed that positive changes in supervision
methods improved the attitudes and output.
In this study, the two groups were offered individual incentive on piecework basis. It was
observed that initially the total output improved whereas it remained constant after a certain
period. The second group was placed on individual incentive plan. Variations in rest periods
and duration of work and their impact on productive output were also studied. There was an
average rise of productive output over a period of 14 months.
The researchers did not confirm the first hypothesis. It was found that not wage but other
conditions enhanced output in both the groups.
In order to find out the validity of the second hypothesis, working condition was made
more relaxed, conductive and cordial. Free and frank communication was encouraged among
fellow workers and supervisors. Supervisors modified their managerial practices. They
responded with the workers in a democratic manner. The workers came to realise that they
were integral part in the productive system. It led their response turning more positive.
It was observed by Mayo that work satisfaction largely depends on the informal social
pattern of the working group. It was observed that cordial techniques of supervision
positively impact productivity.
3.5.3 Human Attitudes and Sentiments (1928-31)
Mayo and his team conducted another study during 1928-31. It was related to human
attitudes and sentiments. For this, they interviewed 21000 workers and asked them to express
freely their opinion about the working conditions and the policies of the management. These
interviews were more of an attempt to boost the morale of the workers than collecting data
about the various problems faced by the workers. It was observed that without proper
appreciation of the feelings and sentiments of the workers, it is difficult to delve deep into
their real problems. In the process, the research team acquired new insight in understanding
the concerns of the workers.
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The study identified mainly 3 things:

First, Collection of information about the problems faced by the workers create a feeling
of equality among the workers, since they find place to participate in managerial decision
making. This create hope of improved working environment.
Second, the observation of the research team encouraged managers and supervisors to
become more responsive to the problems of workers.
Third, it was felt by the researchers for understanding the real problems of the workers it
is necessary to appreciate their sentiments and feelings. This in turn derive both from
employee’s personal history and social situation.
3.5.4 The Bank Wiring Observation Study (1931-32)
This experiment involved a group of 14 men (9 wirers, 3 soldiers, 2 inspectors) who were
assigned to do a wiring job which also included the job of soldiering and fixing the terminals.
Wages were paid on the basis of a group incentive plan and each member got his share on the
total output of the group. In contrast to their expectations, researchers found that the workers
were not reacting positively to the incentives. Workers fixed their own productive target
which was the lower than the target fixed by the management. There was an informal
consensus among the workers to maintain uniform rate of output and workers did not try to
increase or decrease production from the standard they agreed for themselves. Thus the
researchers uncovered an underlying group psychology and informal code of behaviour that
influences overall industrial productivity. Such behavioural pattern among the workers was
directly attributed to the deep seated distrust against the management. In this particular
experiment, the group used informal pressure to rectify the deviant members. The following
rules were framed:
• Too much work should be avoided. If one does so, s/he will be regarded as ‘rate
buster’.
• Too little work should be discouraged. If one does so, s/he will be regarded as
‘chiseler’.
• Anything negative about a fellow worker should not be reported to the supervisor.
• Nobody should attempt social distance or act in an officious manner.
Thus this study was very useful in highlighting the fact of intra-group forces in the working
of an organization.
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3.6 MAIN FINDINGS OF HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS
The Hawthorne experiments and subsequent studies were very important in highlighting the
working of informal organization and socio-psychological factors as major determinants of
worker’s satisfaction and organizational output. This study has led to the understanding of
importance of human factor in organization and necessity of proper communication system
between the management and workers. The findings of experiments of Mayo and his
associates can be summarized as below:
1. Social Factors in Output: The level of organizational effectiveness is determined not
by the official prescriptions but by the social norms. Workers are not mere cogs in the
machine. They are human beings with social characteristics which in turn determine
the productivity and efficiency in organization.
2. Group Influence: In the organizational setting, workers not merely act as an
individuals but do as member of the group. Group standards exert major impact on
individual behaviour. The productivity of workers corresponds to this standard. The
group also provide protection against executive retaliations. In these ways, the
working of the informal groups somehow limit the executive power.
3. Rewards and Sanctions: Non economic rewards such as social rewards and group
sanctions are more effective than economic incentives for the increment of
productivity.
4. Supervision: Organizational objectives become acceptable to workers if they are also
involved in discussion and their informal leader is consulted. This necessitates
effective communication and willingness on the part of management to ensure
participation of the workers in decision- making.
5. Communication: Communication is key to develop a better environment for work
and development of organization. The rationality of a particular decision or action
should be properly communicated to workers. Management should try to identify the
attitudes, social and psychological factors, and methods of working of workers
through proper communication.
3.7 CHESTER I BARNARD’S CONTRIBUTION TO HUMAN

RELATIONS THEORY
Another important exponent of Human Relations approach to organization is Chester I

Barnard, which is reflected in his work The Functions of Executive (1938). The main features
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of Barnard’s theory of organization can be summarised as below:

• Organization as cooperative system: Cooperation is necessary for proper working of
an organization. Individuals have limited capacity to manage the affairs of
organization without the cooperation of others.
• Formal and Informal Organization: Barnard believed that formal and informal
structure complement each other in the proper functioning of the organization.
• Consent Theory of authority: According to Barnard ‘consent’ or acceptance should be
the basis of authority. Effectiveness of the authority is determined by the willing
participation of the subordinates. He has identified four essential preconditions;
intelligibility, conformity to the purpose of the organization, compatibility with
personal interests and physical and mental ability to comply behind the acceptance of
authority.
• Inducement-Contribution balance: Bernard sought to bring equilibrium between
contribution in an organization in terms of labour and satisfaction level generally
calculated in terms of inducements and incentives.
• Moral Responsibility: Moral responsibility of executive form the backbone of an
organization.
• Communication: Success of any cooperative system depends on proper
communication network.
3.8 THE ESSENCE OF HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
First, Human Relations theory, in contrast to other classical theories, views organization in its
holistic social perspective emphasising on the human element in the working of organization.
Second, the Human Relations theory believes that each worker carries with him/ her culture,
attitude, belief and way of life. Organization should take proper cognizance of all these socio-
cultural factors. The social and psychological factors are responsible for worker’s
productivity and job satisfaction.
Third, this theory identifies the impact of informal groups on motivation and productivity.
Fourth, it emphasises on sense of belongingness among the workers and need of social
solidarity in an organization.
Fifth, Human relation theory discovers a new form of management; participative
management, which may reduce the gap between workers and management.
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3.9 THE HUMAN RELATIONS VS. CLASSICAL THEORIES
Like other Classical theories, The Human Relations theory acknowledges the importance of
‘management’ in efficient production, however, it differs in its basic approach to the
organization from the former. Organization is in fact a social system. In addition to its formal
structure, it involves individuals and informal groups. The Human Relations theory is
regarded as a vital theory in relation to its impact on productivity. It is also called the ‘neo-
classical theory’ as it emphasises efficiency and regards productivity as the essence of an
organization. But this theory rely on different techniques to achieve desired objectives.
Though alike in terms of achieving objectives, Classical and Human Relations theory are
different in their approaches. The Human Relations theory attempts to eliminate the
dehumanising factors of the classical theory.
3.10 EVALUATION OF HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
The Human Relations theory brings a new perspective in organization theory by

acknowledging the importance of workers in their respective socio-cultural milieu. However,
this theory is also criticised on the following grounds:
1. Critics have pointed out several shortcoming of research methods of Hawthorne
survey. It is argued that the sample size at the Hawthorne plant was inadequate. It did
not deal with the entire organization. Carey’s criticism is based on the fact that small
groups of ‘cooperative girls’ do not indicate the general pattern. Inadequate samples
cannot help us to arrive at acceptable conclusions. The theory supports the old view
that monetary incentives, conductive working environment and discipline are the vital
impacting factors of productivity. According to Carey, the theory lacks scientific base.
2. Peter F Drucker is also a critic of this theory. According to him it does not attach due
significance to economic dimensions. The Harvard group neglects nature of work. It
primarily focuses on inter-personal relations.
3. This theory is also criticised for its lack of understanding the role of unions in an
organization. Mayo and his team substitute human relations oriented supervisors for
union representatives. Scholars like Loren Baritz and others criticise the theory as
‘anti-union’ and ‘pro-management’. Some Marxist critics prefer to call Hawthorne
researchers as ‘cow sociologists’. According to them conflict free organizational
situation is utopian.
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4. The theory is also criticised for the reason that it draws inspiration mainly from
classical theories. It did not go far enough to ensure ultimate contentment and well-
being of employers.
3.11 CONCLUSION
No theory can be regarded as all-inclusive and perfect. Elton Mayo’s Human Relations theory
has also certain short comings. But in spite of this, it may be regarded as milestone in
augmenting subsequent development of organizational practices. His ideas of adequate
communication system, participative management, importance of informal organizations, and
human side of organization among others are regarded as very crucial in organization
theories. His ideas led to the further development of Neo-Human Relations approaches,
particularly in the analysis of the work design and management evolved in the writings of
Douglas Macgregor, Abraham Maslow, Frederick Herzberg, Chris Argyris. At last we can
say that Elton Mayo and his Human Relations approach is relevant still today not only for its
innovative ideas but also for practical application.
1. Describe the evolution of human relations theory in Public Administration.

2. Critically examine the Elton Mayo's theory of human relations.
3. Explain the Chester Barnard's the theory of human relations.
3.13 REFERENCES
• Baritz, L. (1960). The Servants of Power, Westport, CT: Greenwood.

• Carey, A. (1967). “The Hawthorne Studies: A Radical Criticism’’, American
Sociological Review, 32 (3), pp. 403-416.
• Chakravarty, B & Chand P. (2006) Public Administration in a Globalizing World, New
Delhi: Sage.
• Chester, B. (1954). The Functions of the Executive, Cambridge: Harvard University
Press
• Drucker, Peter F. (1961). The Practice of Management, London: Mercury Books.
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• Jha, P. K. & Dubey, S. N. (Eds) (2015) Administration and Public Policy, New Delhi:
Scholar Tech Press.
• Mayo, E. (1933). The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, Cambridge, MA:
Harvard.
• ----------(1945). The Social Problems of Industrial Civilization, Andover,
Massachusetts: Andover Press.
• Roethlisberger, Firtz J., and Dickson, W. J. (1939). Management and the Worker,
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
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(d) RATIONAL DECISION-MAKING (Herbert Simon)

Dr. Devarati Roy Chowdhury
STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Definitions of Decision Making
4.4 Types of Decision Making
4.5 Principles of Decision Making
4.6 Meaning of Decision Theory
4.7 Types of Decision Making Model
4.8 Intuitive Decision-Making Model
4.9 Creative Decision-Making Model
4.10 Critiques of the Rational Decision-Making Model
4.11 Rational Decision Making and Herbert Simon
4.12 Conclusion
4.14 References
To study the:
• Decision-Making Theory in Public Administration.
• Definition, types and principle of decision making.
• Herbert Simons the Concept of Bounded Rationality.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
The subject of decision making is very extensive. Decision making is a multi-step process
which is considered as the most significant activity of the organization. It is the most basic
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and central function of management at all levels. Decision making involves a clearly defined
elements based systematic process of selecting a course of action from multiple possible
alternatives for the achievement of the desired objective. Each defined element involves a
decision in itself and also serves as a building block of the decision process.
The main objective of the whole activity is to guide and channelise the human action for
the achievement of a proposed goal. It involves systemizing the organizational infrastructure
and required resources into the suitable course of action which would lead to achieving the
desired results in an orderly manner. The course of action involves questions like ‘what is the
objective’, ‘what is to be done to achieve the objective’, ‘how it is to be done’, ‘who all will
be involved’, ‘what are the resources’. By considering all the questions, alternative
possibilities are chalked out and then the best alternative is selected which is called as
‘decision’ and the whole process through which the final decision is taken is known as
‘decision making’. The word “decision” is derived from Latin word “decido”, which means
settlement, a fixed intention bringing to conclusive result and decision making means arriving
at a conclusion as a solution of a problem.
All the administrative activities such as planning, organisation, direction, budgeting and
control etc are performed through decisions. That is why, the whole decision making process
is the most crucial aspect of administration.
4.3 DEFINITIONS OF DECISION MAKING
According to Koontz and O’Donnel, “Decision-making is the actual selection from among
alternatives of a course of action.”
Melvin T. Copeland said “administration essentially is a decision making process and
authority is responsible for making decision and for ascertaining that the decisions made are
carried out.”
According to Peter Drucker, “Whatever a manager does, he does through decision
making.”
Above mentioned definitions show that as the core function of management process,
decision is an act of choice selecting a particular alternative out of many possibilities. As an
act of choice, the whole process involves thinking, designing and deciding at each step. This
makes it a cognitive process where the knowledge about the problem helps to decide what to
do about the problem, how to solve it. Decision making involves gathering the available
information which is known, identifying the resources, chalking out the alternatives,
assessing the risks involved and making the best decision weighing all the alternatives in a
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timely manner and evaluating decision effectiveness. This is fundamentally basic for each
individual decision to big organization, however, process of arriving at final solution is
complex can vary from individual to organization and at each level. (Bhattacharya and
Chakrabarty 2005)
4.4 TYPES OF DECISION MAKING
There are many types of decisions which can be classified in a number of ways:
a.) Programmed decisions and non-programmed decisions
Programmed decision are structured and recurs after a regular interval. These types of
decisions involved routine and repetitive problems. The conditions of the programmed
decisions are highly certain which means that information about these problems are already
available and solutions are offered in accordance with habit, rule or procedure in a pre-
planned manner.
Non-programmed decisions are relatively unstructured and occurs much less often than a
programmed decision. Problems are unique and novel and conditions for non-programmed
decisions are highly uncertain and non-repetitive in nature. There are no prespecified
procedure to rely upon while taking decisions. Each situation is different from the other,
involving situations and problems which are not often seen and thus, requires more
innovative solutions.
b.) Organisational decisions and personal decisions
Organisational decisions involve organizational goals and are made for the advancement
of the organization. These are the decisions which an executive or manager takes on behalf of
organisation. These can be delegated or transferred to others. These decisions making involve
decisions pertaining to practices and problems of the organisation.
Personal decisions are concerned to an employee of the organisation. These are basically
the decisions which are made by an executive or manager as an individual and not as a
member of the organisation. These decisions are made to achieve personal goals and cannot
be delegated to others.
c.) Individual decisions and group decisions
Individual decision is taken by an individual. In this an individual can often reach
decisions more quickly and it is less expensive in comparison to group decision. The clear
accountability lies with the individual who has taken the decisions.
Group decisions are those decisions which are taken by group or organisational team
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which is constituted for the purpose. These decisions involve more information, process of
deliberations and the accountability lies with the whole group.
d.) Routine (tactical) decisions and strategic (basic) decisions
Routine decisions concerned with routine and repetitive problems. These types of
decisions neither require collection of new data nor conferring with the people. These can be
taken without much of deliberation. The primary purpose of these decisions is to achieve high
degree of efficiency in the ongoing activity. Within an organisation, lower level units can
take routine decisions in accordance to organisational rules.
The strategic decisions are taken on the serious problems and these require fact finding
analysis of the possible alternatives. These decisions require lengthy deliberations and has
long term implications. The strategic decisions are taken by top level management in an
organisation.
e.) Policy decisions and operative decisions
Policy decisions are the decisions that define the basic principles of the organization and
determine how it will develop and function in the future. These are taken by top level
management to change the rules, organizational procedure.
Operative decisions involved determining and planning short term objectives and goals
concerning routine tasks. These decisions are taken by lower management in order to put into
action the policy decisions.
Apart from these categories, there are more types of decision making like departmental,
interdepartmental and enterprise decisions, major and minor decisions, short term and long
tern decisions, simple and complex decisions etc. Each decision making model has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
4.5 PRINCIPLES OF DECISION MAKING
• Marginal principle of decision making: it is based on principle of diminishing

