I.

Introduction

II. Examine networking principles and their protocols (LO1)

1.Computer Network :

1.1Definition: A computer network is a group of two or more computers that

are linked together. Networks are usually used to share resources, exchange
files or communicate with other users. Typical library network, in a branching
tree map and controlled access to resources. A network is a set of nodes
connected by communication links.

2. Network types

2.1 Definition :

Two or more computers connected that allows sharing their data, resources, and
application is called a computer network. The vital computer network is divided into
four types based on their size and functions. They are LAN, MAN, PAN, and WAN.

Here LAN stands for Local Area Network,MAN stands for Metropolitan Area
Network, Personal Area Network is abbreviated into PAN whereas WAN is expanded
as Wide Area Network. PAN is further divided into Wired Personal Area Network and
Wireless Personal Area Network. There are many applications based on the computer
network and each of the broadly divided networks has unique features that are to be
applied accordingly for effective purpose.

1. LAN(Local Area Network)

LAN is expanded as Local Area Network where the pool of computers are linked to
each other in limited ranges like apartment and office premise. This computer network
connects the pool of computers via a communication device like coaxial cable, routers
and switches and twisted pairs.

It is available at low cost and built with cheaply available hardware such as ethernet
cables, network adapters, and hubs. Here the transfer rate of data is high with minimal
response time. This is a highly safe network less prone to hacks and data loss.
2. PAN(Personal Area Network)
PAN is expanded as Personal Area Network is configured in a person in range of
approximately ten meters and is mostly employed for connecting internet range for
personal usage. It has the coverage range to thirty meters. Personal equipment includes
desktop, laptop, smartphones, game stations, electronic gadgets, and music players.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

 Wireless Personal Area Network

 Wired Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is configured is

based on wireless technologies like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi which falls over a limited
range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is deployed by using
USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network

1. Body Area Network: Body Area Network moves along with a person like a
smartphone or a watch that moves with a person. He can also connect with other
people to interlink the device for sharing the data.

2. Offline Network: The offline network can be deployed inside the house which is
also called a home network. It is planned to connect with television, printers which are
not accessible to the internet.

3. Small Home Office: Small Home office is used to link the devices to cyberspace via
a VPN that is a virtual private network.

3. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

Metropolitan Area Network is called MAN which covers huge geographical areas by
connecting to various local area networks united to form a large network. The
government uses MAN to link private firms and people via websites or applications. In
the Metropolitan Area network, different LANs are interconnected via telephone
communication technology.

Here mostly telephone cables are used to connect LAN to form MAN. The protocols
applied widely in MAN are Frame Relay, ISDN, ATM, ADSL, and RS-232. MAN is
deployed mostly in Airline reservation and establish communication between banking
sectors in a city. It is also deployed in the Military range for effective communications.
It can also be deployed inside the collages within that town.
4. WAN(Wide Area Network)
Wireless Area Network provides services for the user to connect to wireless using
remote or public or private access. The connection is established in a huge geographic
range like a complete city that uses the current network structure of mobile operators.
The WAN started with a standard of 802.20 and is the goal is to achieve optimization
of Mobile Broadband Wireless Access which is called MBWA. This 802.20 standard
stands as a tough competitor for classical models of 2.5 and 3G.

The WWAN successfully made the possibility of superficial voice transfer. It is also
measured in GPS is Global positioning system, General Packet Radio Service is called
as GPRS is, EDGE is abbreviated from Enhanced Data rates for global evolution,
Universal mobile telecommunication system is known as UMTS, HSUPA is a high-
speed uplink packet and HSPDA is a high-speed downlink packet access.

