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QNO. 1. What was Gandhi's contribution to the economic thinking in

the Indian national movement? OR. Discuss the evolution of socialist
thinking in the Indian national movement. OR. How did the economic
thinking in the Indian national movement crystallize at the end?
Ans: - The Indian National Congress is a major political party in India. Founded in
1885 by Allan Octavian Hume, Dadabhi Naoraji, Dinshaw Wacha, Womesh
Chandra Bonnerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee, and M.Ghose & William
Wedderburn. The Indian Independence Movement with over 15 million members
& 70 million participants in its struggle against British rule in India.
After Independence in 1947, it became the nation's dominant political party,

led by the Nehru-Gandhi family for most of the part, challenged for leadership
only in more recent decades.
M.K.Gandhi was the unofficial spiritual leader of the party after First World
War. The party was in many ways an umbrella organization, sheltering within
itself radical socialists, traditions & even Hindu & Muslim Conservatives.
Gandhi's economic ideals, much like everything else in his life, were governed
by ethical & moral considerations. His stress on rural economy & emphasis on a
simple life, coupled with his concern for universal well-being formed the
foundation of his unique views on economics.
Gandhi's economic models were based largely on his understanding of the

Indian situation. However, it should be stressed that Gandhi himself believed that
the modes could be employed on an international scale as well. It should be
remembered that Gandhi’s economic models are particularly humanitarian in
nature and for him no economic modes is worth implementation unless it aims
towards the general well-being of mankind.
The Gandhian economics is of the view that every man should increase his
personal income & standard of living by exploiting the existing natural & human
resources fully eco-friendly.
In line with Gandhi's dream of expanding village industries, industrial policy

resolutions of 1948, 1956, & 1977 have offered a special favour for the
development of small-scale industries. The village & small-scale industries have
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been playing an important role in Indian economy in terms of employment

generation & poverty alleviation.
The Gandhian view of self-sufficient village economy is also relevant in the

context of reducing poverty & unemployment in rural India.
Gandhian approach has always said about the voluntary wants, the need for
self-sufficient village communities & the issues relating to better balance between
man & nature. Gandhi wanted to have an ideal society of his own imagination &
his economic ideas are a part & parcel of his philosophical & sociological ideas.
According to Gandhi every person should be provided with bare minimum

necessaries i.e. food, shelter & clothing. Concentration of wealth to a few groups
of people certainly will shatter the dream of a society which will be socialist in
nature.
Gandhi's economic thinking was a part of his broader social vision of

sarvodaya that was originally conceived as anthodia. It was Gandhi's Satyagraha
that brought the women into the arena of politics & liberated them from their
domestic bondages. The resolution of the Karachi session of All-India Congress
Committee that was passed in 1931 was the first clear statement of the socio-
economic contents of the freedom movement. It laid down that the organization of
economic life must conform to the principle of justice, to the end that it must
secure a decent standard of living.
The Russian Revolution in October 1917 brought an interest in socialism in

India & small socialist groups emerged in the urban centers. The first five-year
plan by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1934. In 1934 the Congress
Socialist Party was formed within the Congress & Gandhi resigned from the
Congress citing it as one of the reasons & alleging Jawaharlal’s open sympathy for
the group. In 1935 the Communist party of India was formed & immediately
banned by the British Govt. Most of the Communists started working within the
Congress Socialist party.
Jawaharlal Nehru, who had shown great admiration for socialism as early as
1928, delivered his presidential address to the Lucknow session of the Indian

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National Congress announcing his conviction that 'the only solution of the world's
problems & of Indian's problems lies in socialism.'
The idea of planning had acquired popularity in 1934. The work of the National
Planning Committee was interrupted but a number of subcommittees of the
National Planning Committee prepared their reports.
QNO2. What place do ‘the people’ have in the Indian Constitution?

What are the negative & the positive rights in the Indian Constitution?
OR Discuss the world’s perception of rights that served as the
background of rights embodied in the Indian Constitution.
Ans:- A Constitution is a set of rules for government-often codified as a written
document-that establishes principles of an autonomous political entity. This term
refers specifically to a national constitution defining the fundamental political,
principles & establishing the structure, procedures, powers & duties, of a
government.
The Indian Constitution inherited the world trend through the experiences of
the people during the freedom struggle. The Indian Constitution retained the liberal
democratic framework but broadened the scope of governmental intervention with
a view to promoting social reform & welfare. There was prohibition on the state to
violate the rights & equality of the citizens- the rights that were essentially of
negative character. There was a prohibition on the society to practice
untouchability. The Constitution also adopted the Irish model of issuing positive
directives to the Government for the promotion of welfare measures.
The Indian Constitution, the Preamble deals with the aims & objectives, the
targets & ideals & the basis & foundation of the Indian Constitution. The Preamble
states that "we, the people of Indian, have solemnly resolved to Constitute India
into a Sovereign, socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic & to ensure to all its
citizens: justice-social, economic & political; liberty of thought, expression, belief,
faith & worship; Equality of status & of opportunity; & to promote among them all
Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual & unity & integrity of the nation.
The significant features of the Indian Constitution are of two types. There are
some features which exist only in the Indian Constitution, while there are other

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features which even though can exist in other constitution, are distinctively
important. The Constitution has been framed by the representatives of the people
of India through a Constitution Assembly during 1946-49.
The Constitution propagates the people of India to be the supreme authority. It

means the people of India are not secondary to any other external agency. The
Constitution proclaims India to be a republic.
The Constitution declares India as a secular nation. It clearly specifies there

should not be any discrimination on the basis of religion & all religion should be
treated equally the Constitution provides for Fundamental rights & duties. The
Fundamental duties were included in to the Constitution through an amendment in
1976. The Constitution is a comprehensive document with 395 articles & twelve
schedules. It advocates India to have a parliamentary form of govt. In
parliamentary democracy, members are selected be the way of elections.
The Constitution of India guarantees six fundamental rights these are:
 1) Right to Equality.
 2) Right to Freedom.
 3) Right against Exploitation.
 4) Right to Freedom of Religion.
 5) Right to Constitutional Remedies.
The Directive Principles of State Policy are guidelines to the central & state
governments of India, to be kept in mind while framing laws of policies. These
provisions, contained in part iv of the constitution of India, are not enforceable by
any court, but the principles laid down therein are considered fundamental in the
governance of the country, making it the duty of the state to apply these principles
in making laws to establish a just society in the country.
Directive principles are classified under the following categories: Gandhian,

economic & socialistic, political & administrative, justice & legal, environmental,
protection of monuments & peace & security. The concept of Directive principles
of State Policy was borrowed from the Irish Constitution. The makers of the
Constitution of India were influenced by the Irish nationalist movement. Hence,
the Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution have been greatly influenced by

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the Directive Principles of the State Policy. The Indian Constitution was also
influenced by Unities Nations Universe Declaration of Human Rights.
The Fundamental Rights are defined as the basic human rights of all citizens.
These rights, defined in part iii of the Constitution, apply irrespective of race, place
of birth, religion, caste, creed or gender. They are enforceable by the courts,
subject to specific restrictions.
There is also a provision for Directive Principles of State Policy regarded as

fundamental in the matters of governance. It also ensures to safeguard the rights of
the workers, children, weaker sections & nature, develop & protect agriculture,
environment, forests & wildlife of the country.
QNO3. Explain briefly the evolution of political democracy & economic

development in India during the phase 1947-67. Analyze the process of
transformation in the terrain of politics in the post 1967 era. OR ‘The
economics of liberalization & the politics of empowerment are going in
opposite directions in the contemporary India’ comment. OR Write a
short note on democracy as a form of good governance.
Ans:- Democracy is a system of Government in which either the actual governing
is carried out by the people governed ( direct democracy), or the power to do so is
granted by them ( as in representative democracy).
In political theory, democracy describes a small number of related forms of

government and also political philosophy. Even though there is specific,
universally accepted definition of ‘democracy’, there are two principles that any
definition of democracy includes equality and freedom. These principles are
reflected by all citizens being equal before the law, and having equal access to
power.
Additionally, all citizens are able to enjoy legitimized freedoms & liberties,
which are usually protected by a constitution. However, if any democracy is not
carefully legislated to avoid an uneven distribution of political power with
balances, such as the separation of powers, then a branch of the system of rule
could accumulate power & become harmful to the democracy itself. The idea of