returns. This principle maintains after reaching the optimal level of utilization, any
further addition of factor of production will yield diminished per unit returns. The
principle works to identify the optimal level and is applied for training, promotion,
sales, advertisements.
• Mathematical principle of decision making: this principle gives scientific approach
to managers in organization. It rationalizes the filtering of all the data, information
which are used for analysing a problem, balancing all the possible alternatives and
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taking decision thereafter. It helps in balancing the overwhelming flow of

information in form of data in a orderly manner. It underlies computer programme
and venture analysis, probability theory, game theory are based on these principles.
• Psychological principle of decision making: it works on the idea that decision
making is a cognitive process in which analysis of the problem, exploring alternatives
and choosing the best possibility, all these elements are based by expectations,
aspirations, technological skills, personality traits, organisational and social status
etc.
• Limiting factor principle: as per this principle, the basic fundamentals of problem
are analysed and on that basis possible inferences or conclusion are drawn.
• Principle of participation in decision making: this works on the idea of team
participation. It maintains that decision influenced by human behaviour and thus are
the by product of human relationship. Like in organization, this principle favours
consulting the subordinate for reaching to decisions.
• Alternative principle idea in decision making: according to this principle all the
possibilities are evaluated one by one and after weighing all the possible alternatives,
best alternative is considered as final decision.
All the decisions are fully or partially based on these principles. (Bhattacharya and
Chakrabarty 2005)
4.6 MEANING OF DECISION THEORY
Decision theory is considered as an interdisciplinary process to take decision which are

considered as the best possible decision in unknown circumstances. As an interdisciplinary
process, analysis of the decision making process is done through a diverse lens of
psychology, philosophy, mathematics, statistics, sciences and social science.
On the basis of that three different areas of decision theory have been generated which
examine the decision making from three different point of view. These are descriptive,
prescriptive and normative decision theory.
• Descriptive decision theory examines that how the irrational beings understand the
problem and take decisions.
• Prescriptive decision theory provided fundamental guidelines to a decision taker in
order to draw possible inferences and make the best possible decision in uncertain
environment.
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• Normative decision theory highlights the importance of values and norms and
provides guidance for taking decisions based on set of norms and values.
4.7 TYPES OF DECISION MAKING MODEL

Decision making model describes the methods which is taken to make the decisions. There
are four main models of decision making and each model is relevant for a specific kind of
decision. It is important to mention here that each model of decision making has its
advantages and risks. The models are:
• Intuitive decision making model
• Creative decision making model
• Rational decision making model
• Bounded rational decision making model
4.8 INTUITIVE DECISION MAKING MODEL
Intuitive decision making model focuses on the idea of reaching the decisions without
considerable conscious reasoning. With great deal of uncertainty attached, constraints of
time, finances, and limitation in terms of lack or imperfect information, it is often found that
people are taking decisions without considering the formal steps of the rational decision
making. But it is important to note here that, as it is seldom criticized from an outsider that it
is more based on gut feeling and guessing power, it is also a systematic model of decision
making. (Lumenlearning course)
Unlike rational decision making model, in this model decisions are not taken on the basis
of exploring best alternative out of possible options. Rather the decision taker here, analyses
the environment and figure out the pattern and use past experience and takes the suitable
course of action. If it is not coming out to be a workable solution then another new idea is
picked so at one given point of time, one choice is considered. Once a workable course of
action is recognized, the decision maker uses it to solve the problem. The basic strategy here
is trial and error, testing one solution at a time, understanding the patterns, scanning the cues
and thus reinventing the wheel every time.
Intuitive model is opposite of rational decision making model which is a multi-step
process of taking a decision based on facts analyse. This model is good to analysis ill-
structured and fragmented problems.
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4.9 CREATIVE DECISION MAKING MODEL
Creative model of decision making highlights the power of imaginative new ideas. With the
multi-disciplinarity approach, 360 degree outlook, increasing competition and providing
something new, setting up new trend momentum, individuals and organizations are
constantly trying to be more creative and unique with the decisions. The criteria for this
model ranges from cutting costs to offering new innovative ways to do something. One point
which is need to be clear here is creativity and innovation are noy synonyms to each other, in
the innovation process, creativity is the first stepping stone. Innovation is a combination of
creative and realistic, workable planning.
Steps of creative decision making process:
• Problem recognition: identifying and understanding the problem
• Immersion: conscious thinking and gathering information
• Incubation: setting aside the problem, however brain is working on the problem,
unconscious state.
• Illumination: in a least expected scenario, solution become visible, similar to a ‘eureka
moment’
• Verification and application stage: conscious verification of the solution leading to the
implementation of the final decision. (lumenlearning course)
The combination of three factors evaluate the level of creative in the decisions making
process. These are fluency (ability to generate the maximum number of ideas), flexibility
(range of different ideas), and originality (newness and uniqueness of ideas).
Rational Decision Making Model
The rational decision making model presents a multistep process for making decisions
through logic and reasoning between possible alternatives. It is known as rational model of
decision making because the decision taken by this model seems to optimize utility and
minimize the cost involved (Simon 1947). It is also rational because the inferences are drawn
based on logical evidences as in form of facts and information and are not based on any guess
work or imagination. According to this model, any decisions which has been taken without
considering the information and reasoning is seemed to be highly irrational.
It is a model of making logical decisions based on objectivity, utilization of experiences,
economizing on efforts and give lesser importance to intuition and subjectivity.
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Stepwise Rational Decision Making Model

• Identifying the problem
The very step involves defining and framing the problem
• Establishing decision criteria
In this step, people need to establish the relevance of all elements which are involved in
taking decisions like all the information, stakeholders involved, their requirement,
interest, preferences etc.
• Weighing the decision criteria
This step revolves around putting the priorities and information in the decision in a
correct order.
• Exploring possible alternatives
After the identification of the problem, and collection of the relevant information, the
next step is assessing them and chalking out all the possible alternatives.
• Evaluate each alternative
This is the fifth step and in this step all the possible alternatives are evaluated on the
various parameters like feasibility, realistic and reliability of the alternatives, merits and
demerits of each alternative.
• Choosing the best alternative as decision
Once the evaluation of the alternatives are finished, the decision maker now choose the
best suitable alternative and clearly state as decision.
• Implementation of the decision
The final decision is implemented by the decision maker in order to solve the problem.
• Evaluation of the decision
The last and final step involves evaluation the results of the decision.
Assumptions of the Rational Model of Decision Making
This model maintains that people choose the best alternative out of possible inferences on the
basis of maximization of benefits and minimization of cost analysis. The basic assumption of
rational model are:
• People have complete and perfect knowledge about the problem and related
information on the basis of which they will make choices.
• People have the perfect data to measure cost benefit analysis.
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• People possess the required cognitive ability to process the data, evaluate all possible
combinations against each others and has sound logical and objective ability to choose
the best possible alternative. (lumenlearning course)
Problems with the Rational Decision Making Model
The very basic problem with the model is its unrealistic assumptions of the decision maker
knows everything starting from the problem to all available choices, to choosing the best
alternative. The rational decision maker is expected to choose the ‘optimal alternative’ which
has minimum cost and maximum benefits. In this decision making process, the ethical and
normative parameters are not taken into account. This model is dominated by the idea of
giving more preferences to fact, data and scientific analysis. (Henry 2003)
4.10 CRITIQUES OF THE RATIONAL DECISION MAKING MODEL
The model have been criticized for having bias to the over-simplified and unrealistic
assumptions like:
The model assumes that all information is available pertaining the problem. It may not be
the true case and secondly, the decision maker might not be able to get and retain all the
information. There are many sort of limitations to it. As per the stepwise decision making
process, all information has to be gathered and analysed in order to create all possible
alternatives. There are some inherent problems with the very assumption as, first, it is tough
to get all information about any problem, there are some limitations to how much information
we can gather.
Secondly, pile of information can lead to ‘information analysis paralysis’ where too
much time would get wasted in analysing information and making sense out of it without any
conclusive decision. Too much reliance on these unrealistic assumptions has its problems.
Thirdly, individual rationality has its own boundaries to see through the data and figure
out alternatives out of that. There are cognitive, infrastructural, ecological restraints to it.
And, the more complex is the problem, more tough is to get information regarding it and
more are the limitations in order of making more rational decision.
4.11 RATIONAL DECISION MAKING AND HERBERT SIMON
Nobel prize winning economist Herbert Simon’s (1916-2001) most celebrated work is
Administrative Behaviour: A decision making process was published in the year 1947. His
notable works are:
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Administrative Behaviour (1947)

Fundamental Research in Administration (1953)
Organization (1958)
Human Problem Solving (1972)
In his book ‘Administrative Behaviour’ Simon mentioned that “decision making is the central
concern for understanding the organization and its working. And, in order to understand the
organization better, one need to analyse the human behaviour and its ethical and values
preferences in the whole decision making process.
Herbert Simon attacked the scientific and structural approach for their contradiction and
oversimplified, idealistic assumptions and thus making the discipline of public administration
inconsistent with no universal relevance. Simon in particular, questioned the theoretical basis
of rational decision making and challenged its universal validity. (Simon 1947)
Herbert Simon’s investigation of the role of rationality in decision making has led to the
growth of behavioural approach in the field of administrative behaviour with focus on
decision making. For Simon, decision making is a universal process and has contextual
relevance. In his own words, “a theory of administration should be concerned with the
processes of decision as well as the processes of action. Mere setting up of a theory and no
relation to reality is of no value.” (Simon 1947)
For Simon, “administration is the art of getting things done” and for that he emphasized
on choices which ensure actions. Simon highlighted that in administrative study, more
attention has been given to action than choices. Choice precedes actions and without
understanding the choice properly, action cannot be analysed. And, decision making study is
the study of choices in behavioural approach. (Simon 1955)
Simon asserted that one has to understand that every administrative activity involves two
different and interrelated activity. These are:
• ‘deciding’ (decision)
• ‘doing’ (action)
‘Doing’ is integrally related to deciding. And, that is why deciding factors should be
analysed, should be based on sound principles so that it ensure effective action. Simon argued
that traditional administrative thinkers did not diagnose the situations thus lacked the frame
of reference which eventually made them suffer with the problem of universal validity. Thus,
Simon proposed his model of rational decision making which is based on logical positivism
and excluded value judgement, preferences and any normativity. Simon favoured that
administrative behaviour should only take into account those knowledge which is coming
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from rigorous factual analysis. It is important to mention here that ‘logical positivism’ (a
philosophical movement arose out of Vienna Circle in the 1920s) basically holds the idea that
the only knowledge is scientific knowledge and meaningful knowledge which is based on
facts. Logical positivism differs from erstwhile schools of empiricism and positivism and
maintains that knowledge acquired by verification, experimental process should be
considered as basis of knowledge. (Bhattacharya and Chakrabarty 2005)
On the basis of logical positivism, Simon supported empirical approach and negated the
use of normative approach in the study of decision making in administration. According to
Simon, “factual information can be verified and tested, they are highly objective in nature but
value based judgements are subjective in nature and cannot be tested”. (Simon 1947)
Simon believed that decision making is a tough task as the decisions maker within an
organization is constantly facing new, complex challenges and out of the many possible
alternatives, the decision maker has to select the most suitable alternative to provide a
practical and workable solution to the problem.
Simon’s decision making theory is based on the basic idea that rational administrator or a
rational decision maker possesses perfect and complete knowledge about understating the
problem, has all the required information, cognitive ability to interpret the information and
has the farsightedness to vision out the possible alternative and best alternative too.
Flowchart of Simon’s decision process
Is there a problem?
R
E
V
I
What are the
E
alternatives?
W
Which course of action

one should choose?
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This process of decision making comprises of number of stages:

• Intelligence activity in this stage the environment is analysed to identify the issues
and events which require decision. Information as data is gathered, processed and
analysed to define the problem.
• Design activity involves development of the possible alternatives on the basis of
processed data and each course of possible action is evaluated. This ranges from
problem analysis, figuring out possible alternatives and testing alternatives for their
feasibility and practicality.
• Choice and Implementation stage comprises of selecting the most suitable
alternative and that is implemented.
• Review stage involves monitoring the performance of the implemented course of
action and evaluate outcomes.
As per the rational decision making model, a complete rational decision maker is a ‘economic
man’ as defined by neo-classical theory. And, in the state of classical perfect rationality
condition, each possible alternative would be given numerical utility value and the alternative
having highest value would be selected as rational perfect decision. (Henry 2003)
As stated above, in this manner, it is assumed that the rational decision maker:
• Knows all about problem, information and alternatives
• Knows the outcome of each alternative
• Knows all the preferences of all the outcomes
• Have a sound computational cognitive ability to compare and choose most preferred
possible course of action.
Simon mentioned that it is a condition of perfect rationality but in an imaginary world. In real
life situation, the whole decision making process suffers from many limitations like
inadequate information, cognitive limitations, no possibility of chalking out all possible
solutions, decision maker’s own biases, beliefs, intellectual and skilled capacity, external
environment, organisational factors etc. (Henry 2003)
Simon didn’t negate that crucial role of rationality in decision making and highlighted
the importance of rationality stating that “all decisions should be based on rational choices as
preferred behaviour alternative in terms of some system of values whereby the consequences
of behaviour can be evaluated.” He explained rationality as means-end construct. Out of
many possible alternatives, picking the one doesn’t signify that rest alternatives are not
suitable or wrong. As per Simon, if we go by rationality, we will understand that in that
particular situation, that particular course of action is selected by decision maker. However,
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in different situation, the decision maker might opt for some other alternative. So, rationality
helps to understand the problem better.
Simon suggested that there are mainly six types of rationality.
• Subjective rationality: a decision is considered as subjectively rational if it leads to the
maximization of the achievement in comparison to the knowledge of the subject.
• Objective rationality: a decision is considered as objectively rational if it maximizes
the given value in that given situation.
• Deliberate rationality means deliberately adjusting the means to ends.
• Conscious rationality refers to the conscious process of adjusting means to end.
• Personal rationality is related to decision directly to individual
• Organization rationality refers to the extent to which decisions are related to
organisation. (Simon 1947)
Herbert Simon’s theory of rational decision making differed from traditional rational decision
making model because in Simon’s theory, values and preferences and rationality have given
major importance. Simon’s theory have adequate analysis of behavioural approach and has
universal application.
According to Simon, “the Rational-Economic Model (Classical decision theory) assumes
the manager faces a clearly defined problem, he knows all possible action alternatives and
their consequences, and then chooses the optimum solution. Whereas in Administrative
Model (Behavioural), the Behavioural decision theory accepts the notion of bounded
rationality. It assumes the manager acts only in terms of what is perceived about a given
situation, and then chooses a satisfying solution”. (Simon 1947)
Understanding the Concept of Bounded Rationality
Rationality is the central point in Simon’s decision making model. On the basis of this
bounded rationality concept, Simon has tried to show the limitations of human rationality and
how human rationality differs from pure economic rationality.
‘Bounded rationality’ decision making model of Herbert Simon provides a holistic
understanding of how decisions are taken. The basic principle of this theory works on the
same line that decision making is a rational process. However, Simon gives a condition here
that as decision maker lacks the basic cognitive ability and due to many other limitations like
time constraints, lack of information, organizational procedure etc. decision maker cannot
attain the optimal decision which can maximize benefits with minimum costs. (Bhattacharya
and Chakrabarty 2005)
Instead the decision maker, in such cases, on the basis of his/her rationality opt for
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suitable course of action thus making ‘good enough’ decisions. The rationality here is that
decision maker is fully aware of limitations and then opt for most suitable possible
alternative.
The theory of bounded rationality highlights the point that decision maker should adapt
the rational approach, and must determine the extent and range of information which needs to
be gathered and processed for identification of the problem, creating alternative solutions at
information gathering and analysing stage and finally choosing the alternative.
Simon clearly points out that the decision maker is not in control of all the stakeholders
and of environment and that is why it is almost impossible for a rational man to take rational
decisions knowing its limitations. So, with limited information and manageable alternatives,
the decision maker would settle with suitable alternative without exhaustive exploration.
(Lumenlearning course)
The most important principle of bounded rationality model is the ‘principle of
satisficing’ which means that choosing the most suitable possible alternative which meets the
minimum criteria. The concept of satisficing is similar to rational decision making but
whereas in later, the best possible alternative becomes the final choice thus leads to
maximization of benefits and minimization of costs, in the former, opting for suitable
alternative meeting minimum criteria saves efforts, time and the most viable realistic
approach to decision making.
Image 1. Courtesy Figure on ResearchGate.
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Herbert Simon said that “the word satisficing is actually a combination of two words: satisfy
and suffice. As one can get all information, and even if one gets all information, he will not
be able to process it. In contrary, in bounded rationality, seeking ‘good enough’ something
which is satisfactory, fulfilling minimum threshold, acceptable works best and in the practical
world, this satisficing decision making is the most realistic approach.” Simon applied the
concept of bounded rationality and satisficing to individual to organisational decisions.
(Simon 1947; 1955)
So, in nutshell, there are some basic factors which are leading to satisficing decisions
based on bounded rationality. These are:
• Dynamic and Complex nature of reality and administrative objectives.
• Limited ability of decisions maker to foresee the alternatives and outcomes.
• Lack of information and lack of cognitive and computational ability to process the
information.
• Organizational pressure and other external factors in environment.
• Personal interests, preferences and biases are bound to influence the decisions.
(Bhattacharya and Chakrabarty 2005)
On the basis of that, the administrative man has following traits:
• On the basis of bounded rationality, administrative man takes satisfactory decisions
with meeting minimum threshold
• He takes a simplified version of problem with only that much information which he
thinks adequate and do not fall for information analysis paralysis.
• Administrative man looks for satisficing conditions rather than maximization
conditions. (Bhattacharya and Chakrabarty 2005)
Simon developed a more realistic workable model of decision making. Whereas the classical
theory product ‘the economic man’ maximizes, Simon’s ‘administrative man’ satisfices.
Administrative man simplifies the situation by considering fewer for deciding which he
thinks as crucial.
A practical decision maker would opt for a satisfactory decision in order to solve the
problem rather going for an endless hunting of ideal perfect option. A good decision maker
will only consider information which he is aware of, see the relevance of these, which he can
process and interpret for proper decision making.
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Critique of Simon’s Bounded Rationality Model

