161

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

9.1 GENERAL

Self-compacting concrete has the unique ability to flow under its

own weight and is thus widely used in repair and rehabilitation projects. Self-
compacting concrete was experimented with and proved to be more beneficial
than conventional concrete. Stipulations of the design at the construction sites
were required to meet the demand for self-compacting concrete eventually.
Prerequisites for the environment were faced with the shortening of vibration,
which in turn supported the reduction of noise pollution. The additional cost
implemented in the production of self-compacting concrete can be
compensated for by the reduced labour cost. The use of less cement and the
vast reuse of industrial waste products can save nature and can reduce the
emission of unwanted gases. Self-compacting concrete propagates the society
of civil engineering and involves a lot more research studies that could
potentially lead to the implementation of innovative construction methods that
result in the wide growth of the field in accomplishing the desired aim or
result. SCC proves to be an eco-friendly, productive, and cost-effective
concrete mix when compared to the traditional, conventional concrete mix.

The shrinkage due to evaporation was the main undesirable quality

factor of the repair materials. The use of expansive agents can control the
above-mentioned problem and has the potential to achieve predefined
properties, which forms the basis of the first aim of the research work. The
use of expansive agents in self-compacting concrete can reduce the formation
of cracks formed during the hydration process. Shrinkage cracks were more
 162

common in concretes in which certain admixtures like metakaolin were

present. The essential ingredients of concrete include cement as its major
component, and the production of cement involves a huge amount of labour
and cost. Fine aggregate, which was another essential component of concrete,
was also facing ever-increasing demand and exploitation. These two facts
serve as a constant reminder to engineers and researchers to create concrete
that can partially or completely mitigate the aforementioned issues. Copper
slag is one such hazardous industrial waste that can be replaced with fine
aggregate without affecting the strength of the concrete. Flyash and
metakaolin are the most commonly used mineral admixtures in concrete.
When industrial waste is used in concrete, it is beneficial not only
economically, but also environmentally. The use of industrial waste and
products can thus produce sustainable concrete with increased strength and
durability. The study conducted at present demonstrates the use of all three
admixtures together in self-compacting concrete. Hence, the study tries to
develop a self-compacting concrete that contains all three admixtures, namely
fly ash, metakaolin, and copper slag as fine aggregate replacement. The
proportion of ingredients was optimized using preliminary level investigations
and the properties were studied for understanding and comparison purposes.

The first aim of the research work was to develop an SCC using
curing agents in self-compacting concrete with the usage of mineral
admixtures. The use of a low W/C ratio in self-compacting concrete can also
cause cracks due to relatively low volume hydration products, which also
require the use of expansive agents. The strengthening was also caused by the
use of agents that could hold the moisture and release it when hydration
progresses. The self-curing agents can effectively hold up moisture for the
completion of hydration.
 163

The next aim of the research work was to analyze the synergistic
effect of expansive and supplementary cementitious materials on the
properties of self-compacting concrete containing self-curing agents. In this
study, to extract desirable properties from the SCC and to impart specific
properties to the SCC, different admixtures were added, and mechanical
strength and durability studies were conducted to bring confidence in the
above-mentioned combinations for use in practical applications. In the present
work, two different series of SCC concrete mixes were produced by using
nMk and copper slag along with expansive agents and self-curing agents.

9.2 SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS

Some of the important conclusions that can be derived from the

experimental sections can be stated as follows:

9.2.1 Fresh State Inferences

In the present study, the effect of the use of nano MK, copper slag,
and expansive agents in SCC was analyzed, and their combined additions
were also visualized through a slump, V funnel, and T 50. The fluidity of self-
compacting concrete depends on the quantity of water-cement ratio and the
proportion of water-reducing admixtures used in concrete. The quantity of
water added must be sufficient for curing to occur and the hydration process
to take place. When no nominal curing technique is adopted, the moisture loss
in the early stages occurs without causing the completion of hydration. Hence,
it was required that a self-curing agent be added to negotiate the loss of water
retention capacity and hence maintain the moisture within the concrete by
providing sufficient moisture for the hydration to occur. Self-curing agents
can reduce water loss and increase the strength of concrete of all ages.
 164

The use of expansive agents in concrete slightly improved the

workability of concrete, and the fresh state results showed that all the SCC
concrete mixes yielded good workability with the increased dosage of
superplasticizer, thereby fulfilling the self-compacting requirements. The
improvements in workability were also partially contributed by the use of
expansive agents that induced mixture consistency, thereby increasing the
workability. The use of metakaolin restricts the fluidity, wherein the present
study showed that the use of copper slag partially restricted the resistance
caused, which was further complemented by the expansive agents and self-
curing agents. The use of self-curing agents can reduce the self-compacting
ability of concrete due to their ability to bond with hydrogen ions. But in the
present study, a significant improvement in the fluidity of concrete was
obtained due to the combined addition of self-curing and expansive agents in
SCC that improved the rheology of the paste material, thereby increasing the
workability.

9.2.2 Hardened State Inferences

The strength increment of the nano MK and copper slag SCC on

the strength properties was inclined in the positive direction, which may be
due to their ability to promote pozzolanic reactivity that can react with CH
present in the SC-SCC. The use of expansive agents beyond a certain limit
may reduce the strength of concrete, which was not observed in the concrete
mixes that contained both the expansive agents and nMk-Copper slag
additions. The replenishing of the moisture that was lost during evaporation as
done by the self-curing agents and the dimensional stability maintenance due
to the loss of moisture as done by expansive agents has caused a significant
improvement in the strength values of the concrete. The strength
improvement of the SCC mixes due to expansive agents and copper slag may
be caused by their volume stabilizing effect. The expansive agents and nMk
 165

can also optimize the microstructure of concrete by reducing their pores, thus
increasing the strength values.

The flexural strength of the concrete was also improved due to the
use of expansive agents and nMk, which indicated their self-distributing
properties that get uniformly distributed throughout the cement matrix and
improved the compactness and denseness of the concrete. Thus, it can be
ascertained that the use of expansive agents in appropriate amounts can
produce expansive properties in concrete, thereby imparting strength gain,
whereas the combined use of expansive agents and nMk can cause significant
strength improvement.

The split tensile strength values also showed improved values at all
ages due to the influence of expansive agents and nano metakaolin with
copper slag. The drying of concrete and evaporation of water can cause
internal shrinkage of the SC concrete, causing micro-cracks, which was
avoided due to the expansive effect of the MgO-based expansive agent that
provided space for the formation of hydration products without leading to
self-desiccation..

9.2.3 Durability Inferences

The influence of nMk with copper slag and expansive agents on

the reduction of the porosity of concrete was significant since the
densification of the microstructure and compactness of concrete had been
increased significantly.

The increased water resistance characteristics of the self-

compacting concrete containing expansive agents and self-curing agents may
be due to the lubrication effect caused by the expansive agents and self-curing
agents that cause the uniform distribution of the supplementary cementitious
 166

materials to create a dense microstructure. The adsorption of Mg ions by the

cement paste also created some charges on the cement paste that effectively
attract each other, forming bridges between the cement and aggregate phase.

The capillary water absorption values were also much reduced at

increasing levels of addition of expansive agents and self-curing agents by
reducing the available free water. The expansive agents and self-curing agents
can also be utilized as additional viscous fluids that can occupy the interstitial
pore spaces through which water can pass through. The increased volume and
deformation capacity were also well maintained by the use of expansive
agents in the SC-SCC.

Furthermore, the use of nMk resulted in a better strength

improvement due to their ability to limit bleeding caused by the increased
fines content and expansive agent. The self-curing agent in concrete also
maintains volume stability in combination with expansive agents, and hence
the concrete showed improved performance. The strength increment may also
occur due to the release of embedded water from the self-curing agent that
can be supplied for internal curing and hydration. The self-curing compounds
were hydrophilic in nature and absorbed more water that could be used for
future hydration, leading to high strength values at all ages.

The present study showed reduced water absorption and porosity

values of the concrete due to the densification of the matrix caused by the
hydration of CH crystals into CSH gels due to the pozzolanic actions. The
copper slag also exhibited fine granular sizes that occupied the interstitial
pore spaces through which water can penetrate through the concrete. The
expansive agents with nMk also have the ability to reduce the amounts of
water that have evaporated into the atmosphere since these concretes were
subjected to air curing. The reduction in the volume of pores caused by
 167

evaporable water had caused a reduction in the porosity of the concrete. The
reduction in the amounts of water absorbed through the saturation absorption
test and capillary absorption test clearly signifies the reduced number of pores
and void volume in the concrete. The pores were effectively filled by the thin
polymeric film of the self-curing agent that surrounds the aggregates, forming
a dense structure with less porosity and lower chloride penetration values.

The behaviour of the concrete mixes, when subjected to the attack

of chemicals, was significant and clearly showed the synergistic effect of
expansive agents and nMk in improving the durability of the SC-SCC. The
expansive agents were not that resistant to the attack of chemicals due to their
inherent chemical structure, which was easily susceptible to the reactions of
acids and chlorides, forming another compound. However, the self-curing,
self-compacting concrete mixes containing nMK showed improved resistance
to the attack of chemicals due to their ability to decrease the number of
permeable pores through the densification of the cement matrix. The self-
curing agents possess high water-retention capacity, and their ability to
densify the cement matrix and interfacial transition zone with improved
hydration has caused a reduction in the transport of harmful ingredients into
the cracks.

As a result, it is possible to conclude that the combination of self-

curing and expansive agents in the concrete can improve the durability of
SCM-admixed self-compacting concrete, which can be used effectively for
repair work and in situations where external water curing cannot be used.

9.3 SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION

The established benefits of using self-curing agents and expansive

agents can be generally applied in construction applications due to the
 168

provided experimental results that make their usage reliable. The present
study enhanced the possibility of using self-cured; self-compacting expansive
concrete mixes in structural applications, conserving natural resources
through the simultaneous replacement of cement and fine aggregates. The
study also provided experimental data to support the performance
characteristics of nano metakaolin copper slag SCC incorporating expansive
and self-curing agents, thereby drawing the attention of end-users to employ
the developed concretes for potential applications.

9.4 FURTHER STUDY

 In the present work, a commercially available expansive agent

has been used for the preparation of SC-SCC mixes. Certain
inexpensive and eco-friendly expansive agents derived from
bio-materials can be explored to enhance the shrinkage
resistance of concrete at a low cost.

 The research work can be further extended to study the

behaviour of the self-curing and expansive agents in the
concrete subjected to underground structures.

 The expansive strains occurring in concrete can be analyzed and

the shrinkage in concrete can be studied in-depth due to the
additives of self-curing expansive agents in concrete.

 The utilization of commonly used curing agents can also be

replaced with a wide range of different curing agents and can
also be explored for different curing types.
 169

 The justification of the applicability of the produced SC-SCC

mixes for real-time applications can be done by conducting
pilot-scale studies.
 170

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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

International Journal

1. Sugumaran, B & Lavanya, G 2021, ‘Characterization study on the

synergistic effect of nano metakaolin and expansive agent on the
shrinkage mitigation and strength enhancement of self curing- self
compacting concrete’, Romanian Journal of Materials, vol. 51, no. 2,
pp. 186 – 194, Annexure I, Impact Factor: 0.542.