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democracy is expected to inform, inspire & cohere with the states initiatives in the
areas of welfare, secularism & development.
Democracies in the postcolonial societies have been distinct from their western
counterparts due to their historical specificities. The postcolonial societies are
multicultural & are rives by racial & ethnic conflicts, serious apprehension has
been expressed towards the need to recognize the diversity & the inequality arising
out of the embedded discriminatory practices that undermine the post-colonial
democracies.
The anti-colonial struggle was based more on the demand for an autonomous
space for the nation than about individual freedom. Gandhian notion of a just state
was premised on the idea that the collective interest must take precedence over
individual interest. The nationalist leadership visualized a democratic republic with
pledges to secure justice, liberty, equality & fraternity for all its citizens. The state
had an important role to play that was of a mediator between political democracy
& economic democracy. Thus if the logic of the market meant exclusion of a
significant proportion of people, particularly the poor, it was necessary for the state
to ensure the inclusion of such people in the economic sphere.
The social transformation arose out of deliberative legislation rather than the
participative democratic process. However they were products of a consensus
negotiated & evolved in the course of the anti-colonial movement. They were to be
realized within the framework of a democratic polity.
The post 1991 India has been witness to an absence of consensus regarding its
strategy of economic development as well as the evolving nature of its democracy.
The long-term vision of political leadership of Nehru has been replaced by short-
term strategies, as the adoption of the new economic policies of liberalization &
the emergent politics of empowerment seem to be moving the economy & polity in
the opposite directions. The economics of liberalization & the politics of
empowerment are going in opposite directions in the contemporary India. In such a
situation there is a critical need to emphasize the role of the civil society & its
citizens. For the politics of common goods & rights, it is imperative that the Indian
State should adopt a strategy of selective globalization that can enrich the pluralist
character of the Indian democracy.

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The social agenda of Indian democracy weakens due to the policies of

economic liberalization the challenge to the pluralist character of the Indian
democracy from the ultra-rightist communal forces is coming up in the form of the
demand to redefine democracy in emphatically majoritarian terms.
The nature of democracy & development was broken as qualitative change

took place in the interaction between the politics of democracy & economics of
welfarism. The social groups who were on the margin of the society & were lying
dormant became empowered with political voice. The now started making
economic claims on a state that has successfully mediated between the politics &
economics of Indian democracy. The interface between the ideas of democracy &
development is concerned; the challenge to create a more equal society remains
formidable as the economic disparities continue to mount in the era of
globalization.
QNO4. How does social-in equality affect our political system &
developmental policies? OR How do you differentiate rank societies
& class societies? OR Explain whether caste was an invention of
colonial modernity or legacy of the Indian Past.
Ans:- Social Inequality refers to a lack of Social equality, where individuals in a
society do not have equal social status. Inequality is socially created by matching
two different kinds of processes. “the social roles in society are first matched to '
reward packages' of unequal value & individual members of society are they
allocated to the positions so defined & rewarded".
Social inequality is different from economic inequality. Social inequality is

also linked directly to racial inequality & wealth inequality. " social inequality is
the expression of lack of access to housing, healthcare, education, employment
opportunities, politics, & status, it is the exclusion of people from full & equal
participation in what we, the members of society, perceive as being valuable,
important, personally worthwhile & socially desirable".
Hierarchy, stratification, class-divisions are notions used by anthropologists,

sociologists & political scientists to describe & denote social inequality. According

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to Anthropologists there are three types of societies in terms of social inequality.

These are egalitarian, rank & class societies.
 1. Egalitarian societies contain fair amount of equality & no social group

enjoys greater access to economic resources, power or prestige.
 2. Rank societies do not have unequal access to wealth or power, but they do
contain social groups that enjoy greater honour & status.
 3. A pre-literate tribal society in which social ranking is based on rules of
descent & alliances belong to this category. The complex class societies
have unequal access & entitlement to economic resources, power & status.
According to the sociologists, hierarchy prevailed in societies based on castes

or estates & social inequalities were legitimated as naturally given. Stratification is
a feature of modern industrial societies in which inequalities do exist but are not
considered as a part of nature or divine order. In this process of social change,
inequality did not vanish or reduce, but changed its nature. Now class boundaries
became more porous and permeable, individual mobility is possible and society’s
normative order is based on formal equality.
The terms caste and class are associated with an interpretation of American
race relations that came to prominence in the late 1930's & was widely influential
in bath social scientific & applied social inequality. The caste & class concept
afford a powerful, if flawed, analysis of the depths & the consequences of racism
in the United States.
The caste & class concept was first laid out in a brief 1936 essay by social
anthropologist W. Lloyed Warner, & it was more fully developed in a series of
community studies conducted in the depression-era south. Although may other
nations are characterized by social inequality, perhaps nowhere else in the world as
inequality been so elaborately constructed as in the Indian institution of caste.
Caste had grown into a powerful social institution, with the dominance of
Brahmins at the top of its hierarchy. The Hindu kings also upheld this institution
with the help of their civil power. With the advent of the British as the political
head of the society, the traditional form of the caste started taking a different
shape. Brahmanism represents a core civilization value & caste is the central

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symbol of this value. It is the basic expression of the pre-colonial traditions of

India.
The British reduced everything to a single explanatory category of caste. It was

the colonial state & its administrators who made caste into a uniform, all-
encompassing & ideologically consistent organism. British colonialism played a
critical role in both the identification & production of Indian 'tradition'. The
colonial modernity devalued the so called Indian traditions. Caste was recast as the
spiritual essence of India that regulated & mediated the private domain. In the
words of Dirks, it was the colonial rule of India that organized the ' social
difference & deference' solely in terms of caste.
According to Karl Marx, classes are defined by their differential access to the
means of production. The dominant classes appropriate the ' surplus' produced by
other classes through their control of means of production, & thus exploit their
labour. The actual configuration of social classes varies from one society to
another. The rise & growth of Indian social classes was organically linked to the
basic structure of colonialism & bore the imprint of the association.
The core features of caste are: endogamy or marriage within caste,

occupational differentiation & hereditary specialization of occupations, notion of
pollution & a ritual hierarchy in which Brahmins are generally at the top. Classes
refer to economic basis of ownership or non-ownership relation to the means of
production. Classes are sub-divided in terms of types of ownership & control of
economic resources & the type of services contributed to the process of production.
In the words of Kothari, the intrusions’ of caste into politics & politics into
caste are the three stages:-
 1. In the first stage, he says the struggle for political power was limited to
the entrenched & the ascendant castes.
 2. In the second phase, competitions within these castes for power led to
factionalism.
 3. In the third stage, lower castes have been mobilized & are asserting
themselves in the political domain. Kothari states, “It is not-politics that gets
caste-ridden; it is the caste that gets politicized".

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The political & public spaces offer little scope for the empowerment of the
poor & the lower caste. The violence against the rural poor, especially the women
of lower castes & the sufferings of the people living in unhygienic conditions in
sprawling slums cannot be captured by the statistical indices. While the rich &
powerful garner the legal & illegal fruits of developmental process & distribution
of resources by the state, the disadvantaged are victims of both the naked & subtle
forms of deprivation & discrimination.
QNO5. Has acceleration in GDP of India resulted in a uniform increase

in the growth rate of SDP? OR What is meant by poverty line? Explain
with reference to India. OR How has India fared in Poverty alleviation?
What steps do you think India should take to improve the quality of its
peoples, lives?
Ans:- Poverty is the condition of lacking basic human needs such as nutrition,
clean water, healthcare, clothing, & shelter, because of the inability to afford them.
This is also referred to as absolute poverty or destitution. Relative poverty is the
condition of having fewer resources or less income than others within a society or
country, or compared to worldwide averages.
The main causes of poverty are illiteracy, a population growth rate by far
exceeding the economic growth rate for the better part of the past 50 Years,
protectionist policies pursued since 1947 to 1991 which prevented large amounts
of foreign investment in the country.
The Indian economy has seen marked structural transformation in the 1990's
with the services sector occupying a place of prominence & agriculture seeing a
decline. The economy maintained a high GDP growth, the major impetus coming
from the manufacturing & services sector. The states in India show increased
variation in growth performance. Whereas it accelerated for the economy
particularly for Maharashtra & Gujarat, both of which were among the richer
states. It decelerated sharply in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh & Orissa. The was also a
deceleration in Haryana & Punjab, but the deceleration was form relatively higher
levels of growth in the 1980's & these states were also the richest.
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It is important to note that the high growth performance in the 1990’s were not
concentrated in one part of the country. The six states with growth rates of SDP in
the 1990’s are as follows:
 1. Gujarat (9.6 per cent).