The bounded rational model of decision making is an acclaimed theory of decision making
but many researchers claim that this theory despite its difference still it comes under the
school of rational decision making model. Scholars like Huber, Das and Teng stated that
there is no clear cut distinction between perfect and bounded rationality. As per these
scholars, Simon himself admitted that this theory of bounded rationality is a theory of rational
decision making with condition.
Simon has also been given criticized for giving too much importance to the role of
decision making and setting up decision making process as the only most important activity
of the organisation. In that process Simon neglected the role of political, social, cultural and
economic factors and how they are influencing the administrative behaviour. Critics point out
that decision making is the important function of organisation but by theorizing and analysing
only decision making, one cannot understand the organization fully.
Critics like Norton E. Ling and P. Selznick commented that the dichotomy of fact and
value in Simon’s theory is basically a revision in a new way the discredited dichotomy of
politics administration. They further stated that Simon undermined the role of bureaucracy in
administrative studies and limited it to a neutral agent which is not true in real sense.
Bureaucracy is the most important agency in the administrative studies and without
understanding the bureaucracy, the study of administrative behaviour would always remain
flawed and narrow in its approach. (Henry 2003)
Das and Teng criticised Simon’s theory of bounded rationality for its factual based
analysis and excluded values. For them, the bounded rationality theory of decision making is
more relevant to business administration, for private organisation and not for public
administration and governmental activities. In public administration, along with the factual
data, many social and ethical values, welfare concerns have to be taken into account while
deciding and difficult to measure these factors just in the units of costs. (Henry 2003)
Critics have also pointed out that distinction between facts and values and exclusion of
values is not a correct way of approaching the problems as values hold an essential part of
policy making cycle. Excluding values and limiting the policy making to only factual study
would make the public administration too mundane, routinized, mechanical, and antipublic.
Many critics maintained that efficiency and cost benefit analysis should not be the only
concern of decision making. Satisfaction of all the stakeholders, societal welfare, optimal
utilization of resources are also equally important objectives of decision making which Simon
have ignored in the process.
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Then, Simon has also been criticised for considering rationality as the only and most
crucial element of decision making. Whereas in reality, along with rationality, many other
non-rational dimensions play important role in decision making. Simon have failed to
recognise the role of tradition, faith, culture, personality traits, intuition and creativity in
decision making.
In this regard, Chris Argyris criticized Simon for not acknowledging the influential role
traditional values, belief system and intuition or sixth sense play in whole decision making
process. (Bhattacharya and Chakrabarty 2005)
Critics are skeptical that Simon’s idea of ‘satisficing’ might become a ‘justification tool’
or an excuse for those who are not serious about their decisions and taking decision that are
less beneficial.
They also critics that the difference between ‘maximizing’ and ‘satisficing’ is not clear,
rather these are overlapping and relative to each other as under many situations, satisficing
condition can also led to maximization and versa and again in many condition these two can
be poles apart.
Simon model is an attainable model for many critics because it is unattainable and
idealistic to get fit into real public administration and real world. Critics commented that the
concept of bounded rationality and satisficing are oversimplified and too generalistic ideas
and has nothing to guide or to contribute to the real planners.
Despite the criticism, Simon’s contribution and his path breaking work in public
administration cannot be neglected. With the rational decision making model, a new
paradigm emerged in the discipline of public administration with behavioural approach
shifting the traditional approach with a more scientific and logical orientation. Herbert Simon
highlighted the significance of decision making as role of choice can give a better
understanding of the administration and would help to understand the dynamics of
administrative behaviour.
Influenced by Simon’s idea and this path breaking work, several public administration
theorist, management thinkers, economists like Victor Thompson, Anthony Downs, Michel
Crozier, Gordon Tullock, Dwight Waldo, Golembiewski have further researched and
contributed to study of administrative behaviour.
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Models of Decision Making at a Glance
Image 2. courtesy Lumenlearning.com
4.12 CONCLUSION
As discussed, decision making is one of the most important activity of not only an
organisation but an essential part of everybody’s daily life. The good decision is linked to
efficiency and effectiveness of choices one makes. Whereas the rational model characterizes
decision maker as a rational economic man, later Simon’s rational model of decision making
shows despite the limitations of decision maker, how the administrative man optimizes.
Simon, as opposite to the hard system approach, makes the decision making relatively
simple and clear. In the real world, problems are complex, face many constraints of varying
range and degree, with fast moving economy, ever changing administrative functioning, the
decision making have become more tougher and facing newer challenges.
Along with the manifestation of the problem based on these models, a decision maker or
an administrator, policy maker can improve his/her understanding of the social, economic,
political, cultural and cognitive factors and bring new ways of dealing with the issues and
problems. The main objective is to create more suitable and relevant conditions to make good
choices for the welfare of the society at large.
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1. Explain about decision making theory in Public Administration.

2. Examine the Herbert Simon's rational theory of decision making.
3. Critically examine the evolution of Herbert Simon's models.
4.14 REFERENCES
• Bhattacharya, M. and Chakrabarty, B. (2005) ‘Introduction: Public Administration:

Theory and Practice’, in Bhattacharya, M. and Chakrabarty, B. (eds.) Public
Administration: A Reader. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 1‐50.
• Henry, N. (2003) Public Administration and Public Affairs. New Delhi: Prentice Hall,
pp. 53‐74.
• Simon, H.A. (1947) Administrative behaviour. New York, NY:Macmillan
• Simon, H.A. (1955) A behavioural model of rational choice, quarterly Journal of
Economics, 59, pp. 99-118
Website Reference
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/rational-and-
nonrational-decision-making/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbehavior/chapter/11-2-understanding-
decision-making/
Image Reference
Image 1: Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Illustration-of-the-concept-
of-bounded-rationality-Due-to-cognitive-limitations-time_fig1_326439800 [accessed 1
Nov, 2020)
Image 2: Available from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbehavior/chapter/11-
2-understanding-decision-making/ (accessed 1 Nov, 2020)
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(e) ECOLOGICAL APPROACH (Fred Riggs)

Bijendra Jha
STRUCTURE

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Riggs’ Ecological Approach to Administrative System
5.4 ‘Agraria (Fused)’, ‘Industria (Diffracted)’ and ‘Prismatic’ Societies
5.5 Sala Model: Administrative Subsystem in Prismatic Society
5.6 Bazaar Canteen: Prismatic Society’s Economic Subsystem
5.7 Conclusion
5.9 References
To study the:
• Ecological Approach in Public Administration.
• Riggs Ecological Models.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
In the field of comparative public administration, F W Riggs (1917-2008) was a pioneer

intellectual in the period of post-world war II. He was chairman of Comparative
Administration Group (CAG) of the American Society for Public Administration. CAG
maintained that in order to enrich the discipline of Comparative Public Administration and
make it more scientific, it has to be more critical, analytical, and cross-cultural. Delivering his
lecture at Indian Institute of Public Administration in New Delhi (1969), Riggs has chosen
his title of talk as ‘The Ecology of Public Administration’. He had selected three models viz.,
United State of America, Thailand and Philippines to illustrate different models of
administration. The contemporary studies in public administration made use of ecological
approach to the public administration developed by F W Riggs in 1950s and 1960s. He
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revised and reexamined his study various times and offered cross-cultural analysis of
administration.
He was the first who gave intellectual and organizational leadership to the comparative
public administration (CPA) movement in 1950s and 1960s. His empirical and comparative
studies of the administration popularly known as ecological approach are found in his book
‘The Ecology of Public Administration’ (1961)’, and ‘Administration in Developing
Countries: The theory of Prismatic Society (1964)’. Riggs borrowed from Sutton’s two ideal
model of Agraria and Industria to illustrate relationship between societal structure,
administration and whole culture. He illustrated the typology in comparative public
administration as Agraria and Industria, and claimed that similar category can be developed
by illustrating relationship between administration, society and culture. Later he termed
‘Agraria’ as ‘Fused’ model and ‘Industria’ as ‘Diffracted’ model and developed an
intermediary model what Riggs calls ‘Prismatic’ model discussed below in details. His
contribution in the study of administrative structure and their socio-economic environment
(ecology) in developing societies (Third world) is popularly known as ‘Fused-Prismatic-
Diffracted Model’. It is famous as ecological approach to public administration. F W Riggs’
task was to investigate how administration interacts with their social and economic factors in
developing societies.
In the post-World War II period, many nation-states have become free in Asia, Africa
and Latin America. These developing countries, backward as per norms of western model of
development, were ruled by western administrative systems originated in western countries; it
was interesting for scholars to inquire how western originated administrative system does
function in these post-colonial societies. Many western scholars have started to study the
public administrative system in developing societies in a comparative perspective. Riggs was
one of them. His study is unique in the sense he looked at functioning of administration in the
context of socio-economic and cultural factors of the society. In other words, he emphasized
on interaction between administration and its environment such as social, political and
cultural context. He also highlighted that western model of administration is relatively less
relevant in the developing societies where ecology viz., social, economic and cultural
environment is very much different from western society. Unlike western societies, the
administrative system in developing countries are considerably shaped by the social,
economic, and cultural context.
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5.3 RIGGS’ ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO ADMINISTRATIVE

SYSTEM
Initially ecological approach applied to biology which refers to mutual relation among
organisms, especially between organisms and their environment. In public administration,
ecological approach denotes administration and their environment influences each-other. An
inquiry into the dynamic process of interaction between administration and their larger
ecology is necessary to understand administration. In the study of public administration, this
approach was introduced by J M Gaus, Robert A. Dahl, Robert A Morton but F W Riggs’s
contribution is significant. Developing the concept, he analyzed the relationship between the
administrative system and social, political, cultural, technological and communication factors
in a larger perspective. He studied interaction between administrative systems and their larger
ecology in Thailand and Philippines and showed how environmental conditions (ecology)
influence the functioning of administrative systems. By doing this, he tried to understand the
disparity between the administrative system of developed and developing countries. Each
nation has a different social, economic and cultural setting which shapes the functioning of
administration.
In analyzing administrative systems from an ecological point of view, F. W. Riggs has
applied a structural-functional approach. Talcott Person, Robert A Morton and G Almond
have applied a structural-functional approach in their study. Structural-functional approach
signifies that in every society certain important function are carried out by a number of
structures. This approach is a method of analyzing the functions that are carried out in a
society, the structures that are responsible to carry out functions. Riggs insists that in every
society five types of functions are discharged viz., social, economic, communication,
symbolic and political.
5.4 ‘AGRARIA (FUSED)’, ‘INDUSTRIA (DIFFRACTED)’ AND