 Example of Computer Network

 Different wireless networks offer an internet connection. If the user is within

the range, the internet connection to the network is very fast and gives quick
access to a mailbox, file downloads, storage, loading of websites and so on. The
typical difference to be stressed is coverage whereas one is set up in the home
and other is established over a town. Because of this major difference, Wireless
Wide Area Network cannot operate on the same technology as Wireless Local
Area Network does.
 LAN such as Wi-Fi has limited ranges and requires many nodes to cover a wide
area. WAN adopts telecommunication which is adaptable for wider coverage.
Since WAN covers a wider range simultaneously it implements security
protocols also. The security protocols employed are WPA and WEP. Even
though it’s advanced it is not a guaranteed option. But still few people use it as
unsecured networks as they are prone to vulnerable encryption. But they can
receive signals even though they use unsecured networks
  In simple, WAN and MAN use telecom while LAN and PAN don’t use it for its
operation. LAN and PAN are worked in a secure condition where WAN is not
that secure. PAN and LAN are faster than because of its coverage. LAN has
DLNA for its effective usage. If the user wants to set up an internet connection
in his home he can prefer PAN or LAN and if he wants to be the businessman
for internet service provider then he must choose WAN. Each has its unique
feature and adaptable according to its requirements
 The Effective performance of PAN or LAN has an import over WAN. Because
of the limited range, it covers a few people and focuses on operating speed with
high performance. But it is not related to network connection which has limited
than LAN or WAN speeds. PAN or LAN is adaptable for moving and hosting
files from one device or system to another and related applications.

Advantages
The advantages of network technology include the following.

 It is extremely flexible
 It improves communication & accessibility of information.
 It allows for convenient resource sharing.
 Files can be easily shared.
 It is less cost
 Storage capacity will be enhanced.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of network technology include the following.

 It lacks independence & robustness.

 It creates security difficulties
 It allows viruses & malware.
 It needs an efficient operator.
 It needs an exclusive set-up.

3. Network standards

3.1Definition

Networking standards define the rules for data communications that are needed for
interoperability of networking technologies and processes. Standards help in creating
and maintaining open markets and allow different vendors to compete on the basis of
the quality of their products while being compatible with existing market products.

3.2Types of Standards
Standards are of two types
 De facto − These are the standards that are followed without any formal plan or
approval by any organization. They have come into existence due to traditions
or facts. For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto standard.
  De jure − These standards are the ones which have been adopted through
legislation by any officially recognized standards organization. Most of the
communication standards that are used today are de jure standards.
3.3Standards Organizations
Some of the noted standards organizations are
 International Standards Organization (ISO)
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Internet Research Task Force (IETF)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

4.Network topology

4.1 Definition :

In computer networks, a topology is used to explain how a network is physically

connected and the logical flow of information in the network. A topology mainly
describes how devices are connected and interact with each other using
communication links. Network topology defines the layout, virtual shape, or structure
of the network, not only physically but also logically. A network can have one
physical topology and multiple logical topologies at the same time.

4.2 type of network topology

In computer networks, there are mainly two types of topologies, they are:

Physical Topology: A physical topology describes the way in which the computers or
nodes are connected with each other in a computer network. It is the arrangement of
various elements(link, nodes, etc.), including the device location and code installation
of a computer network. In other words, we can say that it is the physical layout of
nodes, workstations, and cables in the network.

Logical Topology: A logical topology describes the way, data flow from one computer
to another. It is bound to a network protocol and defines how data is moved throughout
the network and which path it takes. In other words, it is the way in which the devices
communicate internally.

Network topology defines the layout, virtual shape, or structure of the network, not
only physically but also logically. A network can have one physical topology and
multiple logical topologies at the same time.

In this blog, we will mainly concentrate on physical topologies. We'll learn about
different types of physical topologies, their advantages, and disadvantages.
In a computer network, there are mainly six types of physical topology, they are:

1.Bus Topology

2.Ring Topology

3.Star Topology

4.Mesh Topology

5.Tree Topology

6.Hybrid Topology

4.3 Definition and advantage , disadvantage

Bus Topology
Bus topology is the simplest kind of topology in which a common bus or channel is
used for communication in the network. The bus is connected to various taps and
droplines. Taps are the connectors, while droplines are the cables connecting the bus
with the computer. In other words, there is only a single transmission line for all
nodes.