 2. Maharashtra (8.0 per cent) in the west.
 3. West Bengal (6.9 per cent) in the east.
 4. Tamil Nadu (6.2 per cent) in the South.
 5. Madhya Pradesh (6.2 per cent).
 6. Rajasthan (6.5 per cent) in the North.
According to Dandekar, poverty who defined it as an expenditure of Rs. 15 per

capita per month for the Indian rural population at 1960-61 prices & Rs. 18 per
capita per month for the urban population. The most used measure of poverty in
India is the ' Head Count Ratio' this is a measure of income poverty.
A poverty line thus defined is something of a destitution line since it takes into
account only the expenditure required for subsistence food, leaving out everything
else needed for a minimally decent living such as basic housing, clothing,
education & health services. In 1993-94, according to Planning Commission, only
19 per cent of India's population was below the poverty line. This was the official
estimate. The official estimate of India's population below the poverty line was 35
per cent in 1993-94.
In India, 39.9%, of the rural population & 27.7% of the urban population was
estimated to be living below the poverty line. According to some economists &
World Bank Report, the number of people living below the poverty line in India
was about 400 million in 1990-91. The equals the size of the combined population
of Bangla Desh & Pakistan.
Poverty alleviation is expected to make better progress in the next 50 years

than in the past, as a trickledown effect of the growing middle class. Increasing
stress on education, reservation of seats in Govt. jobs & the increasing
empowerment of women & the economically weaker sections of society, are also
expected to contribute to the alleviation poverty.
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The objective of India's development strategy is the eradication of mass

poverty. But while the percentages show a decline in poverty, absolute numbers of
poor has increased because of the alarming population rise. There is a clear
association between rapid growth & poverty alleviation. Poverty in India is largely
a rural phenomenon as more than 80 per cent of India's poor live in rural areas.
Thus for reform to have a substantial impact it has to extend to rural areas. Income
levels alone should not be a measure of poverty as they often fail to capture other
dimensions of human life.
Other deprivations like child labour, malnutrition, illiteracy, prostitution, caste

discrimination are not related to income poverty levels in any predictable manner.
Levels of affluence are not a measure of the poverty of human lives. Thus India
needs to strike a balance in its development-in its economic & social front, with the
state playing a more proactive role.
QNO6. Write a brief note on the sources of the legislature functioning in

India-1952. OR
Analyse the role of Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha as the custodians of the
Parliamentary functions. OR What is Parliamentary Sovereignty? Is it
immune to judicial review? OR Write short note on State legislature.
Ans:- A legislature is a type of deliberative assembly with the power to pass,
amend & repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or
statutory law. Legislatures are known by many names, the most common being
parliament & congress, although these terms also have more specific meanings.
The Govt. comprises three interdependent branches: the executive, the

legislative & the judiciary. The executive branch headed by the president, who is
the Head of State & exercise his or her power through a Council of Ministers led
by the prime minister. The legislative branch or the parliament consists of lower
house, the Lok. Sabha, & the upper house, the Raj Sabha, as well as the president.
The judicial branch has the Supreme Court at its apex, 21 High Courts & numerous
civil, criminal family courts at the district level.
The post-colonial Indian legislature began its journey of democracy & political
development since 1952, but the Indians were introduced to this novel institution
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of the legislature by the British. The British parliament usurped the monarch’s
power of rule over subjects was “responsible government”. In 1833 the colonial
government, a conceptual distinction was made between the executive &
legislative functions of the Governor-General Council. The British opinion had
begun to change by the end of the First World War. The Montague-Chelmsford
Reforms of 1919 introduced substantive changes into the existing system. It
brought further legislative reforms in the form of responsible government in the
provinces through Devolution Rules & diarchy.
The main functions of the legislature are:
 1. To pass laws.
 2. To provide, by taxation, the means of carrying on the work of Govt.
 3. To scrutinize Govt. Policy & administration, particularly proposals for
expenditure.
In discharging these functions, the legislature helps to bring the relevant facts &
issues before the electorate.
The President of India is the head of state & first citizen of India as well as the
supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The president possesses
considerable power. With few exceptions, most of the authority vested in the
president is in practice exercised by the Council of Minister, headed by the prime
Minister. President is a title held by many leaders of organizations, companies,
trade unions, universities, & countries.
The president is elected by the elected members of the Parliament of India (

Lok Sabha & Raj Sabha) as well as of the state legislatures ( Vidhan Sabhas) &
serves for a term of five years.
The Lok Sabha House of the People, by the constitution is the directly elected
lower house of the Parliament of India. There have been 15 Lok Sabhas elected by
the people of India. The Constitution limits the Lok Sabha to a maximum of 552
members, including no more than 20 members representing people from the Union
Territories, & two members to represent the Anglo Indian community. The current
strength of the Lok Sabha has 545 members including the Speaker & two
appointed members, if any.
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Each Lok Sabha is formed for a five year term, after which it is automatically
dissolved, unless extended by a proclamation of Emergency which many extend
the term in one-year increments. Three sessions of Lok Sabha take place in a year:
 1.Budget session: February to May.

 2. Monsoon session: July to September.
 3. Winter session: November to December.
The Raj Sabha (meaning the “Council of States") is the upper house of the
parliament of India. Membership is limited to 250 members, 12 of whom are
chosen by the president of India for their expertise in specific fields of art,
literature, science, & social services. These members are known as nominated
members. The remainder of the body is elected by the state & territorial
legislatures. Terms of office are for six years, with one third of the members,
facing re-election every two years.
The Raj Sabha shares legislative powers with the Lok Sabha, except in the area
of supply, where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting
legislation, a joint sitting of the two houses is held. The Lok Sabha has more than
twice as many members than the Raj Sabha; it holds de-facto Veto power in such
joint sessions. The president, Lok Sabha & Raj Sabha, various Committees &
opposition are an integral part of the legislature.
A state legislature may refer to a legislative branch or body of a political

subdivision in a federal system.
The following legislatures exist in the following political subdivision:-
 1.The legislative branches of each of the fifty state governments of the

United States are known as state legislatures.
 2. The legislative branches of the six states of Australia are known as state
parliaments.
 3. The legislative branches of the states of Brazil.
 4. The legislative branches of the ten provinces of Canada are known as
provincil legislative assemblies.
 5. The legislative branches of the thirteen states of Malaysia are known as
the state assemblies.
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 6. The legislative branches of the sixteen states of Germany & the nine
States of Austria are known as the land tag.
 7. The Central legislative body of any country that refers to itself by the term
' State'.
Parliamentary Sovereignty is a concept in Constitutional law that applies to

some parliamentary democracies. Under Parliamentary Sovereignty, a legislative
body has absolute Sovereignty, meaning it is supreme to all other government
institutions (including any executive or judicial bodies as they may exist).
Furthermore, it implies that the legislative body may change or repeal any prior
legislative acts. Parliamentary Sovereignty contrasts with notions of judicial
review, where a court may overturn legislation deemed unconstitutional. Specific
instances of Parliamentary Sovereignty exist in the United Kingdom, Finland &
New Zealand.
The concept of Sovereignty, which contains both the descriptive as well as

prescriptive element, is essential to enforce the decisions of the legislature. An
overall analysis of the functioning of the parliament in its sequence is necessary to
understand the institutions & procedures. Thus, legislature contributes to achieving
the goals embedded in the Preamble of the Constitution.
QNO7. Briefly explain the origin & evolution of judiciary in India. OR