‘PRISMATIC’ SOCIETIES
For the purpose of analysis, Riggs has developed models of administrative systems. In the
1950s, he divided societies into two groups: ‘Agraria’ (Fused) and ‘Industria’ (Diffracted).
‘Agraria’ (fused) refers to post-colonial societies dominated by a traditional economic system
like subsistence agricultural economy. No modernization in economy and politics have taken
place so primordial social and cultural systems exist along with traditional subsistence
economies, for example, China, Indonesia and Philippines in the 1950s. In these societies, a
single structure carries out a number of functions. Economics in these societies are based on
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the traditional mode of exchange system and barter system. The king or Royal family and
nominated member rules the country with established traditional social laws. The
administrative system in these societies are based on the structure of the King’s/Royal family
and the entire administrative system serves the interest of the Royal family rather than to the
people of the society aimed at development, happiness and good life. Parochial culture
dominates the society at large and ascriptive values matter in everyday life. In these societies,
people have very limited social and political mobility and there is no specialized division of
labour. Old age customs, faith, value, believe, and way of living enabled people to live their
life collectively and control each-other’s behaviour. In these societies, critical thinking or
examination is depicted as a threat to the society. The Royal Family is all in all in the
country’s life and common people live a subjugated life.
In contrast, ‘Industria’ (Diffracted) refers to a developed society like the United States of
America whose economy was majorly industrial along with modern political and bureaucratic
structures. In these societies, modern industries play an important role in shaping a country's
economic structure along with a dynamic system of production and high level of specialized
division of labour. All organizations and structures are created and based on the basis of
modern scientific rationality. Economy is based on free market rationalization. Riggs termed
these societies as free marketized societies. In ‘Industria’ (Diffracted) society, government’s
intervention in the market and market operation is negligible. Social and spatial mobilities are
very high and people enjoy modern technology for their industries and individual’s utility.
In politics, democratic values like individual liberty, equality and justice play an
indispensable role in a country's political structure. Individuals have certain fundamental
rights against excesses of the state. Citizens have the right to participate in elections and get
elected for even the highest political office. Ascriptive values do not matter too much in
public/political life and the government is responsive to the citizens’ development, happiness
and good life. In these societies, there are independent civil society organizations in order to
protect the interest of the common people and government’s response to protection of human
rights is enormous. Citizens’ groups pressurize the government to work in the interest of the
common people and get their demand fulfilled. There is consensus among citizens about how
to organize collective affairs of the state and basic aspects of social life at large. People pay
attention and give respect to common laws of the nation. They are active regarding
government’s policy. In these societies, there are more or less universal political cultures and
citizens are open minded and critical to the government’s public policy.
Administration in these societies are more or less independent, accountable and
transparent. They serve to rule of law in the interest of common citizens rather than to any
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family or group. Entire administrative systems are based on Max Weber’s legal-rational
authority rather than traditional social ascriptive values. The Weberian model of bureaucratic
systems works in these societies. Universalization of rule of law applied to everyone
irrespective of their ascriptive identities. According to Riggs, all societies transform from
‘Agraria’ to ‘Industria’ in due course of time. For him, ‘Agraria’ is functionally diffused
societies also known as ‘fused’ societies (In primordial societies, various social and economic
functions are functionally diffused, that is, there is no specified division of labour), but
industrial societies (Industria) are functionally diffracted as division of labour are highly
specified. These are two but diametrically opposed societies. He has identified structural
features of ‘Agraria’ and ‘Industria’ which are following:
Agraria (Fused) Industria (Diffracted)
1 Ascriptive value Modern value
2 Particularistic or parochial cultural Universal political culture
3 Diffused pattern Specificity
4 Limited social and spatial mobility High social and spatial mobility
5 Simple and stable occupational Well-developed occupational
differences pattern
6 Differential social stratification Existence of egalitarian class
system
Source: Prasad and Prasad (Ch.17, p.215)
Later Riggs developed an equilibrium model named ‘transitia’ which refers to transforming
societies which represent transitional stages from agrarian to industrial economic systems.
These societies are economically, socially and politically between ‘Agraria’ and ‘Industria’
reflect characteristics of ‘Agraria’ as well as ‘Industria’. Riggs called it ‘prismatic’ societies,
an intermediate society between fused and diffracted.
Firstly, it must be noted that ‘prismatic’ societies are the post-colonial societies who
have been freed from colonization of western power in the 1940s and 1950s. Western power
ruled these societies for centuries through their developed administrative system along with
their social, economic, political, technological as well as cultural domination. They imposed a
modern bureaucratic system to govern these societies. They have also recruited local people
in their bureaucracy in a limited sense. In the post Second World War, these countries have
gained independence. Secondly, when these western powers left these countries, they left
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structures of modern bureaucratic systems, political systems, industrial systems, and

technological systems in these countries continuing with indigenous people. So, these
societies consist of a modern economic, political, and administrative system along with
traditional social, political and cultural structures. Therefore, these societies are intermediate
societies between ‘Agraria’ (Fused) and Industria (Diffracted). Riggs was curious to look into
the relation between western imposed administrative system and their social, cultural
environment in prismatic society.
In ‘prismatic’ societies, one can find that a traditional subsistence agricultural economy
exists along with modern heavy industrialization. Big and modern cities exist along with rural
hinterland and modern political institutions exist along with traditional social, political and
cultural structure. People's behaviour in these societies vary from participation political
culture (citizens aware of their rights and assertiveness for their due) to parochial political
culture (politically unaware citizens who find themselves powerless in front of bureaucratic
structure and state). One can find mix-political cultural structure in these societies. Here,
there are large gaps between rural-urban divide, poor-rich divide along with divide in the
administrative practice in favour of dominant class/caste. Administrative structure functions
within their social, economic, political, technological, and cultural environment.
Riggs’ focus of study was prismatic society where one can find characteristics of modern
industrial societies like heavy industry, technology, modern political structures like
parliament, judiciary, and bureaucracy as well as primordial social, economic and culture
structures like hierarchy based on traditional social stratification, social status, traditional
ascriptive identities dominates in everyday life. Traditional social values have equal or more
importance than modern values like individual’s rights, liberty, and equality. Riggs’ interest
was to inquire about interactions between modern bureaucracy and their social, economic,
cultural structure in developing societies. In other words, Riggs was concerned with social
structure at large of the prismatic society and their interaction with the administrative
subsystem.
Riggs has identified three characteristics of prismatic society: 1) heterogeneity: It refers
to co-existence of modernity along with traditional; simultaneous presence of different kinds
of systems, practice and view point. Riggs finds a high degree of heterogeneity in prismatic
society regarding structure, practice and worldview; 2) formalism: there is a large gap
between envisaged vision of the society in the constitution and actual practice. Discrepancy
exists between descriptive and perspective, between formal power and effective power, and
between aims and objectives stated in the constitution and real practice. Due to formalism
actual behaviour bureaucratic officials vary and result in official corruption; and 3)
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overlapping: in prismatic society, modern political, administrative structure has created but
indifferent and traditional structures continue to dominate in the social behaviour system.
Thus, newly created highly modern structures are paid only lip-service and overlooked
widely in favour of traditional social structures. This is regarded as overlapping. Western
bureaucratic and political structures have been created for administrative purposes but often
ignored in favour of traditional social structures. Thus, modern structures co-exist with
traditional but traditional structures continue to dominate in actual practice.
Overlapping has several important dimensions like nepotism, favouritism, poly-
communalism (hostile interaction among different groups), poly-normativism (existence of
several norms rational as well as irrational/traditional), existence of clects (interest groups
based on communal identity), poly normativism (various norms for various group depending
on group’s social status, and bargaining capacity) and modern administrative system co-exists
with traditional administrative structures. Riggs calls economic structures in prismatic society
as bazar-canteen and it has characterized a different set of prices for a commodity or service
for different sets of people depending on social status and bargaining capacity.
5.5 SALA MODEL: ADMINISTRATIVE SUBSYSTEM IN

PRISMATIC SOCIETY
The prismatic society is characterized by numerous social, economic, political and

administrative sub-systems. Riggs calls the administrative subsystem a ‘sala’ model. In
diffracted (Industria) societies, it is termed as ‘office’ or ‘bureau’, and in Fused (Agraria)
societies, it is termed as chamber. These three administrative structures have different
characteristics of their own. In a prismatic society, nepotism or patronize bestowed or
favouritism based on family relationship and kinship is prevalent. In fact, nepotism or
favouritism plays a very significant role in selection in various administrative offices and
performance of administrative functions. Family lineage, kinship and traditional law
prevailed and universalization of rule of law was lacking in practice or infact disregarded.
The ‘sala’ official gives priority to social structure while dealing with administrative matters.
They prioritize family/kinship and social ascriptive identity of the individual rather than to
common citizens their political equality. They increase personal power, wealth, and
prosperity rather than to social welfare. The ‘sala’ official behaviour and performance are
highly influenced by his socialization and parochial character. As a result, they don’t apply
law universally. They are biased and their action and interactions are guided by his ascriptive
value and parochialism. Few get more benefits from the government programme and rest
remain ignored from government’s general welfare schemes.
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Various social groups interact with each-other as communal members rather than
common citizens. In prismatic society, these communal identities and their hostile interaction
is denoted as poly-communalism. Interest groups are formed on the basis of ascriptive
identities and there is constant struggle among these groups to get bureaucratic favours.
These interest groups based on ascriptive/communal identities are known as ‘clects’. In his
study of prismatic society, Riggs has noted that poly-communalism and presence of clects
creates certain administrative problems. Normatively speaking, government officers
implement laws, schemes and programme universally and without any favouritism and
discrimination, but ‘sala’ officials shows greater loyalty towards member of their own
community. In the process, a dominant minority community gets high proportion
representation in government recruitment, and gets elected parliament and assembly. Over-
representation of the socially dominant minority creates dissatisfaction among vulnerable
caste/class. To diffuse the situation and to protect the interest of vulnerable groups/class and
minorities, certain mechanisms of ‘quotas’ or reservation system adopted to provide some
sort of proportional representation in administration and government’s institutions. As a
result, such an arrangement creates mutual hostilities in the socially dominant caste/class
against marginal caste/class who get representation through the ‘quota’ system. It creates
tension among various communities which further generates hostilities among sala ‘official’
working in the government.
Family, community and caste plays indispensable roles in society and simultaneously
several groups emerge on the basis of caste/community membership. Riggs termed these
groups as a ‘clects’, a typical group (associational organization) in prismatic society depicting
modern values but retaining traditional social law and values in practice. Administrative
structures in such society deliver functions giving priority to ‘clects’ and sometimes ‘sala’
official or its one of agency develop closer relationship with particular ‘clects’ and start
functioning itself like ‘clects’. Thus, in prismatic society administrative structure continues to
maintain close relationships with particular clects and works for their interests and only pay
lip services to achievement and universalization of norms.
In prismatic society the traditional behaviour co-exists with a modern set of norms. As a
result, there is overlapping of the formal standard and informal set of norms. There is no
consensus on norms of behaviour. The ‘Sala’ official may be appointed on the basis of high
educational qualification and competitive examination, but for promotion and career
development, they largely depend on ascriptive identity, and favour of senior officials. The
‘Sala’ officials claim modern universalization of application of laws but they are indifferent
and inconsistent in their behaviour in day to day administrative function. Riggs finds
administrative structure divided in the de jure (legal) power and de fecto (actual/real) control
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in the prismatic society where the de jure authority succumbs to the de fecto control. The
authority of the ‘sala’ officials overlap with traditional social authority and control structure
based on poly communism, clects and poly normativism (various norms for various groups
depending on the group's social status, and bargaining capacity). Various social structures
function differently and sometimes it behaves against the very purpose of the administration
for which it has created. There is overlapping authority of socially dominant class and the
‘sala’ officials.
Riggs depicted polity of the prismatic society as ‘unbalanced polity’ as administrative
bureaucratic officers exercise a dominant role in the decision-making process, despite the
political leaders’ constitutional power. Due to such centralization and concentration of power
in bureaucrats, there is a lack of response to the citizens’ need and welfare. Riggs concluded
that such development of bureaucracy in prismatic society hinders the progress of political
development. In such weak political development modern institutional structures like
legislature, political party, voluntary organization, and civil societies become less effective.
Riggs said that the efficiency of the administrative system depends on the skills and
acumen of the politician whether he/she is able/unable to punish the inefficient bureaucrats,
but often bureaucrats escape his/her wrong decision and action, and go unpunished. In such
circumstances talented ‘sala’ officials tend to spend more time in self-aggrandizement and for
the promotion of self-interest. Since the government's output highly depends on the ‘sala’
official, there is a close link between bureaucrats’ behaviour and administrative output. The
most powerful bureaucrat is often a less efficient administrator. As a result, the ‘sala’ official
is characterized by nepotism and favouritism, institutionalized corruption, and inefficiency in
the administrative output. The ‘sala’ officially governed by the motive of self-interest and
personal power and to protect their own interest.
5.6 BAZAAR CANTEEN: PRISMATIC SOCIETY’S ECONOMIC

SUBSYSTEM
F W Riggs described the economic subsystem of the prismatic society as a bazaar-canteen

model. In a diffracted society economic system depends on free-market rule of demand and
supply and also on market’s economic consideration. In contrast, the economic system of the
fused society depends on ‘arena factors’ like religious, social and king’s or royal family
consideration. In prismatic society, both market factors as well as ‘arena factors’ play an
important role in shaping the economic system. Economic factors interact with non-economic
factors and influence the economic structure. Under such circumstances it is not possible for
the common price of a commodity or service in prismatic society. Price of a commodity or
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service depends on a combination of the market factors as well as arena factors coexisting
together. In prismatic society a small fraction of the people enjoys most of the benefits and
substantially control over economic institutions. As a result, a small fraction of people not
only control over economic institutions, they exploit a large section of the population. These
are a few characteristics of the bazaar-canteen model. Influences of a small section of people
on economic structures and institutions result in slow economic development and progress.
In a diffracted society everyone gets the services on equal basis and without any
discrimination and favouritism. In such society employees get salary and remuneration based
on his/her skills and talents, and on the basis of market price value of labour. In contrast,
people get services in fused society on the basis of Royal family’s or kings’ patronage. In
prismatic society one can witness equality in urban areas while services in rural areas are
based on patronage and favouritism. But in prismatic society the relationship between
bureaucratic (the Sala) officials and their clientele is like buyer-seller. The price of service
depends on the nature of the relationship between the ‘Sala’ official and their clientele. The
price of the commodity or service varies from place to place, time to time and person to
person. It also depends on the family contact, social status, bargaining capacity, individual
relationship and power politics. Services are guaranteed to the socially dominant class/caste
and at lower prices but the marginal caste/class has to pay heavy charges. Thus, the economic
structure and institutions of the prismatic society acts like a ‘subsidized’ canteen to the
members of the dominant community, clects, privileged groups, and politically influential
people have access to market and its institutions like canteen for the army who serves at the
subsidized rate. Conversely it behaves like a ‘tributary’ canteen to the members of the
marginal communities who have to pay a higher price than the influential political people and
dominant caste/class.
The fluctuation of price in prismatic society creates more problems and it encourages
black marketing, hoarding, adulteration, and ultimately leads to high inflation in the
economy. It has a direct impact on common people. In such a situation, the ‘sala’ official in
prismatic society tries to develop contacts with business groups, foreign business clubs and
institutions, and misuse foreign exchange for private purposes. It would often lead to large
corruption, exploitation of the common people, poverty and decline of life standard of
common people in prismatic society. In prismatic society wage depends on political
influence. There is a great divide between higher wage and lower wage in the economy and
that results in high economic inequality and social injustice. Thus, exploitation, poverty, and
social injustice become the major features of the bazaar canteen model.
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5.7 CONCLUSION
F W Riggs’ ecological approach has been criticized for being too pessimistic about the post-
colonial society and neglecting social change. It is too much theoretical without adequate
empirical evidence and too static about the external factors and overgeneralization. Riggs
himself examined and re-examined his own model of public administration in developing
society. His model is too broad and overgeneralization of the post-colonial society. Great
scholar of the public administration Ramesh Arora has identified the negative character of the
prismatic/ecological model of the public administration. He argues that Riggs’ ecological
model has western bias towards post-colonial society and the model has portrayed a negative
picture of the prismatic society. Actually, study was conducted with parameters of western
society and it has painted a bad picture. It is not that administration in the prismatic society
has all bad characteristics, there are many good that Riggs’ ignored in his study like nation-
building institutions. It is not that the administrative office ‘bureau’ is not corrupt and biased
in western society but Riggs has painted them as transparent and clean.
Riggs in his study of post-colonial societies, he left many variables that are very
important to understand the bureaucracy like population, territorial size, the role of the
military, and especially the role of national leaders/freedom fighters who have played
important role in creating the entire structure of the post-colonial state. Most importantly, the
unique social context of each country influences the administrative behaviour that Riggs
seldom debated in his entire explanation of the ‘sala’ official as well as the bazaar canteen
economy.
1. Explain the Ecologic Approach in Public Administration.