When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but only the receiver
accepts it(verifying the mac address attached with the data frame) and others reject it.
Bus technology is mainly suited for small networks like LAN, etc.
In this topology, the bus acts as the backbone of the network, which joins every
computer and peripherals in the network. Both ends of the shared channel have line
terminators. The data is sent only in one direction and as soon as it reaches the end,
the terminator removes the data from the communication line(to prevent signal
bounce and data flow disruption).

In a bus topology, each computer communicates to another computer on the network

independently. Every computer can share the network's total bus capabilities. The
devices share the responsibility for the flow of data from one point to the other in the
network.

For Example Ethernet cable, etc.

Following are the advantages of Bus topology:

1. Simple to use and install.

2. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
3. Less cabling is required.
4. Cost-efficient to implement.
Following are the disadvantages of Bus topology:

1. Efficiency is less when nodes are more(strength of signal decreases).

2. If the bus fails, the network will fail.
3. A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to limited bus length.
4. Security issues and risks are more as messages are broadcasted to all nodes.
5. Congestion and traffic on the bus as it is the only source of communication.
Ring Topology
Ring topology is a topology in which each computer is connected to exactly two
other computers to form the ring. The message passing is unidirectional and circular
in nature.
This network topology is deterministic in nature, i.e., each computer is given access
for transmission at a fixed time interval. All the nodes are connected in a closed-
loop. This topology mainly works on a token-based system and the token travels in a
loop in one specific direction.

In a ring topology, if a token is free then the node can capture the token and attach
the data and destination address to the token, and then leaves the token for
communication. When this token reaches the destination node, the data is removed
by the receiver and the token is made free to carry the next data.

For Example, Token Ring, etc.

Following are the advantages of Ring topology:

1. Easy Installation.
2. Less Cabling Required.
3. Reduces chances of data collision(unidirectional).
4. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not pass the token).
5. Each node gets the same access time.
Following are the disadvantages of Ring topology:

1. If a node fails, the whole network will fail.

 2. Slow data transmission speed(each message has to go through the ring path).
3. Difficult to reconfigure(we have to break the ring).
Star Topology
Star topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are connected to
a centralized hub. The hub or switch acts as a middleware between the nodes. Any
node requesting for service or providing service, first contact the hub for
communication.

The central device(hub or switch) has point to point communication link(the

dedicated link between the devices which can not be accessed by some other
computer) with the devices. The central device then broadcast or unicast the message
based on the central device used. The hub broadcasts the message, while the switch
unicasts the messages by maintaining a switch table. Broadcasting increases
unnecessary data traffic in the network.

In a star topology, hub and switch act as a server, and the other connected devices act
as clients. Only one input-output port and one cable are required to connect a node to
the central device. This topology is better in terms of security because the data does
not pass through every node.

For Example High-Speed LAN, etc.

Following are the advantages of Star topology:

1. Centralized control.
2. Less Expensive.
3. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not give response).
4. Good fault tolerance due to centralized control on nodes.
5. Easy to scale(nodes can be added or removed to the network easily).
6. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
7. Easy to reconfigure and upgrade(configured using a central device).
Following are the disadvantages of Star topology:

1. If the central device fails, the network will fail.

2. The number of devices in the network is limited(due to limited input-output
port in a central device).

Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are interconnected
with each other. In other words, direct communication takes place between the nodes
in the network.
There are mainly two types of Mesh:

1. Full Mesh: In which each node is connected to every other node in the
network.
2. Partial Mesh: In which, some nodes are not connected to every node in the
network.
In a fully connected mesh topology, each device has a point to point link with every
other device in the network. If there are 'n' devices in the network, then each device
has exactly '(n-1)' input-output ports and communication links. These links are
simplex links, i.e., the data moves only in one direction. A duplex link(in which data
can travel in both the directions simultaneously) can replace two simplex links.

If we are using simplex links, then the number of communication links will be 'n(n-
1)' for 'n' devices, while it is 'n(n-1)/2' if we are using duplex links in the mesh
topology.

For Example, the Internet(WAN), etc.

Following are the advantages of Mesh topology:

1. Dedicated links facilitate direct communication.

2. No congestion or traffic problems on the channels.
3. Good Fault tolerance due to the dedicated path for each node.
4. Very fast communication.
5. Maintains privacy and security due to a separate channel for communication.
6. If a node fails, other alternatives are present in the network.
Following are the disadvantages of Mesh topology:

1. Very high cabling required.

2. Cost inefficient to implement.
3. Complex to implement and takes large space to install the network.
4. Installation and maintenance are very difficult.
5. Tree Topology:
Tree topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are directly or
indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Tree topology is a combination of Bus
and Star topology.
In a tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments, which can be easily
managed and maintained. There is a main hub and all the other sub-hubs are
connected to each other in this topology.

Following are the advantages of Tree topology:

1. Large distance network coverage.

2. Fault finding is easy by checking each hierarchy.
3. Least or no data loss.
4. A Large number of nodes can be connected directly or indirectly.
5. Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them fails.
Following are the disadvantages of Tree topology:

1. Cabling and hardware cost is high.

2. Complex to implement.
3. Hub cabling is also required.
4. A large network using tree topology is hard to manage.
5. It requires very high maintenance.
6. If the main bus fails, the network will fail.
Hybrid Topology:
A Hybrid topology is a computer topology which is a combination of two or more
topologies. In practical use, they are the most widely used.

In this topology, all topologies are interconnected according to the needs to form a
hybrid. All the good features of each topology can be used to make an efficient
hybrid topology.

Following are the advantages of Hybrid topology:

1. It can handle a large volume of nodes.

2. It provides flexibility to modify the network according to our needs.
3. Very Reliable(if one node fails it will not affect the whole network).
Following are the disadvantages of Hybrid topology:

1. Complex design.
2. Expensive to implement.
3. Multi-Station Access Unit(MSAL) required.
4.4 Important of network topology

Why is Network Topology Important?

Determines the functionality of the networks: Topology is extremely important and
crucial in network development. Recent research has discovered that within the real
world of networks, topology is critical because it affects the consequence of alterations
in local connection. This can occasionally have an impact on the platform's fluctuating
nature. As a result, network topology should be an important factor in modifying or
developing network functionality.

Makes it straightforward to understand the network structure: Topology is an

important component of network conceptual models. Because they are built over time,
almost all authentic systems are evolving networks. People may use Topology to
establish a home computer system or a small company computer network. The best
aspect is that they do not even require any prior understanding of star design or bus
design to do so. In summary, topologies may provide you with a greater understanding
of and familiarity with key networking concepts such as hubs, broadcasts, and routers.

Functions on demand: In recent times, networks have been widely used. It is used to
characterize and create sophisticated prototypes in a variety of economic, technical,
and biological precompiled systems. The topology of massive social, technological,
and biological systems like the WWW or similar interface networks has gotten a lot of
attention. The development of the network has been studied by computer network
specialists. And per the investigation, numerous topological properties may be
classified as scale-free-like, broad-tailed and influential connections. This may be
accomplished through its diverse scopes and functionalities.

A network consists of multiple computers connected using some interface. Each has
one or more interface devices such as a Network Interface Card (NIC) and a serial
device for PPP networking. Each computer is supported by network software that
provides the server or client functionality. The hardware used to transmit data across
the network is called the media. It may include copper cable, fiber optic, or wireless
transmission. The standard cabling used for this document is the 10Base-T category 5
Ethernet cable. It is twisted copper cabling, which appears at the surface to look
similar to TV coaxial cable. It is terminated on each end by a connector that looks
much like a phone connector. Its maximum segment length is 100 meters.

In a server-based network, there are computers set up to be primary providers of

services such as file service or mail service. The machines providing the service are
called servers, and the computers that request and use the service are called client
computers.

In a peer-to-peer network, various computers on the network can act both as clients
and servers. For instance, many Microsoft Windows-based computers will allow file
and print sharing. These computers can work both as clients and servers and are also
referred to as peers. Many networks are a combination of peer-to-peer and server-
based networks. The network operating system uses a network data protocol to
communicate on the net to other computers. The network operating system supports
the applications on that computer. A Network Operating System (NOS) includes
Windows NT, Novell Netware, Linux, Unix, and others.
5 . Network communication

5.1 Definition:

Network communication, or internetworking, defines a set of protocols (that is, rules

and standards) that allow application programs to talk with each other without regard
to the hardware and operating systems where they are run.

5.2 Type of communicate:

1. Vertical Network
The communication which passes from one person or process to another person or

process in a vertical pattern is called Vertical Network. It can happen either in the top

to bottom or bottom to top format. This communication provides an immediate

response as the receiver receives the information faster than any other network. We

can call this network as a formal network. The best example is the communication

between top level and bottom level employees. Miscommunication does not happen in

this network as this is a type of direct communication.

2. Chain Network
This network is in a hierarchical level and follows a series of commands. Here bottom

to top communication does not happen. Superiors ordering the subordinates is the best

example of this type of network. Also, the leader leading the group of people is an

example of Chain Network. The message has to reach from top-level to bottom level

without any alteration of meaning or words. Care should be taken to avoid the same.

This network is not fast and few people who don’t understand the message will remain

in the loop.

3. Circuit Network
When the communication between two people happens simultaneously in a circuit is

called Circuit Network. Though it works like Vertical Network,  there are no superiors

or subordinates or at least not considered like them.  Here the communication is a two-

way communication. The messaging or information reception is continuous and the

people involved can be at the same hierarchical level.

4. Wheel or Spoke Network

The commands or information is from a single superior and subordinates form a wheel

in the network. The entire network is highly centralized format and expects immediate

feedback once the message is given to the receiver. And due to this, we can call this

communication as a type of micromanagement. This network is an improved form of

Chain Network. Since the information is received directly from the central authority,

there is no chance of miscommunication and the communication is very powerful.

Startups mostly use this type of network.

5. Star Network
Several people are involved in this network and the process forms a star shape. This

network enables people to communicate with each other or with people who are

involved in the same process. This network can be considered as a development of a

wheel network with no central person to control the way of communication. All are

free to communicate with each other. No restrictions are present to block the

communication between people in the process. Teamwork is built using this

communication. A WhatsApp group which is related to work is a good example of

Star Network.

5.3 Characteristics of Communication Network

Below are some of the characteristics explained.

 The information to be passed or the message to be shared among the people in

the same network should be clear and should be free from any jargon. Active

voice should be preferred and the message should be in simple words and short.

If the message is long, it is better to transfer the message with bulleted points.

 The message has to be concise which only then the listener be careful to read

with full attention and with no loss of concentration. Long or lengthy messages

should be avoided at any cost. People will not have enough patience to read the

entire message if it is elaborated with very less meaningful words.

 The message passed should be explained well with concrete information. False

messages should not be passed in any case which leads to communication

mishaps.

 The messages should be passed in relevant order. It is not good if the message

is passed saying the end in the beginning or finishing the message without full

information. The receiver will understand the message in a wrong manner

 which will lead to conflicts and the ideas will differ. The information should be

passed between persons in a logical, sequential and well-planned manner.

Hence this part has to be concentrated well.

 The transmitter person should be honest, respecting others and open with the

listener at the bottom level or end of the conversation. The transmitter should be

considerate with the listener and should use polite words. The messenger should

not be rude at all as the rude messenger will not find any receptors for his

information even if the information is important. The messenger should not be a

racist and should never use such terms while passing the information. All the

persons in the other end receiving the information should be considered equal

and should never use inconsiderate words while transmitting the information.

 The listener also plays an important role in the communication network. They

should understand the information very well and should clarify the same if

possible. The message should be detected from the mixed words, non-verbal

actions should be analyzed well, practical to understand the problems and

mature enough to act according to the information.

 Care should be there from the listener’s side to focus the message when it is

sent from the other end. Miscommunication should not happen.

 Emotions should be controlled while passing information. The listener should

not use his knowledge to pass information to other people in the loop. The

focus should only be on the information passed from the top level.

The type of network to be used depends on the message to be passed from one level to

another. Also, security has to be considered for the network communication. Each

network has its advantage.

6.Bandwidth and putthough