Why is the Supreme Court considered as the highest court of law in
India? Explain its purview of jurisdiction. OR" Judiciary is the most
effective organ for safeguarding the rights & interests of the citizens".
Do you agree? ORWrite short notes on: Jurisdiction of High Courts,
Subordinate Courts, and Judicial Review.
Ans:- The Judiciary ( also known as the Judicial system or Judicature) is the
system of Courts which interprets & applies the law in the name of the Sovereign
or state. The Judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes.
Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the Judiciary generally does not
make law (that is, in a plenary fashion, which is the responsibility of the
legislature) or enforce law (which is the responsibility of the executive), but rather
interprets law & applies it to the facts of each case. This branch of government is
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often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. It usually consists of a court of
final appeal (called the “Supreme Court" or “Constitutional Court") together with
lower courts. The Judicial branch has the power to change laws.
The term “Judiciary" is also used to refer collectively to the personnel, such as
judges, magistrates & other adjudicators, who form the core of a Judiciary
(sometimes referred to as a branch) as well as the staffs who keep the system
running smoothly. The modern Judiciary in India derives its sources from the
Constitution, & acts as a check on the arbitrary decisions of the legislature & the
executive.
The Supreme Court is the highest court of law in India, whose decisions are
equally binding on all small courts within the territory of India. It has the final
authority to interpret the Constitution. Thus, independence & integrity, the powers
& functions & judicial review are the issues of utmost importance concerned with
the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court consists of the Chief justice of India & not more than
twenty-five other judges. Parliament has the power to make laws regulating the
constitution, organization, jurisdiction & powers of the Supreme Court. The
Constitution makes it clear that the President shall appoint the Chief Justice of
India after consultation with such judges of the Supreme Court & of High Courts
as he may deem necessary.
The Supreme Court has vast jurisdiction & its position is strengthened by the
fact that it acts as a court of appeal, as a guardian of the Constitution & as a
reviewer of its own judgments. Its jurisdiction is divided into four categories:
 1.Original Jurisdiction & Writ Jurisdiction.

 2. Advisory Jurisdiction.
 3. Appellate Jurisdiction.
 4. Review Jurisdiction.
The High Court’s & the Subordinate Courts ensure justice at the state & district
levels respectively. The jurisdiction of the High Court of a state is co-terminus
with the territorial limits of the state. The original jurisdiction of High court
includes the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights, settlement of disputes
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relating to the election to the Union & State legislatures & jurisdiction over
revenue matters. Its appellate jurisdiction extends to both civil & criminal matters.
The Writ jurisdiction of High Court means issuance of writs/orders for the
enforcement of Fundamental Rights & also in cases of ordinary legal rights.
The hierarchies of courts that lie subordinate to High Courts are referred to as
subordinate courts. It is for the state governments to enact for the creation of
subordinate courts. The nomenclature of these subordinate courts differs from state
to state but broadly there is uniformity in terms of the organizational structure. The
High Court exercises administrative control over the district courts & the courts
subordinate to them, in matters as posting, promotions & granting of leave to all
persons belonging to the state judicial service.
The provision for judicial review & public interest litigation ensure that the
rule of law is maintained, thereby providing for a dignified living and rightful
concern for all. Judicial Review weans the power of public authorities, both
executive and legislature. Judicial review in India is an integral part of the
Constitution and constitutes the 'basic structure' of the Constitution. The whole law
of judicial review has been developed by judges on a case basis. Through 'judicial
review' does not find mention in our constitution, this power has been derived by
the judiciary from various provisions.
QNO8. Discuss the working of the federal system in India. OR

Do you agree with the view that India is "a unitary state with subsidiary
federal principles rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary
principles"?
Ans:- Federalism is a political concept in which a group of members are bound
together ( latin:foedus, covenant) with a governing representative head. The term
Federalism is also used to describe a system of the government in which
sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority &
constituent political units (like states or provinces). Federalism is a system in
which the power to govern is shared between national & central (state)
governments, creating what is often called a federation. Proponents are often called
federalists. Federalism & federal system may follow either one or combination of
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the following arrangements like non-centralization, decentralization &

deconcentration.
Features of Federalism in India.
 1.In India there are two or more levels of government.

 2. Different levels of government govern the same citizen, but each level has
its own jurisdiction in specific matters as legislation taxation &
administration.
 3. The fundamental provision of India cannot be unilaterally changed by
only one level of government.
Federalism implies collective governance through:
 1.Formation of states & territorialisation of federal-local administration in

such a manner as to promote closer contact between people & government.
 2. Distribution of federal powers on a non-centralised basis; &.
 3. Creation of the institutions of shared rule.
Indian federalism is characterized as 'quasi-federal'-" a unitary state with

subsidiary federal principles rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary
principles". Indian federalism has an in-built tendency to centralize under certain
circumstances, this nonetheless makes it quasi-federal. The legislative & executive
authority is partitioned between the states & the centre by the Indian Constitution.
Through India is a union of states, no unit possesses the right to secede & are
governed by a single constitution. It is only under unusual circumstances (like an
emergency) that Indian federalism assumes the characteristics of a Unitarian polity.
In Indian federalism, there are two broad types of centralization of federal

powers-circumstantial & consensual in order to protect the units of the federation
from external aggression, maintain the Constitution, protect the integrity of the
nation & take the union out of financial crises. Federal powers are distributed
between the states & the union on the basis of territoriality & specification of
subjects with matters of local interest like public disorder, police, agriculture,
sanitation, fisheries, and sales tax being put under the state list. Subjects like
foreign affairs, defense, currency etc are put in the union list.
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In federalism in India did exhibit a strong centralizing tendency, encroaching

upon the subjects originally assigned to the states enhancing its domain through
various means. The Report of the Sarkaria Commission is considered an effort to
provide resilience to the successful working of the federal system. The union type
federal polity is considered essential for India but the Commission recommended
transferring some of the union's functions to the state & evolving transparent
norms to implement some of the controversial federal provisions. Federalism in
India is perceived as an instrument of people’s empowerment & to that extent & as
a means of nation building it has been functioning successfully in building a
federal union.
QNO9. What were the proposed reforms as enunciated by the Ashok

Mehta Committee? OR Trace the origin of the idea of decentralization in
India. OR Write an analytical note on decentralization & local self-
government in India. OR What are the main provisions of the 73rd &
74th Constitutional Amendments on Panchayati Raj System?
Ans:- The idea of decentralization in India as an organizational concept can be
traced to Ripon's Resolution in 1882 which aimed at involving the 'intelligent class
of public spirited men in the management of rural areas under the British rule.
Decentralization means sharing of decision making authority with the lower levels
in institutions & organizations. It is called democratic as this sharing is based on
the basic principle of democracy & democratization. There are different forms of
decentralization-political, administrative & financial.
It is argued that decentralization is essential for the functioning of a democratic

system at different levels. Decentralization is particularly necessary for a country
like ours which is large in size & complex in socio-cultural settings. Diversity
exists in India terms of religion, language, culture & economy. Thus, the
geographical & social complexities require decentralization for the purposes of
planning & administration.
The term Panchayat Raj in India signifies the system of rural local self-
government. It is created in all the states in India by the Acts of concerned Sta te
Legislature to establish democracy at the gross root level. It is entrusted with the
duties & the responsibilities in the field of rural development. It was
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constitutionalzed through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992. At the

Central level, the Ministry of Rural Development looks after the matters relating to
the panchayat Raj bodies.
 1. Local Government is a subject of the State list.

 2. The fifth entry of the State list in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution
of India deals with the Local Govt. B.R Mehta Committee.
 3. In Jan 1957, the Govt. of India appointed a Committee to examine the
functioning of the community Development Program (1952) & the National
Extension Service (1953) & to suggest measures for their better
performance.
 4. The Committee submitted its report in Nov 1957 & recommended the
establishment of the scheme for democratic decentralization which
ultimately came to be known as the panchayat Raj.
In Dec 1977, the Janta Govt. appointed a Committee on Panchayat Raj

institutions under the chairmanship of Ashok Mehta. The Committee submitted its
report in August 1978 & made 132 recommendations to revive & strengthen the
declining Panchayat Raj system in the country. As a result of this report, the Indian
States of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, & west Bengal passed new legislation.
However, the flow of politics at the state level did not allow the institutions to
develop their own political dynamics.
The Ashok Mehta Committee Report mentioned rooting of development

programme through official bureaucracy, inelastic finance, dominance of local
institutions by economically & socially privileged sections of society as reasons for
the failure of the Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Ashok Mehta Committee report refused to accept the view that Panchayati Raj
was a failed God. The participation of political parties in Panchayti Raj election
was pleaded to make them more accountable and link them with the political
process at the higher level. Till 1957,in almost all the states, P Acts were made. On
the recommendations of Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Panchayati Raj was re-
organized in almost all the states of India.
The 73rd and 74th Amendments have not only revived but also rejuvenated the
landmark development in the evolution of democratic decentralization & local self-
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government in the country. They have played an important role in the

empowerment of the weaker sections of seats for them. Inspite of the salutary
changes made by these amendments as the experience shows, the institutions are
still faced with many problems. Their performance all over the country is not the
same. For vibrant local self-government institutions what is needed is strong
political will of the state government & cooperation from the bureaucracy. It also
needs a determination on the part of the people to make them a success.
LIMITIONS OF THE AMENDMENTS
 1. It recognizes Panchayats as institutions of self Govt.

 2. It entrusts Panchayats the power & responsibilities to prepare plans for
economic development & social justices.
 3. It provides establishment of uniform three-tier system of strong
Panchayats at village, intermediate block & district levels for all states
having a population of over 20 lakhs.
 4. It gives guidelines for the structure, powers & functions, finance &
elections, & reservation of seats for the weaker sections at various levels of
Panchayats.
QNO10.What is public policies, & what role do they play in the

Development. OR what is the impact of new media technologies on
democracy & governance? OR How do media help in framing public
policies?
Ans:- Public Policy can be generally defines as the course of action or inaction
taken by governmental entities ( the decisions of government) with regard to a
particular issue or set of issues. Public policy is commonly embodied in
constitutions, legislative, acts, & judicial decisions.
 1. Public policy is where the “communities trying to decide something as a

community."
 2. Public policy is the result of the struggle over the definition of the good
society & the best ways to make it happen".
 3. Public policy is an action which employs governmental authority to
commit resources in support of a preferred value".
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In democratic forms of government; the major part of public policies are made
in the parliament through legislative processes. Democracies have many layers of
policy making institutions like state level & local governing bodies. There is no
absolute power in the democratic systems, & what is already a law could be
reconsidered by parliament if there are pressures. The legislative, executive &
judiciary are three major components of the democratic system.
The press in the beginning days of capitalism was to consolidate the

achievements of the emerging democracy. It was at this juncture where the role of
press in the political development was defined. Those who came to enjoy power
have always claimed that they are forming a government of the people, for the
people & by the people.
The modern democratic states with their lofty ideals of liberty, equality, &
fraternity regulated the political process of the nations with the help of parliament
(Legislature), Government (Executive) & the Court (Judiciary). The Press or the
media has emerged as the fourth most powerful institution of democracy as it has
the potential to mould the public opinion & influence the public policy. Political
parties & civil society also plays significant role in making & reforming the public
policies. The modern democracies have witnessed the complex & increasing
critical relationship between media & public policy.
The Information Technologies & the convergence of various communication

technologies have changed the nature of media. The media included radio,
television & computers to make it much wider than before. However, the growing
use of Information Technology has brought many new changes in the nature of
press.
The information is readily available on the net, which has reduced the
dependence of the readers or citizens on Newspapers. The Governments world
over are now not only using internet for providing information to its citizens, but
are promoting the use of the internet & other digital technologies to transact day to
day business like submitting applications, filling the forms, issuing orders &
notices, etc. It is this use of digital technology that is known as e-governance.
The role of mass media in shaping the public opinion is well known. However,
some communication experts & social scientists think that opinion leaders have
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more significant role in shaping the public opinion. The role of media in the policy
making in general & public policy in particular. The media influences the policy
makers by putting forth the opinions expressed by various groups including
educationists, journalists & experts, leaders of different political parties, religious
leaders, workers & peasants Unions, etc.
 1. According to Paul E.L., that Mass media had no direct influence in the
decision making of the people. In their book, “The People's Choice", as they
states the interpersonal relationships, peer group pressures & the opinion
leaders as some of the major factors for shaping the public opinion.
 2. In the words of G.Garbner, Mass media has subtle effect on people’s
perception as he described the media as cultivators of dominant image
patterns due to long & persistent exposure. His researches were in tune with
the time as, during that period, advertising had made enough impact on the
society.
 3. Melvin de Fleur & Sandra Ball-Rokeach states, that Mass media is not
only lack arbitrary influence powers, but also their personal lack of freedom
to engage in arbitrary communication behaviour. Both media & their
audiences are integral part of their society.
QNO11. Define an interest group. How & why are they formed? OR
Explain the Interest Group Theory of Government. OR How are political
parties different from interest groups?
Ans:- An interest group (also advocacy group, lobby group, pressure group or
special interest group) is an organization that seeks to influence political decisions.
This can be done by explaining the benefits of a policy to the relevant politicians,
by making financial contributions or incentives, or a combination of the two.
Public & Private corporations work with lobbyists to persuade public officials to
act or vote according to group member’s interests.
The role of interest groups in the functioning of democracy & the Interest
Group theory of Government. The theory suggests that policies are made on the
basis of the politicians own selfish interest gain. It propounds the idea that the
causes for the failure of policies should be sought in its outcomes-as to who gains
& who bears the losses for the failed policies. The calculation would be the cost of
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collective action in organizing & lobbying for a piece of regulation ay interest

groups & the ones with a high organization cost would lose. The ones who win are
dominant groups who are smaller & better organized in their demands & also pay a
fee for the gains of their group. This is a social waste & results in policy failure.
Interest groups have been classified variously as privileged, intermediate & latent
or as producer groups, consumer groups & altruistic groups. The interest group
theory suggests that the policy makers have behavioural pattern of decision making
which resembles the market 24ehavior of consumers & producers.
Interest group theory can be understood in three steps;
 1. The distinctions prevailing between public & private interests models of

public policy process.
 2. The process of redistribution of resources form the market of policies in
favour of the well organized & consolidated special interest groups.
 3. The impact of this model on economic regulations & economic
development of a nation.
CHARACTERISTICS AND FEATURES OF INTEREST GROUPS.
The characteristics & features of interest groups are as follows:
 1. Formal Organization.
 2. Universality.
 3. Play the Role of ' Hide & Seek' in Politics.
 4. Self-interest.
 5. Differ from Political Parties.
 6. Voluntary Membership.
 7. Lack of Responsibility.
 8. Extra- Constitutional.
At present in India following are the important interest groups:
 1. Trade Union.
 2. Farmers Associations.
 3. Students Union.
 4. Women Association.
 5. Professional Interest Groups.
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 6. Industrial & Traders Associations.
Following are the important functions of interest groups:-
 1. Participation in Election.
 2. Lobbying.
 3. To influence the Public Opinion.
There has been an increase in the insignificance of the role political parties are
playing in mobilization and interest articulation. Interest articulation has become
associated more with professional groups. The inability of political parties to divert
attention from their petty regional and personal politics to issues of development
and poverty eradication, rise of neo-corporatism and 'case' groups with single
issues in Western Europe are all partly responsible for this. Parties utilize the
consolidated unity of the cause groups for its own benefit seeking their electoral
support and representing their agenda in return and the number of members in a
group is not related to the pressure which the groups can bring on the party. The
demerging fear is that political parties are getting distanced from people and
occupied with gains from the interest groups. This is the greatest fear for
democracy as parties are central to development and democratic consolidation and
do not represent aspirations of the people. However, parties have not lost their
representative character and are still the most accepted structures of democracy.
Interest groups cannot aggregate interests as broadly across social groups and
political issues as political parties can.
QNO12. What is identity politics? Explain. OR Discuss the role

language in Indian Politics. OR How does the ethnicity affect politics?
Ans:- Identity Politics refers to political arguments that focus upon the self-interest
& perspectives of social minorities, or self-identified social interest groups. Not all
members of any given group are necessarily involved in identity politics.
To participate in identity politics, a group may, or may not be marginalized