2. Critically Examine the Riggs Ecological Model.
3. What is Sala Model, Explain Analyze the Sala Model in Public Administration.
5.9 REFERENCES
• Chakarvarty, Bidyut and Prakash Chand. 2017. Public Administration: From

Government to Governance. New Delhi: Orient Black Swan.
• Haque, Shamsul.2010. ‘Rethinking Development Administration and Remembering
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Fred W
• Riggs’, International Review of Administrative Sciences, Sage publications.
• Jreisat, Jamil. 2011. Globalism and Comparative Public Administration. London:
CRC Press.
• Prasad, Ravinder et al. 1989. Administrative Thinkers. New Delhi: Sterling
Publication.
• Rathod, P. B. 2007. Comparative Public Administration. New Delhi: ABD Publisher.
• Riggs, F W. 2001. ‘Bureaucratic Links between Administration and Politics’ in Ali
Farazmand (ed) Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration.
Second edition. Public Administration and Public Policy 94, United State of America.
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Unit–III
CONTEMPORARY THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
(a) New Public Management, New Public Service
(b) Multiple Perspectives on Governance: Good Governance,
Collaborative Governance, Network Governance, Digital Governance
Isha Singh
STRUCTURE

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Evolutionary Outline
1.4 New Public Management: Salient Features
1.5 Theoretical Bases of NPM
1.5.1 New Rights Philosophy
1.5.2 Public Choice Approach
1.5.3 Neo-Taylorism
1.6 New Public Service
1.6.1 New Public Service as an idea
1.6.2 Emergence of New Public Service
1.6.3 Principles of New Public Service
1.6.4 New Public Service vs New Public Management
1.7 Good Governance
1.7.1 Concept of Good Governance
1.7.2 Emergence of Good Governance
1.7.3 Characteristics of Good Governance
1.7.4. Significance of Good Governance
1.8 Collaborative Governance
1.8.1 Concept of Collaborative Governance
1.8.2 Advantages of Collaborative Governance
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1.8.3 Disadvantages of Collaborative Governance

1.9 Network Governance
1.9.1 Concept of Network Governance
1.10. Digital Governance
1.11 Conclusion
1.13 References
1.14 Suggested Readings
After reading this unit, you would be able to understand:

• Explain the concept of New Public Management
• Difference between traditional and new theories of management
• Trace the evolution of New Public Management
• Highlight its features and nature
• Examine the impact of New Public Management
• Explain the concept of New Public Service
• Trace the evolution of New Public Service
• Difference between New Public Service and New Public Management
• Trace the genesis of Good Governance
• Throw light on the concept of Good Governance
• Importance of Good Governance
• Distinguish ‘Governance’ from ‘Good Governance’
• Characteristics of Good Governance
• Concept of Good Governance
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaborative Governance
• Concept of Network Governance
• Concept of Digital Governance
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1.2 INTRODUCTION
Public Administration has undergone numerous multidimensional changes such as

theoretical, practical, social, political, economic and cultural changes. The spread of
liberalization, privatization, globalization, growth in the sector of information technology,
finance, communication, market and any more are the aspects are attributed to the rapid
growth of globalization. It also altered the public and private sector and the relation between
these two. Globalisation, is having an enormous impact on various aspects of life in the
twenty first century. Similarly, it also influenced various disciplines. All these developments,
changes in public and private sector and the altered path of discipline due to globalisation, led
to a change in the course and structure of public administration also. The modification of
economies, in the past few years, from command to market-oriented, across the globe, has
raised various issues and concerns about the failure of the ‘traditional’ state model to
implement appropriate policies and deliver effective services. The basic features of traditional
public administration were put to question and A need for developing an alternative model of
administration was felt.
Thus, to adapt with these changes, constant developments were taking place during
the 80s and 90s in the west as the governments were trying to make adjustments related to the
new technology, demands of society and increase in competition. This search led to the
development of a new kind of administration, managerial concepts and techniques in the
governmental systems, with an objective of making public organisations more effective,
efficient and economical which we know as New Public Management (NPM). NPM emerged
as an outcome of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) followed by UK and USA to
make their administration more systematic and potent. NPM tries to answer the question of
renewed governmental functioning in the globalisation scenario. An attempt is made in this
unit to trace the emergence of New Public Management Perspective and highlight its salient
features.
Public administration is a major part of the State because administration is an
instrument through which objectives of the policy implementation are implemented. The
major objective of State is ‘governance’. Where the traditional method of governance
believed that administration is a function of government, the new theories believed that both
government and citizen are important for policy formulation and policy implementation.
Public Administration has undergone various multidimensional changes such as political,
social, economic and cultural changes. The development of liberalization, privatization,
growth in the information technology department, banking, finance, communication, market
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and any more are the factors attributed to the rapid growth of globalization ‘Governance’ is
the method of decision-making and the course by which decisions related to policy are
implemented or not implemented. The 1992 report of World Bank titled “Governance and
Development” elucidated good governance as “the manner in which power is exercised in
the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development”. ‘Good
Governance’ is a comparatively recent development in the discipline of Public
Administration. is involving, consensus-oriented, responsible, clear, approachable,
effective, efficient, impartial and inclusive and follows the rule of law. the concept of
good governance is a very dynamic concept. It encompasses various social, economic,
administrative dimensions.
‘Good Governance’ is an attempt to broaden the scope of public administration by
including both formal and informal aspect. It makes public administration more open,
transparent and accountable.
1.3 EVOLUTIONARY OUTLINE
Earlier, state has always been the central focal point of governance. Welfare state i.e., a
political system where state plays a key role in the protection of citizen as well as
improvement in the social and economic well-being of the citizen. But the developments in
the 1980s and 1990s owed to liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation brought significant
major changes and forced the state to change their traditional way of administration.
Philosophy of ‘private good’ and ‘public bad’ came into light which was a pro market and
anti-welfare state concept which in turn gave birth to the concept of New Public
Management.
Public administration always favoured public interest but reliance on traditional
system was not efficient any longer. Traditional system focussed on the task related to public
and made sure that it should be in the hands of the administrators. Administration should be
based on written documents. All the administrative tasks are to be organised in a continuous
and ruled governed way. For any administrative work, trained officials are the key. The task
in office work should be arranged in a hierarchical way. The main guiding philosophy in the
traditional system of management is in the interest of public interest which it believes
controls the influence of self-interest and private aims in politics and administration.
It was alleged that this traditional system was designed in a such a way that it was
very mechanical since it gave emphasis on division of work, power differentiation, central
authority and the distinction between public and private.
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But the changes across the globe claimed that politics - administration dichotomy is
unreal and irrelevant. It went ahead from the concept of total rationality to the concept of
bounded rationality. It focused on achievement of goals and effectiveness of it rather than
rule-based administration. It believed that centrality leads to rigidity and prohibits the flow of
communication and ideas.
Thus, the decades of 1980s and 1990s saw changes in administration such as:
• Shift from rigid, hierarchical and bureaucratic form of public administration to a more
market based and flexible form of public administration
• Rise in government expenditure along with penurious performance led to questioning
of government expenditure
• Emergence of Public Choice/ New Right group which focussed on free market
economy and less government interference in markets
All these factors led to the emergence of a new need-based system of administration
known a New Public Service
1.4 NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT: SALIENT FEATURES
The new public management emerged from the policies of Margaret Thatcher’s and Ronald
Reagan’s policy, adopted in the late 20th century. It emerged as a new hope against the
ineffective and inefficient system of government works. NPM focusses to achieve 3Es-
• Efficiency- effective delivery of service
• Economy- no wastage of resources
• Effectiveness- targeting the resources on specific problems and to ensure specification
of the objectives leading to the solution of the problem
The concept of New Public Management was theoretically propounded firstly be David
Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book titled ‘Reinventing Government’ which was
published in 1992. The first major shift in Public Administration was with the coming of New
Public Administration while the second shift was with the advent of New Public
Management. Although, the term ‘New Public Management’ was coined by Christopher
Hood in his famous article ‘A Public management for all Seasons’ which got published in the
year 1991.
The emphasis of NPM is on appraisal based on performance, managerial autonomy,
recognising the concept of bounded rationality, measures to effectively achieve cost-cutting,
incentives, improvement in quality, targeted outputs, innovation, accountability, market-
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orientation, flexibility, availability of choices, recognising the competition, bureaucratisation

and decentralisation.
It emphasised on the role and importance of market as against that of state since NPM
believed market is the key that regulates the society. It focussed on dealing with the new
global changes of liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation.
SALIENT FEATURES OF NPM:
• Focus on management, appraisal according to performance and efficiency
• Decentralisation and desegregation of the bureaucratic system and transferring service
delivery responsibilities to lower levels
• Ways of cost cutting
• Freedom of management
• keeping the needs of customers as a priority
• recognising the politics and administration dichotomy
• Use of information technology for a better service delivery
• Adoption of private sector managerial practices by public sector
1.5 THEORETICAL BASES Of NPM
The New Public Management has three theoretical bases:

• New Rights Philosophy
• Public Choice Approach
• Neo-Taylorism
1.5.1 New Rights Philosophy
Since the beginning of 1950s, New Rights Philosophy attacked the whole system of Welfare
System. It negated the notion that government should always assume the role of direct
provider of goods and services and focussed on allowing the non-governmental agencies to
enter into the good and services provider. It advocated the propagation of free market as
opposed to state-controlled markets. It believed that the new theory of privatisation will offer
a better alternative to inefficient and insufficient working style of the government. It believed
that free market economy, privatisation, increased deregulation and focus on market economy
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instead of welfare system are the ways to deal with the changing effect in administration in
the new era of globalisation.
1.5.2 Public Choice Approach
During the 1960s, public choice approach clashed with the new public administration.
Vincent Ostrom, the writer of ‘The Intellectual Crisis in American Public Administration’
and the main propagator of this theory voted for the replacement of traditional ‘bureaucratic
administration’ to ‘democratic administration’.
In the public choice approach, emphasis was on the antibureaucratic approach and
diverse democratic decision-making centres. It also focuses on the application of economic
logic to the problems of public service distribution. Decentralisation was at school. It also
advocated for the popular participation in administration. The public Choice approach
negated the theory of single centred administrative power and the separation of politics from
administration. It did not believe in the theory of hierarchical administration and the rational
and neutral bureaucracy.
1.5.3 Neo-Taylorism
In 1970s the capitalist countries faced economic crisis for example the oil shocks of 1973.
There came the theory of new liberalism the new liberalism advocated that market should be
unregulated and the policies are based on the DLT formula D stands for the regularisation of
economy L stands for liberalisation of trade and industry and B stand for privatisation of state
on enterprise. The neo-Taylorism advocated a number of principles for transforming the
traditional model of public administration. Although it basically focused on the adoption of
private sector management practices in the area of public administration, it said that instead
of measuring achievements in a pre-set target it should be based on the performance
evaluation technique. It focused on assigning personal responsibility for each step in the
performance of the production process. It focused on the introduction of individual incentive
rather than collective incentive.
1.6 NEW PUBLIC SERVICE
1.6.1 New Public Service as an idea

The New Public Service approach advocates the need of a public service environment which
tries to throw limelight on the ethics and inspirations of public servants towards service of
public. The New Public Service model provides a better alternative as against controlling
traditional public administration since it focusses on the public interest and citizens as the
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core of public service. The concept was propounded by Denhardt and Denhardt.
The New Public Service is considered as one of the most organized and efficient
approach in the study of public administration. It upholds the democratic values, citizenship
and service in the interest of people.
The New Public Service believes that main work of public servants is to help citizens
meet their shared interests rather than to control the citizens and society. The philosophical
foundation of New Public Management approach believes that communication between
public managers and customers might reflect biased self-interest of individual, at times which
are framed by factors influenced by markets.
New Public Service philosophy approaches public management through the lens of
active and involved citizenship. Citizens look beyond narrow idea of self-interest towards the
wider idea of public interest. Unlike old public administration approach where citizens were
related to the bureaucracy as clients and constituents, NPS sees them as citizens and believes
public servant should be responsible and responsive towards them. It believes that the role of
public officials is to create ways for citizen engagement in finding solutions to the societal
problems. Instead of controlling the society, public officials should focus on negotiating and
solving the complex problems with the help of citizens. For this both government and public
officials need to be more open and accessible, accountable, approachable and should focus on
serving citizens. According to Denhardt and Denhardt NPS emphasizes that importance of
public service ethos, focusing on the values and motivations of public servants dedicated
towards wider public good.
1.6.2 Emergence of New Public Service
Many different scholars and practitioners have contributed to the idea of new public service,
at times in disagreement and at times in agreement. General ideas characterize new public
service as ‘what ought to be’ but new public service has in most immensely in action, theory
and in practice. Dwight Waldo’s contribution had a great effect in the development of the
idea of New Public Service.
Predecessor of New Public Service are as:
1. theory of democratic citizenship
2. idea of civil society
3. theory of organizational humanism
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1.6.3 Principle of New Public Service

1. Serve citizens, not customers – The key role of public servants is to serve the citizen
and public servants should not respond to the demands of like that of a “customer”,
but focus on building relationships of faith and values with and among citizens.
2. Pursue the public interest- Goal is to find solution in a collective manner keeping in
mind the shared interest and responsibility.
3. Value citizenship and public service- The public interest is better carried on by public
servants and citizens dedicated towards making contributions to society rather than by
entrepreneurial acting.
4. Think strategically, act democratically- Policies and programs aimed to serve public
needs and demands can be most effectively and dutifully achieved through collective
efforts and collaboration of citizens.
5. Identifying that accountability isn’t simple- Public servants should be alert and should
lay emphasis on community morals, political standards, professional norms, and
citizen welfares.
6. Serve and not steer- Public servants should serve the citizens instead of controlling or
directing them.
7. Value people, not just productivity- Public organisations stay for long if they are run
in a way which advocates for collaboration with citizens and the concept of shared
leadership roles.
1.6.4 New Public Service vs New Public Management
While the new public service and new public management have a lot in common but there
are few differences as well. Few of them are listed below
1. The new public management is an economic theory whereas the new public service is
a democratic theory which lays importance in the participation of citizen.
2. The new public management is associated more with the idea of ‘’economic man’’ as
the idea of human behavior whereas the new public service believes in strategic
rationality of human behavior.
3. The new public management represents the aspect of individual interest whereas the
new public service advocates the idea of shared values.
4. The new public management believes that public servants should be responsive
towards customers whereas the new public service believe that the public servant
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should be responsive towards citizens.

5. The new public management believes that the role of government is to steer whereas
the new public service believe that the role of government is to serve.
6. The new public management focuses on the market-driven aspect whereas the new
public service believes that public servants must attend to the community values,
political norms, citizen interest and the law of the state.
7. The new public management assumed the motivational basis of public servants and
administrators is that of entrepreneurial spirit whereas the new public service believes
that public servants and administrators are motivated and desired to contribute
towards the society.
1.7 GOOD GOVERNANCE
Governance is the use of power and authority by those in government public service to
provide goods and services to the people and to fulfil the objectives and requirements of the
citizen. Governance stands for operating, establishing of social institutions. It advocates for
formal rules and regulations, procedure of decision making that serve the purpose of policy
making decisions and implementation. Governance is a way of devising social institutions as
a matter of public concern.
1.7.1 Concept of Good Governance
Governance is concerned with power, strategies, policies, plans and projects that aim at
improving the quality of life. The word “good” in ‘good governance’ is due to the fact that
Governance becomes good when the decisions and actions of the government are based on
peoples’ consent, legitimacy and liability. Good Governance implies enlightened citizenship
and accountable and constitutional government. It answers the question of how-to bring
improvements and development in the society. Development is both people-oriented as well
as people- centred. It focusses on the needs and demands of citizens, community and society.
Good governance means governing by the rule of law with equality and equal protection
under law. To ensure the people's welfare, good governance advocates that there must be
appropriately guided public servants or bureaucracy. Thus, good governance means
happiness and welfare of all through limited government, rule of law, properly directed
bureaucracy, disciplined rulers, fixed salaries, maintenance of law and order, curbing
corruption and uniformity in administration.
It is associated with well-organized administration in a democratic framework, an
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administration that is considered to be citizen friendly, considerate and approachable.

