Which dinosaur had the biggest brain?

Could Tyrannosaurus rex smell his prey? DANGEROUS

Did dinosaur mothers look after
DINOSAURS Q&A

DANGEROUS DINOSAU RS Q&A

their young?

Whatever the question, Dangerous Dinosaurs Q&A

has the answer, with fantastic facts about the incredible
creatures that inhabited the land, sea, and skies
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Awesome giants
Discover why some plant-eating dinosaurs
grew so huge.

Armed to the teeth

Learn how dinosaurs used teeth, claws, spikes,
and tail clubs in their daily fight for survival.

The end
Find out why the dinosaurs died out
and what happened afterwards.

From dinosaurs that could see in the

dark to pterosaurs that darkened the skies,
Dangerous Dinosaurs Q&A brings you face to face
with the biggest, smallest, greediest, meanest,
and scariest animals that ever lived.

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DANGEROUS
DINOSAU RS

Written by Carey Scott

Consultant David Lambert
 LONDON, NEW YORK,
MELBOURNE, MUNICH, AND DELHI
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First published in the United States in 2008

by DK Publishing
375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014

Copyright © 2008 Dorling Kindersley Limited

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Contents
Age of the Dinosaurs 8
Killers and Scavengers 20
Giants of the Earth 30
Methods of Defense 40
End of an Era 50
Index 60
Age of the
dinosaurs
What is a dinosaur? 10
How do we know about them? 12
How long did dinosaurs rule? 14
Were all dinosaurs the same? 16
How was a dinosaur born? 18
 What is a dinosaur?
Dinosaurs were land-dwelling reptiles with long
tails, clawed hands and feet, and scaly skin. Some Long tail used
for balance
walked on two legs, others on four. While some were
Many dinosaurs had
meat-eaters, others munched on plants. Most people scaly skin covered
with bumps
know what a dinosaur looks like from books and
movies. But even experts are still unsure why dinosaurs
Giganotosaurus
survived when their rivals died out. It was probably their
erect stance, the sheer size of the largest, such as
Giganotosaurus, and their efficient weapons of attack and
defense that ensured their long-lasting success.

Q In what way were

dinosaurs different?
A Dinosaurs were different from
other reptiles because they could stand
with their legs straight. Most reptiles
have legs that splay out from their
bodies, giving them a sprawling stance.
Dinosaurs were like mammals—they
could walk upright with their legs
directly below them.

Semisprawling stance Sprawling stance Erect stance

of a crocodile of a lizard of a Barosaurus
Legs held straight
beneath body

Q Was Eoraptor the first

of the dinosaurs? Barosaurus
A It was certainly one of the earliest
dinosaurs. The remains of Eoraptor—
a small, meat-eating dinosaur—were
discovered in 1991 in South America, Powerful
where dinosaurs may have originated. Five-fingered back legs

Experts estimate that Eoraptor was alive hands with

weaker claws
and well as long as 228 million years ago. than later species

Some dinosaurs
had a backward
pointing toe

Large, clawed,
Eoraptor birdlike feet

10
 Nostril Bones of
Tyrannosaurus
foot

Q Did dinosaurs
Serrated teeth for have claws?
tearing flesh A All dinosaurs had clawed feet and
hands. Some claws were like the talons of
birds of prey, while others resembled
curved, sharp scissors. They were either
used to hook high branches down for food
or to slash live prey or stab at attackers.
Some “claws” were more like the hooves of
cattle and merely acted to protect the toes.
Powerful jaw

Q Were there dinosaurs

Most meat-eaters that could fly?
had three A Dinosaurs were all land-dwelling
clawed fingers animals. But there were plenty of flying
Rhamphorhynchus
on each hand
creatures in the prehistoric skies, and
they were reptiles, just like the dinosaurs.
They were called pterosaurs, which
means “winged lizard.” There were many
different types of pterosaur, some as big
as light aircraft. Rhamphorhynchus was over
3 ft (1 m) long with a narrow jaw and
Wing pointed teeth for catching fish.
More Facts
membrane

n The word dinosaur means “terrible Q Were dinosaurs

warm-blooded?
lizard” and was first used in 1842. A No one is sure. Reptiles such as
n Dinosaurs and pterosaurs evolved from snakes are cold-blooded, which means Velociraptor
a group of reptiles called archosaurs, that their body temperature cools down
which arose 250 million years ago. with the outside temperature and they
n Chasmatosaurus was one of the become less active. But evidence suggests
earliest archosaurs. It probably spent that some dinosaurs, such as Velociraptor,
most of its time hunting fish in rivers, had feathers, and feathered animals are
much like a modern crocodile. warm-blooded. Some experts now
believe that all the dinosaurs may have
Chasmatosaurus been warm-blooded, enabling them
to be active whatever the weather.

11
 How do we know about them?
Everything we know about dinosaurs comes from scientific
evidence. That means the real, physical remains of the animals
that have been preserved in the world’s deserts, riverbeds, and
cliffs for millions and millions of years. It was not until the
19th century that the remains were correctly identified
and the science of paleontology was born. Since then,
amazing discoveries have been made worldwide,
including this complete skeleton of Coelophysis,
unearthed in the sands of Texas. Coelophysis

The remains of this

Ammonite
dinosaur’s last meal—
a lizardlike animal—
are still in its stomach

Q What is a fossil?
A fossil is the preserved remains
A of a plant or animal. These
remains can be either hardened bones,
shells, or other parts, or a preserved
impression of the hard parts.
One of the most common fossils
is an ammonite—a shelled
Q When were dinosaurs
sea creature that lived at the first identified?
same time as the dinosaurs. A People have been collecting
dinosaur fossils for many years, but it
was not until 1842 that dinosaurs were
recognized as a distinct group of animals.
When this jaw was found in England,
experts realized that this, and other
remains, belonged to extinct giant
reptiles. Soon the term “dinosaur”
was used to describe them.

Megalosaurus
jaw

12
 1

How is a fossil formed? 4 Surface erosion exposes the

fossilized bones, which can
then be excavated
Fossils are formed by a process called
2
mineralization. A creature dies and its soft by fossil experts.

parts rot away, leaving the skeleton.

3
Minerals from water seep into the bones.
The minerals eventually solidify, turning
the bones into stone. Dinosaur fossils
are often found in riverbeds, where
2
4
The soft tissues
the bodies have been quickly covered in rot away, but the
sand and mud. skeleton of the dinosaur stays
more or less intact.

1 A dinosaur is chased into a slow-

flowing river, where it drowns and 3 Millions of years later the ancient
landscape has been buried, and
new types of animals have evolved.
sinks into the mud.

Two rows of
pointed plates
along spine

Spiked tail
Tuojiangosaurus

Q How is a dinosaur
skeleton made? The horns give
A People often think that this dinosaur
its name
dinosaur skeletons in museums are
real, but they are usually replicas.
Paleontologists create a complete
skeleton from synthetic bones, using
a few fossilized bones and skeletons
of dinosaur relatives as a guide. Some
skeletons are made from a mix of
fossilized and synthetic bones.

Q What is a
paleontologist?
A Paleontologists are those scientists Q How do dinosaurs
get their names?
who study fossils. They work both at the A Many dinosaurs are named
world’s fossil sites, excavating fossils, and after a distinguishing feature. For
in the laboratory, cleaning and analyzing example, Triceratops means “three-
fossils. Here, a paleontologist treats a horned face.” Some are named because of Triceratops
sauropod bone before moving it from the where they were found—Argentinosaurus is
Sahara Desert. Dinosaur bones are easily a “reptile of Argentina.” Others are called
uncovered in the desert sands without the after the person who discovered them:
need to dig deep. Herrerasaurus means “Herrera’s reptile.”

13
 How long did Q Why do species
Plateosaurus

dinosaurs rule? die out?

A All living things die, and
all species eventually become
extinct. Most individual species
Dinosaurs stomped their way across the Earth for about 160 million of dinosaur existed for about 2–3 million
years and were the dominant land animals for 143 million years. years. Some species evolved into different
During this huge stretch of time (humans have been around for less ones by adapting to changing habitats, while
others were unable to adapt. Some, such as
than 2 million years), many species became extinct but others Plateosaurus, may have died out because of a
evolved to take their place. Dinosaurs were survivors and most violent change to the environment
were able to adapt to their ever-changing world. Dilophosaurus, that wiped out many animals.
although not the largest of dinosaurs, was a meat-eater from the
Jurassic Period. The last dinosaur expired 65 million years ago.

Q Who ruled before Pair of bony

the dinosaurs? crests on head
A Before the age of the dinosaurs,
the land was dominated by a group of Dilophosaurus
animals that were neither reptiles
nor mammals. The therapsids
included this Lystrosaurus,
a stocky, tusked plant-eater, about
the size of a sheep. Most were extinct
by 200 million years ago, when the Muscular neck
dinosaurs grew dominant, although no
one knows if they were wiped
out by the dinosaurs.
Three claws
on hand

Lystrosaurus

Long, slim
legs and feet

When did dinosaurs live?

Our planet Earth was probably formed about 1 The first dinosaurs, such as Eoraptor
and Herrerasaurus, appeared in
the mid Triassic Period.
2 The Jurassic Period was
dominated by the giant plant-
eaters. Plated dinosaurs, such as the
4.5 billion years ago, and the first animal life stegosaurs, appeared then, too.
appeared about 1 billion years ago. The age
when dinosaurs lived (from 251–65 mya) is
called the Mesozoic Era, and scientists divide Dilophosaurus
this into three periods—Triassic, Jurassic,
Stegosaurus
and Cretaceous.
Herrerasaurus

Lesothosaurus
Anchisaurus
251 million years ago (mya) TRIASSIC 200 mya JURASSIC

14
 Section
of backbone

Velociraptor attacking Protoceratops

Q How many groups

existed together?
A Many dinosaur species became
extinct while new species evolved over
the long period of dinosaur rule, so many
species did not coexist. Even so, dozens
or even hundreds of different species did
Lump on the live at the same time in the same area.
vertebra, possibly Experts know that Velociraptor was around
caused by cancer
at the same time as Protoceratops, because
fossilized bones of the two have been
Q Did dinosaurs discovered locked in battle.
ever get sick? Model of
A Since the main dinosaur evidence Baryonyx

is their bones, the only diseases that Q How long did a

dinosaur usually live?
experts have found are those that affect A Bigger animals usually have a
the bones. This section of a dinosaur’s
longer lifespan than small ones, so it is
backbone shows a tumor that may have
likely that the big plant-eating dinosaurs
been caused by cancer. Although it cannot Small head
lived the longest. If one of these had a
be scientifically proved, it is likely that
lucky life, it may have survived for 200
dinosaurs suffered from infectious
years or more. However, most dinosaurs
diseases, just as animals do today. would have died from accidents,
Very long neck
starvation, or illness long before they
could reach old age.

Archaeopteryx

Barosaurus
3 The dinosaurs were at their height in the
Cretaceous Period. Some grew
horns and frills, others developed club tails,
Corythosaurus

and some refined their killing instincts.

Triceratops

Baryonyx
Europlocephalus

Iguanodon
Deinonychus

145 mya CRETACEOUS 65 mya

15
 Were all dinosaurs Thick neck

the same?
No, they were not. There were
lumbering animals as big as buses.
There were long-necked giants as
tall as trees. There were massive predators that none could challenge.
And darting around their feet were nimble chicken-sized dinosaurs.
Some dinosaurs were numerous; others were rare. Some were
plated, frilled, or horned; others were merely weird looking.
Chindesaurus, shown here, was a carnivorous dinosaur that lived
during the late Triassic Period. All the different dinosaurs
belonged to one of two types.

Short arms for

grasping prey Chindesaurus

What are the two main

types of dinosaur?
The first dinosaurs evolved into two different
Clawed feet
types or orders, based on the shape of the hip
A
bones. Ornithischians were bird-hipped E
and saurischians were lizard-hipped.
T
N G A

The two orders gave rise to different e

t Q Which was the most
families made up of genera. More common dinosaur?
A Experts can only estimate the
h
y

than 540 different genera have been

s

answer to this question based on the

A

described so far.
S

numbers of fossil finds. So many skulls of

P

1
Protoceratops have been found in the Gobi
a

The hips of ornithischians were

characterized by a pair of bones (the Desert that the dinosaur is sometimes
pubis and ischium) that lay alongside called the “sheep of the Gobi.” In North
each other and pointed backward. America, the remains of entire herds of
Pubis
duck-billed or hadrosaur dinosaurs have
been unearthed.
Triassic Earth

Ischium
Ornithischian Q Where did Neck frill
dinosaurs live?
A Dinosaurs lived in every part of
2 In saurischians, the pubis was larger
and pointed downward and slightly
forward, while the ischium
the globe. However, when they first
appeared, the world’s land was a giant
extended backward.
continent, known as Pangaea, which
formed a C-shape around the Tethys Sea.
Ischium Pubis Later, the landmass broke up into smaller
continents. Dinosaur fossils have been
found as far south as Antarctica, which
Saurischian
was not covered with snow at that time.

Protoceratops
16
 Tail held stiffly
for balance

Microraptor

More Facts
n The birdlike Microraptor is one of the
smallest dinosaurs yet discovered—
it was just 30 in (77 cm) long. The
remains were found in a lake bed in
China in 2000.
Strong back
legs n In 1993, the fox-sized Eocursor was
discovered in South Africa. Dating
from the Triassic Period, it is one of the
earliest known ornithischian dinosaurs.
n The earliest dinosaurs looked like
short-headed crocodiles, but some
Horselike
head later ones looked more like birds.
n A typical dinosaur was about the
same weight as a hippopotamus.

Long, flexible
neck

Covering of
feathers

Thick hair
covered body

Q Which was
the weirdest
A dinosaur?
During the 1940s,
Eozostrodon
paleontologists on fossil
hunts in Mongolia made
Q Were there some unusual finds—giant
any mammals? claws over 3 ft (1 m) long, as
A Mammals evolved around the same well as parts of limbs. Some time
time as the dinosaurs, so the two animal later a skeleton was pieced together.
groups coexisted. But mammals were What it revealed was a dinosaur like
unable to compete with dinosaurs in size no other: two-legged, 36 ft (11 m)
or ferocity and throughout the Mesozoic tall, with 8 ft- (2.5 m-) long arms
ending in enormous claws, and Therizinosaurus
Era most were small, shrewlike animals.
Many, like this Eozostrodon, hunted at night probably covered with downy feathers.
to avoid meat-eating dinosaurs. They fed The weird find was named Therizinosaurus, Clawed
on insects and other small animals. meaning “scythe lizard.” feet

17
 How was a dinosaur born?
Teeth and claws were not Dinosaurs did not give birth to live young in the
yet developed enough for
the hatched baby to way that mammals do. Like most reptiles, and
catch its own food
like birds, female dinosaurs laid a number of
eggs. These eggs were usually deposited
in a nest made of twigs and leaves,
or in a hole that the female had
dug in the soil or sand. Dinosaur
eggs could be oval or round and
as small as a tennis ball or as
Troodon
large as a cannonball. A baby
dinosaur, such as this Troodon,
may have pecked its way out of
its protective shell with a specially
designed egg tooth, just as baby birds do.

Q How many eggs did

a dinosaur lay?
A Some dinosaurs laid about 20 eggs
and carefully arranged them in a circle
inside the nest. Female sauropods may
have laid up to 40 eggs. It is likely that
dinosaurs laid eggs once a year, so a
single female dinosaur probably hatched
hundreds of babies in her lifetime. Experts
think that between 50–90 percent of eggs
survived to hatching.
Remains of discarded
eggshells are common
fossils found by nests

Oviraptor

18
 Troodon
Q What was the babies
biggest egg?
A Not surprisingly the biggest
dinosaurs—the plant-eating sauropods—
laid some of the biggest eggs, although
these were surprisingly small. A sauropod
egg weighed about 11 lb (5 kg) and was
about 12 in (30 cm) long. This is only
about twice the size of an ostrich egg, and
tiny compared to the size of the mother.

Sauropod
eggs
Q How fast did Colony of nesting gannets
babies grow?
A After hatching, dinosaur babies,
like these Troodons, grew quickly—most
had to learn to defend themselves fast if
they were to survive. Fossil evidence of
hadrosaur young shows that they doubled in
size in about six weeks. A one-year-old
Maiasaura was about 10 ft (3 m) long.
Depending on their type, dinosaurs were
generally fully grown after about 14 years.
More Facts
n Paleontologists think that some
Oviraptor on dinosaurs grew up in colonies, similar
its nest to those of modern nesting birds, such
Q Did females sit on as gannets.
their nests? n The sex of a dinosaur was determined
A This 80 million-year-old by the temperature around the egg. If
fossilized Oviraptor nest proved to it was warm more males would hatch;
be an amazing discovery. The a few degrees cooler and the babies
mother Oviraptor had died with would be mostly female.
her arms spread over her eggs, as if
n Dinosaurs could be born as identical
protecting them. This suggests that twins or even as triplets.
Oviraptor, and probably other birdlike
dinosaurs, were brooders—they sat on n The largest known dinosaur egg is
smaller than the egg of the extinct
their nests to keep the eggs warm or cool.
elephant bird of Madagascar.
Eggs in nest

Q Did dinosaurs look

after their young? Young
A Fossil evidence suggests that a Maiasaura
with mother
female Maiasaura brought food to her
babies after hatching, and may even have
looked after her young for up to a year.
There is no evidence that other dinosaurs
cared for live young, but it is likely that
many stayed near the nest to guard
their eggs, like their closest
living relatives, crocodiles.

19
Killers and
scavengers
What is a theropod? 22
How did hunters kill their prey? 24
Was T. rex a scavenger? 26
Did carnivores eat only meat? 28
 What is a theropod?
Put simply, a theropod was a flesh-eating dinosaur. This lizard-hipped
Tyrannosaurus
group of dinosaurs included some of the largest carnivores ever to clawed feet
roam the Earth. Although theropods often had wimpy arms, they did
Q What does
have strong muscles to power their rear legs. They also had large bipedal mean?
teeth and strong jaws. Most, such as Carnotaurus, had three-toed A A bipedal animal is one that walks
on two legs. All the meat-eating dinosaurs
feet ending in claws. Not all theropods were huge—some were bipedal, although there were some
were as small as chickens and survived by snapping up plant-eaters that also walked on two legs.
lizards and maybe insects. Bipedal dinosaurs were faster and mostly
more intelligent than their four-legged
cousins. The first dinosaurs, such as
Muscular Eoraptor, were bipedal, as were some
Large head neck
of the later ones, such as T. rex.
Small intestine
Backbone

Megalosaurus Human
tooth tooth

Q How big were a

killer’s teeth?
A Carnivore fossils generally show Carnotaurus
curved, daggerlike teeth that would have
sliced prey to shreds. The size of the
tooth was generally a guide to the size
of the animal and could be up to 8 in
(20 cm) long. This tooth, which is 4 in
(9 cm) long, comes from the mouth of
Short arms
Megalosaurus—a large theropod from the
Heart
Jurassic Period.

How did a theropod run?

2 3
A dinosaur’s fossilized bones and joints provide clues about how Three walking toes When off the ground, the
the animal moved. For example, paleontologists can figure out spread on the ground toes bunched together to
how far the limbs could reach. Large thigh bones indicate strong, for stability as the second minimize air resistance and
leg is lifted. increase speed.
muscular thighs, and long shin and foot bones suggest that the
dinosaur was a fast runner.

1 Albertosaurus ran
with a horizontal
back, head held high,
1 2 3

and its body balanced

by its stiff tail.

22
 Q Could a carnivore make
a meal of a plant-eater? Allosaurus
A A big hunter, such as Allosaurus,
would have had several advantages over Stegosaurus
lumbering plant-eater Stegosaurus.
Not only was Allosaurus faster and
more quick-witted, but it was also
better equipped for killing. Allosaurus
could slash out with its claws before
sinking its razor-sharp teeth into its
victim’s flesh. Stegosaurus might have
fought back by swiping out with its tail
spikes, but that was unlikely enough to
prevent it ending up as food for its killer.

Saurischian
hip bones

Strong thigh
bone

Vertebra

Muscular tail
Rough scales

Q Who hunted the

hunters?
A It is possible that the big
Q Which dinosaur has carnivores—Allosaurus, T. rex, and
the biggest brain? Giganotosaurus—hunted smaller carnivores,
Strong leg A The dinosaur with the biggest brain such as Santanaraptor, as well as herbivorous
muscles was probably Giganotosaurus, although this dinosaurs. These big carnivores were the
was definitely not the smartest. That honor largest, fiercest animals around, which
Large goes to the troodontid group, which had made them top predators, safe from
intestine
the biggest brains for their size. These hunters themselves. Only a severe wound
dinosaurs also had large, foward-facing or debilitating illness could have made
eyes that could focus on prey and may a big carnivore potential prey.
have helped Troodon to see at night.
Santanaraptor

Troodon

Powerful legs

Three-toed
feet

23
 Deinonychus attacking Tenontosaurus

How did hunters Q Did hunters stalk

their prey?
A The more intelligent predatory
kill their prey? dinosaurs may have stalked their prey,
waiting to pounce in a moment of
weakness. A lone herbivore, such as this
The predatory dinosaurs had to kill to stay alive, and they developed Iguanodon, would have been at risk from
different methods and weapons for efficient hunting. Once they had stalkers such as Neovenator. To attack a
dinosaur in a herd, the stalker might have
moved in for the kill, they would have used teeth, claws, and separated a weaker animal from the group
powerful jaws to despatch their victims. Small carnivores generally before moving in for the kill.
relied on speed and agility to capture their prey, but when the
target was a big dinosaur, such as Tenontosaurus, they may have
Iguanodon
attacked in packs.

Curved claw
hooked the
prey

Killer claw was

flicked forward

Q Did Deinonychus into victim’s flesh

have killer claws?
A This hunter wielded a large,
sickle-shaped claw on the second toe of each
Deinonychus
foot. Experts think that Deinonychus held its claw
prey with its hands and jaws and slashed at its
victim with one razor-sharp claw until the
unfortunate creature was dead.

24
 More Facts
n Deinosuchus, a huge alligator, was
capable of feasting on large dinosaurs.
This massive, river-dwelling reptile’s
skull alone measured 6 ft (1.8 m).
n Giganotosaurus may have slammed
into its victims to knock them out with
its body weight before digging in.
n Once a big theropod had gorged
itself on a kill, smaller predators might
move in to strip the bones of flesh.
n Dinosaurs’ teeth survive well as fossils
because they are the hardest part of
the body and least subject to decay.
n Marine carnivore Liopleurodon may
have been able to sniff out potential
prey by swimming with its mouth open
Large cavity and “smelling” the water that passed
to house into its nostrils.
massive jaw
muscles

Allosaurus skull

Jaws were
flexible Liopleurodon

Q What was a killer’s Q How were curved

main weapon? fangs used?
A The large predator’s ultimate A Predatory dinosaurs such as
weapon was its jaws. They were massive T. rex had teeth that curved inward.
and incredibly powerful. Specially These were designed to give the predator
designed “windows” in the skull made a better grip on its victim. The angle
it lightweight without losing strength. of the teeth prevented an animal from
Allosaurus’s jaws were flexible, allowing struggling while the daggerlike points
it to open its mouth wide enough to pierced its flesh. If a dinosaur lost a tooth
swallow huge mouthfuls of flesh— in battle or in an accident, a new one
perhaps even an entire creature. grew to replace it.

Curved teeth
held prey in Tyrannosaurus jaw
place
 Was T. rex
a scavenger?
With a reputation as the “king of the killers,”
Tyrannosaurus rex was the size of a house, as heavy as
an elephant, and had teeth as long and sharp as
carving knives.Yet some paleontologists have
argued that this fearsome dinosaur was actually
a scavenger, feasting only on animals that
were already dead. Some of the dinosaur’s
features appear to be designed for hunting,
others for scavenging. The most likely answer
is that T. rex was both, killing live prey but also
feeding on animal remains whenever it found them.

Tyrannosaurus rex

Two-fingered
hand with
sharp claws

Q Could tiny arms

grapple with prey? Powerful legs
A All tyrannosaurs had small arms
but T. rex’s were the tiniest for its size.
For many years their purpose puzzled
paleontologists. However, recent research
suggests the arms were handy for hunting. Meat
The heavy arm bones, strong muscles, and and bones
limited range of movement would have
made the arms the right tools for holding
struggling prey.

26
 Q How big
was its bite?
A T. rex had the
biggest and the strongest
jaws of any dinosaur—they
could measure up to 4 ft
(1.2 m) long. Experts estimate
Tyrannosaurus that T. rex could eat up to 500 lb
(230 kg) of meat and bones in a single
Ornitholestes bite. This is strong evidence that the Tyrannosaurus rex jaws
dinosaur was a hunter, for
scavengers would not
have needed such size
Q How fast was T. rex? or power.
Most experts estimate the top
A speed at between 10–25 mph Hinge for
(16–40 km/h). Studies have shown that opening lower
Largest teeth were jaw wide
T. rex’s legs weren’t strong enough to 9 in (23 cm) long
absorb the pounding of its 6 tons of body
Field of
Q Do scavengers need a
weight at faster speeds. However, although view overlap
T. rex was slower than the fastest dinosaurs strong sense of smell?
(such as Ornitholestes), it was fast enough A Scavenging animals track down
to catch potential prey, such as lumbering dead meat by following its smell, so a
plant-eater Triceratops. sensitive nose is essential. Experiments
have shown that T. rex did have a
heightened sense of smell—scans of the
dinosaur’s skull reveal exceptionally
large olfactory lobes (smell detectors).
More Facts But this alone is not enough to prove
that it was a scavenger. A good sense of
n Tyrannosaurus rex would have needed
smell is an essential tool for hunting, too.
about 300 lb (136 kg) of meat each Field of Field of
day to keep it supplied with energy. view of view of
left eye right eye
Prominent
nostrils

T. rex
field of view

Q Did T. rex
have good eyesight?
A Strong vision is essential for
n Scavengers such as vultures and hunting but less so for scavenging.
hyenas can digest meat in an T. rex had eyes that were angled forward,
advanced stage of decay without giving it some degree of binocular vision.
getting sick. This means that it could judge the
n Some paleontologists think distance of an object where the fields of
that T. rex may have had view from its left eye and right eye
feathers. overlapped. T. rex’s eyesight was probably
good enough for stalking prey.
.
 Bony ridge
along back

Did carnivores
eat only meat? Long, narrow
jaw with
Most people think of sharp teeth
carnivorous dinosaurs
sinking their teeth into a tasty
plant-eater, which they certainly did.
But they ate other animals, too. Recent
evidence suggests that some dinosaurs preferred fish to
meat, and others may have eaten both meat and plants.
Fish-eating dinosaurs, such as Suchomimus, were
built a little differently from their meat-
eating cousins, with teeth
designed for gripping their
slippery prey. Dinosaur
teeth provide basic information about diet, but paleontologists can
discover more details from dinosaurs’ fossilized droppings.
Strong legs
Suchomimus

Q How did a dinosaur

hook a fish?
A At first, paleontologists were
Curved
puzzled by Baryonyx’s long, curved thumb thumb claw
claw. After finding fish near the dinosaur’s
skeleton, which suggested that it was a
fish-eater, they think they know what the
dinosaur did with its claw. Baryonyx
probably used it to hook fish out
of the water, in much the More Facts n All the four-legged dinosaurs were
strict herbivores, but two-legged
same way that bears do. n Other fish-eating animals included dinosaurs included carnivores,
flying reptile Dimorphodon, which omnivores, and herbivores.
swooped down from cliff-sides to
snatch up fish. n A big fish-eating dinosaur such as
Suchomimus would have to eat a fish
13 ft (4 m) long to satisfy its appetite.
Baryonyx
claw n Like their closest living reptiles the
crocodiles, dinosaurs may have eaten
Claw 12 in their own young if food was scarce.
Dimorphodon
(30 cm) long

28
 Q How were fish-eaters
like crocodiles?
A The long, narrow skulls of
fish-eaters were more like the heads of
crocodiles than those of other dinosaurs.
The jaws were packed with about
100 pointed, serrated teeth. Spinosaurus
may have dipped its long snout
into the shallow waters of a
lake or river to search for
fish, then crunched them
up with its many teeth.

Nostrils high on snout

enabled dinosaur to
breathe with its mouth
in the water

Fish held firm

by teeth
Spinosaurus

Q Did any dinosaurs Q How do we know about

eat mammals? dinosaur diets?
A Carnivores such as Syntarsus Gallimimus A Fossilized dinosaur droppings,
didn’t prey on fellow dinosaurs. Instead, known as coprolites, can reveal
they made do with other animals. valuable information about
Mammals, such as the shrewlike dinosaur diets. Pieces of bone found in a
Megazostrodon would have made a tasty dropping may belong to another dinosaur
snack until a more satisfying meal could or other animal, undigested plant matter
be found. Many theropods would also may contain identifiable spores or pollen.
have eaten lizards, turtles, and eggs, Paleontologists can even figure out the
including those of other dinosaurs. shape of a dinosaur’s intestines from the
shape of the coprolite.
Q Were there any
dinosaurs that ate
A both meat and plants?
Syntarsus
Most dinosaurs were either
carnivores, eating other animals, or
herbivores, eating only plants, but a
few were able to eat both. The name
for these animals is omnivores.
Omnivorous dinosaurs were
small, birdlike theropods.
Omnivore Gallimimus
darted about the plains,
picking off insects and lizards,
and also munching on the vegetation.
Coprolite
(dinosaur dung)

29
 Giants of
the Earth
What is a sauropod? 32
Was bigger always better? 34
How did plant-eaters find food? 36
Where did plant-eaters live? 38
 Small head

What is More Facts

a sauropod? Strong
tendon
n This infant Mussaurus (mouse lizard) is
just 7 in (18 cm) long. It belongs to
the prosauropod group, once thought
to be ancestors of the sauropods.
The most striking characteristic of the sauropods
was their size, for they were the biggest animals to
walk the Earth. Their body design did not vary as
much as in other dinosaur groups—they all had large
bodies and small heads, and most had very long necks
and tails, like this Brachiosaurus. All the sauropods were Mussaurus
herbivorous, maintaining their massive bodies with only
plant matter. Like their enemies the theropods, the
sauropods belonged to the lizard-hipped type of dinosaurs. n In China, the bones of sauropods
have been boiled and fed to
children for their healing properties,
n The largest land animal today
is the African elephant.
Argentinosaurus

Q Who was the Big lungs

biggest of them all?
A There are several contenders
for this title. Seismosaurus and Paralititan
were both giants among sauropods, but
Argentinosaurus may have been the biggest.
Although only a few bones of this
dinosaur have been recovered,
paleontologists have estimated its length
at about 125 ft (37.5 m) and its
weight at 80–100 tons. It is still
Shoulder
possible that an even bigger joint
sauropod may be discovered.

Q What does
quadrupedal mean?
A A quadrupedal animal, such
as Saltasaurus, is one that walks on all
four legs. All sauropods, and most other Elbow
joint
plant-eating dinosaurs, were quadrupedal. Front legs
This was probably because the plant-eaters slightly
had large stomachs that tended to pitch shorter then
back legs
their bodies forward onto the front
legs, making walking on only the back
Saltasaurus
legs impossible.

32
 Q How long was the
longest neck?
A The neck of an adult Mamenchisaurus

Mamenchisaurus was an incredible

46 ft (14 m) long. The neck was made up
Neck held
of 19 spinal bones (vertebrae), more than
Magyarosaurus stiffly
in any other dinosaur. The vertebrae were
Q Were there any linked to one another by bony struts,
small sauropods? which made the neck quite stiff. The Total length of
A One of the smallest known vertebrae were hollow and thin to make dinosaur was
72 ft (22 m)
sauropods measured 20 ft (6 m) from the neck as lightweight as possible.
head to tail. Magyarosaurus and other
smaller sauropods have been discovered
in parts of Europe that were a group of
islands in Cretaceous times. It is likely
that the sauropods living there became Diplodocus
smaller over thousands of years because
of a limited food supply.

Tail was thick

at its base
Small intestine Q Who had the
longest tail?
Backbone A Diplodocus is the most likely holder
of this title. This dinosaur had a tail
Saurischian measuring around 46 ft (14 m), as
(lizard) hips
long as Mamenchisaurus’s neck. The tail
was composed of about 80 vertebrae,
which became narrower at the tail’s
tip. Diplodocus probably used its tail as
a counterbalance for its long neck and
it may have whipped attackers with
its tail, too. Q Did sauropods have
thick skin?
A Sauropods had thick skin for
protection against attackers. However,
Muscular tail
these skin textures would have varied
between groups. A section of fossilized
skin from a Saltasaurus, above, has been
discovered, showing bumpy skin inset
with little bony plates. Other sauropods
Large may have had smoother, more lizardlike
intestine skin. Some even had ridged spikes
running along their backs.
Strong muscles

Brachiosaurus
Ankle joint

33
 Was bigger always better?
As tens of millions of years passed, the sauropods and theropods
grew ever larger. It seems that they were locked into an evolutionary Sauropod is 75 ft
size race—as the theropods became larger and more fierce, the (3 m) long

sauropods grew bigger to counter any attack. In the end, sauropods

such as Camarasaurus dwarfed Allosaurus and the other theropods.
Being massive, however, had its disadvantages, such as lack of
speed. Meanwhile, other plant-eating dinosaurs developed
alternative methods of defense, often growing too tough
or too nimble for theropods to tackle.

Camarasaurus

Q Were all the

plant-eaters huge? Theropod is
A Not all plant-eating dinosaurs 39 ft (12m) long
became enormous in response to the threat
of theropods. Gargoyleosaurus was 10–13 ft Allosaurus
(3–4 m) long, one of the smallest of the
ankylosaur group. Although relatively small,
Gargoyleosaurus was capable of surviving an
attack by a theropod. Its vicious shoulder
spikes and bony back plates would have
made it a tough meal.
Q Did sauropods have
extra-powerful hearts?
Gargoyleosaurus
A Some experts think that the
bigger sauropods, such as Brachiosaurus,
may have needed large, powerful
hearts and super-high blood
pressure to pump blood around
their massive bodies and up their
necks to their brains. It is possible
that they had hearts with four
chambers, like humans and other
mammals, rather than three
chambers, like most reptiles.
Brachiosaurus Heart

34
 Stiff neck ending
in small head
Strong
leg bones

Q How did sauropods

carry their weight?
A Experts once
thought that sauropods
Brontopodus lived in water because
footprints
they would have been
too heavy to support
Diplodocus Elephant
their own weight. Today, forefoot forefoot
they agree that sauropods were designed
to carry their weight, just as elephants
are. Their legs were as sturdy as pillars Q Could a plant-eater
and their toes, which splayed out to be quick on its feet?
spread the weight, were cushioned by big A Not all plant-eaters were big or
pads of flesh. A large fleshy heel helped covered with body armor—some used
support the weight. their agility to escape danger. The
ornithopod group of dinosaurs included
lightly built animals such as Dryosaurus,
Dryosaurus which could run at high speeds. Like the
theropods, Dryosaurus had a stiff tail for
Q What do fossil balancing as it sprinted on its hind legs.
footprints tell us?
A To estimate how fast a dinosaur
moved, paleontologists examine the
anatomy of the animal and, where
available, its footprints. They can figure
out its moving speed by measuring
distance between the tracks—
although footprints from a running
dinosaur are very rare. These Brontopodus Long, lightly
built legs
tracks indicate that the large sauropods had a Short arms with
top speed of about 6 mph (10 km/h). five-fingered
hands

Could Saltasaurus rear

up on its hind legs? 1 Slightly longer hind legs meant that the
dinosaur’s weight could be shifted to
the back of the animal.
3 The tail acted as a third leg,
providing extra stability as
the dinosaur balanced on its two
The skeletons of Saltasaurus and some other hind legs.
sauropods suggest that they may have been
able to rock back onto their hind legs and lift
their front legs off the ground to reach
2 Once on its hind legs, the dinosaur’s
center of gravity was shifted to the back
half of its huge body.
foliage high up in the trees.

35
 How did plant-eaters
find food?
Plants common in the age of the dinosaurs included ginkgo trees,
palmlike trees, coniferous trees, and ferns and mosses. It is likely
that herbivorous dinosaurs ate all these plants. Different plant-eating
dinosaurs developed different ways of breaking down their food.
Sauropods, such as Barosaurus, raked foliage into their mouths with
peglike teeth and swallowed it whole. It was then broken down in
their digestive systems. Other plant-eating dinosaurs ground down
plant matter with their teeth before swallowing.

Modern-day Q Were there flowers

ginkgo and grass?
A Flowering plants first appeared
in the early Cretaceous Period. Passion
flowers, as well as flowering trees such as
magnolia, beech, oak, maple, and walnut
joined earlier plants. It is likely that
dinosaurs ate the new flowers alongside
leafy plant matter. Recent evidence from
dinosaur droppings (coprolites) shows that
some sauropods also munched on grass.
Barosaurus

Passion
flower
Fossilized
ginkgo

Q What did
sauropods eat?
A Their enormous size meant that
sauropods had to spend nearly all their
time eating just to generate enough
energy to stay alive. They probably fed
mostly on coniferous trees, steadily
munching their way through entire
forests. It is this continuous eating that
may have created what is known as a
“browse line,” leaving trees bare of leaves
below a certain level.

36
 Q Could a plant-eater
chew its food?
A Plant-eaters didn’t have molars,
like humans, and many could not chew. Neck suitable
But some had toothless, horny beaks for for browsing
snipping plants, as well as rows of teeth in
Q Were long necks useful?
their cheeks for grinding them down. Some long-necked dinosaurs
Each tooth was coarsely serrated. Years of A probably lifted their heads to reach
grinding tough plants wore teeth down. high up in the trees. Others, such as this
Those shown here are from an Iguanodon. Thecodontosaurus, may also have used them
One is in good condition; the other is worn. to reach into the middle of low-growing
plants. Thecodontosaurus was a likely
Lower tooth Worn lower ancestor of the sauropods and
tooth had a much shorter neck than its
Thecodontosaurus
later relatives.
Long claws for
hooking plants

More Facts
n As the plant-eaters’ teeth wore down,
new ones grew to replace them.
n Duck-billed dinosaur Edmontosaurus
had about 1,000 teeth in its cheeks,
more than any other dinosaur.
Cheek teeth for n Many of the plants that dinosaurs ate,
grinding food
such as ginkgo and ferns, are still
common today.
n Fish-eating sea creature Elasmosaurus
had a neck 23 ft (7 m) long, half its
Iguanodon skull body length. It probably used this
long neck to ambush fish swimming
above it.

Q Did plant-eaters Elasmosaurus

swallow stones?
A These smooth stones, known
as gastroliths, were recovered from the
skeletons of various sauropods. Perhaps
the dinosaurs had deliberately swallowed
stones to aid their digestion. The stones
might have stayed in a dinosaur’s
digestive system, grinding up the Gastroliths
vegetation that it swallowed.
However, it is more than likely
that raw vegetation was broken
down by special bacteria, as happens
in the stomachs of cows.

37
 Where did
plant-eaters live?
During the 160 million years that dinosaurs existed, new
landmasses appeared and different habitats were created.
The herbivores, along with carnivores, lived in most of them,
although tropical forest was a favored habitat for big sauropods.
Some plant-eaters adapted to extreme conditions, while others
Paralititan
may have moved on to find new lands. Whether in a forest or a
windswept plain, many of the herbivores spent their lives with each
other, perhaps even living in herds of thousands.

Q How had the Cretaceous

landscape changed? Earth EUROPE Q Did some dinosaurs
A By the Cretaceous Period, the H migrate?
RT CA A Some people think that herds
world’s landmass was splitting into O ERI Te
N
M t h of Pachyrhinosaurus used to trek about
continents, which looked closer to those A
AS

y
2,200 miles (3,500 km) from northern
IA

that we recognize today. New groups of

s

dinosaurs arose in different places. The AFRICA Alaska to Canada each autumn to escape
S e

horned dinosaurs, for example, emerged INDIA the cold, dark winters. The herds would
AMERICA

have returned to Alaska to feed on the

SOUTH

in Asia, but crossed into North America,

LIA

where they were able to flourish. lush plants that grew there in the spring.
STRA
AU

I CA
ANTARCT Pachyrhinosaurus

38
 Q Did sauropods
live together? Barosaurus
A Evidence suggests that many types
of plant-eating dinosaurs, including
sauropods such as Barosaurus, lived
together in herds. Being part of a group
usually gives an individual animal greater
protection against predators. It is also
possible that sauropods were sociable
animals. A herd may have contained a
number of family groups that roamed
the countryside together.

More Facts
n Sauropods were more comfortable
in forest habitats because the trees
shaded their huge bodies from the Sun.
n Leaellynasaura lived within the
Antarctic Circle, where there was little
Q Did plant-eaters ever
live in trees?
sunlight in winter. Experts believe the A When fossils of the ornithopod
dinosaur must have been warm-
Hypsilophodon were discovered in 1849,
blooded to survive the dark and cold.
paleontologists believed that this small
plant-eater lived in trees. They thought it
used its long tail for balancing while it
clung onto branches with its sharp toes.
Corythosaurus Now experts are convinced that none of
Leaellynasaura
the plant-eaters lived in trees, although
Q Who chose to live some of the smaller meat-eaters may have
near swamps? been tree-dwellers.
A Fossils of Corythosaurus and other
n Among the first dinosaur fossils to
hadrosaurs (sometimes called duck-billed be studied were those of the plant-
dinosaurs) have been discovered in rocks eater Iguanodon.
that were laid down in swamps. People
n All the bird-hipped, or ornithischian, Hypsilophodon
once supposed that the hadrosaurs fed on
dinosaurs were plant-eaters.
water plants that grew in swamps, like the
modern North American moose. Experts n In the Cretaceous Period, sauropods
now believe hadrosaurs spent most of declined in North America, but
their time on dry land. flourished in southern continents.

39
 Methods
of defense
How did plant-eaters fight back? 42
Did body armor really help? 44
Were frills defensive? 46
How did dinosaurs escape danger? 48
 How did plant-eaters
fight back? Pointed scutes (bony
plates) ran in rows

To defend themselves against predators, the different plant-eating dinosaurs

developed an impressive armory of weapons. The ankylosaur Euoplocephalus
had a ball of thickened bone at the end of its tail, which it could swing at
attackers. The stegosaurs had tails studded with daggerlike spikes for
stabbing attackers, while the sauropods’ size was their main defense.
Some dinosaurs had features that puzzle paleontologists,
because it is unclear whether they were weapons or
merely tools for feeding.

Euoplocephalus

Muscular tail
Thickened
bone

Short and broad

Huayangosaurus three-toed feet
Long neck

Q Could a sauropod
crush an attacker?
A A big sauropod, such as Barosaurus,
had one decisive weapon against even
the largest theropods—sheer weight.
Its 20-ton body could easily crush the
bones and suck the air from the lungs of
Barosaurus a 3-ton Allosaurus. Barosaurus may have
resorted to crushing attackers in
extreme circumstances, such as
to protect its young.

Q Which dinosaurs had

a display of spikes? Strong, thin tail
A A group of dinosaurs called
stegosaurs are characterized by
Allosaurus
their spiked tails and plated backs.
Huayangosaurus was an early stegosaur,
living some 20 million years before
its more famous American relative
Stegosaurus. It may have used its tail spikes
to deter attack from larger carnivores.

42
 Flexible armored Protective
bands spikes

Kentrosaurus

Q Which was the

spikiest dinosaur?
A Kentrosaurus, meaning “spiked
lizard,” was certainly one of the spikiest.
It was an East African stegosaur, which
measured about 16 ft (5 m) long. Pairs of
bone plates protected its neck, shoulders,
and back. Six pairs of spikes—each
of which was up to 2 ft (60 cm) in
length—adorned its lower back and tail.
Kentrosaurus would have used these spikes
to fend off theropods, such as Allosaurus.

Toothless Q Which dinosaur had

beak a thumb spike?
A Iguanodon was a large herbivore
Blunt nails without spines, plates, or claws. Its only
defensive weapon was a single long spike
Sturdy legs on each thumb. Paleontologists believe
Therizinosaurus this dinosaur may have jabbed at attacking
theropods with the spike. Iguanodon had
unusually flexible hands and was able to
grasp food in its fingers.

More Facts
n Diplodocus may have flicked its long
tail like a whip, causing serious
damage to attackers.
n Dinosaur fossils often show evidence of
fighting in the form of broken bones.
n Like some dinosaurs, modern iguanas
have a row of spikes on their necks and
backs to deter attacks from predators.
Q How useful were Iguanodon
Land iguana massive claws?
A Therizinosaurus had three huge,
lethal-looking claws on each hand. However,
some experts think the claws were too blunt
to be used as weapons. Instead, they may
have been used for feeding—to pluck foliage
from trees or to rip open the nests of
termites. If so, how this dinosaur defended Thumb spike
up to 6 in
itself remains a mystery. (15 cm) in
length

43
 Did body armor
really help? Neck scutes

Many dinosaurs had some protective armor, Edmontonia

but the ankylosaurs were the most heavily

armored of all. Some were covered in a
mosaic of bony plates and studs, and many
bristled with spines and spikes, too. Only their bellies
were unprotected, and ankylosaurs may have crouched Q What was the armor
to avoid exposing them when attacked. It would have made of?
A The flat plates embedded in the
taken a hungry theropod to tackle spiky Gastonia, skin of the ankylosaurs are known as scutes
which may have responded by driving its shoulder by paleontologists. The ankylosaurs’ armor
spines into its attacker’s leg. of scutes, studs, and spikes was made of
hardened bone, sometimes covered in horn.
Edmontonia had scutes around its shoulders
and along its tail, as well as triangular spikes
on its back.

Curved dorsal
spines

Broad, flat
spikes

Horny, toothless
beak

Broad foot Gastonia

44
 Hard head

Pachycephalosaurus

Heavy tail

Powerful legs

Q What was a nasal boss?

One of the horned dinosaurs,
A Pachyrhinosaurus, has a name that
means “thick-nosed lizard.” On its nose—
where its cousins had a sharp horn—
Pachyrhinosaurus had a big bony knob. This Q Which dinosaur is
was the nasal boss. Rival family members Ankylosaur skin bone-headed?
A Pachycephalosaurus was an ugly
may have scrapped with each other, using
beast. It had a dome-shaped head edged
their nasal bosses as weapons.
with horny bumps, and several short bony
spikes on its nose. The dome was made
Pachyrhinosaurus of solid bone, which was a whopping
10 in (25 cm) thick. Pachycephalosaurus
may have used its head as a battering
Lump of
ram against attacking predators—or
thick bone each other.

Q Were any sauropods

armored?
A Although most of the sauropods
relied on their size to defend themselves,

More Facts Q Who had

some of them were lightly armored, too.
Saltasaurus had two types of armor. Its
n Some ankylosaurs were so well- bulletproof skin? back and neck were covered in fist-sized
protected they even had bony eyelids. A Recent research has shown that the bony scutes, and much smaller lumps
skin on the backs and tails of some of the toughened the skin all over its body.
n Dinosaur remains were first found in
ankylosaurs was virtually bullet-proof—
Antarctica in 1986, with the discovery
and certainly tooth-proof. The big scutes,
of the bulky ankylosaur Antarctopelta.
smaller irregular plates, and the hexagonal
n Psephoderma was a marine reptile. plates interlocked to make the skin so
Its body was covered in heavy tough and light that experts have likened
hexagonal plates, like a modern turtle.
it to fiberglass.
Saltasaurus

Psephoderma Bony scutes

Smaller lumps
Shorter neck
than other
sauropods

45
Were frills defensive?
The plated and horned groups of dinosaurs developed some
impressive features. They had great frills edged with studs and
spikes around their heads, or triangular plates of skin and bone
along their backs. Some were used in fighting. But experts believe
that some dinosaur features were just for display. Like a peacock’s
colorful fan of feathers, a male Pentaceratops’s head frill may have
been used to help it attract a mate.
Styracosaurus
skull

Q Which dinosaur had the

spikiest frill?
Large neck frill A Styracosaurus was one of the
most spectacular looking of the horned
dinosaurs. Its head broadened into a
Pentaceratops large frill that covered the back of its
neck. Six long spikes flared from the
top of the frill, and the sides were edged
with studs. Styracosaurus also had a big
horn on its snout, but seemingly no horns
above its eyes.

Plain, bulky body

 Q Could a skull be Long spikes
a battering ram?
A Triceratops, or “three-horned face,” Large
nose horn
had a short nose horn and two long horns
above its eyes. Its neck frill was edged
with bony studs. About 50 Triceratops
skulls have been discovered, and many
of them show scarring. This is strong
Styracosauruses
evidence that the dinosaur used its tough
skull as a weapon against larger predators.

Q Did horned dinosaurs

fight each other?
More Facts
A The horned dinosaurs would n The plant-eating dinosaur
have fought off attacking theropods, Protoceratops had a neck frill, but
Horns Triceratops
skull but they probably also clashed with the males had much bigger frills than
each other. They may have crashed their the females. This supports the idea
that frills attracted females.
heads together, damaging each other’s
frills with their horns and spikes, or n The head of Styracosaurus was taller
Eye
socket locked horns and shoved. Such battles than an average-sized man!
would have been fought over territory n Some dinosaurs, including
or potential mates. Stegoceras, had bony thickenings
on their skulls. They were
Arched too fragile to provide
back
Large, bony self-defense and
plates were probably used
to attract mates.

Sharp tail Stegoceras

Heavy build

Q Which dinosaur had a

main sail?
A The big carnivore Spinosaurus had
spines up to 6 ft (2 m) long along its back.
Stegosaurus
These were connected by skin, making the
feature look like a sail. This sail may have
helped Spinosaurus keep cool in the hot
African climate, or simply been used for
display—to attract a mate.
Q What were Stegosaurus’s
plates for?
A The bony plates running along
Stegosaurus’s back were almost certainly
not weapons. Experts think they were
covered in skin, making them quite soft,
with blood vessels (veins) inside. If this
is correct, the plates may have helped to
regulate body temperature. They would
have absorbed the Sun’s heat, warming
up Stegosaurus. Spinosaurus

47
How did dinosaurs
escape danger?
When threatened, animals will try to avoid a fight, and dinosaurs
probably behaved much like other animals. Gallimimus was one of
the fastest dinosaurs, possibly sprinting at speeds of up to 50 mph
(80 km/h) to outrun predators. Other dinosaurs found different ways
to keep out of harm’s way. Some developed skin that was colored and
patterned to blend in with their environments. Others kept to
the safety of the herd. A few dinosaurs could even
make sounds that signaled the approach of danger.
Gallimimus Flexible
neck

Q How did dinosaurs

Tube of sound out a warning? Claws
nasal bones A Duck-billed dinosaur on wing
Parasaurolophus may have used its skull
to communicate with other dinosaurs.
Q Could any
The unusual crest on this dinosaur’s dinosaurs
Parasaurolophus
head consisted of tubes connected to A fly away?
its nostrils. By blowing through its Dinosaurs are usually described as
crest and nose, Parasaurolophus land animals, but one species became
could have made a trumpeting so birdlike that it was able
noise, perhaps to warn that to fly. Experts are not sure
predators were nearby. whether to describe
Archaeopteryx as a
bird or a dinosaur.
It was certainly
capable of flying from
danger, but unlike modern birds it had
teeth, a bony tail, and clawed wings.
 Q Was there safety in
numbers?
A Dinosaurs living in herds would More Facts
probably have been much safer than those n The fossil remains of the tiny dinosaur,
that lived alone. If a herd of Triceratops was Microraptor, were first described in
being stalked by a predator, for example, 2000. It could climb trees and
the adults could threaten to charge, while possibly escape danger by gliding
keeping their young well inside the group. through the air from branch to branch.
Triceratops may also have been able to run n Desert hunter Herrerasaurus may
at speeds of 15 mph (25 km/h). have had a sandy-colored skin with
irregular stripes to stop it standing out
in the barren landscape.
Triceratops

Long tail
for balance Birdlike
while running beak

Herrerasaurus

n Fossil evidence shows that some

dinosaurs lived in groups. This includes
fossils of the same dinosaur species
found together, the fossilized
trackways of dinosaurs traveling in
herds, and groups of fossilized nests.

Q Did dinosaurs use

camouflage?
A No one can know for sure
Feathers attached Tiger
to bony tail
whether dinosaurs were plain or
stripes
patterned, because color fades away
quickly and skin decomposes soon
after death. However, it is highly
Archaeopteryx
likely that many dinosaurs
would have skin colors and patterns
that helped them to merge with their
environment. A dinosaur living in Velociraptor
scrubland, such as Velociraptor, may Green and
have been any one of a variety of colors. lizardlike
Lightly built
body

Long wing feathers

typical of flying birds
Spotty skin
pattern

49
End of an era
What killed the dinosaurs? 52
Who was top predator after T. rex? 54
Which animals are as old as dinosaurs? 56
Are birds related to dinosaurs? 58
 What killed the Q What is an asteroid?
An asteroid is a rocky object—
A smaller than a planet—that orbits

dinosaurs? the Sun. Every so often, their orbits bring

some asteroids crashing into the Earth’s
surface. Although most are too small to
Some 65 million years ago, a catastrophic event occurred that wiped cause long-term damage, the massive
asteroid that probably caused the
out more than half of all life on Earth, including the dinosaurs. Most Cretaceous mass extinction made
experts believe this mass extinction was caused by an enormous a crater 112 miles (180 km) wide.
asteroid crashing into the Earth. So much dust was blasted into
the atmosphere that day became night for months on end and the Asteroid impact
temperatures plummeted. Close to the impact site the landscape
was devastated, and dying dinosaurs would have stumbled
around looking in vain for food and shelter.

Triceratops was one of the

last survivors

Tyrannosaurus
Q What else might have rex
happened?
A No one can be sure that an
asteroid collision alone was the cause of
the dinosaurs’ extinction. Scientists also
think that at the end of the Cretaceous
Period there were numerous volcanic
eruptions in India. These might have
polluted the atmosphere with so much dust
that the Sun’s rays could not penetrate, and
many creatures may have died of cold.

Erupting volcano

52
 Pterodactylus
Mosasaurus

Q Did flying Q What happend to

reptiles all die? marine animals?
A Throughout the time of A When seas still teemed with life,
the dinosaurs, the skies were filled the most dominant groups of sea creatures
with flying reptiles, but no pterosaurs were the dinosaurs’ distant relatives,
survived the mass extinction. Reptiles
would never take to the skies again and
marine reptiles. Like the dinosaurs,
the marine reptiles, such as Mosasaurus, More Facts
no human would see a Pterodactylus or a were all killed in the extinction event. n One early theory suggested that the
Quetzalcoatlus, the largest flying animal Many other sea creatures died out or dinosaurs’ extinction was caused by
ever, swooping overhead. were seriously diminished, although fish mammals eating all their eggs.
were mostly unaffected.

Ichthyornis

n Many of the early birds, such as this

Ichthyornis, became extinct, although
others survived.
n A study of leaf fossils in North Dakota
showed that 85 percent of plants
there vanished at the end of the
Cretaceous Period.
n Sea crocodiles died out, but river
crocodiles continued life as normal.

Q Which meat-eaters were Q Which plant-eaters Ankylosaurus

the last survivors? survived to the end?
A The big theropod T. rex was among A The ankylosaurs were some
the last meat-eating dinosaurs to walk the of the last herbivorous dinosaurs.
Earth. After the asteroid impact, dead and It is possible that smaller plant-
dying animals would have been plentiful, eaters close to the spot where the
so it is unlikely T. rex died of hunger. It asteroid hit escaped harm by
is possible that, together with other burrowing into the ground. In the
dinosaurs, T. rex died out because long term, these plant-eaters would
the low temperatures made all have gone hungry because many plants
hatchlings female. were damaged or destroyed by the lack
of light and heat.

53
 Who was top predator Heavy body
covered in
dense fur

after T. rex?
It was millions of years before big animals reappeared following the
mass extinction. While the dinosaurs were alive, mammals remained
relatively small, but they gradually evolved to replace dinosaurs as
the dominant land animals. Hoofed beast Andrewsarchus became the
biggest carnivorous land mammal ever. However, these large
mammals faced competition from an unlikely source when
birds also evolved into fierce predators.

Q What did predatory

mammals eat?
A Andrewsarchus would have been able
to hunt down plant-eating mammals,
resembling this early hoofed herbivore
called Phenacodus. About the size of a
sheep, Phenacodus was lightly built so it
stood some chance of escaping a predator.
It probably lived in herds and kept to Andrewsarchus
forests for feeding and shelter.

Powerful jaw
Phenacodus muscles

Huge canine teeth for

crunching through bone
Toes tipped with
short hooves

Uintatherium

Q When did big plant-

eaters reappear?
A Some 20 million years after the
mass extinction, big plant-eating animals
were back on the scene. Uintatherium was
about the size and shape of a rhinoceros
and had pillarlike, weight-bearing legs.
It had three pairs of horns on its head
and tusklike canine teeth, which it
probably used for fighting. Uintatherium
lived on a diet of leaves and fruit.

54
 Q When did bats first
appear?
A Ten million years after the
disappearance of the pterosaurs, the first
flying mammals appeared. Bats have
changed little since then and are still the
only flying mammals. Many bats are
nocturnal and use their special sense of
Thick, hearing to find their way and locate prey
long tail in the dark.

Large ears for

hearing high-
frequency sounds

Icaronycteris
Strong limbs to support
its heavy weight

More Facts Ambulocetus

n Many bird groups evolved,including

modern ones, such as owls, swifts, Q Did early mammals
herons, and eagles. live in water?
A This animal looks like an otter,
n Early penguins included some giant but was, in fact, a very early whale.
forms that grew up to 5 ft (1.5 m) tall.
Although Ambulocetus could walk on dry
n Fossil records show that ferns were land, it was also a powerful swimmer,
the first plants to return after the showing how whales evolved from land- Massive
mass extinction. dwelling mammals. It would take about beak for
10 million years before watery mammals, tearing flesh
Tree fern
such as Ambulocetus, evolved into the
whales that we recognize today.

Q Which birds were

predators?
A Large, carnivorous, flightless
birds became some of the world’s fiercest
predators. Titanis, or “terror bird,” was
about 7 ft (2 m) tall and had a sharp,
Titanis
hooked beak and huge claws. Titanis
hunted small mammals on North
America’s open plains, where it competed
with the big carnivorous mammals to be
top predator. Claws for
seizing prey

55
 Crocodile

Which animals are

as old as dinosaurs?
Even though dinosaurs were around for 160 million years, other
animals have survived for as long, or even longer. Ancient animals
live everywhere—on land, in the sky, and in the seas and rivers.
Many of them have changed little from their prehistoric forms—
crocodilians have not needed to adapt since Cretaceous times.
If their habitats are preserved, these animals could continue living
for millions more years.

Q Did any land reptiles

Delicate wings
strengthened by
fine veins survive the extinction?
A Small lizards lived throughout the
Heavily
Dragonfly
Mesozoic Era, and they are still with us armored skin
today. Paleontologists are not sure why
these reptiles were unaffected by whatever
killed the dinosaurs. It is possible that
when many plants had died lizards
burrowed into the ground and
hibernated to escape the hazardous
surface conditions.

Q Which are the most

successful animals?
A Insects are the most numerous
and diverse animals that have ever existed Feet designed
on Earth. There are millions of different Iguana for running
on land
insect species and some of them have
existed, relatively unchanged, since
before the time of the dinosaurs. The
oldest dragonfly fossil ever found is about
320 million years old, and dragonflies are
still a common sight today.

Scaly skin
typical of
lizards

56
 Venom is Cockroach
injected from
the tail

Short,
sturdy limbs
Tough shell
protects soft
body parts

Scorpion Q Are cockroaches

indestructible?
A Cockroaches could be the
most hardy of all insects. They eat
Q How ancient almost anything, but they can also
are arachnids?
A Fossil evidence suggests survive without food for about
that arachnids—the animal group that a month. They can even recover
includes spiders and scorpions—are more after being frozen. Cockroaches live
than 400 million years old. There are everywhere except the polar regions.
hundreds of thousands of species today. They have existed for 300 million years.
All of them are predators, killing by
injecting deadly chemicals, called venom,
into their prey. The venom of some
Broad,
powerful jaw scorpions can kill humans. Great white
shark

Q Which are the oldest

sea creatures?
A Marine invertebrates (animals
without backbones), including clams and
jellyfish, are the oldest. However, the
most ancient big sea animal is
undoubtedly the shark. These
formidable fish have
survived more than
400 million years of history,
including the Cretaceous extinction.

What is a crocodilian?
This is the name for a group of archosaurs
1 Geosaurus was an aquatic
crocodilian of the Jurassic
Period. Instead of the heavy
Deinosuchus

made up of crocodiles and their relatives. armor that most crocodilians

The first crocodilians appeared about the have, Geosaurus had smooth
same time as the dinosaurs and lived on land. skin, making it a more agile
Soon, they evolved to live in seas and rivers. swimmer than its relatives.

Today, there are 23 crocodilian species. Geosaurus

2 At about 50 ft (15 m) in length,

Deinosuchus was one of the biggest
crocodilians. Its powerful jaws could
probably crush a large dinosaur.

57
 Are birds related Keen eyes Slender

to dinosaurs? to spot prey head

A heron may not look like a dinosaur, but striking similarities

exist between birds and dinosaurs. In recent years,
new evidence has confirmed the link between
them. Dinosaur fossils have been found that
prove some species had distinctly birdlike
features, and bird fossils have shown that the earliest birds had
dinosaurlike attributes, too. Paleontologists think that a particular
group of dinosaurs evolved into the thousands of bird species that
exist today. Though we will never see a living dinosaur,
we can see their descendants in the skies above us.

Jaw lined with

sharp teeth
Stiff tail

Compsognathus Q How are dinosaur and

bird bones similar?
A Like birds, many dinosaurs had
lightweight bones. Most animals have
sturdy bones, but the bones of some
dinosaurs and pterosaurs contained
air-filled cavities to lessen the creature’s
weight. This was a vital asset for flying.
There is another remarkable similarity— More Facts
the skeletons of early birds and some
n In the far distant past only
theropods are almost identical.
about one bird species became
extinct every century, but
today the rate is about
100 times that.
n This fossil of the
feathered carnivore
Archaeopteryx (meaning
Q Which dinosaurs do “ancient wing”) was
birds come from? discovered in 1861,
A Paleontologists think and was later bought
birds evolved from a group of small, by a German museum.
nimble, carnivorous theropods called Archaeopteryx n The smallest dinosaur
maniraptorans. Members of this group, fossil remains
relative in the sky today is
such as Compsognathus, are characterized
the bee hummingbird of Cuba, which
by several birdlike features, including long
weighs just 0.07 oz (1.95 g).
legs and feet. Most importantly, they
seized prey with arms that worked very
much like wings. Lightweight
bird bone

58
 Q When did the first Hooked point
Dodo
true bird appear? at end of bill
A Confuciusornis was the first known
bird to have a horny toothless beak,
like modern birds, although it still
had dinosaurlike claws on its wing
feathers. It appeared in Cretaceous Claws attached Tiny,
China about 120 million years ago. to wings flightless
Experts believe it had a different flying wings
technique from that of birds today. Confuciusornis

Its large toes suggest that it could

probably walk and climb, too.

Q Why have so many bird

species died out?
A There are fewer than 10,000
bird species in the world today, but other
Warm feathers species existed according to fossil
covering body records. Most of these died out naturally,
but more recently, birds have become
extinct because of human activities. In the
Q Which dinosaur looks 17th century, the flightless dodo was one of
like a bird? the first birds to die out because of hunting
A When its fossil was discovered in and the introduction of other predators, such
1998, experts debated whether Shuvuuia as pigs. Loss of habitat is another main reason
was a birdlike dinosaur or a dinosaurlike that birds become extinct.
bird. Despite its birdlike features,
including a coat of downy feathers, most
paleontologists identified Shuvuuia as a
member of a distinct group of theropod
dinosaurs, characterized by their
short, powerful arms. Shuvuuia
may have used its arms to rip
open termite nests.

Insect preserved
in amber
Body shape
Heron similar to a
modern bird Q Could dinosaurs
ever return?
A In the 1993 film Jurassic Park,
Long legs for experts brought dinosaurs back to
fast running
life with dinosaur DNA taken from
the body of a mosquito preserved in
amber. In reality, any dinosaur DNA
would almost certainly be too small a
sample and too broken up to recreate
a dinosaur. However, technology is always
improving and dinosaur fossils are still
being discovered...
Three-toed
clawed feet Shuvuuia

59
 Index
nA
 ceratopsians, 38 dragonflies, 56 ginkgo trees, 36, 37
Albertosaurus, 22 Chasmatosaurus, 11 droppings, fossilized, 29 grass, 36
Allosaurus, 23, 24, 25, Chindeasaurus, 16 Dryosaurus, 35 grinding plant food, 37
35, 42 claws, 10, 11, 17, 24, duck-billed, see hadrosaurs groups, 15, 16, 49
Ambulocetus, 55 28, 43, 55
ammonites, 12 cockroaches, 57
Anchisaurus, 14 Coelophysis, 12 nE
 nH

ancient animals, 56–57 coexistence, 15, 17 Edmontonia, 44 habitats, 38, 39
Andrewsarchus, 54 cold-blooded, 11 Edmontosaurus, 37 hadrosaurs, 16, 19,
ankylosaurs, 34, 44, 45, Compsognathus, 58 eggs, 18, 19, 53 38, 39
53 Confuciusornis, 59 Elasmosaurus, 37 hands, 10, 11, 43
Antarctopelta, 45 coniferous trees, 36 Eocursor, 17 hearts, 34
arachnids, 57 coprolites, 29 Eoraptor, 10, 14, 22 herbivores, 24, 28, 29,
Archaeopteryx, 15, 48, 58 Corythosaurus, 15, 39 Eozostrodon, 17 53, 54
archosaurs, 11, 57 crests, 47, 48 escaping danger, 48–49 herds, 24, 38, 39, 49
Arctic Circle, 39 Cretaceous Period, 15, 33, Euplocephalus, 42 Herrerasaurus, 13, 14, 49
Argentinosaurus, 13, 32 38, 39, 52 Europlocephalus, 15 hind legs, 35
armory of weapons, 42 crocodiles, 10, 25, 53, 56 evolution: hip bones, 16
arms, tiny, 26 crocodilians, 56, 57 dinosaurs, 11, 14, horned dinosaurs, 45,
asteroid collision, 52 crocodylomorph, 57 15, 34 46, 47
asteroids, 52 crushing attackers, 42 mammals and birds, 54 horns, 46, 47
attracting mates, 46, 47 extinction: Huayangosaurus, 42
birds, 58, 59 hunters, 23, 24–25, 54
nD
 dinosaurs, 14, 52, 53 Hypsilophodon, 39
nB
 danger, escaping, 48–49 eyes, 23, 27
baby dinosaurs, 18, 19 defense, 42–43
backbone, 15, 33 Deinonychus, 15, 24, 25 n I , J,K
Baronyx, 15, 28 Deinosuchus, 57 nF
 Icaronycteris, 55
Barosaurus, 10, 15, 36, dicynodonts, 14 fangs, 25 Ichthyornis, 53
39, 42 diet, 28, 29, 54 fastest dinosaurs, 27 iguanas, 43, 56
bats, 55 digestive systems, 36, 37 feathers, 11, 27, 58 Iguanodon, 15, 24, 37,
battering ram, 45, 47 Dilophosaurus, 14 feet, 10, 11, 22 39, 43
beaks, first, 59 Dimorphodon, 28 female dinosaurs, 18–19 insects, 56
bipedal, 17, 22 dinosaur DNA, 59 ferns, 36, 37, 55 invertebrates, 57
bird-hipped dinosaurs, dinosaur poo, 29 fighting 43, 46, 47 jaws, 12, 22, 25, 27
16, 39 dinosaurs, 10–11, 14–15, fish-eating dinosaurs, Jurassic Park, 59
birds, 48, 53, 54, 55, 16–17 28, 29 Jurassic Period, 14
58–59 body temperature, 11 flowering plants, 36 Kentrosaurus, 43
extinction, 58, 59 earliest, 10 flying creatures, 11, 48 killers, 22–23, 24–25
predatory, 55 identifying remains, 12 flying mammals, 55
related to dinosaurs, 58 lifespan, 15 flying reptiles, 11, 28, 53
true, 59 meaning of word, 11 food, finding 36–37 nL

birth, 18–19 most common, 16 footprints, 35 landmasses, 16, 38
body armor, 44–45 naming dinosaurs, 13 fossils 12, 13, 35, 56, 58 landscape, 38
bone-headed, 45 re-creating dinosaurs, 59 first to be studied, 39 Leaellynosaura, 39
bones, 13, 15, 32, 58 related to birds, 58 four-legged dinosaurs, legs, 10, 35
bony plates, see plates sex of, 19 28, 32 Lesothosaurus, 14
Brachiosaurus, 32, 34 smallest, 17 frills, 46 Liopleurodon, 25
brain, biggest, 23 two main types, 16 lizard-hipped dinosaurs, 16,
Brontosaurus, 35 weirdest, 17 22, 32
what killed them off, nG
 lizards, 32, 56
52–53 Gallimimus, 29, 48 Lystrosaurus, 14
nC
 when they lived, 14–15 Gargoyleosaurus, 34
Camarasaurus, 34 where they lived, 16 Gastonia, 44
camouflage, 49 Diplodocus, 33, 35, 43 gastroliths, 37 nM

carnivores, 22–23, 24–25, diseases, 15 Geosaurus, 57 Magyarosaurus, 33
28–29 display, 46 Giganotosaurus, 10, Maiasaura, 19
Carnotaurus, 22 dodo, 59 23, 25 Mamenchisaurus, 33
60
mammals, 17, 53, 54, plant-eaters, 14, 34, scavengers, 26, 27 top predators after T. rex,
55 53, 54 scorpions, 57 54–55
as prey, 29 as prey, 23 scutes, 44, 45 trees, 36, 37, 39
maniraptors, 58 defense, 42–43 sea creatures, oldest, 57 Triassic Period, 14
marine reptiles, 45, 52, finding food, 36–37 Seismosaurus, 32 Triceratops, 13, 15, 47, 49
53 teeth, 37 sharks, 57 Troodon, 18, 19, 23
mass extinction, 52 walking, 32 Shuvuuia, 59 trumpeting noise, 48
meat-eaters, 22, 53 where they lived, 38–39 size of dinosaurs, 16, 17, Tuojiangosaurus, 13
Megalosaurus, 12, 22, plants, 36, 37, 53 32, 33, 34 two-legged dinosaurs,
39 plated dinosaurs, 42, skeletons, 12, 13, 58 22, 28
Megazostrodon, 29 46, 47 replica, 13 tyrannosaurs, 26
Mesozoic Era, 14, 17, Plateosaurus, 14 skin, 33, 45, 48, 49 Tyrannosaurus rex, 23,
56 plates, 44, 45, 46, 47 skulls, 47, 48 26–27, 53
Microraptor, 17 polluted atmosphere, 52 smell, sense of, 27 feet, 11, 22
migration, 38 Protoceratops, 15, 16, 47 sounds, 48 teeth, 25
mineralization, 13 Psephoderma, 45 species, 14, 15
Mosasaurus, 53 Pterodactylus, 53 speed of dinosaurs, 27, 35,
movement, 22, 35 pterosaurs, 11, 53, 58 48, 49 n U, V
Mussaurus, 32 prey, 24, 29 spiders, 57 Uintatherium, 54
prosauropod group, 32 spikes, 42, 43, 44, 46 Velociraptor, 11, 15,
spines, 44, 47 24, 49
nN
 , O Spinosaurus, 29, 47 venom, 57
nasal boss, 45 nQ
 , R stalkers, 24, 49 vertebrae, 15, 33
necks, 32, 33, 37 quadrupedal, 32 stegosaurs, 14, 42, 43
nests, 18, 19 Quetzalcoatlus, 53 Stegosaurus, 14, 23, 47
oldest sea creatures, 57 reptiles, 10, 11, 56 stones, to aid digestion, 37 nW
 , Y
olfactory lobe, 27 Rhamphorhynchus, 11 studs, 44, 46, 47 walking, 10, 32
omnivores, 28, 29 running, 22, 35 Styracosaurus, 46, 47 warm-blooded, 11, 39
ornithopods, 38, 39 Suchomimus, 28 watery mammals, 55
Ornitholestes, 27 swamps, 39 weapons, for defense, 42
ornithischians, 16 nS
 Syntarsus, 29 whales, early, 55
Oviraptor, 19 sails, 47 wings, 11, 48, 59
Saltasaurus, 32, 33, 35, 45 wishbone, 58
Santanaraptor, 23 nT
 young dinosaurs, 19, 28
nP
 saurischians, 16, 39 tails, 10, 32, 33, 42, 43
Pachycephalosaurus, 45 sauropods, 32–33, teeth, 22, 25, 28, 29, 37
Pachyrhinosaurus, 38, 34–35, 39 Tenontosaurus, 24
45 armor, 45 Thecodontosaurus, 37
paleontology, 12, 13 diet, 36, 37 Therizinosaurus, 17, 43
Pangaea, 16 eggs, 18, 19 theropods, 22–23, 25, 34,
Paralititan, 32, 38 habitats, 39 53
Parasaurolophus, 48 herds, 39 thumb spike, 43
Pentaceratops, 46 weight, as a weapon, Titanis, 55
Phenacodus, 54 42 toes, 35

Credits
The publisher would like to thank the
Robert L. Braun—modelmaker 6tl, 7b, 14br
(stegosaurus), 14cr, 44-45c, 47c, 47tr, 58cl;
Centaur Studios—modelmakers 15bl (baryonyx),
43br; Jonathan Hately—modelmaker 28t;
Graham High at Centaur Studios—modelmaker
4, 7t, 13br, 15fbr (triceratops), 26tl, 27br, 27tl,
London: 13clb. naturepl.com: Pete Oxford
58-59. Science Photo Library: David A.
Hardy, Futures: 50 Years In Space 52cra; S. R.
Maglione 46b (b/g).

Jacket images: Front: Corbis: Charles Platiau/

following for their kind permission to reproduce 48ftr, 48tr, 48-49tc, 49ftl, 49tl; Jeremy Hunt at Reuters. Back: DK Images: Bedrock Studios ftl;
their photographs: Centaur Studios—modelmaker 6bl, 10c, 36l; Jonathan Hateley- modelmaker bl; Natural History
Museo Arentino De Cirendas Naterales, Buenos Museum, London fclb. Spine: DK Images: Robert
Key: a=above; b=below/bottom; c=center; Aires 32tr, 33cr; Natural History Museum, L. Braun—modelmaker cb (Compsognathus).
l=left; r=right; t=top. London 5, 12br, 13cr, 19tr, 22tl, 23bc, 25br,
33ca, 39br, 45c, 47cla; Peabody Museum of All other images © Dorling Kindersley
Alamy Images: Mediacolor’s 38t (b/g); Natural History, Yale University 24bc; Royal Tyrell For further information see: www.dkimages.com
Natural History Museum, London 59tr. Museum 44tr; Gary Staab—modelmaker 6-7;
Corbis: Gunter Marx Photography 30-31 (b/g); State Museum of Nature, Stuttgart 12-13, 19cla,
Wolfgang Kaehler 19cra; William Manning 25cl; Dennis Wilson—Staab Studios 46bl, 46br; Dorling Kindersley would also like to thank
27clb; Alfio Scigliano/Sygma 52bl. Jerry Young 56-57c. Getty Images: Science Jenny Finch and Andrea Mills for their editorial
DK Images: American Museum of Natural Faction/Louie Psihoyos 35cla. help; Lynn Bresler for the index; Johnny Pau,
History 42bc, 46tr; Bedrock Studios 10-11, Natural Visions: Richard Coomber/Heather Marilou Prokopiou, and Duncan Shotton for
14-15t, 17br, 34-35, 35c, 55br, 55cra; Angel 48-49c (b/g). Natural History Museum, design assistance.

61
 Which dinosaur had the biggest brain?
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Learn how dinosaurs used teeth, claws, spikes,
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From dinosaurs that could see in the

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