class of people. However, group advocates will often have a self-belief, a self
scheme or explanatory narrative that they are infact a marginalized group.
Typically, these group identities are defined in terms of race, ethnicity, religion,
gender, or sexual orientation.
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Identity politics is separate from the concept of nationalism within a nation; the
presence of identity politics creates reductionist pressures that can potentially
weaken individual’s identification as members of a nation state. Taken to an
extreme, individuals may instead view themselves as members of their interest
group first, with the concerns of their nation & the wider community coming
second Minority influence is a central component of identity politics.
The term identity politics has been used in political & academic discourse in
the United States since the 1970s. Identity Politics as a field of study can be said to
have gained intellectual legitimacy since the second half of the twentieth century,
i.e., between 1950s & 1960s in the United States when large scale political
movements of the second wave-feminists, Black Civil Rights, Gay & Lesbian
Liberation movements & movements of various Indigenous groups in the U.S &
other parts of the world were being justified & legitimated on the basis of claims
about injustices done to their respective social groups. According to Heyes, "
Identity Politics" can draw on intellectual precursors from Mary Wollstonecraft to
Frantz Fanon, writing that actually uses this special phrase- Identity Politics is
limited almost exclusively to the last 15 years.
In India, the identity politics has become an important aspect of politics. Caste
has become an important determinant in Indian society & politics, the new lesson
of organized politics & consciousness of caste affiliations learnt by the hitherto
despised caste groups have transformed the contours of Indian politics where
shifting caste-class alliances are being encountered. The net effects of these
mobilizations along caste-identities have resulted not only in the empowerment of
newly emerging groups but have increased the intensity of confrontational politics.
Identity politics is that affected through the construction of a community on the

shared bond of religion. Identity schemes based on religion have become a major
source of conflict not only in the international context but since the early 1990s it
has also become a challenge for Indian democracy & secularism. The raise of the
dalit politics, especially the BSP & backward class politics following the
implementation of the Mandal Commission Report.
Identity claims based on the perception of a collectivity bound together by

language may be said to have its origin in the pre-independence politics of the
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Congress that had promised reorganization of states in the post-independent period

on linguistic basis. Identity claims in a country that has 1,652 ‘mother tongues’ &
only fourteen recognized languages around which states have been reorganized.
Linguistic organization of Indian states from the 1950s & raise of the BJP & the
active role of the organizations like the RSS; & the ethnic conflict, insurgency &
autonomy movements in several parts of the country are examples of the identity
politics in India.
The concept of ethnic identity is used in two ways:
 1. The first is the formation of identity on the basis of single attribute-

language, religion, caste, region, etc. It considers the formation of identity
on the basis of multiple attributes cumulatively.
 2. The second is the formation of identity on the basis of more than one
characteristics-culture, customs, region, religion or caste, which is
considered as the most common way of formation of the ethnic identity.
QNO13. Discuss the changing notions of civil society & critically

evaluate the contemporary importance attached to in this era of
globalization. OR Critically analyze the role of new social movements in
promoting the values of sustainable development & empowerment of
marginalized communities. OR Discuss the role of NGOs in
supplementing the developmental task of the governmental agencies &
the promise held out by the voluntary sector in the present global era.
Ans:- The civil society is the centre stage of political discourse on political
processes is like a double-edged sword. While it holds the promise of
democratizing the development phenomena by increasing popular participation it
also possesses the danger of underling the legitimacy of the state.
The concept of civil society has an interesting history. It has always been a part
of liberal democratic theories. The liberal notion conceives of civil society as a
sphere independent of but to be protected by the state wherein the rights bearing
individuals are free to pursue their private interests in free association with others.
According to J.S.Mill & Alexis De, civil society as a domain of social associations,
this would check the excesses of the state. They were concerned about the growing
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power of the state & held the view that without active social associations, even
democracies could become despotic regimes.
In the words of Hegal, civil society is the mediating domain where the
particular interests of the individual and the universal interests of the state could be
reconciled in producing an ethical basis for the modern society. In modern society
due to the non-availability of traditional community relations to the modern
humans. Hegels view, though civil society embodies the unique achievement of
modernity that of the individual, it has to be organized and institutionalized
through the state.
According to Gramsci, hegemony is a strategy which could very well become a

property of the proletariat & the subaltern masses. In his revolutionary strategy
Gramsci demands an alliance of all the opponents of the bourgeoisie to be led by
the proletariat. This alliance, Gramsci argues, should hegemonies the civil society
in order to challenge & reorder the political society.
The earliest of social movements in India could be traced to the Gandhian efforts
of Sarvodaya. Since 1970s a number of social movements emphasising on a range
of basic issues have come to animate the sphere of civil society. Chipko being a
non-violent resistance movement embodies the Gandhian spirit of struggle. The
slogan of Chipko movement is 'ecology is economy.
Social movement has been that of Anna Hazare who has been fighting since
more than two decades for bringing about transparency in bureaucratic apparatus
of the state. His movement has changed his village Ralegon Siddhi in Maharashtra
into a model village. Social movement of the present times is Narmada Bachao
Andolan Samiti. This movement, led by Medha Patkar, has sensationalized the
issue of building huge dams as a solution for growing stress on water resources.
The new social movements are indicators of the pulse of the people that they
are no longer ready to accept the developmental paradigms that keep them out &
preclude their participation. People’s movements are emerging out of peculiar
contradictions within societies & cultures in transition.
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Through many NGOs are doing commendable service in the promotion of the
values of freedom, democracy, social justice & sustainable development, it has to
be kept in mind that they can never have the reach of the governmental apparatus.
As one author notes,’ even thousands of NGOs cannot replace the role of the
government'. The accountability of the NGOs is also another issue of concern. As
already noted, a majority of them are not registered under the Foreign Currency
Regulation Act. But their importance lies in demonstrating to the public the
possible democratic ways of development with their participation & thereby make
the people to pressurize the government to bring constructive changes in the modes
of development.
One also has to share the optimism of Rajni Kothari towards voluntary action.
He claims that through the contemporary interest in voluntary action is seen ar a
reaction to the failure of the state, we are very soon likely to discover a more
positive & liberated sense of what voluntarism involves. Only the unfolding
political events of the future can either vindicate or refute such claims.
QNO14. What do you understand by human development? What are the

various approaches to the study of human development? OR What is the
Basic Minimum Needs approach towards human development? Identify
the indicators of human development. OR Write a short note on human
development in India.
Ans:- The concept of human development, UNDP Human Development Report
(1997) describes it as " the process of widening people's choices & the level of
well-being they achieve are at the core of the notion of human development. Such
theories are neither finite nor static. But regardless of the level of development, the
three essential choices; for people are to lead a long & healthy life, to acquire
knowledge & to have access to the resources needed for a decent standard of
living. Human development does not end there, however. Other choices highly
valued by many people, range from political, economic & social freedom to
opportunities for being creative & productive & enjoying self-respect &
guaranteed human rights".
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HDR (1997) states: “Income clearly is only one option that people would like
to have, though an important one. But it is not the sum total of their lives. Income
is also a means, with human development the end".
The Human Development index (HDI) is an index used to rank countries by

level of "human development", which usually also implies whether a country is
developed, developing, or undeveloped. Founded by Pakistani economist
Mahbubul-ul-Haq, the HDI has been used since 1990 by the United Nations
Development Programme for its annual Human Development Reports. The HDI
combines three dimensions: life expectancy at birth, as an index of population
health & longevity knowledge & education, as measured by the adult literacy rate (
with two-thirds eighting) & the combined primary, secondary, & tertiary gross
enrollment ratio ( with one-third weighting). Standard of living, as measured by the
natural logarithm of gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity.
Human development is one of the indicators of the overall development of

countries. It can be measured in terms of the wealth of a country, the human
resource a country possesses, the health facilities & welfare measures that a
country offers to its people or fulfillment of the six basic needs internationally
identified as health, education, food, water supply, sanitation & housing. It
basically concentrates on the bundle of goods, commodities & services that the
deprived population groups needs rather than the issue of human choices.
Human development should be the ultimate aim of each & every of the state,
the objective of all scientific investigations & above all interaction between two
individuals & trading partners. But, unfortunately this particular aspect remained
most neglected so far. There has been resurgence in the interest on human
development in recent years. There has been resurgence in the interest on human
development in recent years. Many scholars & leaders at the world level have
claimed to work towards improving the quality of life without discrimination.
The United Nations Development Programme attempted to define the notion of

human development for the first time in 1990. It has also tried to work out broadly
agreeable indicators of human development & preparation of human development
index. And it continues to improvise these concepts with every new challenge it
faces. But, it is unfortunate that for want of adequate data & information it relies
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on indirect methods of estimation. Moreover, it has come to notice that the global
hegemonic powers are using human development index for intervening into the
internal affairs of sovereign states. Therefore, human development is a noble
concept & preparation of HDI is a noble exercise but in an unequal world it is also
used for justifying ulterior motives.
QNO15. What is development & how does it help in ensuring the rights
of women? Has development been anti-women? Comment. OR Write
short notes on: Gender Equity & Women in Development Approach.
Ans:- Gender commonly refers to the set of characteristics that human perceive as
distinguishing between male & female entities, extending from ones biological sex
to, in humans, ones social role or gender identity. As a term, "gender" has more
than one valid definition. Colloquially, it is used interchangeably with sex to
denote the condition of being male or female in any type of entity.
Gender refers to the social classification of men & women into masculine &
feminine & reflects the existing power relationship in any given society. It is a
social-cultural phenomenon. Women have been historically given a lower socio-
economic & political status in society & this continues in modern society.
Democracy & development are two main areas by which the state has to progress
in order to modernize the state, society & institutions in order to guarantee equal &
legal rights to both men & women. In this respect women too have put their effort
in the movement for restoration of democracy & subsequent development.
Development has been differently defined as, progress, positive change in the
socio-economic position of the people, a community or a nation. There are three
agencies of development which are regarded as important in the struggle for
women’s rights. These are:
 1. The individual.
 2. The state &
 3. The community.
All these should play a role in ensuring the well-being of a woman & the
development of her capabilities & her freedom. But it has been argued that while
development focuses on technology & training of men, the economic work of
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women is never accounted for & was considered non-consequential. All ideas of
development usually work against women, increasing inequalities & depriving
them of whatever control they had over the resources of the family & community.
The United Nations decided that there should be a conscious effort to involve
women in development & give them access to the formal sector of the economy.
This was the Women in Development (WID) approach. To this was added a
multitude of feminist movements showing the negative impact of the work done by
the state or multinational agencies on the women at the local level. These
experiences were transferred at the theoretical level & began to be referred to as
the Gender & Development (GAD) paradigm. It advocated a look at the decision-
making structures of development which was structured along patriarchal lines &
often based on western models incapable of taking into account the concerns of the
non-western women.
Thus the empowerment of women to ensure their participation in their own

development, focus on small scale women-only projects to avoid male domination
& in recent years the need to investigate relationships among gender ideology,
women's subordination & operation of social, economic & political power. Gender
& Development has been focusing on men & women in relation to one another.
Gender equality (also known as gender equity, gender egalitarianism, or sexual

equality) is the goal of the equality of the genders or the sexes. Stemming from a
belief in the in justice of myriad forms of gender inequality. World bodies have
defined gender equality as related to human rights, especially women’s rights, &
economic development. UNICEF defines gender equality as “leveling the playing
field for girls & women by ensuring that all children have equal opportunity to
develop their talents".
Gender equity entails the concept that all human beings be it men or women
are free to develop their personal abilities & make choices without the limitations
set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles & political & other prejudices. Their different
behaviour & aspirations should be valued & favoured equally & they would be
treated fairly according to their respective needs. Development is seen as an
important way to achieve this.
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QNO16. Internal migration contributes towards a productive economy.

Comment. List the causes of internal migration? OR What are the causes
of over-urbanization & how can this problem be addressed? Why the
migration streams in India are strongly sex selective? Has there been a
change in this ratio over the years?
Ans:- Migration in simple terms means to leave one place of residence & live in
another place. Migration takes place in every society. It is therefore, a universal
phenomenon. Migration is a demographic process. It brings about changes in the
size & structure of population. Since migration causes change in the place of
residence, it is termed as ‘spatial mobility’, which may be local, regional, national
or even international.
There are two major streams of migration:
 1. Short-term migration, which consists mainly of those seasonal migrants

who live at the place of destination with an intent to work for a while &
come back to the place of origin after a short duration, &.
 2. Long-term migration, which consists of those who cover a long-distance
in search of work with an intent to change their place of origin on a
permanent or semi-permanent basis.
Both these streams form a part of 'internal migration'. The most important
among them is however, a long-term rural to urban migration because it brings
about significant socio-cultural & economic changes in the life of migrants. Since,
migration is the cause & the consequence of a number of social, cultural &
economic factors, this process is considered an important component of social
demography.
Internal migration occurs when persons cross state boundaries & stay in the
host state for some minimum length of time is called internal migration. The
reasons for internal migration may be many-a gap in income between regions;
location of a family network in town; availability of improved amenities; marriage;
education; or natural disasters. Higher wages implies higher productivity &
efficiency & a mobile labour force is an important ingredient in enabling a more
33

Mps 3
efficient production in an economy. Migration also affects the rate of savings &
accumulation of an economy & hence its growth.
There are many causes of internal migration. Which are as follows:
 1. Political Upheavals: - There are many parts of the world where there is
political instability to such an extent that we call it political upheavals.
 2. Floods: - There are certain parts of the world which witness flood in the
rivers. When there is flood in the rivers, people migrate to safer areas in
order to save themselves. The best example of flood is provided by India &
Bangladesh.
 3. Other Natural Calamities: - People migrate because of certain other
natural calamities, i.e., earthquakes and fires.
 4. Unemployment: - Because of great unemployment, people migrate to
different places in search of employment it is the reason that from rural areas
people migrate to urban areas.
 5. Housing: - Many people do not house to live in. They migrate to various
places in order to purchase some land or house.
 6. Marriage: - In the traditional marriage system, girl has to go to bride
groom's house on marriage. This is a regular feature of migration. This is the
most common cause of migration among girls.
There are certain factors which facilitate migration. The following are some of
these factors under heads:
 1. A Sense of Restriction on Mobility.

 2. Improved Means of Transport & Communication.
Internal migration in India has been dominated by short term rural to rural
movements dominated by women. While rural-urban migration has increased since
the 1960s in India, rural-rural migration continues to dominate the migration
system. The primacy of the agricultural sector in India has tied the population to
land. A long term urban ward movement would occur only when the Indian
economy develops an industrial base. Females dominate the rural-rural stream
(migrating for marriage) but the rural-urban & urban-urban streams are male
dominated (migrating for economic gains) though these figures too are slowly
changing over the years.
34

Mps 3
Over-urbanization involves both the sheer growth of the proportion of a

national population living in cities as well as the concentration of the population in
particular cities. A major result of the rural-urban movement is over-urbanization.
While migration from rural to urban areas may improve the economic conditions,
there is an increasing pull on the urban resources & amenities by migrants.
Government policies thus need to create a more viable balance between rural &
urban opportunities. Policy makers should be aware of the impact of the specific
economic policies on population shifts. Leaving the problem of urbanization to
market forces is not a likely solution.
QNO17. What do you understand by sustainable development? & what

are the indicators of sustainable development? OR How did the concept
of sustainable development originate?
Ans:- The field of ' Sustainable Development' can be conceptually broken into
three constituent parts: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability &
socio-political sustainability.
'Development' as a concept & aspect of state policy has a feel good effect on a
modern mind. The magic mantra of development is thought to be the living spirit
behind every human success in the field of industry, agriculture, transport &
communication, space, health, hygiene, culture & entertainment, etc. Sustainable
Development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while
preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present,
but also for future generations. The term was used by the Brundtland Commission
which coined what has become the most often quoted definition of sustainable
Development as development that "meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
Sustainable Development ties together concern for the carring capacity of

natural systems with the social challengds facing humanity. As early as the 1970s "
Sustainability" was employed to describe an economy " in equilibrium with basic
ecological support system."
Sustainable Development has become a catchword because it is directly linked to

the survival of human beings, their civilisation & the very environment of which
they are an inseparable part. In the name of the so-called development there are
35

Mps 3
large-scale deforestations, atmospheric changes such as thining down of life saving

Ozone layer, loss of bio-diversity, growing volumes of wastes that are becoming
unmanageable day by day. Moreover, human actions have caused poisoning of the
life supporting systems of our environment namely: soil, air, water & organism.
Large section of world’s population continues to live in perpetual poverty,

hunger & starvation. Millions of people world over are dying every year for want
of basic necessities of their life. Coexistence of opulence & squalor at one & the
same time is also breeding new form of social tensions & violence. Terrorism, one
of the extreme forms of violence, is essentially an unlawful activity of the victims
of unilateral global hegemony. Therefore, sustainable development, if attended
properly, holds the key to development with social justice & environmental
conservation.
It was difficult to arrive at a consensus on the nature as well as number of

indicators to be selected for measuring sustainable development. The Economic &
Social Commission for Asia & Pacific under the auspices of the United Nations
prepared a working list of Indicators of Sustainable Development. It was done
under the Programme of work on Indicators of Sustainable Development of the
Commission on Sustainable Development.
PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.
 1. Human beings are at the centre of concern of Sustainable Development.