Government must be well-organized, effective, economical and ethical. The governing
process must be just, rational and definite. Good governance has a constitutional base. good
governance is not something that governments can achieve, instead, it depends on the
cooperation and involvement of citizens and organizations. Indeed, the good governance
relates to, political and institutional processes and outcomes that are perquisites for achieving
the goals of development. Thus, good governance is applicable to all sections of society such
as the government, legislature, judiciaries, the media, the private sector, the corporate sectors,
the cooperatives, the society registered under the Society Registration Act and NGOs.
Citizens are at the core of good governance. Citizen-centric administration and good
governance go hand in hand.
1.7.2 Emergence of Good Governance
The whole concept of good governance version to compare ineffective economies. At its
core, good governance focuses on the responsibility of government and governing bodies to
meet the needs of citizen. The concept of good governance theoretically emerged around
1990s. It tried to go beyond the traditional idea of public administration by expanding its
reach above the formal government. In the 1990s the idea gained popularity specially when
the World Bank advocated the idea of good governance in its report titled ‘Governance and
Development ‘(1992). It defined good governance as the manner in which administration in
power is exercised in the handling management of a countries resources which includes both
economic as well as social resources for development of the country.
Good governance according to the report is concerned with the proper technique of
management and administration report identifies four areas where good governance should be
focusing upon
a. public sector management
b. accountability
c. legal framework for development
d. information and transparency
1.7.3 Characteristics of Good Governance
1. The idea of good governance majorly consists of seven features.
2. Accountability – one of the main traits of good governance is accountability.
Responsibility along with transparency in accordance to rule of land. It should be for
government citizen as well as private sectors, NGOs.
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3. Participation – it was just for participation of all the section of the society including
men, women, minorities, deprived et cetera
4. Transparency – transparency means that information should be in such a way that it is
easily accessible to the citizens of a country.
5. Rule of law – it argues that good governance is when rule of law is followed, rights of
citizen or a parent and the legal, executive and the judiciary branch of the government
should be impartial and biased towards the citizen.
6. Responsiveness – it says that administration should ensure to answer in a time bound
or a reasonable time frame to the citizens of a country.
7. Equity and inclusiveness – It advocate for equality and equity in society. No one
should be left behind, left out or should be left marginalized. Constant opportunities
should be provided irrespective of the fact that all citizen may belong to different
culture, is my religion, caste and any treat. This should be done in a way that it is not
discriminatory.
8. Effectiveness and efficiency – It means that governance should be in such a way that
it is effective and efficient keeping in mind the sustainable use of natural resources.
1.7.4 Significance of Good Governance
Good governance is very significant as it advocates for economic development, social
development, political development of a society.
Economic development:- A state’s economy progress may become unstable if the state is
facing problem of a strong administration presence. how to produce or distribute or invest or
some of the challenges that a state might face in its course of economic development.
Although the fair distribution of resources across and in this state via the help of good
governance will try to help and remove such for this very easily.
Social development:- People from various religion, caste, culture, social group may together
live in harmony in the state. However, if there is a lack of proper distribution of wealth or
income it may cause unrest in the society if the citizens feel that they are not treated fairly
and equally. Thus, it is important for the state and the administration to ensure the right
accommodation for minorities and the section which is marginalized so as to ensure peace in
the country. For example, if the state is ignoring women of the society, they might feel
ignored and resort to Waze that may cause unrest in the State. Therefore, it is the duty of
government and administration to look after these matters, find policies accurately, and
implement them in a way that it satisfies the group by cycle or community needs.
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Political development:- Politicians of the state need to follow the rules, regulation and the
constitution of a state to make sure that there is peace in the society. But, firstly a good
competition among the political parties should be encouraged and the need to design policies
that are benefiting for the citizens should be kept in mind.
1.8 COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE
1.8.1 Concept of Collaborative Governance

The origin of collaborative governance is rooted in classical liberalism and civic
republicanism.
Classical liberalism believes that collaboration is motivated by self-serving whereas
civic republicanism focuses on trust and mutual understanding. It is concerned with both
deliberative democracy and the participation of civil society in the field of public governance
as well as administration. In the era of liberalisation, privatisation, globalisation and the
coming of new theories for example new public management, where authorities like political
as well as administrative are becoming more and more disintegrated, where the government is
facing problems to meet with the new challenges because of the continuous dependence on
traditional methods, collaborative governance provides a better alternative.
The current idea of administrative decentralisation shifted the limelight towards the
need and importance of civil society. According to Diamond, civil society is the realm of
organised social life that is voluntary, self-generating, largely self-supporting and bound by a
legal order or set of shared values.
Alexis de Tocqueville’s idea contributed greatly towards the idea of civil society.
Collaborative government focuses on the collaboration of government, community and the
private sector. In the area of policy-making, public management, problem-solving and
decision-making both in formal as well as informal sector collaborative government acts as
more effective option for its effective working collaborative governance depends on these
three things
1) support- it focuses on the policy problem which needs to be fixed
2) leadership - it connects all the vital needed to solve the Policy problem
3) forum - A group of members needed to search answers and ways to solve the policy
problem.
Consensus building is one of the forms of collaborative governance. It focuses on
building consensus among the stakeholders of a specifically public policy challenge. Search
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for solving problem lies within the bracket of desired future needs of the community.
Collaborative network is another form of collaborative governance. In collaborating network
people collaborate to achieve solution of a problem despite the similarity in their culture,
geography et cetera.
1.8.2 Advantages of Collaborative Governance
1) creates a platform for better understanding of a problem
2) since it involves many stakeholders, it allows them to work together
3) helps in identifying and targeting problem more effectively
4) collaborative governance focuses on collaboration of stakeholder’s action and
solutions to problems are delivered more effectively
5) it may also offer new manner and ideas regarding implementation of strategies
6) it allows entry of wider range of ideas and suggestions in the process of policy-
making
7) it allows the citizen to understand the working of government and administration in a
more closed manner
8) lays emphasis on a closer relationship between citizens and government
9) it empowers citizen to be the representative and encourage involvement in
institutional decision-making
10) it combines skills and capacities of various stakeholders as well as government.
1.8.3 Disadvantages of Collaborative Governance
1) the whole process may be time consuming
2) it is possible that agreement of a solution to a specific problem can never be reached
through
3) the agreed solution may not be implemented by the government
4) since collaborative governance is a complex web with many stakeholders, at times
individual role and responsibility may become unclear
5) few stakeholders might act in a biased way regarding the institutional organisation of
state
6) stakeholders who are powerful may manipulate the whole process
7) in solving a policy problem at times coordination can become an issue
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8) trust issues, power imbalance, culture, race, hidden motive among the stakeholders
can act as a barrier to achieve goals
9) it is also argued that collaborative governance cannot provide stability and
consistency to the institution.
The practice of collaborative governance has rightly been tested in countries like Australia,
New Zealand, US, UK and other European countries.
1.9 NETWORK GOVERNANCE
1.9.1 Concept of Network Governance

Network governance is a form of governance based on social controls rather than
bureaucratic structures and formal contracts your relationship. Congress argued that network
governance was the result of academic interest on cooperative, state theory, policy network,
cold delivery of services when various stakeholders of policy try to create consensus among
them on matters related to policies, delivery of public services.
It does not depend on either market or on the hierarchy. Network governance is
formed by many independent partners but it is based on the symbiotic relationship between
them. It involves informal social system rather than the bureaucratic structure. It focuses on
privatization, public-private partnership and contract or agreement-based situations. It tries to
coordinate different economic activities rather than competition and hierarchies within the
markets. Network governance depends on the global business risks. Also, it depends on
Information technology sector and influence on the network. Although not all scholars except
this theory, if you doubt its ability to perform as a democratic governance structure. Few on
the other hand see it as effective and efficient delivery of public goods and services.
Policymakers across the globe are now experimenting with innovative ways of
collaboration that tries to bring together diverse stakeholder groups of the policy to be made
and implemented and provide a more cohesive and all-inclusive responses.
Taking a network approach to public governance shows more reliance on networks as
a guide to mobilise as well as involve citizens and organisations in the process of
development, policy implementation, and monitoring of public policy. The rise of network
governance and the new collaborative ethos of public institutions points to a more
fundamental transformation and proliferation of the network paradigm, which Castells termed
"the rise of network society"
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1.10 DIGITAL GOVERNANCE
It is a framework to demonstrate accountability roles and decision-making authority to ensure

states administration via digital presence. It confirms that its websites, channels etc are
operating for the citizens.
Government is attempting to improve the system of administration by have active
public service delivery to the citizens of this state. Improvement and advancements in the
fields of information and communication technology have assisted in the reinvention of
government to adapt and adopt to the needs and desires of the citizen.
It has transformed the institution of a state for a smooth delivery of public policy as
well as policy implementation. In the present era, democracies worldwide Believe that digital
governance will be the future of governance as well as I am in the station. Digital governance
is the application of information and communication technology to the functioning of
government for good governance. tries to improve information and the delivery of service
and also encourages the participation of citizen in the process of decision making and making
the government more accountable, transparent and efficient it also means providing public
access to information to the internet by government the whole system of administration.
Digital governance consists E – administration, E – services and E governance. It was
just for electronic service delivery, electronic workflow, electronic voting. It also gives the
citizen an option of electronic consultation, engagement and the societal guidance needed I
am provided by the government.
It tries to support and simplify governance as well as the citizen. The frequent use of
information communication and technology connects these two very easily as compare to the
traditional methods of public administration and governance. It tries to support the idea of
good governance. It tries to manage economical political and administrative functioning of
administration and governance. It uses digital needs to support and stimulate good
governance. For better management of affairs of a country at international, national and local
level digital governance is proving to be a reliable option nowadays. Digital governance gives
option as to how government can best use information communication and technology to
embrace good governance, Principles and achieve the policy goals. It tries to facilitate
government service exchange of information, communication transaction etc by the use of
information communication and technology.
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1.11 CONCLUSION
The reform in the administration globally in the few decades were labelled as new public
management. The new public administration emerged as a management tool for achieving the
goals set by the state. All the new public management advocates on the lesser role of state
and gave more importance to the market, although the question of crucial role of government
has always been in the question.
On the question of appropriate functioning of welfare state, the solution came in the
form of new public management.
The new management suggested changes in the manner and the ways in which a
public sector is organised and managed in the times of liberalisation privatisation and
globalisation. In the words of Osborne and Gaebler “We do not need more government; we
need better government.”
The practise of governance and good governance has gained immense limelight over
the past few decades. It focusses on efficient functioning of administration. Traditionally, it
was believed that administration is only the function of government but the new theories
suggest that both citizens of a country as well s the government of a state are the key factors
in policy making, policy implementation and the administration of a state.
In this context, firstly New Public Administration came. The theory of New Public
Management was next in line. Then came the theory of good governance which is the talk of
the world now.
1. What led to the emergence of New Public Management?

2. What are the key features of New Public Management?
3. How is New Public Management different from traditional aspect of administration?
4. What is the philosophical basis of New Rights Philosophy?
5. What do you understand by Good Governance?
6. Trace the evolution of Good Governance.
7. What are the characteristics of Good Governance?
8. How is Good Governance different from New Public Management?
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9. What is the concept of Collaborative Governance?

10. Explain the idea of Network Governance.
11. What is the Digital Governance?
12. What is the full form of SAP?
13. In which year David Osborne and Ted Gaebler’s book ‘Reinventing Government’
was published?
14. What are the three theoretical bases of New Public Management? When was the
World Banks’s report “Governance and Development” released?
15. Which of the following is a characteristic of good governance?
a) Selective participation
b) Transparency
c) Exclusion
d) Biasness
1.13 REFERENCES
• Bhattacharya, Mohit, 1999, Restructuring Public Administration Essays in

Rehabilitation, Jawahar Publishers, New Delhi.
• Bhattacharya, Mohit, 2013, New Horizons of Public Administration, Jawahar
Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
• Bernard, Tony and Elke Loffler, 2003, “Evaluating the Quality of Public Governance
Indicators, Models and Methodologies”, International Review of Administrative
Sciences, Vol. 69.
• Christopher, Hood and Michael Jackson, 1991, Administrative Argument, Dartmouth,
Aldershot.
• Denhardt, Robert B. 1981. In the Shadow of Organization. Lawrence, KS: Regents
Press of Kansas. 1993. The Pursuit of Significance. Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth.
• Denhardt, Robert B., and Joseph E. Gray. 1998. Targeting Community Development
in Orange County, Florida. National Civic Review.
• Fox, Charles. 1996. Reinventing Government as Postmodern Symbolic Politics.
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Public Administration Review

• Osborne, David and Ted Gaebler, 1992, Reinventing Government, How the
Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector, Addison-Wesley
• Peters, B. Guy, 2001 (2nd Edition), ‘’The Future of Governing’’, University Press of
Kansas, Kansas.
• Pierre, Jon and B. Guy Peters, 2003, “Public Administration” in B. Guy Peters (Eds.),
A Handbook of Public Administration, Sage, London.
• Robinson, Mark, 2015, “From Old Public Administration to the New Public Service”,
UNDP Global Centre for Public Service Excellence, Singapore.
• Sahni, Pardeep and Uma Medury (Eds.), 2003, Governance for Development: Issues
and Strategies, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
• UNDP Report, 1994, Good Governance and Sustainable Human Development,
Oxford University, New York
• UNDP Report Human Development Report, on Making New Technologies Work for
Human Development, Oxford University Press, New York.
• World Bank, 1992, Governance and Development, Washington.
• Ghosh, Laxmikant, 2021, “NEW PUBLIC SERVICE APPROACH IN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION”
• WEBSITE: https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2101283.pdf
1.14 SUGGESTED READINGS
• Leftwich, ‘Governance in the State and the Politics of Development’, in Development

and Change. Vol. 25,1994
• Gray, and B. Jenkins, ‘From Public Administration to Public Management’ in E.
Otenyo and N. Lind, (eds.) Comparative Public Administration: The Essential
Readings. Oxford University Press, 1997
• Chakrabarty, Reinventing Public Administration: The India Experience. New Delhi:
Orient Longman, 2007
• Bhattacharya, Mohit, 2013, New Horizons of Public Administration, Jawahar
Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi
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• Hood, ‘A Public Management for All Seasons’, in J. Shafritz, & A. Hyde, (eds.)
Classics of Public Administration, 5th Edition, Belmont: Wadsworth, 2004.
• M. Bhattacharya, ‘Contextualizing Governance and Development’
• M. Bhattacharya, (eds.) The Governance Discourse. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press,1998
• U. Medury, Public administration in the Globalization Era, New Delhi: Orient
BlackSwan, 2010.
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Unit IV
GENDER PERSPECTIVES ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
(a) Gender and Governance, (b) Gender Sensitivity and
Participation in Administration
Nilesh
STRUCTURE
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Understanding the Gender Perspective to Administration
1.4 Feminist Approach
1.4.1 Gender of Governance
1.4.2 Governance of Gender
1.5 Parameters of Understanding Gender in Administration
1.5.1 Ethics of Justice
1.5.2 Expertise
1.6 Concept of Social Participation
1.7 Gender Issues: The General Parameters
1.8 Engendering Public Administration and Development
1.8.1 Health and Nutritional Status
1.8.2 Education for Women
1.8.3 Status of Girl Child
1.8.4 Women and Weaker Sections
1.9 Conclusion
1.11 References
After reading this topic, you should be able to

• Get a view into the feminist’s perspective of public administration;
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• Try to know the key components of Feminist Approach;