They are entitled to a healthy & productive life in harmony with nature.
 2. Environmental protection should constitute an integral part of
development process in order to achieve Sustainable Development.
 3. Eradication of poverty is an indispensable requirement for Sustainble
Development.
 4. To attain Sustainable Development, it is the responsibility of the states to
reduce & eliminate unsustainable patters of production & consumption
without compromising an ever-increasing higher quality of life to all people.
 5. States should cooperate to strength endogenous capacity-building
measures for sustainable development through building proper scientific
temper for enhancing, adaptation, diffusion & transfer of technology
including innovations in technology.
36

Mps 3
 6. Economic growth should be linked with Sustainable Development.

 7. The national authorities should work for internationalization of
environment costs as part of the production costs.
 8. Environmental impact assessment shall become an integral part of the
national economic policy.
 9. War & sustainable development are antithetical to each other. Every state
should ensure that minimum damages take place to the environment in case
of wars.
 10. Finally it appeals to every individual & state to cooperate & develop
partnerships based on good faith in order to achieve sustainable
development.
QNO18. What is a market economy? Explain its advantages &

disadvantages. OR What do you understand by a planned economy? OR
Write a short note on India's economic scenario prior to 1991. OR What
are the economic consequences of liberalization in India? How does
liberalization help in ensuring "just growth"?
Ans:- A market economy is economy based on the division of labour in which the
prices of goods & services are determined in a free price system set by supply &
demand. This is often contrasted with a planned economy, in which a central
government determines the price of goods & services using a fixed price system.
Market economics are also contrasted with mixed economy where the price system
is not entirely free but under some government control or heavily regulated, which
is sometimes combined with state-led economic planning that is not extensive
enough to constitute a planned economy.
The term market economy is not identical to capitalism where a corporation

hires workers as a labour commodity to produce material wealth & boost
shareholder profits.
There are many advantages to a free market economy. They range from the
moral issues to the practical issues. We will deal mainly with the practical ones.
Unprecedented innovation. Free markets are wrought with inventions & the capital
to reach them. Countries classified as having a free market have been responsible
for the vast majority of inventions since the 19th century. Very high income
37

Mps 3
mobility. This means that under a free market system it is easier to move around
income brackets. This is not to say it is easy, it is just easier to become rich or poor
when you are left to your own devices as opposed to a controlled economy where
resources are allocated by the govt.
A planned economy may consist of state-owned enterprises private

enterprises directed by the state, or a combination of both though 'planned
economy' & 'command economy' are often used as synonyms, some make the
distinction that under a command economy, the means production are publicly
owned. That is, a planned economy is 'an economic system in which the govt.
controls & regulates production, distribution, prices etc.
1980s & 1990s many governments presiding over planned economics began
deregulating (or as in the Soviet Union, the system collapsed) & moving toward
market based economics by allowing the private sector to make the pricing,
production, & distribution decisions. Although most economics today are market
economics or mixed economics & which are partially planned), planned economics
exist. In some countries such as Cuba, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Iran, North Korea, &
Burma.
The beginning of the 1990s saw a major change in the Indian economic
policies. The balance of payments crisis led to the policy of economic
liberalization of the Indian economy. A higher growth rate was needed, that
required not only higher investments but also larger imports of capital goods. The
policy of import substituting industrialization that complements the development
policies seemed to be a viable option, an option adopted by many developing
countries in the earlier years. But with the amount of export earnings remaining
relatively low than its import payments, the developing countries had to adjust
their economic policies accordingly. The policy makers of India realized the
disadvantages of trade restrictiveness. Consequently, the economy was opened up
enabling the inflow of foreign capital & industrial investment.
The objective of Indian policy makers since the inception of planning was to
achieve what is today called " just growth", namely growth that reduces poverty.
The focus has shifted to "just growth" wherein an equal distribution of income is
ensured in a democratic setup, thereby linking the political & economic rights.
38

Mps 3
Though there have been claims about the advantages of the liberalization, the lack
of government investment has led to an outdated infrastructure thereby stagnating
the growth. The elimination of restrictions failed to generate the corresponding
benefits. The need of the hour is to make the most out of the opportunities
provided by globalization/ liberalization. The role of the state, in this context, is
crucial is not only improving the existing situation but also thwarting moves
towards inefficiency. Thus the state can ensure a positive outcome of the
liberalization policies & achieve just growth.
QNO19.Discuss the evolution of religious politics. & explicate the

essence of religious politics. OR How is religious politics different from
the issue of religion & politics? OR What do you understand by Hindu
Revivalism? & write a note on the Islamic perspective of religious
politics.
Ans: - Religious Politics can mean one of the two things.
 1. A situation where religion itself becomes the basis of political articulation

& of defining the purpose of politics.
 2. Religious Politics is also, a condition where religion is used as the
foundation for the political mobilization of the people.
Religion is a set of beliefs & practices that are determined by ones view of
reality & the supernatural. Politics is the process by which groups make decisions.
Because ones view of reality has a powerful affection decision making, the two
realms are tightly intertwined in a number of ways.
Some of these ways include: the political processes that occur within religious
organizations, known as the organizations internal politics; the effects of various
religious beliefs & practices on civic processes, or the organizations external
politics; the effects of various secular political actions on religious organizations &
people; formal relationships between politics & religion, such as in the case of
state religious or theocracies.
Religious politics provides the substance & agenda of politics, that is, the
content of politics itself is determined by one or another religion or the religious
community. Religious politics cannot simultaneously be the politics of Hindus,
39

Mps 3
Muslims & Christians. It can only belong to & may have appeal for the followers
of one or the other religion.
There is no common content to Hindu revivalism. It varied a great deal from

both person to person & also region to region. We will look at the three regions in
India where Hindu revivalism was pronounced in some form or other; Bengal,
Maharashtra & Northern India, three regions where revivalism had a long run.
The nationalist leaders drew their inspiration from religious icons & cults &
Vedas; they tried to heighten the sensibilities of their groups by advocating the
reforms & rituals related to their respective faiths. The Islamic perspective drew its
sources from the historic past & attempted to unite the community by constructing
a heal their version of Islam. Gradually the differences led to conflicting
perspectives; nevertheless, the religious groups have started assuming a prominent
role, thus making the issue of religious politics a continuous phenomenon.
40

Mps 3
Contents
 Legacy of National Movement With reference to
Development, Rights & Participation.
 Constitution & social Transformation.
 Diversity & Pluralism.
 Inequality: Caste & Class.
 Structure & Growth of Economy (Poverty, Surplus &
Unevenness).
 Legislature.
 Legal System & Judiciary.
 Federalism.
 Devolution of Powers & Local Self-Government.
 Media & Public Policy.
 Interest Groups & Policy Making.
 Identity Politics (caste, religion, language & ethnicity).
 Civil Society: Social Movements, NGOs & Voluntary
Action.
 Human Development: Health, Education & Social Security.
 Gender & Development.
 Migration & Development.
 Environment & Sustainable Development.
 Economic Reforms & Globalization.
 Religious Politics.
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QNO. 1. What was Gandhi's contribution to the economic thinking in

After Independence in 1947, it became the nation's dominant political party,

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