• To access the notion of gender and gender equality in public administration;
• To evaluate if public institutions are gendered or not;
• Appreciating the Feminist Approach for its relevance to public administration; and
• To understand concepts like gender, sensitivity, expertise and leadership of public
administration from Feminist Perspective.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
The various fields of science and social sciences, such as sociology, economics, demography
and anthropology has seen a great transformation and seemed to have got a new direction
with social issues like equality of men and women as the centre of attention in the 20th
century. And the same happened with public administration, feminist explanation of the
subject has resulted in expansion of its boundaries and norms.
Feminism is a methodology of investigation. We can also describe feminism is more
often a theoretical explanation to redescribe the reality. Three factors become important when
we describe the public administration through feminist perspectives: first, inclusion of
women-friendly policies in governance; second, participation of women in public
administration, and third, a change in the view to the issue of gender in administration. The
third factor is most crucial and is thus the central theme of this unit.
This unit today explain the feminist approach to public administration. It will deal
with the problems related to women in governance by highlighting the different domains of
gender analysis in governance. The issues of gender are at the top of the agenda of the social
scientists today. These problems have, in fact, turn out to be the potential dangers for a just
society. Mohit Bhattacharya (2001) believes that gender and environment are two important
topics that are gradually finding its place in the discipline of public administration. As far as
the gender amplitude is concerned, there has been a movement worldwide to bring more and
more women in it. There are various reasons for this kind of change and many scholars feel
that the globalisation and information technology are important factors for this renewed
interest on the much-neglected issues of gender. This Unit will try to highlight some of these.
The problems attached with these issues required urgent solutions. Social participation is one
of the strongest measures to cope with these socio-economic and political issues. We will
also discuss this aspect at length in this Unit.
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1.3 UNDERSTANDING THE GENDER PERSPECTIVE TO

ADMINISTRATION
The Management Approach tries to elaborate the case to public administration for
transforming the bureaucratic government into an entrepreneurial one. The rejuvenated
project is important in that its objection against the Weberian model of bureaucratic
organisation granted reality of administrative life. It further suggests that administrative
structures, practices, principles and values are neither permanent nor unalterable. With the
release of the Report of the National Performance Review in 1993 under Clinton
administration, the rejuvenated project of the feminist views to bureaucratic became more
fashionable.
But the feminist scholars did not have a good environment, other theories of power,
virtue, nature of organisation, and leadership based on feminist research failed to take the
attention of policy makers and citizens. Few of these ideas made their way into conversations
in public administration which continued to be rooted in an ostensibly neutral, but overtly
male, upper class, white mentality.
The rejuvenated gender aspects to public administration get started by feminist is still
got ignored by the old bureaucratic government. These scholars tried to make women's
experiences visible and ask for the development of public administration through Feminist
Perspective, which builds the administrative reality in gender-inclusive rather than gender-
neutral.
Feminist study of public administration has various aspects. We would first discuss
the Feminist Theory and then try to re-investigate the concept of 'gender of governance', i.e.,
to see how the administrative power, institutions and policies are organised around the
domination of male and subordination of female. We will also investigate the concept of
'governance of gender' i.e., see how the administrative policies make the rules and regulations
which not only regard and reward the men but also view the position of women and men as
different and unequal. The crux of this argument is that we cannot understood gender
relations apart from the Administrative State; Administrative States and gender relations are
influenced by each other.
1.4 FEMINIST APPROACH
A 'feminist' is one who identifies with gender as an important and useful category of analysis,
who have a critical view on women's recent status and prospects, to use Gerda Lerner's words
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which said that there must be a believes in a system of ideas and practices, which believes
that despite gender, everyone either men or women must share equally in the work, in their
profits, in explaining and dreaming the future of the world".
Feminism is a diverse and multifaceted collection of ideas and actions; we cannot take
feminism as a unitary concept. Feminist movement holds different and even contradictory
political viewpoints such as Liberal, Marxist, Socialist, Radical, Post-modern but all are
firmly working to end the "gender-based inequality”. Gender is a part of the of society which
focused on differences of harmony with biological sex and socio-economic identity.
Feminists do not focus just on women rather on power relations which differences between
men and women and their access to resources and decision-making power.
Feminism is never about creating a space for women only but it is all about making
space for heterogeneous gendered perspective, i.e., giving space to all the gender. It is all
about changing the old forms of gendered power relation. It is like a modern tool to view
things through different gender lens. Given the fact that, all the old theory and practices of
public administration have overlooked feminist perspective, and are masculine in nature, so
changing is vital. Therefore, using our gender lens means working for increasing to make
women and other genders visible in social phenomena and asking the question why social
process standards and opportunities always differ between men and women systematically.
1.4.1 Gender of Governance
If we look at the history of social science, it will reveal that all over the world, the political
domain has been continuously controlled and managed by men. if we see, the dominant of
male, patriarchy is seen normal, neutral and main stream. as Sheila Rowbotham (1973) has
said women have been hidden from history. Feminists have tried to account for the absence
of women from political structures. they believe that the macho behaviour towards politics is
responsible for the exclusion of women from politics.
The main mechanism through which this exclusion is realised is the believe of a
natural separation of the public and the private (Squires, 1999). The traditional approach to
public administration believes that the political is public and hence the domain of the
domestic, familial and sexual relations which are private and thus the it lies outside the
concern of the study of politics. If we see, male activity is seen as a sphere of public and
personal or private is reserved for women thus stopping women from taking part in the sphere
of politics. Women are, by and large, being excluded from defining their activities as
political.
Thus, in the second half of the 20th century, feminist theory started to realise how the
society has constructed the roles of men and women differently and how public sphere shape
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the personal circumstances. So, they began a re-examination of many of those males centred
or created theories, principles, concepts and institutions of those politics and administration.
they challenge the core concept of family, which is seen as a personal domain and not
political domain, by claiming that 'personal is political'. They challenged the dominant and
core concept like family and personal life and thus made it political and included the private
sphere into politics. They also feel that lives of women are regulated and shaped by public
spheres and shaped for example, legal status of wives by the policy of government on child
care, allocation of welfare benefits, labour laws and division of labour on sex basis and laws
on abortion, sexual harassment and rape, thus the personal problems can only be resolved by
the political actions.
The believe that gender is about power. Society thus recreate and reinforce the
difference between men and women through gender relation and thus at the level of complex
institutions, gender organises power. It saturates different spaces - even the Administrative
State. In simple words, we can say male dominance have built the Administrative State.
1.4.2 Governance of Gender
The Feminist writers not only expose the male bias of the Administrative State; they also
assess the effect of such an Administrative State and its policies on men and women. They try
to show that an Administrative State, which is a gendered hierarchy produces inequality and
assigns different life chances to men and women and reinforces material realities that oppress
women. A Feminist Approach tried to include calling those marked boundaries into question
about potential and capabilities qualities on the basis of gender thus giving importance to
males over females. It also means exploring the implications of these attitudes in governance.
This becomes apparent when we see that the conventional understanding of public
administration is rooted in the images of expertise, leadership and a form of virtue which can
be identified as culturally masculine. This peculiar nature of the public - organisational reality
where links are drawn between ideas of masculinity and public administration norms of
professionalism, leadership and neutrality; where working women have to bear the double
burden of both paid employment and burden of the work of house; are not promoted to higher
bureaucratic ranks and faces lots of other challenges in bureaucracy; and a glass ceiling
blocks their access to the position of greatest power and monitory benefits are not given to
women within the organisation, harms women and tries to stop their political and social
freedom. Such a culturally dominant masculine modes of thought and action privilege men
and their interests by establishing boundaries that exclude all but a few exceptional women
from positions of authority. A Feminist Approach to public administration theory entails
questioning of these boundaries.
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1.5 PARAMETERS OF UNDERSTANDING GENDER IN

ADMINISTRATION
If we see the very structure of organisation, we can see the extent to which gender is
embedded in structure and also if we see the figures in worldview and policies of
administrator, we can find out the discrimination and exclusion of all other genders in
comparison to male and thus exposed the exclusion of women from social and political
world. Feminists believe that true equality cannot just be achieved by adding women’s
perspectives to traditional theories rather the theory must be challenged and thus re-examined
and re-analyse the several problem and issue areas in public administration that ask for new
addition or configuration and thus offer a new spectrum of the feminist opinion, which
promises to be more generative in shaping administrative theory and practice.
1.5.1 Ethic of Justice
Lately, the forces of power, coercion and violence had degraded the public moral values and
the public morality of justice systematically in the political realm. Politics has come to be
understood as power politics - conflictual rather than consensual. Not surprisingly ethics has
emerged as a significant research concern for public administration scholars. The feminist
tried to rearrange the integral relation between ethics and politics in making an ethical polity.
The ethical debate within public administration would be both broader and deeper if ethics
from a Feminist angle were to be added. Ethical reasoning generally associated with an 'ethic
of justice" idea of impartiality or a universalistic morality is viewed impersonal, gendered
and limited. The feminists favour in support of widening the range of moral reasoning so as
to add another form of reasoning known an 'ethic of care, which ought also to be recognised.
It is said that women are more likely to adopt this ethic of care than men and that to privilege
only the ethic of justice is to silence women's distinctive moral voice. It is claimed that
women's experiences as mothers within private spheres provide them with certain insights
and concerns, which are valuable to the public sphere of the Administrative State, but are
currently absent from it.
In Carol Gilligan's (1982) view, women have a different conception of morality, a
morality of responsibility, whereas men have a morality of rights. Very early in life, men's
individualism and separation from the feminine gives them an ethic of justice, while women's
affiliation with mothers and others teaches them an ethic of care (White, 1999).
Feminist scholars like Gilligan have never inscribe the desertion of the ethic of justice
in the favour of an ethic of care. Rather they fancy the ethic of justice to be tempered by an
ethic of care. Their idea is based on the conviction that the identification and affirmation of a
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different voice' is crucial to the transformation of public bureaucracies.

1.5.2 Expertise
Feminist thinkers have made up and bestowed to the discussion about the image of
proficiency in public administration. The need for proficiency has been the main theme of the
Wilsonian-Weberian model of public administration. Classical public administration
grounded in politics--administration dichotomy was based on the assumption that public
administration was legitimate because it was manned by expert professionals.
Feminists regret that generally speaking, there has been a tendency to banish norms,
which are culturally recognised as 'feminine'- such as passivity, compliance and vulnerability
- from public life, thus creating a masculine image of both men and women within public
administration which appear technically expert, tough and heroic.
The traditional view of proficiency also privileges the notion of public servant
obligation towards political leaders. From the Feminist Perspective, such ideas of expertise
block connectivity and affiliation of the administrator with the world around him. They not
only separate the individual from the field, but they also raise the administrator above the
field. Professional ability reduces those over whom authority is exercised.
The identification that the view of all the faction to the circumstances - clients,
citizens, and workers are necessary in ascertaining genuine public interest, made the feminists
campaign for a form of professional competence that is non- hierarchical. They also claim for
a form of compatibility in public administration that moves beyond the heroic male
professional who surrender family concerns in a single-minded fashion to his career. The
main view of Stivers' account also is her claim that women find it difficult or impossible to
live up to such an ideal which are flawed in itself that it compartmentalises both the life of
men and women and further relegating the family to lesser status and the performance of its
responsibilities to lesser people. If we see the feminist view, they believe that administrators
must be a whole person, who understands and continue as a member of a family then the
work of agencies will be seen as a policy widely supported by its member and this
understanding will be reflected by agency personal policies. Policies like parental leave, on-
side day-care facilities, menstrual leave will be seen as policy of public interest as they
promote the development and nurturing the children but not as the needs of individual
employees.
But the feminists are distressed by the reality that there are very few top jobs in
business and public administration which are controlled by women in most countries, they are
not sure that adding women in important positions will not be simply enough to bring about
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so fundamental change in administration. Widespread dissatisfaction with hierarchy and

control, led women organisations to experiment with non- hierarchical forms of organising,
which is a more participatory, flexible, group-oriented style of management. The feminists
are not arguing that all women are interactive leaders or that it excludes men. The feminists
just want a move in the standard of leadership such that feminist leadership is not viewed as a
replacement to traditional leadership forms but as a compliment.
The feminist orientation on the above themes raises few questions that support
directly on organisation theory. The feminists are building different models of organisation
which is primarily based on their experience in the women's movement. While substantially
departing from the traditional model of administration, they are experimenting with new
patterns of group activity. They also questioned the domination by superior through
hierarchical patterns on the grounds that it hurdles the growth of individual members. They
suggested to adopt a more fluid, temporary, flexible and egalitarian forms of organisation.
The important impact of the feminist critique of the important concepts in public
administration has prompted Robert Denhardt and Jan Powell to anticipate the fall of 'the
administrative man' and urge the adoption of an alternative model based on organisational
values of women’s movement.
1.6 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL PARTICIPATION
Social participation has long been a scrutiny for the study of sociologists. Earlier, social
participation was viewed by some as an element of social status which is viewed as a
barometer of the degree to which individuals had status conferred on them by their peer
participation. It has been viewed by many as a means of self-fulfilment. They have talked
about four types of voluntary association. Voluntary associations have been seen as a bulwark
of Pluralism in mass societies, an incentive for community integration, a tool of political
socialisation and a proponent of social change. Participation has been viewed to correlate
with socio-economic status, race and ethnicity, self-esteem and other socio-psychological
traits. The idea of participation was always viewed as a central concern of sociology and
social science (See: Joseph, 1970).
Social participation asks for mobilization of the whole community or society for the
development and thus it will be possible only if individuals, local organization and social
institutions participate fully. If the people are aware of their problems, then the participation
will be true, ideal and active and people must be in a position to know their needs, and to a
certain extent to solve them, people in society must involve themselves at the planning level
and should prioritize the needs as per the resources available and they should involve
102 | P a g e

themselves in implementing the plan.

Social participation is a human act which is based on the idea of mutual faith based on
the attitudes and beliefs of the people thus it is a process where individual takes participation
for the development of his/her own society in his/her capacity. This helps the people to know
the surrounding better and encourage them to handle their common issues and these helps
them become agents of their own development rather than just a mere beneficiary of
governmental schemes.
Social participation can be increased if the government tries to:
• Respect the community's contribution with aspect to their knowledge, skills and
potential.
• Encourage project developers which become facilitators and mediators of
development and help them bringing about society/community-based initiatives, and
challenge the core practices and ideas of people and society.
• Promote people in making co-decision in identifying their needs, setting goals and
formulating policies.
• Avoid selective participatory proactive approach.
• To inform the people about the success and failure of the schemes to people.
• Motivate the people to participate to make them believe in the spirit of values viz.,
solidarity, conformity, compassion, respect, human dignity, and collective unity.
• To use the potential of the society/community without any exploitation.
• To share the results of development by empowering the society/community equally.
Techniques like Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) helps in promoting participation in
development and management of programmes. PRA is a marker given to participatory
approaches and methods that give importance to local knowledge and thus enable local
people to make their own plans and analyse them. PRA uses the idea of group animation and
different exercises to facilitate information sharing, action and analysis among the
society/community and thus the purpose of PRA is to activate the practitioners, government
officials and local people so that they can work together to plan context-based programmes
(World Bank Source Book, 2005).
Participation facilitates the development process. At the planning and implementation
stages of a development programme, the participatory process gives important information
103 | P a g e

which helps the people to ensure development objectives and preferences. It helps in
evaluating the manpower resource utilisation, which helps in reducing the cost of the project.
In case any change in the development scheme takes place or problems happened, it would be
widely acceptable by the people just because they are involved in it. Field based studies
advices that monitoring and sustainability of the project is smoother even if the external
agency or the NGO leaves the project mid-way, as by that time the people are part in the
management of the project. Participation helps both the administrator and the community the
importance of cooperation. This learning process which based on participation helps the
community to become a real actor and boasts its confidence and dignity.
1.7 GENDER ISSUES: THE GENERAL PARAMETERS
The issues of gender generally concern to the qualitative and interdependent character of the
position of men and women in society. The division of gender is rooted through the
conditions of production and reproduction and is strengthen by the cultural, religious and
ideological bases prevailing in the society. So, we can say, sex is the province of biology, i.e.,
unchangeable and fixed qualities, while gender prevails in the province of social science, i.e.,
qualities that are shaped by social situation and interactions. These associations are not
always harmonious and non-conflicting, and sometimes, it may take different forms under
different conditions.
The concept of gender tries to differentiate the sexual-biological differences between
men and women from the culturally determined differences among them, and also to the role
given or perform by them by them in a society. This also shows that the role of gender varies
across countries and regions also over time within countries. Feminists urge that the
culturally determined roles of men and women are feasible and it can be changed or impacted
through government policy, education, media images and opinion leaders.
Women account for 646 million and approximately represent half of India's total
population as per the Census 2021. Therefore, the betterment of women's socio-economic
condition and status is directly proportional to the development of the country. The
Constitution of India protects the rights and privileges of this section, which can be seen or
reflected in the national concern. Article 14 gives equal rights and opportunities on men and
women in the political, economic and social spheres. Article 15 stops discrimination against
any citizen on the grounds of sex, religion, race, caste etc. Article 15(3) gives power to the
State to make affirmative discrimination in favour of women and Article 16 asks for equality
of opportunities in the matter of public appointments for all citizens. Article 51A (e) urges a
fundamental duty on every citizen so that they cannot practices derogatory to the dignity of
104 | P a g e

women. To transform this de-jure equality into de-facto one, Indian leaders, pressure groups
have worked and thus we can see many policies and programmes have been launched from
time to time for the benefit of women.
The Legal Right to Property for women in parent's property is under consideration
and the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Bill 2005 has come up for discussion
in the Parliament. This is in addition to the number of Acts such as Child Marriage Restraint
Amendment Act (1956), Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls (1956),
Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act (1986), Commission of Sati Prevention
Act (1987), the National Commission for Women Act (1990), which have already been
passed.
There has been a demand for 33 per cent reservation for women in the Parliament
which has put pressure on all political parties to reach a consensus to pass the bill. All the
Constitutional Provisions like Articles 10, 14, 15 and 16 have all strived to provide equality
and justice to the women. Constitutional Amendment such as 73rd & 74th have already
reserved one-third of the seats for women in the local government. It needs to be kept in view
that "Reservation is an ineffective tool for meeting social ends unless accompanied with
effective training and inculcation of self-confidence among vulnerable sections of the society
(Basu, 2005)".
They pointed out that the unitary category of 'woman' just based on class, race or
nationality is not helpful in analysing the socio-political impact of women's groups. They
argued that one way of dealing with the problem is to differentiate the women's groups from
those which concerns around 'political" gender interests like economic survival and also those
who are involves in 'strategic' gender interests associating with foremost objectives (Haynes,
1997).
From the First Five Year Plan till Fifth Plan, Government of India takes several steps
towards keeping focus on 'welfare of the women’. It is the Sixth Plan that adopted a
multidisciplinary approach with a special focus on the three core sectors of health, education
and employment. In the Seventh Plan, the main focus of developmental schemes emphasis on
raising economic and social status of women and bringing them directly into the focus of
national development. Beneficiary Oriented Schemes (BOS) were added in various
developmental sectors to extend the direct benefits to this group. the focus was on both the
generation of skilled and unskilled employment through proper education, awareness and
vocational training, in order to make them participate in programmes.
The main focus of the Eighth Five Year Plan was focused on human development
which plays an important role in the advancement of the women. It made sure that no
105 | P a g e

organisation should stop or discriminate women as equal partners and participants in the
social development process. The Ninth Five Year Plan focused on two important strategies:
(i) The primary objective was empowerment of women. The approach tried to create an
environment where women can freely exercise their rights both inside and outside home
(ii)Attempt was to connect both the prevailing service available in women specific and
women related sectors.
To make this effectful, both the centre and the states were directed to follow a special
strategy of 'Women's Component Plan' (WCP) in which 30 per cent of funds will directly
flow to women for all the general development sectors. To make this effectful, a special
provision was suggested in 1986, a special mechanism was set up for monitoring all 27
Beneficiary Oriented Schemes at the instance of Prime Minister's Office and it has continued
to be an effective tool till today. All women associated sectors viz. health, nutrition,
education, labour, rural development, urban development, science and technology; and
women and child development have attained its targets to a considerable extent.
The Ninth Five Year Plan sees some special initiatives which were taken for the
employment and development of women like launching of 'Swashakti', 'Stree Shakti
Puraskar', Gender Budgeting, National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 'Swayamsidha',
and 'Swadhar". These actions helped the women in setting up of self-reliant groups and Self-
help Groups and thus tries to develops a connection with the lending institutions for helping
women's access to credit facilities which will help them building confidence and getting
aware through the process of conscientisation which will led them to take their rightful space
in the mainstream of the nation's socio-political scene of the nation and further help in
expanding service of rehabilitation in odd situations and destroying any forms of violence
against women and the girl child.
The Tenth Five Year Plan's approach was slightly different from the earlier plans. It is
an action-oriented approach having planned goals or targets which is needed to be completed
in a given time-frame. The women empowerment process which was started in the Ninth Five
Year Plan will continue with the Tenth Five Year Plan.
1.8 ENGENDERING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND

DEVELOPMENT
The gender's issue has entered the domain of public administrative studies very lately. It was
the Minnowbrook Conference in 1960s which talks about the equity, values and social justice
but the emphasis on the gender problems were not specifically highlighted. However, in
106 | P a g e

1980s, public administration recognised the issues of women as an empirical and theoretical
area of concern.
There has been a substantial change in the approach to women's empowerment in
Public Administration. From 'welfare' to 'equity' to 'anti-poverty', the policy approaches
towards women have taken a shift, as said by Buvinic (1983), to two different approaches,
which is known as 'efficiency' and 'empowerment' has questioned the development policies of
third world countries. The approach of equity views women as active participants in the
development process. This approach helps in meeting strategic gender needs and thus it links
development with equity. So, these approaches help in redistribution of power (Ostergaard,
1997).
The approach of empowerment views the role of women and the works of women's
organisations and groups with similar mindset as a main component of change. this approach
advocates the use of a 'bottom up' approach to raise women's consciousness which helps them
in challenging their status in society. This approach tried to work on practical gender needs so
that women can built a support base in order to address strategic gender concerns. In order to
make sure that maximum women's participation in the various schemes started by the Central
and state governments, women must be adequately empowered.
The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1993 have helped increase the
participation of women in local self-government in both rural and urban societies. The
amendment has helped in ensuring the political presence of the women in local self-
government at both rural and urban bodies. They are now in a position of power which has
surely enabled them to participate to decision making in local government, a sphere that
affects their lives the most. This has provided them the opportunity to understand politics,
gives them political administrative visibility and learn local governance and certainly it has
made them aware, conscious and confident.
1.8.1 Health and Nutritional Status
There is a compulsion to increase the availability and utility of services like primary health
and family welfare with the key focus on the or underprivileged sections of the population,
especially the poor women and children. The other important steps will be to keep the focus
on essential obstetric care by registering earlier for pregnancy and screening of all pregnant
women at least three times during the period of pregnancy in order to detect risk factors,
identifying and managing high risk mothers, ensuring appropriate management of anaemia
and hypertension disorders and providing the referral care of 'at risk mothers' to ensure safe
delivery. All these are parts of the UN's Millennium Development Goals, which was widely
accepted by the Government of India.
107 | P a g e

1.8.2 Education for Women

Hillary Clinton during her speech on 'Status of Women around the World stated that "As long
as discrimination and inequities remain so persistent around the world, as long as girl and
women are valued less, fed less, fed last, overworked, underpaid, not schooled and subjected
to violence in and out of their homes, the potential of human family will not create a
peaceful, prosperous world which we want to build" (UN 4* World Congress, 1995).
Education has now become a Fundamental Right. It is thus a key element for the
empowerment of women. National Education Policy advocates 'Education for Women's
Equality'. It advocates to decrease the gaps at the secondary and higher education levels and
thus give attention to the low female literacy and to the women and girl children belonging to
the socially disadvantageous groups such as SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities and disabled, as they
are way behind the rest of the population.
1.8.3 Status of Girl Child
There are different provisions for the safeguards of girl child in the Indian Constitution.
These provisions ensure their right to survival, protection and development. Articles 14 and
15(3) of Indian Constitution prohibits State from denying any person equality before law and
it empowers the State in making special provisions in favour of children respectively. Article
23 of Indian Constitution stops trafficking in human beings, abolishing forced labour and thus
treats any disturbance to this provision as a punishable offence. Article 24 of Indian
Constitution, similarly prohibits the employment of children below 14 years of age in any
factory or mine or shop or in any space. Article 39 argued that the tender age of children
should not be abused or forced into any unsuited to their age. Articles 45 guarantees
compulsory education of children up to the age of 14.
1.8.4 Women and Weaker Sections
To empower the SC/ST groups, some of the essential steps needed to be taken by increasing
their traditional skills by giving them proper support of credit, knowledge, training,
equipment and technology; ensuring payment of minimum wages and providing equal wages
without gender discrimination, generally in the informal sectors; modernising the
technologies and upgrading the skills of weaker section in traditional arts and crafts such as
handlooms, handicrafts, lace making, glass work etc. thus adding value to their products to
compete in the markets, allocating funds in proportion to their population under the schemes
like SCP and also motivating the private and corporate sectors to invest in the policies for the
welfare of weaker sections.
108 | P a g e

1.9 CONCLUSION
Here, we have tried an attempt to explore the Feminist Approach to the specific aspects of
administration. Feminist Perspective in public administration till today remains fully
neglected and has not received what it warrants. Giving insights into the issues of gender
equality, Feminists ask provocative questions such as what it means to be a man or a woman
in various cultures, economic or social systems. They believe, women have always been at
the receiving end and subjected to various negative stereotypes, also that women have not got
a fair share in governance. They challenge the prevalent paradigm of bureaucratic culture and
Administrative State. They describe the Administrative State as patriarchal and gendered.
They systematically discuss the manner in which the Administrative State strengthen
women's subordination and marginalisation.
Feminist scholars try to weaken this masculinist bureaucratic culture which had been
technicist in orientation. Based on their experience, they have developed an alternative
perspective of public administration and provided a re-appraisal of administrative concepts
such as ethics, expertise, and leadership etc. It has been observed that the objective of
Feminist scholarship is to reshape dominant paradigm to give greater priority to women's
needs and concerns as well as to sensitive methodologies.
The idea of Feminist ethic, expertise, leadership styles of women, organisation theory
and their impact on the way administration have been examined. This is by no means a
complete list of method of Feminist theorising on public administration. The effort has been
to build an effective case for a Feminist Perspective to public administration.
1. Explain the Concept of Gender?

2. Briefly explain the types of parameters of understanding Gender in Administration.
3. How you understand about the Gender Perspective to Administration.
4. Comparison between Engendering Public Administration and Development.
1.11 REFERENCES
• Barbara, A. (1999). Politics and Feminism. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.

• Brush, L. D (2003). Gender and Governance. USA: Alta Mira Press.
109 | P a g e

• Burnier, De L.(1993). Reinventing Government from a Feminist Perspective:

Feminist Theory and Administrative Reality. Feminist Teacher, Fall, 1993.
• Bystydzienski, J. M (Ed.). (1992). Women Transforming Polities; Worldwide
Strategies for Empowerment. Indianapolisp: Indiana University Press.
• Denhardt, R. B and Perkins, J. (1976) The Coming Death of Administrative Man
Public Administration Review, Vol 36, No. 4, July- Aug: p. 383.
• Freedman, J. (2001) Feminism, Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
• Gilligan, C. (1982). A Different Voice, Havard, U.S: Harvard University Press.
• Hakesworth. M. (1994). Policy Studies within a Feminist Frame. Journal of Policy
Sciences. Vol. 27, No. 2-3.
• Lerner, G. (1984). The Rise of Feminist Consciousness.In Bender, E.M, Burk, B and
Walker, N. (Eds.) All of Us Are Present. Stephen's College, Columbia: M. O. James
Madison Wood Research Institute.
• Pateman, C. (1999). Feminist Critique of Public/ Private Dichotomy' quoted in
Squires, J. Gender in Political Theory, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press: p. 1.
• Rowbotham, S. (1973). Hidden from History. London, U.K: Pluto Press.
• Stewart, D. W., (1990) Women in Public Administration. In Lynn, N.B and
Wildavsky, A. (Eds.) Public Administration: The State of the Discipline, New Delhi,
India: Westview Press: p. 221.
• Stivers, C. (1993).GenderImages in Public Administration: Legitimacy in the
Administrative State, Newbury Park: Sage Publishers.
• Annual Report, 2004, Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India.
• Basu, Anita, 2005, "'Magic Bill", Sunday Pioneer, 20' August.
• Buvinic, Lycette, and W. Mc Greevey, 1983, Women and Poverty in the Third World,
Johns Hopkins University Press, Balyimore.
• Bhattacharya, Mohit, 2001, Restructuring Public Administration: Essays in
Rehabilitarion, Jawahar, New Delhi.
• Caroline, O. N. Moser, 1993, Gender Planning and Development, Routledge, London.
• Gadgil, Madhav and Ramchandra Guha, 1995, Ecology and Equity: The Use and
Abuse of Nature in Contemporary India, Penguin Books, New Delhi.
• Haynes, Jeff, 1997, Democracy and Civil Society in the Third World: Polity Press,
U.K.
110 | P a g e

• Joseph, Harry, 1970, "Family Localism and Social Participation", American Journal
of Sociology.
• Annual Report, 1994, National Commission for SCs and STs.
• Nussbaum, Martha, 2001, "Women and Equality: The Capabilities Approach", in
Martha Fetherolf Loutfi, (Ed.), Report on Women, Gender and Work, International
Labour Office, Geneva
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Department of Distance and Continuing Education

B.A. (Hons.) Political Science

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Sl. No. Title Writer Pg.

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Unit-IV Gender Perspectives on Public Nilesh 95

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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perspective, it makes the knowledge more usable.

1.3.1 Early Systems

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1.4 MODERN PA: AN OVERVIEW OF THEORETICAL JOURNEY

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1.4.1 Dichotomy: Wilsonian Approach

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1.5 PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

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1.6 CURRENT INTERPRETATIONS

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1.7 THEORISING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

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1.9 PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the Ancient roots of Public Administration.

1. "Random House Unabridged Dictionary". Dictionary.infoplease.com. Retrieved

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Unit-II: Mainstream/Traditional Theoretical Perspectives

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Scientific Management Approach is of vital significance in administrative management. This

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1.3 F.W. TAYLOR: HIS BOOKS AND METHODS

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1.4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT APPROACH

1.5 PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT: F. W. TAYLOR

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2. The rigorous assortment of workforce and their continuous training.

1.6 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT MOVEMENT

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Taylor stressed on the universal applicability of his principles of Scientific Management. He

1.7 CRITICISM AND DISAGREEMENT

Scientific Management, is criticized on following grounds

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the monetary factors.

1.9 PRACTICE QUESTIONS

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The World Press Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata.

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(b) IDEAL-TYPE BUREAUCRACY (Max Weber)

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES