2.

1 Introduction to Linear Programming

A linear form is meant a mathematical expression of the type a1x1 + a2x2 + …. + anxn,
where a1, a2, …, an are constants and x1, x2 … xn are variables. The term Programming
refers to the process of determining a particular program or plan of action. So Linear
Programming (LP) is one of the most important optimization (maximization /
minimization) techniques developed in the field of Operations Research (OR).

The methods applied for solving a linear programming problem are basically simple
problems; a solution can be obtained by a set of simultaneous equations. However a
unique solution for a set of simultaneous equations in n-variables (x1, x2 … xn), at least
one of them is non-zero, can be obtained if there are exactly n relations. When the
number of relations is greater than or less than n, a unique solution does not exist but a
number of trial solutions can be found.

In various practical situations, the problems are seen in which the number of relations is
not equal to the number of the number of variables and many of the relations are in the
form of inequalities (≤ or ≥) to maximize or minimize a linear function of the variables
subject to such conditions. Such problems are known as Linear Programming Problem
(LPP).

Definition – The general LPP calls for optimizing (maximizing / minimizing) a linear
function of variables called the ‘Objective function’ subject to a set of linear equations
and / or inequalities called the ‘Constraints’ or ‘Restrictions’.

2.2 General form of LPP

We formulate a mathematical model for general problem of allocating resources to
activities. In particular, this model is to select the values for x1, x2 … xn so as to maximize
or minimize
Z = c1x1 + c2x2 +………….+cnxn

1
subject to restrictions
a11x1 + a12x2 + …..........+a1nxn (≤ or ≥) b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ………..+a2nxn (≤ or ≥) b2
.
.
.
am1x1 + am2x2 + ……….+amnxn (≤ or ≥) bm
and
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0,…, xn ≥ 0

Where
Z = value of overall measure of performance
xj = level of activity (for j = 1, 2, ..., n)
cj = increase in Z that would result from each unit increase in level of activity j
bi = amount of resource i that is available for allocation to activities (for i = 1,2,
…, m)
aij = amount of resource i consumed by each unit of activity j
Resource usage per unit of activity
Resource Amount of resource
Activity
available
1 2 …………………….. n
1 a11 a12 …………………….a1n b1
2 a21 a22 …………………….a2n b2
. . .
. . .
. . .
m am1 am2 …………………….amn bm
Contribution to
Z per unit of c1 c2 ………………………..cn
activity
Data needed for LP model
 The level of activities x1, x2………xn are called decision variables.

2
  The values of the cj, bi, aij (for i=1, 2 … m and j=1, 2 … n) are the input
constants for the model. They are called as parameters of the model.
 The function being maximized or minimized Z = c1x1 + c2x2 +…. +cnxn is called
objective function.
 The restrictions are normally called as constraints. The constraint ai1x1 + ai2x2 …
ainxn are sometimes called as functional constraint (L.H.S constraint). xj ≥ 0
restrictions are called non-negativity constraint.

2.3 Assumptions in LPP

1. Proportionality
The contribution of each variable in the objective function or its usage of the
resources is directly proportional to the value of the variable i.e. if resource
availability increases by some percentage, then the output shall also increase by
same percentage.

2. Additivity
Sum of the resources used by different activities must be equal to the total
quantity of resources used by each activity for all resources individually or
collectively.

3. Divisibility
The variables are not restricted to integer values

4. Deterministic
Coefficients in the objective function and constraints are completely known and
do not change during the period under study in all the problems considered.

5. Finiteness
Variables and constraints are finite in number.

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 6. Optimality
In LPP, we determine the decision variables so as to optimize the objective
function of the LPP.

7. The problem involves only one objective, profit maximization or cost

minimization.

2.4 Applications of Linear Programming

Personnel Assignment Problem
Suppose we are given ‘m’ persons, ‘n’ jobs and the expected productivity c ij of ith person
on the jth job. We want to find an assignment of person’s xij ≥ 0 for all i and j, to ‘n’ jobs
so that the average productivity of person assigned is maximum, subject to the conditions

Where ai is the number of persons in personnel category i

bj is the number of jobs in personnel category j

Transportation Problem
Suppose that ‘m’ factories (sources) supply ‘n’ warehouses (destinations) with certain
product. Factory Fi (i=1, 2 … m) produces ai units and warehouse Wj (j=1, 2, 3 … n)
requires bj units. Suppose that the cost of shipping from factory Fi to warehouse Wj is
directly proportional to the amount shipped and that the unit cost is cij. Let the decision
variables xij be the amount shipped from factory Fi to warehouse Wj. The objective is to
determine the number of units transported from factory Fi to warehouse Wj so that the
total transportation cost

The supply and demand must be satisfied exactly.

4
Mathematically, this problem is to find xij (i=1, 2 … m; j=1, 2 … n) in order to minimize
the total transportation cost

Subject to constraints

Efficiency on Operation of system of Dams

In this problem, we determine variations in water storage of dams which generate power
so as to maximize the energy obtained from the entire system. The physical limitations of
storage appear as inequalities.

Optimum Estimation of Executive Compensation

The objective here is to determine a consistent plan of executive compensation in an
industrial concern. Salary, job ranking and the amounts of each factor required on the
ranked job level are taken into consideration by the constraints of linear programming.

Agriculture Applications
Linear programming can be applied in agricultural planning for allocating the limited
resources such as labour, water supply and working capital etc, so as to maximize the net
revenue.

Military Applications

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These applications involve the problem of selecting an air weapon system against gurillas
so as to keep them pinned down and simultaneously minimize the amount of aviation
gasoline used, a variation of transportation problem that maximizes the total tonnage of
bomb dropped on a set of targets and the problem of community defense against disaster
to find the number of defense units that should be used in the attack in order to provide
the required level of protection at the lowest possible cost.

Production Management
Linear programming can be applied in production management for determining product
mix, product smoothing and assembly time-balancing.

Marketing Management
Linear programming helps in analyzing the effectiveness of advertising campaign and
time based on the available advertising media. It also helps in travelling salesman in
finding the shortest route for his tour.

Manpower Management
Linear programming allows the personnel manager to analyze personnel policy
combinations in terms of their appropriateness for maintaining a steady-state flow of
people into through and out of the firm.

Physical distribution
Linear programming determines the most economic and efficient manner of locating
manufacturing plants and distribution centers for physical distribution.

2.5 Advantages of Linear Programming Techniques

1. It helps us in making the optimum utilization of productive resources.
2. The quality of decisions may also be improved by linear programming techniques.
3. Provides practically solutions.

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 4. In production processes, high lighting of bottlenecks is the most significant
advantage of this technique.

2.6 Limitations of Linear Programming

Some limitations are associated with linear programming techniques
1. In some problems, objective functions and constraints are not linear. Generally, in
real life situations concerning business and industrial problems constraints are not
linearly treated to variables.
2. There is no guarantee of getting integer valued solutions. For example, in finding
out how many men and machines would be required to perform a particular job,
rounding off the solution to the nearest integer will not give an optimal solution.
Integer programming deals with such problems.
3. Linear programming model does not take into consideration the effect of time and
uncertainty. Thus the model should be defined in such a way that any change due
to internal as well as external factors can be incorporated.
4. Sometimes large scale problems cannot be solved with linear programming
techniques even when the computer facility is available. Such difficulty may be
removed by decomposing the main problem into several small problems and then
solving them separately.
5. Parameters appearing in the model are assumed to be constant. But, in real life
situations they are neither constant nor deterministic.
6. Linear programming deals with only single objective, whereas in real life
situation problems come across with multi objectives. Goal programming and
multi-objective programming deals with such problems.

2.7 Formulation of LP Problems

Example 1
A firm manufactures two types of products A and B and sells them at a profit of Rs. 2 on
type A and Rs. 3 on type B. Each product is processed on two machines G and H. Type A
requires 1 minute of processing time on G and 2 minutes on H; type B requires 1 minute
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on G and 1 minute on H. The machine G is available for not more than 6 hours 40
minutes while machine H is available for 10 hours during any working day. Formulate
the problem as a linear programming problem.

Solution
Let
x1 be the number of products of type A
x2 be the number of products of type B

After understanding the problem, the given information can be systematically arranged in
the form of the following table.

Type of products (minutes)

Available
Machine Type A (x1 units) Type B (x2 units)
time (mins)
G 1 1 400
H 2 1 600
Profit per unit Rs. 2 Rs. 3

Since the profit on type A is Rs. 2 per product, 2 x1 will be the profit on selling x1 units of
type A. similarly, 3x2 will be the profit on selling x2 units of type B. Therefore, total
profit on selling x1 units of A and x2 units of type B is given by
Maximize Z = 2 x1+3 x2 (objective function)

Since machine G takes 1 minute time on type A and 1 minute time on type B, the total
number of minutes required on machine G is given by x1+ x2.

Similarly, the total number of minutes required on machine H is given by 2x1 + 3x2.

8
But, machine G is not available for more than 6 hours 40 minutes (400 minutes).
Therefore,
x1+ x2 ≤ 400 (first constraint)

Also, the machine H is available for 10 hours (600 minutes) only, therefore,
2 x1 + 3x2 ≤ 600 (second constraint)

Since it is not possible to produce negative quantities

x1 ≥ 0 and x2 ≥ 0 (non-negative restrictions)

Hence
Maximize Z = 2 x1 + 3 x2
Subject to restrictions
x1 + x2 ≤ 400
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 600
and non-negativity constraints
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Example 2
A company produces two products A and B which possess raw materials 400 quintals and
450 labour hours. It is known that 1 unit of product A requires 5 quintals of raw materials
and 10 man hours and yields a profit of Rs 45. Product B requires 20 quintals of raw
materials, 15 man hours and yields a profit of Rs 80. Formulate the LPP.

Solution
Let
x1 be the number of units of product A
x2 be the number of units of product B

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 Product A Product B Availability
Raw materials 5 20 400
Man hours 10 15 450
Profit Rs 45 Rs 80

Hence
Maximize Z = 45x1 + 80x2
Subject to
5x1+ 20 x2 ≤ 400
10x1 + 15x2 ≤ 450
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Example 3
A firm manufactures 3 products A, B and C. The profits are Rs. 3, Rs. 2 and Rs. 4
respectively. The firm has 2 machines and below is given the required processing time in
minutes for each machine on each product.

Products
Machine A B C
X 4 3 5
Y 2 2 4
Machine X and Y have 2000 and 2500 machine minutes. The firm must manufacture 100
A’s, 200 B’s and 50 C’s type, but not more than 150 A’s.

Solution
Let
x1 be the number of units of product A
x2 be the number of units of product B
x3 be the number of units of product C

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 Products
Machine A B C Availability
X 4 3 5 2000
Y 2 2 4 2500
Profit 3 2 4

Max Z = 3x1 + 2x2 + 4x3

Subject to
4x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 ≤ 2000
2x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 ≤ 2500
100 ≤ x1 ≤ 150
x2 ≥ 200
x3 ≥ 50
Example 4
A company owns 2 oil mills A and B which have different production capacities for low,
high and medium grade oil. The company enters into a contract to supply oil to a firm
every week with 12, 8, 24 barrels of each grade respectively. It costs the company Rs
1000 and Rs 800 per day to run the mills A and B. On a day A produces 6, 2, 4 barrels of
each grade and B produces 2, 2, 12 barrels of each grade. Formulate an LPP to determine
number of days per week each mill will be operated in order to meet the contract
economically.

Solution
Let
x1 be the no. of days a week the mill A has to work
x2 be the no. of days per week the mill B has to work

Grade A B Minimum requirement

Low 6 2 12

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 High 2 2 8
Medium 4 12 24
Cost per day Rs 1000 Rs 800

Minimize Z = 1000x1 + 800 x2

Subject to
6x1 + 2x2 ≥ 12
2x1 + 2x2 ≥ 8
4x1 +12x2 ≥ 24
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Example 5
A company has 3 operational departments weaving, processing and packing with the
capacity to produce 3 different types of clothes that are suiting, shirting and woolen
yielding with the profit of Rs. 2, Rs. 4 and Rs. 3 per meters respectively. 1m suiting
requires 3mins in weaving 2 mins in processing and 1 min in packing. Similarly 1m of
shirting requires 4 mins in weaving 1 min in processing and 3 mins in packing while 1m
of woolen requires 3 mins in each department. In a week total run time of each
department is 60, 40 and 80 hours for weaving, processing and packing department
respectively. Formulate a LPP to find the product to maximize the profit.

Solution
Let
x1 be the number of units of suiting
x2 be the number of units of shirting
x3 be the number of units of woolen

Suiting Shirting Woolen Available time

Weaving 3 4 3 60
Processing 2 1 3 40

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 Packing 1 3 3 80
Profit 2 4 3

Maximize Z = 2x1 + 4x2 + 3x3

Subject to
3x1 + 4x2 + 3x3 ≤ 60
2x1 + 1x2 + 3x3 ≤ 40
x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 ≤ 80
x1≥0, x2 ≥0, x3≥0

Example 6
ABC Company produces both interior and exterior paints from 2 raw materials m1 and
m2. The following table produces basic data of problem.

Exterior paint Interior paint Availability

M1 6 4 24
M2 1 2 6
Profit per ton 5 4
A market survey indicates that daily demand for interior paint cannot exceed that for
exterior paint by more than 1 ton. Also maximum daily demand for interior paint is 2
tons. Formulate LPP to determine the best product mix of interior and exterior paints that
maximizes the daily total profit.

Solution
Let
x1 be the number of units of exterior paint
x2 be the number of units of interior paint

Maximize Z = 5x1 + 4x2

Subject to

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 6x1 + 4x2 ≤ 24
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 6
x2 – x1≤ 1
x2≤ 2
x1≥0, x2 ≥0

b) The maximum daily demand for exterior paint is atmost 2.5 tons
x1≤ 2.5
c) Daily demand for interior paint is atleast 2 tons
x2 ≥ 2
d) Daily demand for interior paint is exactly 1 ton higher than that for exterior paint.
x2 > x1 + 1

Example 7
A company produces 2 types of hats. Each hat of the I type requires twice as much as
labour time as the II type. The company can produce a total of 500 hats a day. The market
limits daily sales of I and II types to 150 and 250 hats. Assuming that the profit per hat
are Rs.8 for type A and Rs. 5 for type B. Formulate a LPP models in order to determine
the number of hats to be produced of each type so as to maximize the profit.
Solution
Let x1 be the number of hats produced by type A
Let x2 be the number of hats produced by type B

Maximize Z = 8x1 + 5x2

Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≤ 500 (labour time)
x1 ≤ 150
x2 ≤ 250
x1≥0, x2 ≥0

14
Example 8
A manufacturer produces 3 models (I, II and III) of a certain product. He uses 2 raw
materials A and B of which 4000 and 6000 units respectively are available. The raw
materials per unit of 3 models are given below.
Raw materials I II III
A 2 3 5
B 4 2 7
The labour time for each unit of model I is twice that of model II and thrice that of model
III. The entire labour force of factory can produce an equivalent of 2500 units of model I.
A model survey indicates that the minimum demand of 3 models is 500, 500 and 375
units respectively. However the ratio of number of units produced must be equal to 3:2:5.
Assume that profits per unit of model are 60, 40 and 100 respectively. Formulate a LPP.

Solution
Let
x1 be the number of units of model I
x2 be the number of units of model II
x3 be the number of units of model III

Raw materials I II III Availability

A 2 3 5 4000
B 4 2 7 6000
Profit 60 40 100

x1 + 1/2x2 + 1/3x3 ≤ 2500 [ Labour time ]

x1 ≥ 500, x2 ≥ 500, x3 ≥ 375 [ Minimum demand ]

The given ratio is x1: x2: x3 = 3: 2: 5

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x1 / 3 = x2 / 2 = x3 / 5 = k
x1 = 3k; x2 = 2k; x3 = 5k
x2 = 2k → k = x2 / 2
Therefore x1 = 3 x2 / 2 → 2x1 = 3x2
Similarly 2x3 = 5x2

Maximize Z= 60x1 + 40x2 + 100x3

Subject to 2x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 ≤ 4000
4x1 + 2x2 + 7x3 ≤ 6000
x1 + 1/2x2 + 1/3x3 ≤ 2500
2 x1 = 3x2
2 x3 = 5x2
and x1 ≥ 500, x2 ≥ 500, x3 ≥ 375

Example 9
A person wants to decide the constituents of a diet which will fulfill his daily
requirements of proteins, fats and carbohydrates at the minimum cost. The choice is to be
made from four different types of foods. The yields per unit of these foods are given in
the table.

Yield/unit Cost/Unit
Food Type
Proteins Fats Carbohydrates Rs
1 3 2 6 45
2 4 2 4 40
3 8 7 7 85
4 6 5 4 65
Minimum
800 200 700
Requirement

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Formulate the LP for the problem.

Solution
Let
x1 be the number of units of food type l
x2 be the number of units of food type 2
x3 be the number of units of food type 3
x4 be the number of units of food type 4

Minimize Z = 45x1 + 40x2 + 85x3 + 65x4

Subject to
3x1 + 4x2 + 8x3 + 6x4 ≥ 800
2x1 + 2x2 + 7x3 + 5x4 ≥ 200
6x1 + 4x2 + 7x3 + 4x4 ≥ 700
x1≥0, x2 ≥0, x3≥0, x4≥0

Exercise
1. Define the terms used in LPP.
2. Mention the advantages of LPP.
3. What are the assumptions and limitations of LPP?
4. A firm produces three products. These products are processed on three different
machines. The time required manufacturing one unit of each of the three products
and the daily capacity of the three machines are given in the table.
Time per unit (mins) Machine
Machine capacity
Product 1 Product 2 Product 3
Min /day
M1 2 3 2 440
M2 4 - 3 470
M3 2 5 - 430

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 It is required to determine the daily number of units to be manufactured for each
product. The profit per unit for product 1, 2 and 3 is Rs. 4, Rs. 3 and Rs. 6
respectively. It is assumed that all the amounts produced are consumed in the
market. Formulate the mathematical model for the model.

5. A chemical firm produces automobiles cleaner X and polisher Y and realizes Rs.
10 profit on each batch of X and Rs. 30 on Y. Both products require processing
through the same machines, A and B but X requires 4 hours in A and 8 hours in
B, whereas Y requires 6 hours in A and 4 hours in B. during the fourth coming
week machines A and B have 12 and 16 hours of available capacity, respectively.
Assuming that demand exists for both products, how many batches of each should
be produce to realize the optimal profit Z?

6. A firm manufactures headache pills in two sizes A and B. Size A contains 2

grains of aspirin, 5 grains of bicarbonate and 1 grain of codeine. Size B contains 1
grain of aspirin, 8 grains of bicarbonate and 6 grains of codeine. It is formed by
users that it requires at least 12 grains of aspirin, 74 grains of bicarbonate and 24
grains of codeine fro providing immediate effect. It is required to determine the
least number of pills a patient should take to get immediate relief. Formulate the
problem as a standard LPP.

Unit 3
3.1 Graphical solution Procedure
3.2 Definitions
3.3 Example Problems
3.4 Special cases of Graphical method
3.4.1 Multiple optimal solutions
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 3.4.2 No optimal solution
3.4.3 Unbounded solution

3.1 Graphical Solution Procedure

The graphical solution procedure

1. Consider each inequality constraint as equation.
2. Plot each equation on the graph as each one will geometrically represent a straight
line.
3. Shade the feasible region. Every point on the line will satisfy the equation of the
line. If the inequality constraint corresponding to that line is ‘≤’ then the region
below the line lying in the first quadrant is shaded. Similarly for ‘≥’ the region
above the line is shaded. The points lying in the common region will satisfy the
constraints. This common region is called feasible region.
4. Choose the convenient value of Z and plot the objective function line.
5. Pull the objective function line until the extreme points of feasible region.
a. In the maximization case this line will stop far from the origin and passing
through at least one corner of the feasible region.
b. In the minimization case, this line will stop near to the origin and passing
through at least one corner of the feasible region.
6. Read the co-ordinates of the extreme points selected in step 5 and find the
maximum or minimum value of Z.

3.2 Definitions

1. Solution – Any specification of the values for decision variable among (x1, x2…
xn) is called a solution.

19
 2. Feasible solution is a solution for which all constraints are satisfied.
3. Infeasible solution is a solution for which at least one constraint is not satisfied.
4. Feasible region is a collection of all feasible solutions.
5. Optimal solution is a feasible solution that has the most favorable value of the
objective function.
6. Most favorable value is the largest value if the objective function is to be
maximized, whereas it is the smallest value if the objective function is to be
minimized.
7. Multiple optimal solution – More than one solution with the same optimal value
of the objective function.
8. Unbounded solution – If the value of the objective function can be increased or
decreased indefinitely such solutions are called unbounded solution.
9. Feasible region – The region containing all the solutions of an inequality
10. Corner point feasible solution is a solution that lies at the corner of the feasible
region.

3.3 Example problems

Example 1
Solve 3x + 5y < 15 graphically

Solution
Write the given constraint in the form of equation i.e. 3x + 5y = 15
Put x=0 then the value y=3
Put y=0 then the value x=5
Therefore the coordinates are (0, 3) and (5, 0). Thus these points are joined to form a
straight line as shown in the graph.
Put x=0, y=0 in the given constraint then
0<15, the condition is true. (0, 0) is solution nearer to origin. So shade the region below
the line, which is the feasible region.

20
Example 2
Solve 3x + 5y >15

Solution
Write the given constraint in the form of equation i.e. 3x + 5y = 15
Put x=0, then y=3
Put y=0, then x=5
So the coordinates are (0, 3) and (5, 0)
Put x =0, y =0 in the given constraint, the condition turns out to be false i.e. 0 > 15 is
false.
So the region does not contain (0, 0) as solution. The feasible region lies on the outer part
of the line as shown in the graph.

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Example 3
Max Z = 80x1 + 55x2
Subject to
4x1+ 2x2 ≤ 40
2x1 + 4x2 ≤ 32
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution
The first constraint 4x1+ 2 x2 ≤ 40, written in a form of equation
4x1+ 2 x2 = 40
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 20
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 10
The coordinates are (0, 20) and (10, 0)

The second constraint 2x1 + 4x2 ≤ 32, written in a form of equation

2x1 + 4x2 =32
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 8
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 16
The coordinates are (0, 8) and (16, 0)

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The graphical representation is

The corner points of feasible region are A, B and C. So the coordinates for the corner
points are
A (0, 8)
B (8, 4) (Solve the two equations 4x1+ 2 x2 = 40 and 2x1 + 4x2 =32 to get the coordinates)
C (10, 0)

We know that Max Z = 80x1 + 55x2

At A (0, 8)
Z = 80(0) + 55(8) = 440

At B (8, 4)
Z = 80(8) + 55(4) = 860

At C (10, 0)
Z = 80(10) + 55(0) = 800

The maximum value is obtained at the point B. Therefore Max Z = 860 and x1 = 8, x2 = 4

23
Example 4
Minimize Z = 10x1 + 4x2
Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 ≥ 60
7x1 + 2x2 ≥ 84
3x1 +6x2 ≥ 72
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution
The first constraint 3x1 + 2x2 ≥ 60, written in a form of equation
3x1 + 2x2 = 60
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 30
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 20
The coordinates are (0, 30) and (20, 0)

The second constraint 7x1 + 2x2 ≥ 84, written in a form of equation

7x1 + 2x2 = 84
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 42
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 12
The coordinates are (0, 42) and (12, 0)

The third constraint 3x1 +6x2 ≥ 72, written in a form of equation

3x1 +6x2 = 72
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 12
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 24
The coordinates are (0, 12) and (24, 0)

The graphical representation is

24
The corner points of feasible region are A, B, C and D. So the coordinates for the corner
points are
A (0, 42)
B (6, 21) (Solve the two equations 7x1 + 2x2 = 84 and 3x1 + 2x2 = 60 to get the
coordinates)
C (18, 3) Solve the two equations 3x1 +6x2 = 72 and 3x1 + 2x2 = 60 to get the
coordinates)
D (24, 0)

We know that Min Z = 10x1 + 4x2

At A (0, 42)
Z = 10(0) + 4(42) = 168

At B (6, 21)
Z = 10(6) + 4(21) = 144
25
At C (18, 3)
Z = 10(18) + 4(3) = 192

At D (24, 0)
Z = 10(24) + 4(0) = 240

The minimum value is obtained at the point B. Therefore Min Z = 144 and x1 = 6, x2 = 21

Example 5
A manufacturer of furniture makes two products – chairs and tables. Processing of this
product is done on two machines A and B. A chair requires 2 hours on machine A and 6
hours on machine B. A table requires 5 hours on machine A and no time on machine B.
There are 16 hours of time per day available on machine A and 30 hours on machine B.
Profit gained by the manufacturer from a chair and a table is Rs 2 and Rs 10 respectively.
What should be the daily production of each of two products?

Solution
Let x1 denotes the number of chairs
Let x2 denotes the number of tables

Chairs Tables Availability

Machine A 2 5 16
Machine B 6 0 30
Profit Rs 2 Rs 10

LPP
Max Z = 2x1 + 10x2
Subject to
2x1+ 5x2 ≤ 16

26
 6x1 + 0x2 ≤ 30
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Solving graphically
The first constraint 2x1+ 5x2 ≤ 16, written in a form of equation
2x1+ 5x2 = 16
Put x1 = 0, then x2 = 16/5 = 3.2
Put x2 = 0, then x1 = 8
The coordinates are (0, 3.2) and (8, 0)
The second constraint 6x1 + 0x2 ≤ 30, written in a form of equation
6x1 = 30 → x1 =5

The corner points of feasible region are A, B and C. So the coordinates for the corner
points are
A (0, 3.2)
B (5, 1.2) (Solve the two equations 2x1+ 5x2 = 16 and x1 =5 to get the coordinates)
C (5, 0)

We know that Max Z = 2x1 + 10x2

At A (0, 3.2)
Z = 2(0) + 10(3.2) = 32

27
At B (5, 1.2)
Z = 2(5) + 10(1.2) = 22

At C (5, 0)
Z = 2(5) + 10(0) = 10

Max Z = 32 and x1 = 0, x2 = 3.2

The manufacturer should produce approximately 3 tables and no chairs to get the max
profit.

3.4 Special Cases in Graphical Method

3.4.1 Multiple Optimal Solution

Example 1
Solve by using graphical method
Max Z = 4x1 + 3x2
Subject to
4x1+ 3x2 ≤ 24
x1 ≤ 4.5
x2 ≤ 6
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution
The first constraint 4x1+ 3x2 ≤ 24, written in a form of equation
4x1+ 3x2 = 24
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 8
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 6
The coordinates are (0, 8) and (6, 0)

28
The second constraint x1 ≤ 4.5, written in a form of equation
x1 = 4.5

The third constraint x2 ≤ 6, written in a form of equation

x2 = 6

The corner points of feasible region are A, B, C and D. So the coordinates for the corner
points are
A (0, 6)
B (1.5, 6) (Solve the two equations 4x1+ 3x2 = 24 and x2 = 6 to get the coordinates)
C (4.5, 2) (Solve the two equations 4x1+ 3x2 = 24 and x1 = 4.5 to get the coordinates)
D (4.5, 0)

We know that Max Z = 4x1 + 3x2

At A (0, 6)
Z = 4(0) + 3(6) = 18

At B (1.5, 6)
Z = 4(1.5) + 3(6) = 24
29
At C (4.5, 2)
Z = 4(4.5) + 3(2) = 24

At D (4.5, 0)
Z = 4(4.5) + 3(0) = 18
Max Z = 24, which is achieved at both B and C corner points. It can be achieved not only
at B and C but every point between B and C. Hence the given problem has multiple
optimal solutions.

3.4.2 No Optimal Solution

Example 1
Solve graphically
Max Z = 3x1 + 2x2
Subject to
x1+ x2 ≤ 1
x1+ x2 ≥ 3
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution
The first constraint x1+ x2 ≤ 1, written in a form of equation
x1+ x2 = 1
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 1
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 1
The coordinates are (0, 1) and (1, 0)

The first constraint x1+ x2 ≥ 3, written in a form of equation

x1+ x2 = 3
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 3

30
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 3
The coordinates are (0, 3) and (3, 0)

There is no common feasible region generated by two constraints together i.e. we cannot
identify even a single point satisfying the constraints. Hence there is no optimal solution.

3.4.3 Unbounded Solution

Example
Solve by graphical method
Max Z = 3x1 + 5x2
Subject to
2x1+ x2 ≥ 7
x1+ x2 ≥ 6
x1+ 3x2 ≥ 9
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution
The first constraint 2x1+ x2 ≥ 7, written in a form of equation
2x1+ x2 = 7
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 7

31
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 3.5
The coordinates are (0, 7) and (3.5, 0)

The second constraint x1+ x2 ≥ 6, written in a form of equation

x1+ x2 = 6
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 6
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 6
The coordinates are (0, 6) and (6, 0)

The third constraint x1+ 3x2 ≥ 9, written in a form of equation

x1+ 3x2 = 9
Put x1 =0, then x2 = 3
Put x2 =0, then x1 = 9
The coordinates are (0, 3) and (9, 0)

The corner points of feasible region are A, B, C and D. So the coordinates for the corner
points are
32
A (0, 7)
B (1, 5) (Solve the two equations 2x1+ x2 = 7 and x1+ x2 = 6 to get the coordinates)
C (4.5, 1.5) (Solve the two equations x1+ x2 = 6 and x1+ 3x2 = 9 to get the coordinates)
D (9, 0)
We know that Max Z = 3x1 + 5x2
At A (0, 7)
Z = 3(0) + 5(7) = 35

At B (1, 5)
Z = 3(1) + 5(5) = 28

At C (4.5, 1.5)
Z = 3(4.5) + 5(1.5) = 21

At D (9, 0)
Z = 3(9) + 5(0) = 27
The values of objective function at corner points are 35, 28, 21 and 27. But there exists
infinite number of points in the feasible region which is unbounded. The value of
objective function will be more than the value of these four corner points i.e. the
maximum value of the objective function occurs at a point at ∞. Hence the given problem
has unbounded solution.

33
Exercise
1. A company manufactures two types of printed circuits. The requirements of transistors,
resistors and capacitor for each type of printed circuits along with other data are given in
table.

Circuit
Stock available (units)
A B
Transistor 15 10 180
Resistor 10 20 200
Capacitor 15 20 210
Profit Rs.5 Rs.8

How many circuits of each type should the company produce from the stock to earn
maximum profit.
[Ans. Max Z = 82, 2 units of type A circuit and 9 units of type B circuit]

2. A company making cool drinks has 2 bottling plants located at towns T1 and T2. Each
plant produces 3 drinks A, B and C and their production capacity per day is given in the
table.
Plant at
Cool drinks
T1 T2
A 6000 2000

34
 B 1000 2500
C 3000 3000
The marketing department of the company forecasts a demand of 80000 bottles of A,
22000 bottles of B and 40000 bottles of C during the month of June. The operating cost
per day of plants at T1 and T2 are Rs. 6000 and Rs. 4000 respectively. Find graphically
the number of days for which each plants must be run in June so as to minimize the
operating cost while meeting the market demand.
[Ans. Min Z = Rs. 88000, 12 days for the plant T1 and 4 days for plant T2]

Solve the following LPP by graphical method

1. Max Z = 3x1 + 4x2
Subject to
x1 - x2 ≤ -1
-x1+ x2 ≤ 0
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. The problem has no solution]

2. Max Z = 3x1 + 2x2

Subject to
-2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 9
x1- 5x2 ≥ -20
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. The problem has unbounded solution]

3. Max Z = 45x1 + 80x2

Subject to
5x1 + 20x2 ≤ 400
10x1+ 15x2 ≤ 450
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 2200, x1 = 24, x2 = 14]

35
Module 2

Unit 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Steps to convert GLPP to SLPP
1.3 Some Basic Definitions
1.4 Introduction to Simplex Method
1.5 Computational procedure of Simplex Method
1.6 Worked Examples

1.1 Introduction

General Linear Programming Problem (GLPP)

Maximize / Minimize Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + c3x3 +……………..+ cnxn

Subject to constraints
a11x1 + a12x2 + …..........+a1nxn (≤ or ≥) b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ………..+a2nxn (≤ or ≥) b2
.
.
.
am1x1 + am2x2 + ……….+amnxn (≤ or ≥) bm
36
and
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0,…, xn ≥ 0

Where constraints may be in the form of any inequality (≤ or ≥) or even in the form of an
equation (=) and finally satisfy the non-negativity restrictions.

1.2 Steps to convert GLPP to SLPP (Standard LPP)

Step 1 – Write the objective function in the maximization form. If the given objective
function is of minimization form then multiply throughout by -1 and write Max
z‫ = ׳‬Min (-z)

Step 2 – Convert all inequalities as equations.

o If an equality of ‘≤’ appears then by adding a variable called Slack
variable. We can convert it to an equation. For example x1 +2x2 ≤ 12, we
can write as
x1 +2x2 + s1 = 12.
o If the constraint is of ‘≥’ type, we subtract a variable called Surplus
variable and convert it to an equation. For example
2x1 +x2 ≥ 15
2x1 +x2 – s2 = 15

Step 3 – The right side element of each constraint should be made non-negative
2x1 +x2 – s2 = -15
-2x1 - x2 + s2 = 15 (That is multiplying throughout by -1)
Step 4 – All variables must have non-negative values.
For example: x1 +x2 ≤ 3
x1 > 0, x2 is unrestricted in sign
Then x2 is written as x2 = x2‫ – ׳‬x2‫ ׳׳‬where x2‫׳‬, x2‫ ≥ ׳׳‬0
Therefore the inequality takes the form of equation as x1 + (x2‫ – ׳‬x2‫ )׳׳‬+ s1 = 3

37
Using the above steps, we can write the GLPP in the form of SLPP.

Write the Standard LPP (SLPP) of the following

Example 1
Maximize Z = 3x1 + x2
Subject to
2 x1 + x2 ≤ 2
3 x1 + 4 x2 ≥ 12
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

SLPP
Maximize Z = 3x1 + x2
Subject to
2 x1 + x2 + s 1 = 2
3 x1 + 4 x2 – s2 = 12
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0

Example 2
Minimize Z = 4x1 + 2 x2
Subject to
3x1 + x2 ≥ 2
x1 + x2 ≥ 21
x1 + 2x2 ≥ 30
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

SLPP
Maximize Z‫ – = ׳‬4x1 – 2 x2
Subject to

38
 3x1 + x2 – s1 = 2
x1 + x2 – s2 = 21
x1 + 2x2 – s3 = 30
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0, s3 ≥ 0

Example 3
Minimize Z = x1 + 2 x2 + 3x3
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 ≥ – 4
3x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 ≤ 7
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 is unrestricted in sign

SLPP
Maximize Z‫ – = ׳‬x1 – 2 x2 – 3(x3‫ – ׳‬x3‫)׳׳‬
Subject to
–2x1 – 3x2 – 3(x3‫ – ׳‬x3‫ )׳׳‬+ s1= 4
3x1 + 5x2 + 2(x3‫ – ׳‬x3‫ )׳׳‬+ s2 = 7
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3‫ ≥ ׳‬0, x3‫ ≥ ׳׳‬0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0

1.3 Some Basic Definitions

Solution of LPP
Any set of variable (x1, x2… xn) which satisfies the given constraint is called solution of
LPP.

Basic solution

39
It is a solution obtained by setting any ‘n’ variable equal to zero and solving remaining
‘m’ variables. Such ‘m’ variables are called Basic variables and ‘n’ variables are called
Non-basic variables.

Basic feasible solution

A basic solution that is feasible (all basic variables are non negative) is called basic
feasible solution. There are two types of basic feasible solution.
1. Degenerate basic feasible solution
If any of the basic variable of a basic feasible solution is zero than it is said to be
degenerate basic feasible solution.
2. Non-degenerate basic feasible solution
It is a basic feasible solution which has exactly ‘m’ positive xi, where i=1, 2, …
m. In other words all ‘m’ basic variables are positive and remaining ‘n’ variables
are zero.

Optimum basic feasible solution

A basic feasible solution is said to be optimum if it optimizes (max / min) the objective
function.

1.4 Introduction to Simplex Method

It was developed by G. Danztig in 1947. The simplex method provides an algorithm (a

rule of procedure usually involving repetitive application of a prescribed operation)
which is based on the fundamental theorem of linear programming.

The Simplex algorithm is an iterative procedure for solving LP problems in a finite

number of steps. It consists of
 Having a trial basic feasible solution to constraint-equations

40
  Testing whether it is an optimal solution
 Improving the first trial solution by a set of rules and repeating the process till an
optimal solution is obtained

Advantages
 Simple to solve the problems
 The solution of LPP of more than two variables can be obtained.

1.5 Computational Procedure of Simplex Method

Consider an example
Maximize Z = 3x1 + 2x2
Subject to
x1 + x2 ≤ 4
x1 – x 2 ≤ 2
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution

Step 1 – Write the given GLPP in the form of SLPP

Maximize Z = 3x1 + 2x2 + 0s1 + 0s2

Subject to
x1 + x2+ s1= 4
x1 – x2 + s2= 2
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0

Step 2 – Present the constraints in the matrix form

x1 + x2+ s1= 4
41
 x1 – x2 + s2= 2

Step 3 – Construct the starting simplex table using the notations

Cj → 3 2 0 0
Basic CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 Min ratio
Variables XB /Xk
s1 0 4 1 1 1 0

s2 0 2 1 -1 0 1
Z= CB XB Δj

Step 4 – Calculation of Z and Δj and test the basic feasible solution for optimality by the
rules given.
Z= CB XB
= 0 *4 + 0 * 2 = 0

Δj = Zj – Cj
= CB Xj – Cj
Δ1 = CB X1 – Cj = 0 * 1 + 0 * 1 – 3 = -3
Δ2 = CB X2 – Cj = 0 * 1 + 0 * -1 – 2 = -2
Δ3 = CB X3 – Cj = 0 * 1 + 0 * 0 – 0 = 0
Δ4 = CB X4 – Cj = 0 * 0 + 0 * 1 – 0 = 0
Procedure to test the basic feasible solution for optimality by the rules given

Rule 1 – If all Δj ≥ 0, the solution under the test will be optimal. Alternate optimal
solution will exist if any non-basic Δj is also zero.

42
Rule 2 – If atleast one Δj is negative, the solution is not optimal and then proceeds to
improve the solution in the next step.

Rule 3 – If corresponding to any negative Δj, all elements of the column Xj are negative
or zero, then the solution under test will be unbounded.

In this problem it is observed that Δ1 and Δ2 are negative. Hence proceed to improve this
solution

Step 5 – To improve the basic feasible solution, the vector entering the basis matrix and
the vector to be removed from the basis matrix are determined.

 Incoming vector
The incoming vector Xk is always selected corresponding to the most negative
value of Δj. It is indicated by (↑).

 Outgoing vector
The outgoing vector is selected corresponding to the least positive value of
minimum ratio. It is indicated by (→).

Step 6 – Mark the key element or pivot element by ‘1’‘.The element at the intersection of
outgoing vector and incoming vector is the pivot element.

Cj → 3 2 0 0
Basic CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 Min ratio
Variables (Xk) XB /Xk
s1 0 4 1 1 1 0 4/1=4

43
s2 0 2 1 -1 0 1 2 / 1 = 2 → outgoing

↑incoming
Z= CB XB = 0 Δ1= -3 Δ2= -2 Δ3=0
Δ4=0

 If the number in the marked position is other than unity, divide all the elements of
that row by the key element.
 Then subtract appropriate multiples of this new row from the remaining rows, so
as to obtain zeroes in the remaining position of the column Xk.

Basic CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 Min ratio

Variables (Xk) XB /Xk
(R1=R1 – R2) 2 / 2 = 1 → outgoing
s1 0 2 0 2 1 -
1 2 / -1 = -2 (neglect in
x1 3 2 case of negative)
1 -1 0
1
↑incoming
Z=0*2+3*2= 6 Δ1=0 Δ2= -5 Δ3=0
Δ4=3

Step 7 – Now repeat step 4 through step 6 until an optimal solution is obtained.

44
Basic CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 Min ratio
Variables XB /Xk
(R1=R1 / 2)

x2 2 1 0 1 1/2 -1/2
(R2=R2 + R1)
1 0 1/2 1/2
x1 3 3
Z = 11 Δ1=0 Δ2=0 Δ3=5/2 Δ4=1/2

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained

Therefore the solution is Max Z = 11, x1 = 3 and x2 = 1

1.6 Worked Examples

Solve by simplex method

Example 1
Maximize Z = 80x1 + 55x2
Subject to
4x1 + 2x2 ≤ 40
2x1 + 4x2 ≤ 32
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
SLPP
Maximize Z = 80x1 + 55x2 + 0s1 + 0s2
Subject to
4x1 + 2x2+ s1= 40
2x1 + 4x2 + s2= 32

45
 x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0

Cj → 80 55 0 0
Basic CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 Min ratio
Variables XB /Xk
s1 0 40 4 2 1 0 40 / 4 = 10→
outgoing
s2 0 32 2 4 0 1
32 / 2 = 16

↑incoming
Z= CB XB = 0 Δ1= -80 Δ2= -55 Δ3=0
Δ4=0
(R1=R1 / 4)

x1 80 10 1 1/2 1/4 0 10/1/2 = 20

(R2=R2– 2R1)

s2 0 12 0 3 -1/2 1 12/3 = 4→ outgoing

↑incoming
Z = 800 Δ1=0 Δ2= -15 Δ3=40
Δ4=0
(R1=R1– 1/2R2)

x1 80 8 1 0 1/3 -1/6

(R2=R2 / 3)
x2 55 4 0 1 -1/6 1/3

Z = 860 Δ1=0 Δ2=0 Δ3=35/2 Δ4=5

46
Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Max
Z = 860, x1 = 8 and x2 = 4

Example 2
Maximize Z = 5x1 + 3x2
Subject to
3x1 + 5x2 ≤ 15
5x1 + 2x2 ≤ 10
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
SLPP
Maximize Z = 5x1 + 3x2 + 0s1 + 0s2
Subject to
3x1 + 5x2+ s1= 15
5x1 + 2x2 + s2= 10
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0

Cj → 5 3 0 0
Basic CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 Min ratio
Variables XB /Xk
s1 0 15 3 5 1 0 15 / 3 = 5

s2 0 10 5 2 0 1 10 / 5 = 2 →
outgoing

↑incoming
Z= CB XB = 0 Δ1= -5 Δ2= -3 Δ3=0 Δ4=0

47
 (R1=R1– 3R2)

s1 0 9 0 19/5 1 -3/5 9/19/5 = 45/19 →

(R2=R2 /5)
x1 5 2 1 2/5 0 1/5 2/2/5 = 5

↑
Z = 10 Δ1=0 Δ2= -1 Δ3=0 Δ4=1
(R1=R1 / 19/5)
x2 3 45/19 0 1 5/19 -3/19

(R2=R2 –2/5 R1)

x1 5 20/19 1 0 -2/19 5/19

Z = 235/19 Δ1=0 Δ2=0 Δ3=5/19

Δ4=16/19

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Max
Z = 235/19, x1 = 20/19 and x2 = 45/19

Example 3
Maximize Z = 5x1 + 7x2
Subject to
x1 + x2 ≤ 4
3x1 – 8x2 ≤ 24
10x1 + 7x2 ≤ 35
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
SLPP

48
 Maximize Z = 5x1 + 7x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
Subject to
x1 + x2 + s1= 4
3x1 – 8x2 + s2= 24
10x1 + 7x2 + s3= 35
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0, s3 ≥ 0

Cj → 5 7 0 0 0
Basic CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3 Min ratio
Variables XB /Xk
s1 0 4 1 1 1 0 0 4 /1 = 4→outgoing

s2 0 24 3 -8 0 1 0 –

s3 0 35 10 7 0 0 1 35 / 7 = 5

↑incoming
Z= CB XB = 0 -5 -7 0 0 0 ←Δj

x2 7 4 1 1 1 0 0

(R2 = R2 + 8R1)

s2 0 56 11 0 8 1 0

(R3 = R3 – 7R1)
0 7 3 0 -7 0 1
s3

Z = 28 2 0 7 0 0 ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained

Therefore the solution is Max Z = 28, x1 = 0 and x2 = 4

49
 Example 4
Maximize Z = 2x – 3y + z
Subject to
3x + 6y + z ≤ 6
4x + 2y + z ≤ 4
x – y+ z≤ 3
and x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0

Solution
SLPP
Maximize Z = 2x – 3y + z + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
Subject to
3x + 6y + z + s1= 6
4x + 2y + z + s2= 4
x – y + z + s3 = 3
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0 s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0, s3 ≥ 0

Cj → 2 -3 1 0 0 0
Basic CB XB X Y Z S1 S2 S3 Min ratio
Variables XB /Xk
s1 0 6 3 6 1 1 0 0 6/3=2

s2 0 4 4 2 1 0 1 0 4 / 4 =1→ outgoing

s3 0 3 1 -1 1 0 0 1 3/1=3

↑incoming

50
 Z=0 -2 3 -1 0 0 0 ←Δj

s1 0 3 0 9/2 1/4 1 -3/4 0 3/1/4=12

x 2 1 1 1/2 1/4 0 1/4 0 1/1/4=4

s3 0 2 0 -3/2 3/4 0 -1/4 1 8/3 = 2.6→

↑incoming
Z=2 0 4 1/2 0 1/2 0 ←Δj

s1 0 7/3 0 5 0 1 -2/3 -1/3

x 2 1/3 1 1 0 0 1/3 -1/3

z 1 8/3 0 -2 1 0 -1/3 4/3

Z = 10/3 0 3 0 0 1/3 2/3 ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Max
Z = 10/3, x = 1/3, y = 0 and z = 8/3

Example 5
Maximize Z = 3x1 + 5x2
Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 ≤ 18
x1 ≤ 4
x2 ≤ 6
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

51
Solution

SLPP
Maximize Z = 3x1 + 5x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 + s1= 18
x1 + s2= 4
x2 + s3= 6
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0, s3 ≥ 0

Cj → 3 5 0 0 0
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3
Variables XB /Xk
s1 0 18 3 2 1 0 0 18 / 2 = 9
s2 0 4 1 0 0 1 0 4 / 0 = ∞ (neglect)
s3 0 6 0 1 0 0 1 6 / 1 = 6→
↑
Z=0 -3 -5 0 0 0 ←Δj
(R1=R1-2R3)

52
 s1 0 6 3 0 1 0 -2 6/3=2→
s2 0 4 1 0 0 1 0 4/1=4
x2 5 6 0 1 0 0 1 --
↑
Z = 30 -3 0 0 0 5 ←Δj
(R1=R1 / 3)

x1 3 2 1 0 1/3 0 -2/3
(R2=R2 - R1)

s2 0 2 0 0 -1/3 1 2/3
x2 5 6 0 1 0 0 1

Z = 36 0 0 1 0 3 ←Δj
Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Max
Z = 36, x1 = 2, x2 = 6

Example 6
Minimize Z = x1 – 3x2 + 2x3
Subject to
3x1 – x2 + 3x3 ≤ 7
-2x1 + 4x2 ≤ 12
-4x1 + 3x2 + 8x3 ≤ 10
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
Solution
SLPP
Min (-Z) = Max Z‫ = ׳‬-x1 + 3x2 - 2x3 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
Subject to
3x1 – x2 + 3x3 + s1 = 7
-2x1 + 4x2 + s2 = 12
-4x1 + 3x2 + 8x3 + s3 = 10
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0 s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0, s3 ≥ 0

53
 Cj → -1 3 -2 0 0 0
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 X3 S1 S2 S3
Variables XB /Xk
s1 0 7 3 -1 3 1 0 0 -
s2 0 12 -2 4 0 0 1 0 3→
s3 0 10 -4 3 8 0 0 1 10/3
↑
Z' = 0 1 -3 2 0 0 0 ←Δj
(R1 = R1 + R2)

s1 0 10 5/2 0 3 1 1/4 0 4→
(R2 = R2 / 4)

x2 3 3 -1/2 1 0 0 1/4 0 -
(R3 = R3 – 3R2)

s3 0 1 -5/2 0 8 0 -3/4 1 -
↑
Z' = 9 -5/2 0 0 0 3/4 0 ←Δj
(R1 = R1 / 5/2)

x1 -1 4 1 0 6/5 2/5 1/10 0

(R2 = R2 + 1/2 R1)

x2 3 5 0 1 3/5 1/5 3/10 0

(R3 = R3 + 5/2R1)

s3 0 11 0 1 11 1 -1/2 1
Z' = 11 0 0 3/5 1/5 1/5 0 ←Δj
Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained
Therefore the solution is Z' =11 which implies Z = -11, x1 = 4, x2 = 5, x3 = 0

Example 7
Max Z = 2x + 5y
x + y ≤ 600
0 ≤ x ≤ 400
54
0 ≤ y ≤ 300

Solution
SLPP
Max Z = 2x + 5y + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
x + y + s1 = 600
x + s2 = 400
y + s3 = 300
x1 ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, s1 ≥ 0, s2 ≥ 0, s3 ≥ 0

Cj → 2 5 0 0 0
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X Y S1 S2 S3
Variables XB /Xk
s1 0 600 1 1 1 0 0 600 / 1 = 600
s2 0 400 1 0 0 1 0 -
s3 0 300 0 1 0 0 1 300 /1 = 300→
↑
Z=0 -2 -5 0 0 0 ←Δj
(R1 = R1 – R3)

s1 0 300 1 0 1 0 -1 300 /1 = 300→

s2 0 400 1 0 0 1 0 400 / 1 = 400
y 5 300 0 1 0 0 1 -
↑
Z = 1500 -2 0 0 0 5 ←Δj
x 2 300 1 0 1 0 -1
(R2 = R2 – R1)

s2 0 100 0 0 -1 1 1
y 5 300 0 1 0 0 1

55
 Z = 2100 0 0 2 0 3 ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Z =
2100, x = 300, y = 300

Exercise
Solve by simplex method
1. Maximize Z = 5x1 + 3x2
Subject to
3x1 + 5x2 ≤ 15
5x1 + 2x2 ≤ 10
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 235/19, x1= 20/19, x2= 45/19]

2. Maximize Z = 5x1 + 7x2

Subject to
x1 + x2 ≤ 4
3x1 - 8x2 ≤ 24
10x1 + 7x2 ≤ 35
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 28, x1= 0, x2= 4]

3. Maximize Z = 2x1 + 4x2 + x3+ x4

Subject to
x1 + 3x2 + x4 ≤ 4
2x1 + x2 ≤ 3
56
 x2 + 4x3 + x4 ≤ 3
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0, x4 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 13/2, x1= 1, x2= 1, x3= 1/2, x4= 0]

4. Maximize Z = 7x1 + 5x2

Subject to
-x1 - 2x2 ≥ -6
4x1 + 3x2 ≤ 12
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 21, x1= 3, x2= 0]

5. Maximize Z = 3x1 + 2x2

Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≤ 10
x1 + 3x2 ≤ 6
x1 + x2 ≤ 21
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Unit 2
2.1 Computational Procedure of Big – M Method (Charne’s Penalty Method)

57
2.2 Worked Examples
2.3 Steps for Two-Phase Method
2.4 Worked Examples

2.1 Computational Procedure of Big – M Method (Charne’s Penalty

Method)
Step 1 – Express the problem in the standard form.

Step 2 – Add non-negative artificial variable to the left side of each of the equations
corresponding to the constraints of the type ‘≥’ or ‘=’.

When artificial variables are added, it causes violation of the corresponding constraints.
This difficulty is removed by introducing a condition which ensures that artificial
variables will be zero in the final solution (provided the solution of the problem exists).

On the other hand, if the problem does not have a solution, at least one of the artificial
variables will appear in the final solution with positive value. This is achieved by
assigning a very large price (per unit penalty) to these variables in the objective
function. Such large price will be designated by –M for maximization problems (+M for
minimizing problem), where M > 0.

Step 3 – In the last, use the artificial variables for the starting solution and proceed with
the usual simplex routine until the optimal solution is obtained.

2.2 Worked Examples

Example 1
Max Z = -2x1 - x2
Subject to
3x1 + x2 = 3
4x1 + 3x2 ≥ 6
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 4
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
58
Solution
SLPP
Max Z = -2x1 - x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 - M a1 - M a2
Subject to
3x1 + x2 + a1= 3
4x1 + 3x2 – s1 + a2 = 6
x1 + 2x2 + s2 = 4
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Cj → -2 -1 0 0 -M -M
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 A1 A2
Variables XB /Xk
a1 -M 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 3 /3 = 1→
a2 -M 6 4 3 -1 0 0 1 6 / 4 =1.5
s2 0 4 1 2 0 1 0 0 4/1=4
↑
Z = -9M 2 – 7M 1 – 4M M 0 0 0 ←Δj
x1 -2 1 1 1/3 0 0 X 0 1/1/3 =3
a2 -M 2 0 5/3 -1 0 X 1 6/5/3 =1.2→
s2 0 3 0 5/3 0 1 X 0 4/5/3=1.8

0 0 X 0
Z = -2 – 2M 0 ←Δj

x1 -2 3/5 1 0 1/5 0 X X
x2 -1 6/5 0 1 -3/5 0 X X
s2 0 1 0 0 1 1 X X

Z = -12/5 0 0 1/5 0 X X

59
Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained
Therefore the solution is Max Z = -12/5, x1 = 3/5, x2 = 6/5

Example 2
Max Z = 3x1 - x2
Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≥ 2
x1 + 3x2 ≤ 3
x2 ≤ 4
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
SLPP
Max Z = 3x1 - x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3 - M a1
Subject to
2x1 + x2 – s1+ a1= 2
x1 + 3x2 + s2 = 3
x2 + s3 = 4
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3, a1 ≥ 0
Cj
3 -1 0 0 0 -M
→
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3 A1
Variables XB /Xk
a1 -M 2 2 1 -1 0 0 1 2 / 2 = 1→
s2 0 3 1 3 0 1 0 0 3/1=3
s3 0 4 0 1 0 0 1 0 -
↑
Z = -2M -2M-3 -M+1 M 0 0 0 ←Δj
x1 3 1 1 1/2 -1/2 0 0 X -
s2 0 2 0 5/2 1/2 1 0 X 2/1/2 = 4→
s3 0 4 0 1 0 0 1 X -

60
 ↑
Z=3 0 5/2 -3/2 0 0 X ←Δj
x1 3 3 1 3 0 1/2 0 X
s1 0 4 0 5 1 2 0 X
s3 0 4 0 1 0 0 1 X

Z=9 0 10 0 3/2 0 X

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Max
Z = 9, x1 = 3, x2 = 0

Example 3
Min Z = 2x1 + 3x2
Subject to
x1 + x2 ≥ 5
x1 + 2x2 ≥ 6
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution

SLPP
Min Z = Max Z‫ = ׳‬-2x1 - 3x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 - M a1 - M a2
Subject to
x1 + x2 – s1+ a1= 5
x1 + 2x2 – s2+ a2= 6
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Cj → -2 -3 0 0 -M -M
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 A1 A2
Variables XB /Xk
a1 -M 5 1 1 -1 0 1 0 5 /1 = 5
61
 a2 -M 6 1 2 0 -1 0 1 6 / 2 = 3→
↑
- ←Δj
Z‫ = ׳‬-11M -2M + 2 M M 0 0
3M+3
a1 -M 2 1/2 0 -1 1/2 1 X 2/1/2 = 4→
x2 -3 3 1/2 1 0 -1/2 0 X 3/1/2 =6
↑
Z‫ = ׳‬-2M- (-M+1) / ←Δj
0 M (-M+3)/2 0 X
9 2
x1 -2 4 1 0 -2 1 X X
x2 -3 1 0 1 1 -1 X X

Z‫ = ׳‬-11 0 0 1 1 X X

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Z' =
-11 which implies Max Z = 11, x1 = 4, x2 = 1

Example 4
Max Z =3x1 + 2x2 + x3
Subject to
2x1 + x2 + x3 = 12
3x1 + 4x2 = 11
and x1 is unrestricted
x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
Solution

SLPP
Max Z = 3(x1' - x1'') + 2x2 + x3 - M a1 - M a2
Subject to
2(x1' - x1'') + x2 + x3 + a1= 12
62
 3(x1' - x1'') + 4x2 + a2 = 11
x1', x1'', x2 , x3, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Max Z = 3x1' - 3x1'' + 2x2 + x3 - M a1 - M a2

Subject to
2x1' - 2x1'' + x2 + x3 + a1= 12
3x1' - 3x1'' + 4x2 + a2 = 11
x1', x1'', x2 , x3, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Cj → 3 -3 2 1 -M -M
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1' X1'' X2 X3 A1 A2
Variables XB /Xk
a1 -M 12 2 -2 1 1 1 0 12 /2 = 6
a2 -M 11 3 -3 4 0 0 1 11/3 =3.6→
↑
Z = -23M -5M-3 5M+3 -5M-2 -M-1 0 0 ←Δj
a1 -M 14/3 0 0 -5/3 1 1 X 14/3/1 = 14/3→
x1' 3 11/3 1 -1 4/3 0 0 X -
↑
0 -6 5/3M+1 -M-1 0 X ←Δj
x3 1 14/3 0 0 -5/3 1 X X
x1' 3 11/3 1 -1 4/3 0 X X

Z = 47/3 0 0 1/3 0 X X

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained

63
x1' = 11/3, x1'' = 0
x1 = x1' - x1'' = 11/3 – 0 = 11/3

Therefore the solution is Max Z = 47/3, x1 = 11/3, x2 = 0, x3 = 14/3

Example 5
Max Z = 8x2
Subject to
x1 - x2 ≥ 0
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ -6
and x1 , x2 unrestricted
Solution
SLPP
Max Z = 8 (x2' – x2'') + 0s1 + 0s2 - M a1 - M a2
Subject to
(x1' - x1'') - (x2' – x2'') – s1+ a1= 0
-2(x1' - x1'') - 3(x2' – x2'') - s2 + a2 = 6
x1', x1'', x2', x2'', s1, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Max Z = 8x2' – 8x2'' + 0s1 + 0s2 - M a1 - M a2

Subject to
x1' - x1'' - x2' + x2''– s1+ a1= 0
-2x1' + 2x1'' - 3x2' + 3x2'' - s2 + a2 = 6
x1', x1'', x2', x2'', s1, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Cj → 0 0 8 -8 0 0 -M -M
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1' X1'' X2' X2'' S1 S2 A1 A2
Variables XB /Xk
a1 -M 0 1 -1 -1 1 -1 0 1 0 0→

64
 a2 -M 6 -2 2 -3 3 0 -1 0 1 2
↑
Z = -6M M -M 4M-8 -4M+8 M M 0 0 ←Δj
x2'' -8 0 1 -1 -1 1 -1 0 X 0 -
a2 -M 6 -5 5 0 0 3 -1 X 1 6/5→
↑
Z = -6M 5M-8 -5M+8 0 0 -3M+8 M X 0 ←Δj
x2'' -8 6/5 0 0 -1 1 -2/5 -1/5 X X
x1'' 0 6/5 -1 1 0 0 3/5 -1/5 X X

Z = -48/5 0 0 0 0 16/5 8/5 X X

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained

x1' = 0, x1'' = 6/5

x1 = x1' - x1'' = 0 – 6/5 = -6/5

x2' = 0, x2'' = 6/5

x2 = x2' – x2'' = 0 – 6/5 = -6/5

Therefore the solution is Max Z = -48/5, x1 = -6/5, x2 = -6/5

2.3 Steps for Two-Phase Method

The process of eliminating artificial variables is performed in phase-I of the solution and
phase-II is used to get an optimal solution. Since the solution of LPP is computed in two
phases, it is called as Two-Phase Simplex Method.

65
Phase I – In this phase, the simplex method is applied to a specially constructed
auxiliary linear programming problem leading to a final simplex table containing a
basic feasible solution to the original problem.
Step 1 – Assign a cost -1 to each artificial variable and a cost 0 to all other
variables in the objective function.
Step 2 – Construct the Auxiliary LPP in which the new objective function Z* is to
be maximized subject to the given set of constraints.
Step 3 – Solve the auxiliary problem by simplex method until either of the
following three possibilities do arise
i. Max Z* < 0 and atleast one artificial vector appear in the optimum
basis at a positive level (Δj ≥ 0). In this case, given problem does
not possess any feasible solution.
ii. Max Z* = 0 and at least one artificial vector appears in the
optimum basis at a zero level. In this case proceed to phase-II.
iii. Max Z* = 0 and no one artificial vector appears in the optimum
basis. In this case also proceed to phase-II.

Phase II – Now assign the actual cost to the variables in the objective function and a zero
cost to every artificial variable that appears in the basis at the zero level. This new
objective function is now maximized by simplex method subject to the given constraints.

Simplex method is applied to the modified simplex table obtained at the end of phase-I,
until an optimum basic feasible solution has been attained. The artificial variables which
are non-basic at the end of phase-I are removed.

2.4 Worked Examples

Example 1
Max Z = 3x1 - x2
Subject to

66
 2x1 + x2 ≥ 2
x1 + 3x2 ≤ 2
x2 ≤ 4
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP
Max Z = 3x1 - x2
Subject to
2x1 + x2 – s1+ a1= 2
x1 + 3x2 + s2 = 2
x2 + s3 = 4
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3,a1 ≥ 0

Auxiliary LPP
Max Z* = 0x1 - 0x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3 -1a1
Subject to
2x1 + x2 – s1+ a1= 2
x1 + 3x2 + s2 = 2
x2 + s3 = 4
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3,a1 ≥ 0

Phase I

Cj
0 0 0 0 0 -1
→
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3 A1
Variables XB /Xk

67
 a1 -1 2 2 1 -1 0 0 1 1→
s2 0 2 1 3 0 1 0 0 2
s3 0 4 0 1 0 0 1 0 -
↑
Z* = -2 -2 -1 1 0 0 0 ←Δj
x1 0 1 1 1/2 -1/2 0 0 X
s2 0 1 0 5/2 1/2 1 0 X
s3 0 4 0 1 0 0 1 X

Z* = 0 0 0 0 0 0 X ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, Max Z* = 0 and no artificial vector appears in the basis, we proceed to
phase II.

Phase II

Cj → 3 -1 0 0 0
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3
Variables XB /Xk
x1 3 1 1 1/2 -1/2 0 0 -
s2 0 1 0 5/2 1/2 1 0 2→
s3 0 4 0 1 0 0 1 -
↑
Z=3 0 5/2 -3/2 0 0 ←Δj

68
 x1 3 2 1 3 0 1 0
s1 0 2 0 5 1 2 0
s3 0 4 0 1 0 0 1

Z=6 0 10 0 3 0 ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained

Therefore the solution is Max Z = 6, x1 = 2, x2 = 0

Example 2
Max Z = 5x1 + 8x2
Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 ≥ 3
x1 + 4x2 ≥ 4
x1 + x 2 ≤ 5
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP

Max Z = 5x1 + 8x2

Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 – s1+ a1 = 3
x1 + 4x2 – s2+ a2 = 4
x1 + x2 + s3 = 5
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Auxiliary LPP
Max Z* = 0x1 + 0x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3 -1a1 -1a2
Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 – s1+ a1 = 3
x1 + 4x2 – s2+ a2 = 4

69
 x1 + x2 + s3 = 5
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Phase I
Cj → 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3 A1 A2
Variables XB /Xk
a1 -1 3 3 2 -1 0 0 1 0 3/2
a2 -1 4 1 4 0 -1 0 0 1 1→
s3 0 5 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 5
↑
Z* = -7 -4 -6 1 1 0 0 0 ←Δj
a1 -1 1 5/2 0 -1 1/2 0 1 X 2/5→
x2 0 1 1/4 1 0 -1/4 0 0 X 4
s3 0 4 3/4 0 0 1/4 1 0 X 16/3
↑
Z* = -1 -5/2 0 1 -1/2 0 0 X ←Δj
x1 0 2/5 1 0 -2/5 1/5 0 X X
x2 0 9/10 0 1 1/10 -3/10 0 X X
s3 0 37/10 0 0 3/10 1/10 1 X X

Z* = 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, Max Z* = 0 and no artificial vector appears in the basis, we proceed to
phase II.

Phase II
Cj → 5 8 0 0 0
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3
Variables XB /Xk

70
 x1 5 2/5 1 0 -2/5 1/5 0 2→
x2 8 9/10 0 1 1/10 -3/10 0 -
s3 0 37/10 0 0 3/10 1/10 1 37
↑
Z = 46/5 0 0 -6/5 -7/5 0 ←Δj
s2 0 2 5 0 -2 1 0 -
x2 8 3/2 3/2 1 -1/2 0 0 -
s3 0 7/2 -1/2 0 1/2 0 1 7→
↑
Z = 12 7 0 -4 0 0 ←Δj
s2 0 16 3 0 0 1 2
x2 8 5 1 1 0 0 1/2
s1 0 7 -1 0 1 0 2

Z = 40 3 0 0 0 4

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Max
Z = 40, x1 = 0, x2 = 5

Example 3
Max Z = -4x1 - 3x2 - 9x3
Subject to
2x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 ≥ 15
6x1 + x2 + 6x3 ≥ 12
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
Solution

Standard LPP
Max Z = -4x1 - 3x2 - 9x3
Subject to
71
 2x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 - s1+ a1= 15
6x1 + x2 + 6x3 - s2 + a2 = 12
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Auxiliary LPP
Max Z* = 0x1 - 0x2 - 0x3 + 0s1 + 0s2 -1a1 -1a2
Subject to
2x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 - s1+ a1= 15
6x1 + x2 + 6x3 - s2 + a2 = 12
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, a1, a2 ≥ 0
Phase I
Cj → 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 X3 S1 S2 A1 A2
Variables XB /Xk
a1 -1 15 2 4 6 -1 0 1 0 15/6
a2 -1 12 6 1 6 0 -1 0 1 2→
↑
Z* = -27 -8 -5 -12 1 1 0 0 ←Δj
a1 -1 3 -4 3 0 -1 1 1 X 1→
x3 0 2 1 1/6 1 0 -1/6 0 X 12
↑
Z* = -3 4 -3 0 1 -1 0 X ←Δj
x2 0 1 -4/3 1 0 -1/3 1/3 X X
x3 0 11/6 22/18 0 1 1/18 -4/18 X X

Z* = 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X

Since all Δj ≥ 0, Max Z* = 0 and no artificial vector appears in the basis, we proceed to
phase II.

72
Phase II

Cj → -4 -3 -9 0 0
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 X3 S1 S2
Variables XB /Xk
x2 -3 1 -4/3 1 0 -1/3 1/3 -
x3 -9 11/6 22/18 0 1 1/18 -4/18 3/2→
↑
Z = -39/2 -3 0 0 1/2 1 ←Δj
x2 -3 3 0 1 12/11 -3/11 1/11
x1 -4 3/2 1 0 18/22 1/22 -4/22

Z = -15 0 0 27/11 7/11 5/11 ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained

Therefore the solution is Max Z = -15, x1 = 3/2, x2 = 3, x3 = 0

Example 4
Min Z = 4x1 + x2
Subject to
3x1 + x2 = 3
4x1 + 3x2 ≥ 6
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 4
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution

Standard LPP
Min Z = Max Z' = – 4x1 – x2
73
 Subject to
3x1 + x2 + a1 = 3
4x1 + 3x2 – s1+ a2 = 6
x1 + 2x2 + s2 = 4
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Auxiliary LPP
Max Z* = 0x1 – 0x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 –1a1 –1a2
Subject to
3x1 + x2 + a1 = 3
4x1 + 3x2 – s1+ a2 = 6
x1 + 2x2 + s2 = 4
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Phase I
Cj → 0 0 0 0 -1 -1
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 A1 A2
Variables XB /Xk
a1 -1 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 1→
a2 -1 6 4 3 -1 0 0 1 6/4
s2 0 4 1 2 0 1 0 0 4
↑
Z* = -9 -7 -4 1 0 0 0
x1 0 1 1 1/3 0 0 X 0 3
a2 -1 2 0 5/3 -1 0 X 1 6/5→
s2 0 3 0 5/3 0 1 X 0 9/5
↑
Z* = -2 0 -5/3 1 0 X 0

74
 x1 0 3/5 1 0 1/5 0 X X
x2 0 6/5 0 1 -3/5 0 X X
s2 0 1 0 0 1 1 X X

Z* = 0 0 0 0 0 X X

Since all Δj ≥ 0, Max Z* = 0 and no artificial vector appears in the basis, we proceed to
phase II.

Phase II

Cj → -4 -1 0 0
Basic Min ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2
Variables XB /Xk
x1 -4 3/5 1 0 1/5 0 3
x2 -1 6/5 0 1 -3/5 0 -
s2 0 1 0 0 1 1 1→
↑
Z' = -18/5 0 0 -1/5 0 ←Δj
x1 -4 2/5 1 0 0 -1/5
x2 -1 9/5 0 1 0 3/5
s1 0 1 0 0 1 1

Z' = -17/5 0 0 0 1/5 ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained

Therefore the solution is Max Z' = -17/5

Min Z = 17/5, x1 = 2/5, x2 = 9/5

75
Exercise
Solve by Big-M method
1. Min Z = 4x1 + 2x2
Subject to
3x1 + x2 ≥ 27
x1 + x2 ≥ 21
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Min Z = 48, x1 = 3, x2 =18]

2. Min Z = x1 + x2 + 3x3
Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≤ 3
2x1 + x2+ 2x3 ≥ 3
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
[Ans. Min Z = 3, x1 = 3/4, x2 =0, x3 = 3/4]

Solve by Two-phase method

1. Max Z = 3x1 - x2
Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≥ 2
x1 + 3x2 ≤ 2
x2 ≤ 4
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 6, x1 = 2, x2 =0]

2. Max Z = 5x1 - 2x2 +3x3

Subject to
2x1 + 2x2 - x3 ≥ 2

76
 3x1 - 4x2 ≤ 3
x2 + 3x3 ≤ 5
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 85/3, x1 = 23/3, x2 =5, x3 =0]

Unit 3
3.1 Special cases in Simplex Method
3.1.1 Degenaracy
3.1.2 Non-existing Feasible Solution
3.1.3 Unbounded Solution
3.1.4 Multiple Optimal Solutions

3.1.1 Degeneracy
The concept of obtaining a degenerate basic feasible solution in a LPP is known as
degeneracy. The degeneracy in a LPP may arise
 At the initial stage when at least one basic variable is zero in the initial basic
feasible solution.
 At any subsequent iteration when more than one basic variable is eligible to leave
the basic and hence one or more variables becoming zero in the next iteration and
the problem is said to degenerate. There is no assurance that the value of the
objective function will improve, since the new solutions may remain degenerate.
As a result, it is possible to repeat the same sequence of simplex iterations
endlessly without improving the solutions. This concept is known as cycling or
circling.

Rules to avoid cycling

 Divide each element in the tied rows by the positive coefficients of the key
column in that row.
 Compare the resulting ratios, column by column, first in the identity and then in
the body, from left to right.

77
  The row which first contains the smallest algebraic ratio contains the leaving
variable.

Example 1
Max Z = 3x1 + 9x2
Subject to
x1 + 4x2 ≤ 8
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 4
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP
Max Z = 3x1 + 9x2 + 0s1 + 0s2
Subject to
x1 + 4x2 + s1 = 8
x1 + 2x2 + s2 = 4
x1 , x2 , s1, s2 ≥ 0

Cj→ 3 9 0 0
Basic
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 XB / XK S1 / X2
Variables
s1 0 8 1 4 1 0 1/4
s2 0 4 1 2 0 1 0/2→
↑
Z=0 -3 -9 0 0 ←Δj

78
 s1 0 0 -1 0 1 -1
x2 9 2 1/2 1 0 1/2

Z =18 3/2 0 0 9/2

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Max
Z = 18, x1 = 0, x2 = 2

Note – Since a tie in minimum ratio (degeneracy), we find minimum of s 1 /xk for these
rows for which the tie exists.

Example 2
Max Z = 2x1 + x2
Subject to
4x1 + 3x2 ≤ 12
4x1 + x2 ≤ 8
4x1 - x2 ≤ 8
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP
Max Z = 2x1 + x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
Subject to
4x1 + 3x2 + s1 = 12
4x1 + x2 + s2 = 8
4x1 - x2 + s3 = 8
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0

Cj→ 2 1 0 0 0
Basic XB /
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3 S1 / X1 S2 / X1
Varibles XK
s1 0 12 4 3 1 0 0 12/4=3

79
 s2 0 8 4 1 0 1 0 8/4=2 4/0=0 1/4
s3 0 8 4 -1 0 0 1 8/4=2 4/0=0 0/4=0→
↑
Z=0 -2 -1 0 0 0 ←Δj
s1 0 4 0 4 1 0 -1 4/4=1
s2 0 0 0 2 0 1 -1 0→
x1 2 2 1 -1/4 0 0 1/4 -
↑
Z=4 0 -3/2 0 0 1/2 ←Δj
s1 0 4 0 0 1 -2 1 0→
x2 1 0 0 1 0 1/2 -1/2 -
x1 2 2 1 0 0 1/8 1/8 16
↑
Z=4 0 0 0 3/4 -1/4 ←Δj
s3 0 4 0 0 1 -2 1
x2 1 2 0 1 1/2 -1/2 0
2
x1 1 0 -1/8 3/8 0
3/2

Z=5 0 0 1/4 1/4 0 ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimal basic feasible solution is obtained. Therefore the solution is Max
Z = 5, x1 = 3/2, x2 = 2

3.1.2 Non-existing Feasible Solution

The feasible region is found to be empty which indicates that the problem has no feasible
solution.

80
Example 1
Max Z = 3x1 +2x2
Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≤ 2
3x1 + 4x2 ≥ 12
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP

Max Z = 3x1 +2 x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 – Ma1

Subject to
2x1 + x2 + s1 = 2
3x1 + 4x2 - s2 + a1 = 12
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0

Cj→ 3 2 0 0 -M
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 A1
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 2 2 1 1 0 0 2/1=2→
a1 -M 12 3 4 0 -1 1 12/4=3
↑
Z= -12M -3M-3 -4M-2 0 M 0 ←Δj
x2 2 2 2 1 1 0 0
a1 -M 4 -5 0 -4 -1 1

Z= 4-4M 1+5M 0 2+4M M 0

81
Δj ≥ 0 so according to optimality condition the solution is optimal but the solution is
called pseudo optimal solution since it does not satisfy all the constraints but satisfies
the optimality condition. The artificial variable has a positive value which indicates there
is no feasible solution.

Example 2
Min Z = x1 –2x2– 3x3
Subject to
–2x1 + x2 + 3x3= 2
2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3= 1
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP
Min Z = Max Z' = –x1 +2x2+ 3x3
Subject to
–2x1 + x2 + 3x3 + a1 = 2
2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3+ a2 = 1
x1 , x2 , a1, a2 ≥ 0

Auxiliary LPP
Max Z* = 0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 –1a1 –1a2
Subject to
–2x1 + x2 + 3x3 + a1 = 2
2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3+ a2 = 1
x1 , x2 , a1, a2 ≥ 0

Phase I

82
 Cj→ 0 0 0 -1 -1
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 X3 A1 A2
Variables XB / XK
a1 -1 2 -2 1 3 1 0 2/3
a2 -1 1 2 3 4 0 1 1/4→
↑
Z* = -3 0 -4 -7 0 0 ←Δj
a1 -1 5/4 -7/4 -5/4 0 1 X
x3 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 0 X

Z* = -5/4 7/4 5/4 0 1 X ←Δj

Since for all Δj ≥ 0, optimum level is achieved. At the end of phase-I Max Z* < 0 and one
of the artificial variable a1 appears at the positive optimum level. Hence the given
problem does not posses any feasible solution.

3.1.3 Unbounded Solution

In some cases if the value of a variable is increased indefinitely, the constraints are not
violated. This indicates that the feasible region is unbounded at least in one direction.
Therefore, the objective function value can be increased indefinitely. This means that the
problem has been poorly formulated or conceived.

In simplex method, this can be noticed if Δj value is negative to a variable (entering)

which is notified as key column and the ratio of solution value to key column value is
either negative or infinity (both are to be ignored) to all the variables. This indicates that
no variable is ready to leave the basis, though a variable is ready to enter. We cannot
proceed further and the solution is unbounded or not finite.

Example 1
Max Z = 6x1 - 2x2
83
Subject to
2x1 - x2 ≤ 2
x1 ≤ 4
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP
Max Z = 6x1 - 2x2 + 0s1 + 0s2
Subject to
2x1 - x2 + s1 = 2
x1 + s2 = 4
x1 , x2 , s1, s2 ≥ 0

Cj→ 6 -2 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 2 2 -1 1 0 1→
s2 0 4 1 0 0 1 4
↑
Z=0 -6 2 0 0 ←Δj
x1 6 1 1 -1/2 1/2 0 -
s2 0 3 0 1/2 -1/2 1 6→
↑
Z=6 0 -1 3 0 ←Δj
x1 6 4 1 0 0 1
x2 -2 6 0 1 -1 2

Z = 12 0 0 2 2 ←Δj

84
The optimal solution is x1 = 4, x2 = 6 and Z =12

In the starting table, the elements of x2 are negative and zero. This is an indication that
the feasible region is not bounded. From this we conclude the problem has unbounded
feasible region but still the optimal solution is bounded.

Example 2
Max Z = -3x1 + 2x2
Subject to
x1 ≤ 3
x1 - x2 ≤ 0
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP
Max Z = -3x1 + 2 x2 + 0s1 + 0s2
Subject to
x1 + s1 = 3
x1 - x2 + s2 = 0
x1 , x2 , s1, s2 ≥ 0

Cj→ -3 2 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 3 1 0 1 0
s2 0 0 1 -1 0 1
↑
Z=0 3 -2 0 0 ←Δj

85
Corresponding to the incoming vector (column x2), all elements are negative or zero. So
x2 cannot enter the basis and the outgoing vector cannot be found. This is an indication
that there exists unbounded solution for the given problem.

Example 3
Max Z = 107x1 + x2 +2x3
Subject to
14/3x1 + 1/3x2 - 2x3 ≤ 7/3
16x1 + 1/2x2 - 6x3 ≤ 5
3x1 - x2 - x3 ≤ 0
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP
Max Z = 107x1 + x2 +2x3
Subject to
14/3x1 + 1/3x2 - 2x3 + s1 = 7/3
16x1 + 1/2x2 - 6x3 + s2 = 5
3x1 - x2 - x3 + s3 = 0
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0

Cj→ 107 1 2 0 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 X3 S1 S2 S3
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 7/3 14/3 1/3 -2 1 0 0 0.5
s2 0 5 16 1/2 -6 0 1 0 0.8

86
 s3 0 0 3 -1 -1 0 0 1 0→
↑
Z=0 -107 -1 -2 0 0 0 ←Δj
s1 0 7/3 0 17/9 -4/9 1 0 -14/9 -
s2 0 5 0 35/6 -2/3 0 1 -16/3 -
x1 107 0 1 -1/3 -1/3 0 0 1/3 -

Z=0 0 -110/3 -113/3 0 0 107/3 ←Δj

Corresponding to negative Δ3, all the elements of x3 column are negative. So x3 cannot
enter into the basis matrix. This is an indication that there exists an unbounded solution to
the given problem.

3.1.4 Multiple Optimal Solution

When the objective function is parallel to one of the constraints, the multiple optimal
solutions may exist. After reaching optimality, if at least one of the non-basic variables
possess a zero value in Δj, the multiple optimal solution exist.

Example
Max Z = 6x1 + 4x2
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 30
3x1 + 2x2 ≤ 24
x1 + x 2 ≥ 3
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Standard LPP
Max Z = 6x1 + 4x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3 - Ma1
Subject to
87
 2x1 + 3x2 + s1 = 30
3x1 + 2x2 + s2 = 24
x1 + x2 – s3 + a1= 3
x1 , x2 , s1, s2, s3, a1 ≥ 0

Cj→ 6 4 0 0 0 -M
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3 A1
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 30 2 3 1 0 0 0 15
s2 0 24 3 2 0 1 0 0 8
a1 -M 3 1 1 0 0 -1 1 3→
↑
Z = -3M -M-6 -M-4 0 0 M 0 ←Δj
s1 0 24 0 1 1 0 2 X 12
s2 0 15 0 -1 0 1 3 X 5→
x1 6 3 1 1 0 0 -1 X -
↑
Z = 18 0 2 0 0 -6 X ←Δj
s1 0 14 0 5/3 1 -2/3 0 X 42/5→
s3 0 5 0 -1/3 0 1/3 1 X -
x1 6 8 1 2/3 0 1/3 0 X 12
↑
Z = 48 0 0 0 2 0 X ←Δj

Since all Δj ≥ 0, optimum solution is obtained as x1 = 8, x2 = 0, Max Z = 48

Since Δ2 corresponding to non-basic variable x2 is obtained zero, this indicates that

alternate solution or multiple optimal solution also exist. Therefore the solution as

88
obtained above is not unique. Thus we can bring x2 into the basis in place of s1. The new
optimum simplex table is obtained as follows

Cj→ 6 4 0 0 0 -M
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3 A1
Variables XB / XK
x2 4 42/5 0 1 3/5 -2/5 0 X
s3 0 39/5 0 0 1/5 1/5 1 X
x1 6 12/5 1 0 -2/5 3/5 0 X

Z = 48 0 0 0 2 0 X ←Δj

Exercise
Solve
1. Max Z = 3x1 + 2.5x2
Subject to
2x1 + 4x2 ≥ 40
3x1 + 2x2 ≥ 50
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Unbounded solution]

89
2. Max Z = 3x1 + 2x2
Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≤ 2
3x1 + 4x2 ≥ 12
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Pseudo-optimum solution]

3. Min Z = x1 - 2x2 - 3x3

Subject to
-2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 2
2x1 + 3x2+ 4x3 = 1
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
[Ans. No feasible solution]

4. Max Z = 3x1 + 2x2 + x3 + 4x4

Subject to
4x1 + 5x2 + x3 - 3x4 = 5
2x1- 3x2 - 4x3 + 5x4 = 7
x1 + 4x2 + 2.5x3 - 4x4 = 6
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0, x4 ≥ 0
[Ans. No solution]

5. Max Z = 3x1 + 9x2

Subject to
4x1 + 4x2 ≥ 8
x1 + 2x2 ≥ 4
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Degeneracy exists]

90
 6. In the course of simplex table calculations, describe how u will detect a
a. Degenerate
b. An unbounded
c. Non-existing feasible solution

7. What is degeneracy?

8. Write the role of pivot element in a simplex table.

Module 3

Unit 1
1.1 The Revised Simplex Method
1.2 Steps for solving Revised Simplex Method in Standard Form-I
1.3 Worked Examples

1.1 The Revised Simplex Method

While solving linear programming problem on a digital computer by regular simplex
method, it requires storing the entire simplex table in the memory of the computer table,
which may not be feasible for very large problem. But it is necessary to calculate each
table during each iteration. The revised simplex method which is a modification of the
original method is more economical on the computer, as it computes and stores only the
relevant information needed currently for testing and / or improving the current solution.
i.e. it needs only

 The net evaluation row Δj to determine the non-basic variable that enters the
basis.
 The pivot column

91
  The current basis variables and their values (XB column) to determine the
minimum positive ratio and then identify the basis variable to leave the basis.

The above information is directly obtained from the original equations by making use of
the inverse of the current basis matrix at any iteration.

There are two standard forms for revised simplex method

 Standard form-I – In this form, it is assumed that an identity matrix is obtained
after introducing slack variables only.
 Standard form-II – If artificial variables are needed for an identity matrix, then
two-phase method of ordinary simplex method is used in a slightly different way
to handle artificial variables.

1.2 Steps for solving Revised Simplex Method in Standard Form-I

Solve by Revised simplex method

Max Z = 2x1 + x2
Subject to
3 x1 + 4 x2 ≤ 6
6 x1 + x2 ≤ 3
and x1, x2 ≥ 0

SLPP
Max Z = 2x1 + x2+ 0s1+ 0s2
Subject to
3 x1 + 4 x2 + s 1 = 6
6 x1 + x2 + s2 = 3
and x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Step 1 – Express the given problem in standard form – I

92
  Ensure all bi ≥ 0
 The objective function should be of maximization
 Use of non-negative slack variables to convert inequalities to equations
The objective function is also treated as first constraint equation

Z - 2x1 - x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 = 0

3 x1 + 4 x2 + s1 + 0s2= 6 -- (1)
6 x1 + x2 + 0s1 + s2= 3
and x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Step 2 – Construct the starting table in the revised simplex form

Express (1) in the matrix form with suitable notation

Column vector corresponding to Z is usually denoted by e1. It is the first column of the
basis matrix B1, which is usually denoted as B1 = [β0(1), β1(1), β2(1) … βn(1)]

Hence the column β0(1), β1(1), β2(1) constitutes the basis matrix B1 (whose inverse B1-1 is
also B1)

B1-1
Basic e1 a1 (1) a2 (1)
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 0 0 -2 -1
93
 s1 0 1 0 6 3 4
s2 0 0 1 3 6 1

Step 3 – Computation of Δj for a1 (1) and a2 (1)

Δ1 = first row of B1-1 * a1 (1) = 1 * -2 + 0 * 3 + 0 *6 = -2
Δ2 = first row of B1-1 * a2 (1) = 1 * -1 + 0 * 4 + 0 *1 = -1

Step 4 – Apply the test of optimality

Both Δ1 and Δ2 are negative. So find the most negative value and determine the
incoming vector.
Therefore most negative value is Δ1 = -2. This indicates a1 (1)
(x1) is incoming
vector.

Step 5 – Compute the column vector Xk

Xk = B1-1 * a1 (1)

Stp 6 – Determine the outgoing vector. We are not supposed to calculate for Z row.

B1-1
Basic e1
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 0 0 -2 -
s1 0 1 0 6 3 2

94
 s2 0 0 1 3 6 1/2→outgoing
↑
incoming

Step 7 – Determination of improved solution

Column e1 will never change, x1 is incoming so place it outside the rectangular

boundary

β1(1) β2(1) XB X1
R1 0 0 0 -2
R2 1 0 6 3
R3 0 1 3 6

Make the pivot element as 1 and the respective column elements to zero.

β1(1) β2(1) XB X1
R1 0 1/3 1 0
R2 1 -1/2 9/2 0
R3 0 1/6 1/2 1

Construct the table to start with second iteration

B1-1
Basic e1 a4 (1) a2 (1)
β1 (1)
β2 (1)
XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 1/3 1 0 -1
s1 0 1 -1/2 9/2 0 4
x1 0 0 1/6 1/2 1 1

Δ4 = 1 * 0 + 0 * 0 + 1/3 *1 = 1/3

95
 Δ2 = 1 * -1 + 0 * 4 + 1/3 *1 = -2/3

Δ2 is most negative. Therefore a2 (1) is incoming vector.

Compute the column vector

Determine the outgoing vector

B1-1
Basic e1
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 1/3 1 -2/3 -
s1 0 1 -1/2 9/2 7/2 9/7→outgoing
x1 0 0 1/6 1/2 1/6 3
↑
incoming

Determination of improved solution

β1(1) β2(1) XB X2
R1 0 1/3 1 -2/3
R2 1 -1/2 9/2 7/2
R3 0 1/6 1/2 1/6

β1(1) β2(1) XB X2

96
 R1 4/21 5/21 13/7 0
R2 2/7 -1/7 9/7 1
R3 -1/21 8/42 2/7 0

B1-1
Basic e1 a4 (1) a3 (1)
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 4/21 5/21 13/7 0 0
x2 0 2/7 -1/7 9/7 0 1
x1 0 -1/21 8/42 2/7 1 0

Δ4 = 1 * 0 + 4/21 * 0 + 5/21 *1 = 5/21

Δ3 = 1 * 0 + 4/21 * 1 + 5/21 *0 = 4/21

Δ4 and Δ3 are positive. Therefore optimal solution is Max Z = 13/7, x1= 2/7, x2 = 9/7

1.3 Worked Examples

Example 1
Max Z = x1 + 2x2
Subject to
x1 + x2 ≤ 3
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 5
3x1 + x2 ≤ 6
and x1, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
SLPP
97
Max Z = x1 + 2x2+ 0s1+ 0s2+ 0s3
Subject to
x1 + x2 + s1 = 3
x1 + 2x2 + s2 = 5
3x1 + x2 + s3 = 6
and x1, x2, s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0

Standard Form-I
Z - x1 - 2x2 - 0s1 - 0s2 - 0s3= 0
x1 + x2 + s1 + 0s2 + 0s3= 3
x1 + 2x2 + 0s1 + s2 + 0s3 = 5
3x1 + x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + s3 = 6
and x1, x2, s1, s2 , s3 ≥ 0

Matrix form

Revised simplex table Additional

table

B1-1
Basic e1 a1 (1) a2 (1)
β1 (1)
β2 (1)
β3 (1)
XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 0 0 0 -1 -2
98
 s1 0 1 0 0 3 1 1
s2 0 0 1 0 5 1 2
s3 0 0 0 1 6 3 1

Computation of Δj for a1 (1) and a2 (1)

Δ1 = first row of B1-1 * a1 (1) = 1 * -1 + 0 * 1 + 0 *1 + 0 *3= -1

Δ2 = first row of B1-1 * a2 (1) = 1 * -2 + 0 * 1 + 0 *2+ 0 *1 = -2

Δ2 = -2 is most negative. So a2 (1) (x2) is incoming vector.

Compute the column vector Xk

Xk = B1-1 * a2 (1)

B1-1
Basic e1
β1(1) β2(1) β3(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 0 0 0 -2 -
s1 0 1 0 0 3 1 3
s2 0 0 1 0 5 2 5/2→
s3 0 0 0 1 6 1 6
↑
Improved Solution

β1(1) β2(1) β3(1) XB Xk

99
R1 0 0 0 0 -2
R2 1 0 0 3 1
R3 0 1 0 5 2
R4 0 0 1 6 1

β1(1) β2(1) β3(1) XB Xk

R1 0 1 0 5 0
R2 1 -1/2 0 1/2 0
R3 0 1/2 0 5/2 1
R4 0 -1/2 1 7/2 0

Revised simplex table for II iteration

B1-1
Basic e1 a1 (1) a4 (1)
β1 (1)
β2 (1)
β3 (1)
XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 1 0 5 -1 0
s1 0 1 -1/2 0 1/2 1 0
x2 0 0 1/2 0 5/2 1 1
s3 0 0 -1/2 1 7/2 3 0

Δ1 = 1 * -1 + 0 * 1 + 1 *1 + 0 *3= 0
Δ4 = 1 * 0 + 0 * 0 + 1 *1+ 0 *0 = 1

100
Δ1 and Δ4 are positive. Therefore optimal solution is Max Z = 5, x1= 0, x2 = 5/2

Example 2
Max Z = 80x1 + 55x2
Subject to
4x1 +2x2 ≤ 40
2x1 + 4x2 ≤ 32
and x1, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Max Z = 80x1 + 55x2
Subject to
2x1 +x2 ≤ 20 (divide by 2)
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 16 (divide by 2)
and x1, x2 ≥ 0

SLPP
Max Z = 80x1 + 55x2+ 0s1+ 0s2
Subject to
2x1 +x2+ s1 = 20
x1 + 2x2 + s2 = 16
and x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Standard form-I
Z - 80x1 - 55x2 - 0s1 - 0s2 = 0
2x1 +x2+ s1 + 0s2= 20

101
x1 + 2x2 + 0s1 + s2 = 16
and x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Matrix form

Revised simplex table Additional

table

B1-1
Basic e1 a1 (1) a2 (1)
β1 (1)
β2 (1)
XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 0 0 -80 -55
s1 0 1 0 20 2 1
s2 0 0 1 16 1 2

Computation of Δj for a1 (1) and a2 (1)

Δ1 = first row of B1-1 * a1 (1) = 1 * -80 + 0 * 2 + 0 *1 = -80

Δ2 = first row of B1-1 * a2 (1) = 1 * -55 + 0 * 1 + 0 *2 = -55

Δ1 = -80 is most negative. So a1 (1), (x1) is incoming vector.

Compute the column vector Xk

Xk = B1-1 * a1 (1)
102
 B1-1
Basic e1
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 0 0 -80 -
s1 0 1 0 20 2 10→
s2 0 0 1 16 1 16
↑

Improved solution

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 0 0 0 -80
R2 1 0 20 2
R3 0 1 16 1

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 40 0 800 0
R2 1/2 0 10 1
R3 -1/2 1 6 0

Revised simplex table for II iteration

B1-1
Basic e1 β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk a3 (1) a2 (1)
103
variables (Z)
Z 1 40 0 800 0 -55
x1 0 1/2 0 10 1 1
s2 0 -1/2 1 6 0 2

Computation of Δj for a3 (1) and a2 (1)

Δ3 = first row of B1-1 * a3 (1) = 1 * 0 + 40 * 1 + 0 *0 = 40

Δ2 = first row of B1-1 * a2 (1) = 1 * -55 + 40 * 1 + 0 *2 = -15

Δ2 = -15 is most negative. So a2 (1) (x2) is incoming vector.

Compute the column vector Xk

B1-1
Basic e1
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 40 0 800 -15 -
x1 0 1/2 0 10 1/2 20
s2 0 -1/2 1 6 3/2 4→
↑

Improved solution

104
 β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 40 0 800 -15
R2 1/2 0 10 1/2
R3 -1/2 1 6 3/2

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 35 10 860 0
R2 2/3 -1/3 8 0
R3 -1/3 2/3 4 1

Revised simplex table for III iteration

B1-1
Basic e1 a3 (1) a4 (1)
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 35 10 860 0 0
x1 0 2/3 -1/3 8 1 0
x2 0 -1/3 2/3 4 0 1

Computation of Δ3 and Δ4
Δ3 = 1 * 0 + 35 * 1 + 10 *0 = 35
Δ4 = 1 * 0 + 35 * 0 + 10 *1 = 10
Δ3 and Δ4 are positive. Therefore optimal solution is Max Z = 860, x1= 8, x2 = 4

Example 3
Max Z = x1 + x2+ x3
Subject to
4x1 + 5x2 + 3x3≤ 15
10x1 + 7x2+ x3 ≤ 12
and x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

105
Solution

SLPP
Max Z = x1 + x2+ x3+ 0s1+ 0s2
Subject to
4x1 + 5x2 + 3x3+ s1 = 15
10x1 + 7x2+ x3 + s2 = 12
and x1, x2, x3, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Standard form-I
Z - x1 - x2 - x3 - 0s1 - 0s2 = 0
4x1 +5x2 + 3x3+ s1 + 0s2= 15
10x1 + 7x2+ x3 + 0s1+ s2 = 12
and x1, x2, x3, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Matrix form

Revised simplex table Additional

table

B1-1
Basic e1 β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / a1 (1) a2 (1) a3 (1)

106
variables (Z) Xk
Z 1 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1
s1 0 1 0 15 4 5 3
s2 0 0 1 12 10 7 1

Computation of Δj for a1 (1), a2 (1) and a3 (1)

Δ1 = first row of B1-1 * a1 (1) = 1 * -1 + 0 * 4 + 0 *10 = -1

Δ2 = first row of B1-1 * a2 (1) = 1 * -1 + 0 * 5 + 0 *7 = -1
Δ3 = first row of B1-1 * a3 (1) = 1 * -1 + 0 * 3 + 0 *1 = -1

There is a tie, so perform the computation of Δj with second row

Δ1 = second row of B1-1 * a1 (1) = 0 * -1 + 1 * 4 + 0 *10 = 4

Δ2 = second row of B1-1 * a2 (1) = 0 * -1 + 1 * 5 + 0 *7 = 5
Δ3 = second row of B1-1 * a3 (1) = 0 * -1 + 1 * 3 + 0 *1 = 3

Since Δj ≥ 0, we obtain pure optimum solution where Max Z = 0, x1= 0, x2= 0

Example 4
Max Z = 5x1 + 8x2 + 7x3 + 4x4 + 6x5
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3+ 2x4 + 2x5≤ 20
3x1 + 5x2+ 4x3 + 2x4 + 4x5≤ 30
and x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 ≥ 0

Solution

SLPP
Max Z = 5x1 + 8x2 + 7x3 + 4x4 + 6x5+ 0s1+ 0s2

107
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3+ 2x4 + 2x5+ s1 = 20
3x1 + 5x2+ 4x3 + 2x4 + 4x5+ s2 = 30
and x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Standard form-I
Z - 5x1 - 8x2 - 7x3 - 4x4 - 6x5 - 0s1 - 0s2 = 0
2x1 + 3x2 + 3x3+ 2x4 + 2x5+ s1 + 0s2= 20
3x1 + 5x2+ 4x3 + 2x4 + 4x5+ 0s1+ s2 = 30
and x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Matrix form

Additional table
Revised simplex table

B1-1
Basic e1 a1 (1) a2 (1) a3 (1) a4 (1) a5 (1)
β1 (1)
β2 (1)
XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 0 0 -5 -8 -7 -4 -6
s1 0 1 0 20 2 3 3 2 2
s2 0 0 1 30 3 5 4 2 4
Computation of Δj for a1 (1) , a2 (1) , a3 (1) , a4 (1) , a5 (1)

Δ1 = first row of B1-1 * a1 (1) = 1 * -5 + 0 * 2 + 0 *3 = -5

108
 Δ2 = first row of B1-1 * a2 (1) = 1 * -8 + 0 * 3 + 0 *5 = -8
Δ3 = first row of B1-1 * a3 (1) = 1 * -7 + 0 * 3 + 0 *4 = -7
Δ4 = first row of B1-1 * a4 (1) = 1 * -4 + 0 * 2 + 0 *2 = -4
Δ5 = first row of B1-1 * a5 (1) = 1 * -6 + 0 * 2 + 0 *4 = -6

Δ2 = -8 is most negative. So a2 (1), (x2) is incoming vector.

Compute the column vector Xk

Xk = B1-1 * a2 (1)

B1-1
Basic e1
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 0 0 -8 -
s1 0 1 0 20 3 20/3
s2 0 0 1 30 5 6→
↑

Improved solution

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 0 0 0 -8

109
 R2 1 0 20 3
R3 0 1 30 5

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk

R1 0 8/5 48 0
R2 1 -3/5 2 0
R3 0 1/5 6 1

Revised simplex table for II iteration

Additional table
Revised simplex table

B1-1
Basic e1 a1 (1) a7 (1) a3 (1) a4 (1) a5 (1)
β1 (1)
β2 (1)
XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 8/5 48 -5 0 -7 -4 -6
s1 0 1 -3/5 2 2 0 3 2 2
x2 0 0 1/5 6 3 1 4 2 4

Computation of Δj for a1 (1) , a2 (1) , a3 (1) , a4 (1) , a5 (1)

Δ1 = -1/5, Δ7 = 8/5, Δ3 = -3/5, Δ4 = -4/5, Δ5 = 2/5

Δ4 = -4/5 is most negative. So a4(1), (x4) is incoming vector.

Compute the column vector Xk

Xk = B1-1 * a4 (1)

110
 B1-1
Basic e1
β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 0 8/5 48 -4/5 -
s1 0 1 -3/5 2 4/5 10/4→
x2 0 0 1/5 6 2/5 15
↑

Improved solution

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 0 8/5 48 -4/5
R2 1 -3/5 2 4/5
R3 0 1/5 6 2/5

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 1 1 50 0
R2 5/4 -3/4 5/2 1
R3 -1/2 1/2 5 0

Revised simplex table for III iteration

111
 Additional table
Revised simplex table

B1-1
Basic e1 a1 (1) a7 (1) a3 (1) a6 (1) a5 (1)
β1 (1)
β2 (1)
XB Xk XB / Xk
variables (Z)
Z 1 1 1 50 -5 0 -7 0 -6
x4 0 5/4 -3/4 5/2 2 0 3 1 2
x2 0 -1/2 1/2 5 3 1 4 0 4

Computation of Δj for a1 (1) , a2 (1) , a3 (1) , a4 (1) , a5 (1)

Δ1 = 0, Δ7 = 1, Δ3 = 0, Δ6 = 1, Δ5 = 0

Δj ≥ 0, Therefore optimal solution is Max Z = 50, x1= 0, x2 = 5, x3= 0, x4 = 5/2, x5= 0

112
Exercise
Solve by Revised Simplex method

1. Max Z = x1 + x2
Subject to
3x1 + 3x2 ≤ 6
x1 + 4x2 ≤ 4
x1, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 11/5, x1 = 8/5, x2 = 3/5]

2. Max Z = x1 + 2x2
Subject to
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 3
x1 + 3x2 ≤ 1
x1, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 1, x1 = 1, x2 = 0]

3. Max Z = 5x1 + 3x2

Subject to
3x1 + 5x2 ≤ 15
3x1 + 2x2 ≤ 10
x1, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 285/19, x1 = 22/19, x2 = 45/19]

4. Max Z = x1 + x2
Subject to
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 2
4x1 + x2 ≤ 4
x1, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 10/7, x1 = 6/7, x2 = 4/7]

5. Max Z = 3x1 + x2+ 2x3+ 7x4

Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 - x3+ 4x4 ≤ 40
-2x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 - x4 ≤ 35
x1 + x2 - 2x3+ 3x4 ≤ 100
x1, x2, x3, x4 ≥ 0

[Ans. Max Z = 445/4, x1 = 71/4, x2 = 1, x3 = 29/2, x4 = 4]

113
Unit 2

2.1 Computational Procedure of Revised Simplex Table in Standard Form-II

2.2 Worked Examples
2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

2.1 Computational Procedure of Revised Simplex Table in Standard

Form-II

Phase I – When the artificial variables are present in the initial solution with positive
values

Step 1 – First construct the simplex table in the following form

Variables in
e1 e2 β1(2) β2(2) … βm(2) XB(2) Xk(2)
the basis
x0 1 0 0 0 … 0
x'n +1 0 1 0 0 … 0
xn +1 0 0 1 0 … 0
xn +2 0 0 0 1 … 0
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
xn +m 0 0 0 0 … 1

Step 2 – If x'n +1 < 0, compute Δj = second row of B2-1 * aj(2) and continue to step 3. If max
x'n +1 = 0 then go to phase II.

Step 3 – To find the vector to be introduced into the basis

114
  If Δj ≥ 0, x'n +1 is at its maximum and hence no feasible solution exists for the
problem
 If at least one Δj < 0, the vector to be introduced in the basis, Xk(2), corresponds to
such value of k which is obtained by Δk = min Δj
 If more than one value of Δj are equal to the maximum, we select Δk such that k is
the smallest index.

Step 4 – To compute Xk(2) by using the formula Xk(2) = B2-1 ak(2)

Step 5 – To find the vector to be removed from the basis.

The vector to be removed from the basis is obtained by using the minimum ratio
rule.

Step 6 – After determining the incoming and outgoing vector, next revised simplex table
can be easily obtained
Repeat the procedure of phase I to get max x'n +1 = 0 or all Δj for phase I are ≥ 0.
If max x'n +1 comes out of zero in phase I, all artificial variables must have the
value zero. It should be noted carefully that max x'n +1 will always come out to be
zero at the end of phase I if the feasible solution to the problem exists.
Proceed to phase II

Phase II - x'n +1 is considered like any other artificial variable; it can be removed from the
basic solution. Only x0 must always remain in the basic solution. However there will
always be at least one artificial vector in B2, otherwise it is not possible to have an m+2
dimensional bases. The procedure in phase II will be the same as described in standard
form-I

2.1 Worked Examples

Solve by revised simplex method

115
Example 1
Min Z = x1 + 2x2
Subject to
2x1 + 5x2 ≥ 6
x1 + x2 ≥ 2
and x1, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
SLPP
Min Z = Max Z' = -x1 - 2x2+ 0s1+ 0s2
Subject to
2x1 + 5x2 - s1 + a1= 6
x1 + x2 - s2 + a2 = 2
and x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Standard form-II
Z' + x1 + 2x2 = 0
-3x1 - 6x2 + s1 + s2 + av = -8 where av = - (a1 + a2)
2x1 + 5x2 - s1 + a1= 6
x1 + x2 – s2 + a2 = 2
and x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

The second constraint equation is formed by taking the negative sum of two constraints.

Matrix form

116
Phase -I
I Iteration

Basic B2-1
a1(2) a2(2) a3(2) a4(2)
variables e1 e2 β1 (2)
β2 (2)
XB Xk XB/Xk
e1 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0
av 0 1 0 0 -8 -3 -6 1 1
a1 0 0 1 0 6 2 5 -1 0
a2 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 -1

Calculation of Δj
Δ1 = second row of B2-1 * a1(2) = -3
Δ2 = second row of B2-1 * a2(2) = -6
Δ3 = second row of B2-1 * a3(2) = 1
Δ4 = second row of B2-1 * a4(2) = 1
Δ2 is most negative. Therefore a2(2) (x2) is incoming vector

Compute the column vector Xk

Xk = B2-1 * a2 (2)

117
 Basic B2-1
variables e1 e2 β1(2) β2(2) XB Xk XB/Xk
e1 1 0 0 0 0 2
av 0 1 0 0 -8 -6
a1 0 0 1 0 6 5 6/5→
a2 0 0 0 1 2 1 2
↑

Improved Solution

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 0 0 0 2
R2 0 0 -8 -6
R3 1 0 6 5
R4 0 1 2 1

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 -2/5 0 -12/5 0
R2 6/5 0 -4/5 0
R3 1/5 0 6/5 1
R4 -1/5 1 4/5 0

II iteration

118
 Basic B2-1
a1(2) a5(2) a3(2) a4(2)
variables e1 e2 β1 (2)
β2 (2)
XB Xk XB/Xk
z' 1 0 -2/5 0 -12/5 1 0 0 0
av 0 1 6/5 0 -4/5 -3 0 1 1
x2 0 0 1/5 0 6/5 2 1 -1 0
a2 0 0 -1/5 1 4/5 1 0 0 -1

Calculation of Δj
Δ1 = -3/5, Δ5 = 6/5, Δ3 = -1/5, Δ4 = 1
Δ1 is most negative. Therefore a1(2) (x1) is incoming vector

Compute the column vector Xk

Xk = B2-1 * a1 (2)

Basic B2-1
variables e1 e2 β1(2) β2(2) XB Xk XB/Xk
z' 1 0 -2/5 0 -12/5 1/5
av 0 1 6/5 0 -4/5 -3/5
x2 0 0 1/5 0 6/5 2/5 3
a2 0 0 -1/5 1 4/5 3/5 4/3→
↑

Improved Solution

119
 β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 -2/5 0 -12/5 1/5
R2 6/5 0 -4/5 -3/5
R3 1/5 0 6/5 2/5
R4 -1/5 1 4/5 3/5

β1(1) β2(1) XB Xk
R1 -1/3 -1/3 -8/3 0
R2 1 1 0 0
R3 1/3 -2/3 2/3 0
R4 -1/3 5/3 4/3 1

III iteration
Basic B2-1
a6(2) a5(2) a3(2) a4(2)
variables e1 e2 β1 (2)
β2 (2)
XB Xk XB/Xk
z' 1 0 -1/3 -1/3 -8/3 0 0 0 0
av 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
x2 0 0 1/3 -2/3 2/3 0 1 -1 0
x1 0 0 -1/3 5/3 4/3 1 0 0 -1

Since av =0 in XB column. We proceed to phase II

Phase II

Basic B2-1
a3(2) a4(2)
variables e1 e2 β1 (2)
β2 (2)
XB Xk XB/Xk
z' 1 0 -1/3 -1/3 -8/3 0 0

120
 av 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
x2 0 0 1/3 -2/3 2/3 -1 0
x1 0 0 -1/3 5/3 4/3 0 -1

Δ3 = first row of B2-1 * a3(2) = 1/3

Δ4 = first row of B2-1 * a4(2) = 1/3
Δ3 and Δ4 are positive. Therefore optimal solution is Z' = -8/3→ Z =8/3, x1= 4/3, x2 = 2/3

Example 2
Max Z = x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 - x4
Subject to
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 15
2x1 + x2 + 5x3 = 20
x1 + 2x2 + x3 + x4 = 10
and x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

Solution
SLPP
Max Z = x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 - x4
Subject to
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + a1= 15
2x1 + x2 + 5x3 + a2 = 20
x1 + 2x2 + x3 + x4 + a3 = 10
and x1, x2, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Standard form-II
Z - x1 - 2x2 - 3x3 + x4 = 0
-4x1 - 5x2 - 9x3 - x4 + av = -45 where av = - (a1 + a2+ a3)
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + a1= 15
2x1 + x2 + 5x3 + a2 = 20

121
x1 + 2x2 + x3 + x4 + a3 = 10
x1, x2, a1, a2, a3 ≥ 0

Matrix form

Phase I
I Iteration

Basic B2-1
a1(2) a2(2) a3(2) a4(2)
variables e1 e2 β1 (2)
β2 (2)
β3 (2)
XB Xk XB/Xk
e1 1 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -2 -3 1
av 0 1 0 0 0 -45 -4 -5 -9 -1
a1 0 0 1 0 0 15 1 2 3 0
a2 0 0 0 1 0 20 2 1 5 0
a3 0 0 0 0 1 10 1 2 1 1

Calculation of Δj
Δ1 = second row of B2-1 * a1(2) = -4
Δ2 = second row of B2-1 * a2(2) = -5
Δ3 = second row of B2-1 * a3(2) = -9
Δ4 = second row of B2-1 * a4(2) = -1

122
Δ3 is most negative. Therefore a3(2) (x3) is incoming vector

Compute the column vector Xk

Xk = B2-1 * a3 (2)

Basic B2-1
variables e1 e2 β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk XB/Xk
e1 1 0 0 0 0 0 -3
av 0 1 0 0 0 -45 -9
a1 0 0 1 0 0 15 3 5
a2 0 0 0 1 0 20 5 4→
a3 0 0 0 0 1 10 1 10
↑

Improved Solution

β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk

R1 0 0 0 0 -3

123
 R2 0 0 0 -45 -9
R3 1 0 0 15 3
R4 0 1 0 20 5
R5 0 0 1 10 1

β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk

R1 0 3/5 0 12 0
R2 0 9/5 0 -9 0
R3 1 -3/5 0 3 0
R4 0 1/5 0 4 1
R5 0 -1/5 1 6 0

II Iteration

Basic B2-1
a1(2) a2(2) a6(2) a4(2)
variables e1 e2 β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk XB/Xk
z 1 0 0 3/5 0 12 -1 -2 0 1
av 0 1 0 9/5 0 -9 -4 -5 0 -1
a1 0 0 1 -3/5 0 3 1 2 0 0
x3 0 0 0 1/5 0 4 2 1 1 0
a3 0 0 0 -1/5 1 6 1 2 0 1

Calculation of Δj
Δ1 = -2/5, Δ2 = -16/5, Δ6 = 9/5, Δ4 = -1
Δ4 is most negative. Therefore a4(2) (x4) is incoming vector

124
Compute the column vector Xk

Basic B2-1
variables e1 e2 β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk XB/Xk
Z 1 0 0 3/5 0 12 1
av 0 1 0 9/5 0 -9 -1
a1 0 0 1 -3/5 0 3 0
x3 0 0 0 1/5 0 4 0
a3 0 0 0 -1/5 1 6 1 6→
↑

Improved Solution

β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk

R1 0 3/5 0 12 1
R2 0 9/5 0 -9 -1
R3 1 -3/5 0 3 0
R4 0 1/5 0 4 0
R5 0 -1/5 1 6 1

β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk

125
 R1 0 4/5 -1 6 0
R2 0 8/5 1 -3 0
R3 1 -3/5 0 3 0
R4 0 1/5 0 4 0
R5 0 -1/5 1 6 1

III Iteration

Basic B2-1
a1(2) a2(2) a6(2) a7(2)
variables e1 e2 β1 (2)
β2 (2)
β3 (2)
XB Xk XB/Xk
Z 1 0 0 4/5 -1 6 -1 -2 0 0
av 0 1 0 8/5 1 -3 -4 -5 0 0
a1 0 0 1 -3/5 0 3 1 2 0 0
x3 0 0 0 1/5 0 4 2 1 1 0
x4 0 0 0 -1/5 1 6 1 2 0 1

Calculation of Δj
Δ1 = 1/5, Δ2 = -7/5, Δ6 = 8/5, Δ7 = 1
Δ2 is most negative. Therefore a2(2) (x2) is incoming vector
Compute the column vector Xk

Basic B2-1
variables e1 e2 β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk XB/Xk

126
 z 1 0 0 4/5 -1 6 -16/5
av 0 1 0 8/5 1 -3 -7/5
a1 0 0 1 -3/5 0 3 7/5 15/7→
x3 0 0 0 1/5 0 4 1/5 20
x4 0 0 0 -1/5 1 6 9/5 30/9
↑

Improved Solution

β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk

R1 0 4/5 -1 6 -16/5
R2 0 8/5 1 -3 -7/5
R3 1 -3/5 0 3 7/5
R4 0 1/5 0 4 1/5
R5 0 -1/5 1 6 9/5

β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk

R1 16/7 4/7 -1 90/7 0
R2 1 1 1 0 0
R3 5/7 -3/7 0 15/7 1
R4 -1/7 2/7 0 25/7 0
R5 -9/7 4/7 1 15/7 0

IV Iteration

Basic B2-1 a1(2) a5(2) a6(2) a7(2)

127
variables e1 e2 β1(2) β2(2) β3(2) XB Xk XB/Xk
z 1 0 16/7 4/7 -1 90/7 -1 0 0 0
av 0 1 1 1 1 0 -4 0 0 0
x2 0 0 5/7 -3/7 0 15/7 1 1 0 0
x3 0 0 -1/7 2/7 0 25/7 2 0 1 0
x4 0 0 -9/7 4/7 1 15/7 1 0 0 1

Since av =0 in XB column. We proceed to phase II

Phase II
Basic B2-1
a1(2)
variables e1 e2 β1 (2)
β2 (2)
β3 (2)
XB Xk XB/Xk
z 1 0 16/7 4/7 -1 90/7 -1
av 0 1 1 1 1 0 -4
x2 0 0 5/7 -3/7 0 15/7 1
x3 0 0 -1/7 2/7 0 25/7 2
x4 0 0 -9/7 4/7 1 15/7 1

Δ1 = 0, Δ1 is positive. Therefore optimal solution is Z =90/7, x1= 0, x2 = 15/7, x3 = 25/7,

x4 = 15/7
2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 The method automatically generates the inverse of the current basis matrix and
the new basic feasible solution as well.
 It provides more information at lesser computational effort
 It requires lesser computations than the ordinary simplex method
 A less number of entries are needed in each table of revised simplex table
 The control of rounding-off-errors occurs when a digital computer is used

128
Disadvantages
In solving the numerical problems side computations are also requires, therefore more
computational mistakes may occur in comparison to original simplex method.

Exercise
Solve by revised simplex method
1. Max Z = 3x1 + 5x2
Subject to
x1 ≤ 4
x2 ≤ 6
3x1 + 2x2 ≤ 18
x1, x2 ≥ 0

[Ans. Max Z = 36, x1 = 2, x2 = 6]

2. Max Z = 5x1 + 3x2

Subject to
4x1 + 5x2 ≥ 10
5x1 + 2x2 ≤ 10
3x1 + 8x2 ≤ 12
x1, x2 ≥ 0

[Ans. Max Z = 185/17, x1 = 28/17, x2 = 15/17]

3. Max Z = x1 + x2 + 3x3
Subject to
3x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≤ 3
2x1 + x2 + 2x3 ≤ 2
x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

129
 [Ans. Max Z = 3, x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 1]

4. Min Z = 3x1 + x2
Subject to
x1 + x2 ≥ 1
2x1 + x2 ≥ 0
x1, x2 ≥ 0

[Ans. Min Z = 1, x1 = 0, x2 = 1]

5. Min Z = 4x1 + 2x2 + 3x3

Subject to
2x1 + 4x3 ≥ 5
2x1 + 4x2 + x3 ≥ 4
x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

[Ans. Min Z = 67/12, x1 = 0, x2 = 11/12, x3 = 5/4]

Unit 3
3.1 Duality in LPP
3.2 Important characteristics of Duality
3.3 Advantages and Applications of Duality
3.4 Steps for Standard Primal Form
3.5 Rules for Converting any Primal into its Dual
3.6 Example Problems
3.7 Primal-Dual Relationship

130
3.8 Duality and Simplex Method

3.1 Duality in LPP

Every LPP called the primal is associated with another LPP called dual. Either of the
problems is primal with the other one as dual. The optimal solution of either problem
reveals the information about the optimal solution of the other.

Let the primal problem be

Max Zx = c1x1 + c2x2 + … +cnxn

Subject to restrictions
a11x1 + a12x2 + … + a1nxn ≤ b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + … + a2nxn ≤ b2
.
.
.
am1x1 + am2x2 + … + amnxn ≤ bn
and
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0,…, xn ≥ 0

The corresponding dual is defined as

Min Zw = b1w1 + b2w2 + … + bmwm

Subject to restrictions
a11w1 + a21w2 + … + am1wm ≥ c1
a12w1 + a22w2 + … + am2wm ≥ c2
.
.
.

131
 a1nw1 + a2nw2 + ……….+amnwm ≥ cn
and
w1, w2, …, wm ≥ 0

Matrix Notation
Primal
Max Zx = CX
Subject to
AX ≤ b and X ≥ 0

Dual
Min Zw = bT W
Subject to
AT W ≥ CT and W ≥ 0

3.2 Important characteristics of Duality

1. Dual of dual is primal

2. If either the primal or dual problem has a solution then the other also has a
solution and their optimum values are equal.
3. If any of the two problems has an infeasible solution, then the value of the
objective function of the other is unbounded.
4. The value of the objective function for any feasible solution of the primal is less
than the value of the objective function for any feasible solution of the dual.
5. If either the primal or dual has an unbounded solution, then the solution to the
other problem is infeasible.
6. If the primal has a feasible solution, but the dual does not have then the primal
will not have a finite optimum solution and vice versa.

3.3 Advantages and Applications of Duality

132
 1. Sometimes dual problem solution may be easier than primal solution, particularly
when the number of decision variables is considerably less than slack / surplus
variables.
2. In the areas like economics, it is highly helpful in obtaining future decision in the
activities being programmed.
3. In physics, it is used in parallel circuit and series circuit theory.
4. In game theory, dual is employed by column player who wishes to minimize his
maximum loss while his opponent i.e. Row player applies primal to maximize his
minimum gains. However, if one problem is solved, the solution for other also can
be obtained from the simplex tableau.
5. When a problem does not yield any solution in primal, it can be verified with
dual.
6. Economic interpretations can be made and shadow prices can be determined
enabling the managers to take further decisions.

3.4 Steps for a Standard Primal Form

Step 1 – Change the objective function to Maximization form

Step 2 – If the constraints have an inequality sign ‘≥’ then multiply both sides by -1 and
convert the inequality sign to ‘≤’.

Step 3 – If the constraint has an ‘=’ sign then replace it by two constraints involving the
inequalities going in opposite directions. For example x1+ 2x2 = 4 is written as
x1+2x2 ≤ 4
x1+2x2 ≥ 4 (using step2) → - x1-2x2 ≤ - 4

Step 4 – Every unrestricted variable is replaced by the difference of two non-negative

variables.

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Step5 – We get the standard primal form of the given LPP in which.
o All constraints have ‘≤’ sign, where the objective function is of
maximization form.
o All constraints have ‘≥’ sign, where the objective function is of
minimization from.

3.5 Rules for Converting any Primal into its Dual

1. Transpose the rows and columns of the constraint co-efficient.

2. Transpose the co-efficient (c1,c2,…cn) of the objective function and the right side
constants (b1,b2,…bn)
3. Change the inequalities from ‘≤’ to ‘≥’ sign.
4. Minimize the objective function instead of maximizing it.

3.6 Example Problems

Write the dual of the given problems

Example 1
Min Zx = 2x2 + 5x3
Subject to
x1+x2 ≥ 2
2x1+x2+6x3 ≤ 6
x1 - x2 +3x3 = 4
x1 , x 2 , x 3 ≥ 0

Solution
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Primal
Max Zx' = -2x2 – 5x3
Subject to
-x1-x2 ≤ -2
2x1+x2+6x3 ≤ 6
x1 - x2 +3x3 ≤ 4
-x1 + x2 -3x3 ≤ -4
x1, x2 , x3 ≥ 0

Dual
Min Zw = -2w1 + 6w2 + 4w3 – 4w4
Subject to
-w1 + 2w2 +w3 –w4 ≥ 0
-w1 + w2 - w3 +w4 ≥ -2
6w2 + 3w3 –3w4 ≥ -5
w1, w2, w3, w4 ≥ 0

Example 2
Min Zx = 3x1 - 2x2 + 4x3
Subject to
3x1+5x2 + 4x3 ≥ 7
6x1+x2+3x3 ≥ 4
7x1 - 2x2 -x3 ≥ 10
x1 - 2x2 + 5x3 ≥ 3
4x1 + 7x2 - 2x3 ≥ 2
x1 , x 2 , x 3 ≥ 0

135
Solution
Primal
Max Zx' = -3x1 + 2x2 - 4x3
Subject to
-3x1 - 5x2 - 4x3 ≤ -7
-6x1 - x2 - 3x3 ≤ -4
-7x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≤ - 10
-x1 + 2x2 - 5x3 ≤ - 3
-4x1 - 7x2 + 2x3 ≤ - 2
x1, x2 , x3 ≥ 0

Dual
Min Zw = -7w1 - 4w2 - 10w3 – 3w4 -2w5
Subject to
-3w1 - 6w2 - 7w3 –w4 – 4w5 ≥ -3
-5w1 - w2 + 2w3 + 2w4 – 7w5 ≥ 2
-4w1 - 3w2 + w3 - 5w4 + 2w5 ≥ -4
w1, w2, w3, w4, w5 ≥ 0

Example 3
Max Z = 2x1+ 3x2 + x3
Subject to
4x1+ 3x2 + x3 = 6
x1+ 2x2 + 5x3 = 4
x1 , x 2 ≥ 0

Solution
Primal

136
Max Zx = 2x1+ 3x2 + x3
Subject to
4x1+ 3x2 + x3 ≤ 6
-4x1 - 3x2 - x3 ≤ -6
x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 ≤ 4
-x1 - 2x2 - 5x3 ≤ -4
x1, x2 ≥ 0

Dual
Min Zw = 6w1 - 6w2 + 4w3 –4w4
Subject to
4w1 - 4w2 + w3 –w4 ≥ 2
3w1 - 3w2 + 2w3 - 2w4 ≥ 3
w1 - w2 + 5w3 - 5w4 ≥ 1
w1, w2, w3, w4≥ 0

Example 4
Min Zx = x1+ x2 + x3
Subject to
x1 - 3x2 + 4x3 = 5
x1 - 2x2 ≤ 3
2x2 - x3 ≥ 4
x1, x2 ≥ 0 ,x3 is unrestricted in sign

Solution
Primal
Max Z' = - x1- x2 – x3' + x3''
Subject to

137
 x1 - 3x2 + 4(x3' - x3'') ≤ 5
-x1+ 3x2 - 4(x3' - x3'') ≤ -5
x1 - 2x2 ≤ 3
-2x2 + x3' - x3'' ≤ -4
x1, x2 , x3', x3'' ≥ 0

Dual
Min Zw = 5w1 - 5w2 + 3w3 – 4w4
Subject to
w1 - w2 + w3 ≥ -1
-3w1 + 3w2 - 2w3 - 2w4 ≥ -1
4w1 - 4w2 + w4 ≥ -1
-4w1 + 4w2 - w4 ≥ 1
w1, w2, w3, w4, ≥ 0

Example 5
Max Z = x1 - x2 + 3x3
Subject to
x1 + x2 + x3 ≤ 10
2x1 – x3 ≤ 2
2x1 - 2x2 + 3x3 ≤ 6
x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

Solution
Primal
Max Zx = x1 - x2 + 3x3
Subject to
x1 + x2 + x3 ≤ 10
2x1 - x3 ≤ 2
2x1 - 2x2 + 3x3 ≤ 6

138
 x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

Dual
Min Zw = 10w1 + 2w2 + 6w3
Subject to
w1 + 2w2 +2w3 ≥ 1
w1 - 2w3 ≥ -1
w1 - w2 + 3w3 ≥ 3
w1, w2, w3 ≥ 0

3.7 Primal –Dual Relationship

Weak duality property

If x is any feasible solution to the primal problem and w is any feasible solution to the
dual problem then CX ≤ bT W. i.e. ZX ≤ ZW

Strong duality property

If x* is an optimal solution for the primal problem and w* is the optimal solution for the
dual problem then CX* = bT W* i.e. ZX = ZW

Complementary optimal solutions property

At the final iteration, the simplex method simultaneously identifies an optimal solution
x* for primal problem and a complementary optimal solution w* for the dual problem
where ZX = ZW.

Symmetry property
For any primal problem and its dual problem, all relationships between them must be
symmetric because dual of dual is primal.

Fundamental duality theorem

139
  If one problem has feasible solution and a bounded objective function (optimal
solution) then the other problem has a finite optimal solution.
 If one problem has feasible solution and an unbounded optimal solution then the
other problem has no feasible solution
 If one problem has no feasible solution then the other problem has either no
feasible solution or an unbounded solution.

If kth constraint of primal is equality then the dual variable wk is unrestricted in sign

If pth variable of primal is unrestricted in sign then pth constraint of dual is an equality.

Complementary basic solutions property

Each basic solution in the primal problem has a complementary basic solution in the dual
problem where ZX = ZW.

Complementary slackness property

The variables in the primal basic solution and the complementary dual basic solution
satisfy the complementary slackness relationship as shown in the table.

Primal variable Associated dual variable

Decision variable (xj) Zj –Cj (surplus variable) j = 1, 2, ..n
Slack variable (Si) Wi (decision variable) i = 1, 2, .. n

3.8 Duality and Simplex Method

1. Solve the given primal problem using simplex method. Hence write the solution of
its dual
Max Z = 30x1 + 23x2 + 29x3
Subject to

140
 6x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 ≤ 26
4x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 ≤ 7
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
Solution
Primal form
Max Z = 30x1 + 23x2 + 29x3
Subject to
6x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 ≤ 26
4x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 ≤ 7
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

SLPP
Max Z = 30x1 + 23x2 + 29x3+ 0s1+ 0s2
Subject to
6x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 + s1 = 26
4x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 + s2 = 7
x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Cj→ 30 23 29 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 X3 S1 S2
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 26 6 5 3 1 0 26/6
s2 0 7 4 2 6 0 1 7/4→
↑
Z=0 -30 -23 -29 0 0 ←Δj
s1 0 31/2 0 2 -6 1 -3/2 31/4
x1 30 7/4 1 1/2 3/2 0 1/4 7/2→
↑
Z = 105/2 0 -8 16 0 15/2 ←Δj

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 s1 0 17/2 -4 0 -12 1 -5/2
x2 23 7/2 2 1 3 0 1/2

Z =161/2 16 0 40 0 23/2 ←Δj

Δj ≥ 0 so the optimal solution is Z = 161/2, x1 = 0, x2 = 7/2, x3 = 0.

The optimal solution to the dual of the above problem will be
Zw* = 161/2, w1 = Δ4 = 0, w2 = Δ5 = 23/2
In this way we can find the solution to the dual without actually solving it.

2. Use duality to solve the given problem. Also read the solution of its primal.
Min Z = 3x1 + x2
Subject to
x1 + x2 ≥ 1
2x1 + 3x2 ≥ 2
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Primal
Min Z =Max Z' = -3x1 - x2
Subject to
- x1 - x2 ≤ -1
-2x1 - 3x2 ≤ - 2
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0
Dual
Min Zw = -w1 - 2w2
Subject to
-w1 - 2w2 ≥ -3
-w1 - 3w2 ≥ -1
w1, w2 ≥ 0

Changing the dual form to SLPP

142
 Max Zw' = w1 + 2w2 + 0s1+ 0s2
Subject to
w1 + 2w2 + s1= 3
w1 + 3w2 + s2 = 1
w1, w2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Cj→ 1 2 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB WB W1 W2 S1 S2
Variables WB / WK
s1 0 3 1 2 1 0 3/2
s2 0 1 1 3 0 1 1/3←
↑
Zw' = 0 -1 -2 0 0 ←Δj
s1 0 7/3 1/3 0 1 -2/3 7
w2 2 1/3 1/3 1 0 1/3 1→
↑
Zw' = 2/3 -1/3 0 0 2/3 ←Δj
s1 0 2 0 -1 1 -1
w1 1 1 1 3 0 1

Zw' = 1 0 1 0 1 ←Δj

Δj ≥ 0 so the optimal solution is Zw' = 1, w1 = 1, w2 = 0

The optimal solution to the primal of the above problem will be

Zx* = 1, x1 = Δ3 = 0, x2 = Δ4 = 1

3. Write down the dual of the problem and solve it.

Max Z = 4x1 + 2x2
Subject to
143
 - x1 - x2 ≤ -3
-x1 + x2 ≤ -2
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Primal
Max Z = 4x1 + 2x2
Subject to
- x1 - x2 ≤ -3
-x1 + x2 ≤ -2
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
Dual
Min Zw = -3w1 - 2w2
Subject to
-w1 - w2 ≥ 4
-w1 + w2 ≥ 2
w1, w2 ≥ 0

Changing the dual form to SLPP

Max Zw' = 3w1 + 2w2 + 0s1+ 0s2 - Ma1- Ma2
Subject to
-w1 - w2 - s1 + a1= 4
-w1 + w2 - s2 + a2= 2
w1, w2, s1, s2, a1, a2 ≥ 0

Cj→ 3 2 0 0 -M -M

144
 Basic Min Ratio
CB WB W1 W2 S1 S2 A1 A2
Variables WB / WK
a1 -M 4 -1 -1 -1 0 1 0 -
a2 -M 2 -1 1 0 -1 0 1 2→

↑
2M - 0
Zw' = -6M -2 M M 0 ←Δj
3
a1 -M 6 -2 0 -1 -1 1 X
w2 2 2 -1 1 0 -1 0 X

Zw' = -6M+4 2M-5 0 M M-2 0 X ←Δj

Δj ≥ 0 and at the positive level an artificial vector (a1) appears in the basis. Therefore the
dual problem does not posses any optimal solution. Consequently there exists no finite
optimum solution to the given problem.

4. Use duality to solve the given problem.

Min Z = x1 - x2
Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≥ 2
-x1 - x2 ≥ 1
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution
Primal
Min Z =Max Z' = -x1 + x2
Subject to
- 2x1 - x2 ≤ -2
x1 + x2 ≤ -1
x1 ≥ 0 , x2 ≥ 0
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Dual
Min Zw = -2w1 - w2
Subject to
-2w1 + w2 ≥ -1
-w1 + w2 ≥ 1
w1, w2 ≥ 0

Changing the dual form to SLPP

Max Zw' = 2w1 + w2 + 0s1+ 0s2 - Ma1
Subject to
2w1 - w2 + s1= 1
-w1 + w2 - s2 + a1 = 1
w1, w2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Auxiliary LPP
Max Zw' = 0w1 + 0w2 + 0s1+ 0s2 - 1a1
Subject to
2w1 - w2 + s1= 1
-w1 + w2 - s2 + a1 = 1
w1, w2, s1, s2, a1 ≥ 0

Phase I

Cj→ 0 0 0 0 -1
Basic Min Ratio
CB WB W1 W2 S1 S2 A1
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 1 2 -1 1 0 0 -
a1 -1 1 -1 1 0 -1 1 1→
↑
Zw' = -1 1 -1 0 1 0 ←Δj

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 s1 0 2 1 0 1 -1 X
w2 0 1 -1 1 0 -1 X

Zw' = 0 0 0 0 0 X ←Δj

Δj ≥ 0 and no artificial vector appear at the positive level of the basis. Hence proceed to
phase II

Phase II

Cj→ 2 1 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB WB W1 W2 S1 S2
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 2 1 0 1 -1 2→
w2 1 1 -1 1 0 -1 -
↑
Zw' = 1 -3 0 0 -1 ←Δj
w1 2 2 1 0 1 -1 -
w2 1 3 0 1 1 -2 -
↑
Zw' = 7 0 0 3 -4 ←Δj

Δj = -4 and all the elements of s2 are negative; hence we cannot find the outgoing vector.
This indicates there is an unbounded solution. Consequently by duality theorem the
original primal problem will have no feasible solution.

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5. Solve the given primal problem using simplex method. Hence write the solution of
its dual
Max Z = 40x1 + 50x2
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 3
8x1 + 4x2 ≤ 5
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
Solution
Primal form
Max Z = 40x1 + 50x2
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 3
8x1 + 4x2 ≤ 5
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

SLPP
Max Zx = 40x1 + 50x2 + 0s1+ 0s2
Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 + s1 = 3
8x1 + 4x2 + s2 = 5
x1, x2, s1, s2 ≥ 0

Cj → 40 50 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2
Variables XB / XK
s1 0 3 2 3 1 0 1→
s2 0 5 8 4 0 1 5/4
↑
Zx = 0 -40 -50 0 0 ←Δj
x2 50 1 2/3 1 1/3 0 3/2
s2 0 1 16/3 0 -4/3 1 3/16→
↑
Zx = 50 -20/3 0 50/3 0 ←Δj

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 x2 50 7/8 0 1 1/2 -1/8
x1 40 3/16 1 0 -1/4 3/16

Zx = 205/4 0 0 15 5/4 ←Δj

Δj ≥ 0 so the optimal solution is Z = 205/4, x1 = 3/16, x2 = 7/8

The optimal solution to the dual of the above problem will be

Zw* = 205/4, w1 = Δ4 = 15, w2 = Δ5 = 5/4

Exercise

1. Explain the concept of duality in LPP.

2. Explain the characteristics of duality.
3. Mention the advantages and application of duality
4. Write the steps for converting LPP into its dual.
5. Explain the concept of primal- dual relationship

Obtain the dual of the following linear programming problems

1. Max Z = 3x1 + 4x2

Subject to
2x1 + 6x2 ≤ 16
5x1 + 2x2 ≥ 20
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

2. Min Z = 7x1 + 3x2 + 8x3

Subject to
149
 8x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≥ 3
3x1 + 6x2 + 4x3 ≥ 4
4x1 + x2 + 5x3 ≥ 1
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0

3. Max Z = 6x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 + x4

Subject to
4x1 + 4x2 + 4x3 + 8x4 = 21
3x1 + 17x2 + 80x3 + 2x4 ≤ 48
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3, x4 are unrestricted

Use duality to solve the following LPP

1. Max Z = 3x1 + 2x2

Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≤ 5
x1 + x2 ≤ 3
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 8, x1 =2, x2 = 1, w1 = 1, w2 =2, Min Zw =8]

2. Min Z = 2x1 + 2x2

Subject to
2x1 + 4x2 ≥ 1
x1 + 2x2 ≥ 1
2x1 + x2 ≥ 1
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 4/3, x1 = 1/3, x2 = 1/3]

150
 3. Max Z = 8x1 + 6x2
Subject to
x1 - x2 ≤ 3/5
x1 - x2 ≥ 2
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Dual problem does not possess feasible solution]

Module 4

Unit 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Computational Procedure of Dual Simplex Method
1.3 Worked Examples
1.4 Advantage of Dual Simplex over Simplex Method
1.5 Introduction to Transportation Problem
1.6 Mathematical Formulation
1.7 Tabular Representation
1.8 Some Basic Definitions

1.1 Introduction

Any LPP for which it is possible to find infeasible but better than optimal initial basic
solution can be solved by using dual simplex method. Such a situation can be recognized
by first expressing the constraints in ‘≤’ form and the objective function in the
maximization form. After adding slack variables, if any right hand side element is
negative and the optimality condition is satisfied then the problem can be solved by dual
simplex method.

151
Negative element on the right hand side suggests that the corresponding slack variable is
negative. This means that the problem starts with optimal but infeasible basic solution
and we proceed towards its feasibility.

The dual simplex method is similar to the standard simplex method except that in the
latter the starting initial basic solution is feasible but not optimum while in the former it is
infeasible but optimum or better than optimum. The dual simplex method works towards
feasibility while simplex method works towards optimality.

1.2 Computational Procedure of Dual Simplex Method

The iterative procedure is as follows

Step 1 - First convert the minimization LPP into maximization form, if it is given in the
minimization form.

Step 2 - Convert the ‘≥’ type inequalities of given LPP, if any, into those of ‘≤’ type by
multiplying the corresponding constraints by -1.

Step 3 – Introduce slack variables in the constraints of the given problem and obtain an
initial basic solution.

Step 4 – Test the nature of Δj in the starting table

 If all Δj and XB are non-negative, then an optimum basic feasible solution has
been attained.
 If all Δj are non-negative and at least one basic variable XB is negative, then go to
step 5.
 If at least Δj one is negative, the method is not appropriate.

152
Step 5 – Select the most negative XB. The corresponding basis vector then leaves the
basis set B. Let Xr be the most negative basic variable.

Step 6 – Test the nature of Xr

 If all Xr are non-negative, then there does not exist any feasible solution to the
given problem.
 If at least one Xr is negative, then compute Max (Δj / Xr ) and determine the least
negative for incoming vector.

Step 7 – Test the new iterated dual simplex table for optimality.
Repeat the entire procedure until either an optimum feasible solution has been attained in
a finite number of steps.

1.3 Worked Examples

Example 1
Minimize Z = 2x1 + x2
Subject to
3x1 + x2 ≥ 3
4x1 + 3x2 ≥ 6
x1 + 2x2 ≥ 3
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution

Step 1 – Rewrite the given problem in the form

Maximize Z‫ – = ׳‬2x1 – x2
Subject to
–3x1 – x2 ≤ –3

153
 –4x1 – 3x2 ≤ –6
–x1 – 2x2 ≤ –3
x1 , x 2 ≥ 0

Step 2 – Adding slack variables to each constraint

Maximize Z‫ – = ׳‬2x1 – x2
Subject to
–3x1 – x2 + s1 = –3
–4x1 – 3x2 + s2 = –6
–x1 – 2x2 + s3 = –3
x1, x2, s1,s2, s3 ≥ 0

Step 3 – Construct the simplex table

Cj → -2 -1 0 0 0
Basic
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3
variables
s1 0 -3 -3 -1 1 0 0
s2 0 -6 -4 -3 0 1 0 → outgoing
s3 0 -3 -1 -2 0 0 1
↑
Z‫ = ׳‬0 2 1 0 0 0 ←Δj

Step 4 – To find the leaving vector

Min (-3, -6, -3) = -6. Hence s2 is outgoing vector

Step 5 – To find the incoming vector

Max (Δ1 / x21, Δ2 / x22) = (2/-4, 1/-3) = -1/3. So x2 is incoming vector

154
Step 6 –The key element is -3. Proceed to next iteration

Cj → -2 -1 0 0 0
Basic
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3
variables
s1 0 -1 -5/3 0 1 -1/3 0 → outgoing
x2 -1 2 4/3 1 0 -1/3 0
s3 0 1 5/3 0 0 -2/3 1
↑
Z‫ = ׳‬-2 2/3 0 0 1/3 0 ←Δj

Step 7 – To find the leaving vector

Min (-1, 2, 1) = -1. Hence s1 is outgoing vector

Step 8 – To find the incoming vector

Max (Δ1 / x11, Δ4 / x14) = (-2/5, -1) = -2/5. So x1 is incoming vector

Step 9 –The key element is -5/3. Proceed to next iteration

Cj → -2 -1 0 0 0
Basic
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2 S3
variables
x1 -2 3/5 1 0 -3/5 1/5 0
x2 -1 6/5 0 1 4/5 -3/5 0
s3 0 0 0 0 1 -1 1

Z‫ = ׳‬-12/5 0 0 2/5 1/5 0 ←Δj

Step 10 – Δj ≥ 0 and XB ≥ 0, therefore the optimal solution is Max Z‫ = ׳‬-12/5, Z = 12/5,

and x1=3/5, x2 = 6/5

155
Example 2

Minimize Z = 3x1 + x2
Subject to
x1 + x2 ≥ 1
2x1 + 3x2 ≥ 2
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0

Solution

Maximize Z‫ – = ׳‬3x1 – x2
Subject to
–x1 – x2 ≤ –1
–2x1 – 3x2 ≤ –2
x1 , x 2 ≥ 0
SLPP
Maximize Z‫ – = ׳‬3x1 – x2
Subject to
–x1 – x2 + s1 = –1
–2x1 – 3x2 + s2 = –2
x1, x2, s1,s2 ≥ 0

Cj → -3 -1 0 0
Basic
CB XB X1 X2 S1 S2
variables
s1 0 -1 -1 -1 1 0
s2 0 -2 -2 -3 0 1 →

↑
Z‫ = ׳‬0 3 1 0 0 ←Δj

156
s1 0 -1/3 -1/3 0 1 -1/3 →
x2 -1 2/3 2/3 1 0 -1/3
↑
Z‫ = ׳‬-2/3 7/3 0 0 1/3 ←Δj
s2 0 1 1 0 -3 1
x2 -1 1 1 1 -1 0

Z‫ = ׳‬-1 2 0 1 0 ←Δj
Δj ≥ 0 and XB ≥ 0, therefore the optimal solution is Max Z‫ = ׳‬-1, Z = 1, and x1= 0, x2 = 1

Example 3
Max Z = –2x1 – x3
Subject to
x1 + x2 – x3 ≥ 5
x1 – 2x2 + 4x3 ≥ 8
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
Solution
Max Z = –2x1 – x3
Subject to
–x1 – x2 + x3 ≤ –5
–x1 + 2x2 – 4x3 ≤ –8
x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

SLPP
Max Z = –2x1 – x3
Subject to
–x1 – x2 + x3 + s1 = –5
–x1 + 2x2 – 4x3 + s2 = –8
x1, x2, x3, s1, s2 ≥ 0

157
 Cj → -2 0 -1 0 0
Basic
CB XB X1 X2 X3 S1 S2
variables
s1 0 -5 -1 -1 1 1 0
s2 0 -8 -1 2 -4 0 1 →
↑
Z=0 2 0 1 0 0 ←Δj
s1 0 -7 -5/4 -1/2 0 1 1/4 →
x3 -1 2 1/4 -1/2 1 0 -1/4
↑
Z = -2 7/4 1/2 0 0 1/4 ←Δj
x2 0 14 5/2 1 0 -2 -1/2
x3 -1 9 3/2 0 1 -1 -1/2

Z = -9 1/2 0 0 1 1/2 ←Δj

Δj ≥ 0 and XB ≥ 0, therefore the optimal solution is Z = -9, and x1= 0, x2 = 14, x3 = 9

Example 4
Find the optimum solution of the given problem without using artificial variable.
Max Z = –4x1 –6x2 – 18x3
Subject to
x1 + 3x3 ≥ 3
x2 + 2x3 ≥ 5
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0

Solution

Max Z = –4x1 –6x2 – 18x3

Subject to
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 –x1 – 3x3 ≤ –3
–x2 – 2x3 ≤ –5
x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

SLPP
Max Z = –4x1 –6x2 – 18x3
Subject to
–x1 – 3x3 + s1 = –3
–x2 – 2x3 + s2 = –5
x1, x2, x3, s1, s2 ≥ 0
Cj → -4 -6 -18 0 0
Basic
CB XB X1 X2 X3 S1 S2
variables
s1 0 -3 -1 0 -3 1 0
s2 0 -5 0 -1 -2 0 1 →
↑
Z=0 4 6 18 0 0 ←Δj
s1 0 -3 -1 0 -3 1 0 →
x2 -6 5 0 1 2 0 -1
↑
Z = -30 4 0 6 0 6 ←Δj
x3 -18 1 1/3 0 1 -1/3 0
x2 -6 3 -2/3 1 0 2/3 -1

Z = -36 2 0 0 2 6 ←Δj

Δj ≥ 0 and XB ≥ 0, therefore the optimal solution is Z = -36, and x1= 0, x2 = 3, x3 = 1

Example 5
Min Z = 6x1 + 7x2 + 3x3 + 5x4
159
 Subject to
5x1 + 6x2 - 3x3 + 4x4 ≥ 12
x2 + 5x3 - 6x4 ≥ 10
2x1 + 5x2 + x3 + x4 ≥ 8
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0, x4 ≥ 0

Solution

Max Z' = - 6x1 - 7x2 - 3x3 - 5x4

Subject to
-5x1 - 6x2 + 3x3 - 4x4 ≤ -12
-x2 - 5x3 + 6x4 ≤ -10
-2x1 - 5x2 - x3 - x4 ≤ -8
x1, x2, x3, x4 ≥ 0

SLPP
Max Z' = - 6x1 - 7x2 - 3x3 - 5x4
Subject to
-5x1 - 6x2 + 3x3 - 4x4 + s1 = -12
-x2 - 5x3 + 6x4 + s2 = -10
-2x1 - 5x2 - x3 - x4 + s3 = -8
x1, x2, x3, x4, s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0
Cj → -6 -7 -3 -5 0 0 0
Basic
CB XB X1 X2 X3 X4 S1 S2 S3
variables
s1 0 -12 -5 -6 3 -4 1 0 0 →
s2 0 -10 0 -1 -5 6 0 1 0

160
 s3 0 -8 -2 -5 -1 1 0 0 1
↑
Z'= 0 6 7 3 5 0 0 0
x2 -7 2 5/6 1 -1/2 2/3 -1/6 0 0
s2 0 -8 5/6 0 -11/2 20/3 -1/6 1 0 →
s3 0 2 13/6 0 -7/2 7/3 -5/6 0 1
↑
Z'= -14 1/6 0 13/2 1/3 7/6 0 0
x2 -7 30/11 25/33 1 0 2/33 -5/33 -1/11 0
x3 -3 16/11 -5/33 0 1 -40/33 1/33 -2/11 0
s3 0 78/11 18/11 0 0 -21/11 -8/11 -7/11 1
Z'= -258/11 38/33 0 0 271/33 32/33 13/11 0

Δj ≥ 0 and XB ≥ 0, therefore the optimal solution is Z= 258/11 and x1= 0, x2 = 30/11, x3 =

16/11, x4= 0

1.4 Advantage of Dual Simplex over Simplex Method

The main advantage of dual simplex over the usual simplex method is that we do not
require any artificial variables in the dual simplex method. Hence a lot of labor is saved
whenever this method is applicable.

1.5 Introduction to Transportation Problem

The Transportation problem is to transport various amounts of a single homogeneous

commodity that are initially stored at various origins, to different destinations in such a
way that the total transportation cost is a minimum.

161
It can also be defined as to ship goods from various origins to various destinations in such
a manner that the transportation cost is a minimum.

The availability as well as the requirements is finite. It is assumed that the cost of
shipping is linear.

1.6 Mathematical Formulation

Let there be m origins, ith origin possessing ai units of a certain product

Let there be n destinations, with destination j requiring bj units of a certain product

Let cij be the cost of shipping one unit from ith source to jth destination

Let xij be the amount to be shipped from ith source to jth destination

It is assumed that the total availabilities Σai satisfy the total requirements Σbj i.e.

Σai = Σbj (i = 1, 2, 3 … m and j = 1, 2, 3 …n)

The problem now, is to determine non-negative of xij satisfying both the availability
constraints

as well as requirement constraints

162
and the minimizing cost of transportation (shipping)

This special type of LPP is called as Transportation Problem.

1.7 Tabular Representation

Let ‘m’ denote number of factories (F1, F2 … Fm)

Let ‘n’ denote number of warehouse (W1, W2 … Wn)

W→
F Capacities
W1 W2 … Wn
↓ (Availability)
F1 c11 c12 … c1n a1
F2 c21 c22 … c2n a2
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Fm cm1 cm2 … cmn am
Required b1 b2 … bn Σai = Σbj
W→
F Capacities
W1 W2 … Wn
↓ (Availability)
F1 x11 x12 … x1n a1
F2 x21 x22 … x2n a2
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Fm xm1 xm2 … xmn am
Required b1 b2 … bn Σai = Σbj

163
In general these two tables are combined by inserting each unit cost cij with the
corresponding amount xij in the cell (i, j). The product cij xij gives the net cost of shipping
units from the factory Fi to warehouse Wj.

1.8 Some Basic Definitions

 Feasible Solution
A set of non-negative individual allocations (xij ≥ 0) which simultaneously
removes deficiencies is called as feasible solution.

 Basic Feasible Solution

A feasible solution to ‘m’ origin, ‘n’ destination problem is said to be basic if the
number of positive allocations are m+n-1. If the number of allocations is less than
m+n-1 then it is called as Degenerate Basic Feasible Solution. Otherwise it is
called as Non- Degenerate Basic Feasible Solution.

 Optimum Solution
A feasible solution is said to be optimal if it minimizes the total transportation
cost.

Exercise
Solve by dual simplex method

1. Max Z = -3x1 - 2x2

Subject to
x1 + x2 ≥ 1
x1 + x2 ≤ 7
164
 x1 + 2x2 ≤ 10
x2 ≤ 3
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = -2, x1 = 0, x2 = 1]

2. Max Z = –2x1 –2x2 – 4x3

Subject to
2x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 ≥ 2
3x1 + x2 + 7x3 ≤ 3
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
[Ans. Max Z = 4/3, x1 = 0, x2 = 2/3, x3 = 0]

3. Min Z = x1 + 2x2 + 3x3

Subject to
2x1 - x2 + x3 ≥ 4
x1 + x2 + 2x3 ≥ 8
x2 - x3 ≥ 2
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0
[Ans. Min Z = 10, x1 = 6, x2 = 2, x3 = 0]

4. Min Z = 3x1 + 2x2 + x3 + 4x4

Subject to
2x1 + 4x2 + 5x3 + x4 ≥ 10
3x1 - x2 + 7x3 - 2x4 ≥ 2

165
 5x1 + 2x2 + x3 + 6x4 ≥ 15
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0, x4 ≥ 0
[Ans. Min Z = 215/23, x1 = 65/23, x2 = 0, x3 = 20, x4 = 0]

5. Min Z = x1 + x2
Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≥ 2
-x1 - x2 ≥ 1
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
[Ans. Pseudo Optimum basic feasible solution]

Unit 2
2.1 Methods for Initial Basic Feasible Solution
2.1.1 North-West Corner Rule
2.1.2 Row Minima Method
2.1.3 Column Minima Method

166
 2.1.4 Lowest Cost Entry Method (Matrix Minima Method)
2.1.5 Vogel’s Approximation Method (Unit Cost Penalty Method)

2.1 Methods for Initial Basic Feasible Solution

Some simple methods to obtain the initial basic feasible solution are

1. North-West Corner Rule

2. Row Minima Method
3. Column Minima Method
4. Lowest Cost Entry Method (Matrix Minima Method)
5. Vogel’s Approximation Method (Unit Cost Penalty Method)

2.1.1 North-West Corner Rule

Step 1
 The first assignment is made in the cell occupying the upper left-hand (north-
west) corner of the table.
 The maximum possible amount is allocated here i.e. x11 = min (a1, b1). This value
of x11 is then entered in the cell (1,1) of the transportation table.

Step 2
i. If b1 > a1, move vertically downwards to the second row and make the second
allocation of amount x21 = min (a2, b1 - x11) in the cell (2, 1).
ii. If b1 < a1, move horizontally right side to the second column and make the second
allocation of amount x12 = min (a1 - x11, b2) in the cell (1, 2).
iii. If b1 = a1, there is tie for the second allocation. One can make a second allocation
of magnitude x12 = min (a1 - a1, b2) in the cell (1, 2) or x21 = min (a2, b1 - b1) in the
cell (2, 1)
167
Step 3
Start from the new north-west corner of the transportation table and repeat steps 1 and 2
until all the requirements are satisfied.

Find the initial basic feasible solution by using North-West Corner Rule

1. W→
F Factory
W1 W2 W3 W4
↓ Capacity
F1 19 30 50 10 7
F2 70 30 40 60 9
F3 40 8 70 20 18
Warehouse
5 8 7 14 34
Requirement

Solution
W1 W2 W3 W5 Availability

5 2
F1 7 2 0
(19) (30)
6 3
F2 9 3 0
(30) (40)
4 14
F3 18 14 0
(70) (20)

5 8 7 14
Requirement 0 6 4 0
0 0
Initial Basic Feasible Solution
x11 = 5, x12 = 2, x22 = 6, x23 = 3, x33 = 4, x34 = 14
The transportation cost is 5 (19) + 2 (30) + 6 (30) + 3 (40) + 4 (70) + 14 (20) = Rs. 1015

168
2.

D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
O1 1 5 3 3 34
O2 3 3 1 2 15
O3 0 2 2 3 12
O4 2 7 2 4 19
Demand 21 25 17 17 80

Solution

D1 D2 D3 D4 Supply
21 13
O1 (1) (5) 34 13 0
12 3
O2 (3) (1) 15 3 0
12
O3 (2) 12 0
2 17
O4 (2) (4) 19 17
Demand 21 25 17 17
0 12 14 0
0 2
0
Initial Basic Feasible Solution
x11 = 21, x12 = 13, x22 = 12, x23 = 3, x33 = 12, x43 = 2, x44 = 17
The transportation cost is 21 (1) + 13 (5) + 12 (3) + 3 (1) + 12 (2) + 2 (2) + 17 (4) = Rs.
221
3.
From To Supply

169
 2 11 10 3 7 4
1 4 7 2 1 8
3 1 4 8 12 9
Demand 3 3 4 5 6

Solution

From To Supply
3 1
(2) (11) 4 1 0
2 4 2
(4) (7) (2) 8 6 2 0
3 6
(8) (12) 9 6 0
3 3 4 5 6
Demand 0 2 0 3 0
0 0

Initial Basic Feasible Solution

x11 = 3, x12 = 1, x22 = 2, x23 = 4, x24 = 2, x34 = 3, x35 = 6
The transportation cost is 3 (2) + 1 (11) + 2 (4) + 4 (7) + 2 (2) + 3 (8) + 6 (12) = Rs. 153

2.1.2 Row Minima Method

Step 1
 The smallest cost in the first row of the transportation table is determined.
 Allocate as much as possible amount xij = min (a1, bj) in the cell (1, j) so that the
capacity of the origin or the destination is satisfied.

Step 2

170
  If x1j = a1, so that the availability at origin O1 is completely exhausted, cross out
the first row of the table and move to second row.
 If x1j = bj, so that the requirement at destination Dj is satisfied, cross out the jth
column and reconsider the first row with the remaining availability of origin O1.
 If x1j = a1 = bj, the origin capacity a1 is completely exhausted as well as the
requirement at destination Dj is satisfied. An arbitrary tie-breaking choice is
made. Cross out the jth column and make the second allocation x1k = 0 in the cell
(1, k) with c1k being the new minimum cost in the first row. Cross out the first
row and move to second row.

Step 3
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the reduced transportation table until all the requirements are
satisfied

Determine the initial basic feasible solution using Row Minima Method

1.
W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability
F1 19 30 50 10 7
F2 70 30 40 60 9
F3 40 80 70 20 18
Requirement 5 8 7 14

Solution
W1 W2 W3 W4
7
X
F1 (19) (30) (50) (10)

F2 9
(70) (30) (40) (60)
F3 (80) (70) (20) 18

171
 (40)
5 8 7 7

W1 W2 W3 W4
7
X
F1 (19) (30) (50) (10)
8
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60) 1

F3 18
(40) (80) (70) (20)
5 X 7 7

W1 W2 W3 W4
7
X
F1 (19) (30) (50) (10)
8 1
X
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60)

F3 (40) (80) (70) (20) 18

5 X 6 7

W1 W2 W3 W4
7
X
F1 (19) (30) (50) (10)
8 1
X
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60)
5 6 7
X
F3 (40) (80) (70) (20)

172
 X X X X
Initial Basic Feasible Solution
x14 = 7, x22 = 8, x23 = 1, x31 = 5, x33 = 6, x34 = 7
The transportation cost is 7 (10) + 8 (30) + 1 (40) + 5 (40) + 6 (70) + 7 (20) = Rs. 1110
2.
A B C Availability
I 50 30 220 1
II 90 45 170 4
III 250 200 50 4
Requirement 4 2 3

Solution
A B C Availability
1
I 1 0
(30)
3 1
II 4 3 0
(90) (45)
1 3
III 4 1 0
(250) (50)
Requirement 4 2 3
1 1 0
0 0

Initial Basic Feasible Solution

x12 = 1, x21 = 3, x22 = 1, x31 = 1, x33 = 3
The transportation cost is 1 (30) + 3 (90) + 1 (45) + 1 (250) + 3 (50) = Rs. 745

2.1.3 Column Minima Method

Step 1

173
Determine the smallest cost in the first column of the transportation table. Allocate x i1 =
min (ai, b1) in the cell (i, 1).

Step 2
 If xi1 = b1, cross out the first column of the table and move towards right to the
second column
 If xi1 = ai, cross out the ith row of the table and reconsider the first column with the
remaining demand.
 If xi1 = b1= ai, cross out the ith row and make the second allocation xk1 = 0 in the
cell (k, 1) with ck1 being the new minimum cost in the first column, cross out the
column and move towards right to the second column.

Step 3
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the reduced transportation table until all the requirements are
satisfied.

Use Column Minima method to determine an initial basic feasible solution

1.

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability
F1 19 30 50 10 7
F2 70 30 40 60 9
F3 40 80 70 20 18
Requirement 5 8 7 14

Solution

W1 W2 W3 W4
5
F1 2
(19) (30) (50) (10)

174
 9
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60)

18
F3 (40) (80) (70) (20)
X 8 7 14

W1 W2 W3 W4
5 2
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)

9
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60)

18
F3 (40) (80) (70) (20)
X 6 7 14

W1 W2 W3 W4
5 2
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)
6
F2 3
(70) (30) (40) (60)

18
F3 (40) (80) (70) (20)
X X 7 14

W1 W2 W3 W4
5 2
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)
6 3
F2 X
(70) (30) (40) (60)
175
 18
F3 (40) (80) (70) (20)
X X 4 14

W1 W2 W3 W4
5 2
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)
6 3
F2 X
(70) (30) (40) (60)
4
F3 14
(40) (80) (70) (20)
X X X 14

W1 W2 W3 W4
5 2
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)
6 3
F2 X
(70) (30) (40) (60)

176
 4 14
F3 X
(40) (80) (70) (20)
X X X X

Initial Basic Feasible Solution

x11 = 5, x12 = 2, x22 = 6, x23 = 3, x33 = 4, x34 = 14
The transportation cost is 5 (19) + 2 (30) + 6 (30) + 3 (40) + 4 (70) + 14 (20) = Rs. 1015

2.

D1 D2 D3 D4 Availability
S1 11 13 17 14 250
S2 16 18 14 10 300
S3 21 24 13 10 400
Requirement 200 225 275 250

Solution

D1 D2 D3 D4
200 50
S1 250 50 0
(11) (13)
175 125
S2 300 125 0
(18) (10)
275 125
S3 400 125 0
(13) (10)
200 225 275 250

177
 0 175 0 0
0

Initial Basic Feasible Solution

x11 = 200, x12 = 50, x22 = 175, x24 = 125, x33 = 275, x34 = 125
The transportation cost is
200 (11) + 50 (13) + 175 (18) + 125 (10) + 275 (13) + 125 (10) = Rs. 12075

2.1.4 Lowest Cost Entry Method (Matrix Minima Method)

Step 1
Determine the smallest cost in the cost matrix of the transportation table. Allocate x ij =
min (ai, bj) in the cell (i, j)

Step 2
 If xij = ai, cross out the ith row of the table and decrease bj by ai. Go to step 3.
 If xij = bj, cross out the jth column of the table and decrease ai by bj. Go to step 3.
 If xij = ai = bj, cross out the ith row or jth column but not both.

Step 3
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the resulting reduced transportation table until all the
requirements are satisfied. Whenever the minimum cost is not unique, make an arbitrary
choice among the minima.
Find the initial basic feasible solution using Matrix Minima method
178
1.

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability
F1 19 30 50 10 7
F2 70 30 40 60 9
F3 40 8 70 20 18
Requirement 5 8 7 14

Solution

W1 W2 W3 W4

F1 7
(19) (30) (50) (10)

F2 9
(70) (30) (40) (60)

F3 8 10
(40) (8) (70) (20)
5 X 7 14

W1 W2 W3 W4
7
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)

F2 9
(70) (30) (40) (60)
8
F3 10
(40) (8) (70) (20)
5 X 7 7

179
 W1 W2 W3 W4
7
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)

F2 9
(70) (30) (40) (60)
8 7
F3 3
(40) (8) (70) (20)
5 X 7 X

W1 W2 W3 W4
7
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)

F2 9
(70) (30) (40) (60)
3 8 7
F3 X
(40) (8) (70) (20)
2 X 7 X

W1 W2 W3 W4
7
F1 X
(19) (30) (50) (10)
2 7
F2 X
(70) (30) (40) (60)
3 8 7
F3 X
(40) (8) (70) (20)
X X X X
Initial Basic Feasible Solution

x14 = 7, x21 = 2, x23 = 7, x31 = 3, x32 = 8, x34 = 7

The transportation cost is 7 (10) + 2 (70) + 7 (40) + 3 (40) + 8 (8) + 7 (20) = Rs. 814
180
2.

To Availability
2 11 10 3 7 4
From 1 4 7 2 1 8
3 9 4 8 12 9
Requirement 3 3 4 5 6
Solution
To
4
4 0
(3)
3 5
8 5 0
(1) (1)
From 3 4 1 1
9 5 4 1 0
(9) (4) (8) (12)
3 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 1 1
0 0
Initial Basic Feasible Solution
x14 = 4, x21 = 3, x25 = 5, x32 = 3, x33 = 4, x34 = 1, x35 = 1
The transportation cost is 4 (3) + 3 (1) + 5(1) + 3 (9) + 4 (4) + 1 (8) + 1 (12) = Rs. 78

2.1.5 Vogel’s Approximation Method (Unit Cost Penalty Method)

Step1

For each row of the table, identify the smallest and the next to smallest cost. Determine
the difference between them for each row. These are called penalties. Put them aside by
enclosing them in the parenthesis against the respective rows. Similarly compute
penalties for each column.
181
Step 2

Identify the row or column with the largest penalty. If a tie occurs then use an arbitrary
choice. Let the largest penalty corresponding to the ith row have the cost cij. Allocate the
largest possible amount xij = min (ai, bj) in the cell (i, j) and cross out either ith row or jth
column in the usual manner.

Step 3

Again compute the row and column penalties for the reduced table and then go to step 2.
Repeat the procedure until all the requirements are satisfied.

Find the initial basic feasible solution using vogel’s approximation method

1.

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability
F1 19 30 50 10 7
F2 70 30 40 60 9
F3 40 8 70 20 18
Requirement 5 8 7 14

Solution

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability Penalty
F1 19 30 50 10 7 19-10=9
F2 70 30 40 60 9 40-30=10
F3 40 8 70 20 18 20-8=12
Requirement 5 8 7 14
Penalty 40-19=21 30-8=22 50-40=10 20-10=10

182
 W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability Penalty
F1 (19) (30) (50) (10) 7 9
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60) 9 10
F3 (40) 8(8) (70) (20) 18/10 12
Requirement 5 8/0 7 14
Penalty 21 22 10 10

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability Penalty
F1 5(19) (30) (50) (10) 7/2 9
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60) 9 20
F3 (40) 8(8) (70) (20) 18/10 20
Requirement 5/0 X 7 14
Penalty 21 X 10 10

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability Penalty
F1 5(19) (30) (50) (10) 7/2 40
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60) 9 20
F3 (40) 8(8) (70) 10(20) 18/10/0 50
Requirement X X 7 14/4
Penalty X X 10 10

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability Penalty
F1 5(19) (30) (50) 2(10) 7/2/0 40
F2 (70) (30) (40) (60) 9 20
F3 (40) 8(8) (70) 10(20) X X
Requirement X X 7 14/4/2
Penalty X X 10 50

183
 W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability Penalty
F1 5(19) (30) (50) 2(10) X X
F2 (70) (30) 7(40) 2(60) X X
F3 (40) 8(8) (70) 10(20) X X
Requirement X X X X
Penalty X X X X

Initial Basic Feasible Solution

x11 = 5, x14 = 2, x23 = 7, x24 = 2, x32 = 8, x34 = 10
The transportation cost is 5 (19) + 2 (10) + 7 (40) + 2 (60) + 8 (8) + 10 (20) = Rs. 779

2.

Stores Availability
I II III IV
A 21 16 15 13 11
Warehouse B 17 18 14 23 13
C 32 27 18 41 19
Requirement 6 10 12 15

Solution
Stores Availability Penalty
I II III IV
A (21) (16) (15) (13) 11 2
Warehouse B (17) (18) (14) (23) 13 3
C (32) (27) (18) (41) 19 9

Requirement 6 10 12 15

184
Penalty 4 2 1 10

Stores Availability Penalty

I II III IV
A (21) (16) (15) 11(13) 11/0 2
Warehouse B (17) (18) (14) (23) 13 3
C (32) (27) (18) (41) 19 9
Requirement 6 10 12 15/4
Penalty 4 2 1 10

Stores Availability Penalty

I II III IV
A (21) (16) (15) 11(13) X X
Warehouse B (17) (18) (14) 4(23) 13/9 3
C (32) (27) (18) (41) 19 9
Requirement 6 10 12 15/4/0
Penalty 15 9 4 18

Stores Availability Penalty

I II III IV
A (21) (16) (15) 11(13) X X
Warehouse B 6(17) (18) (14) 4(23) 13/9/3 3
C (32) (27) (18) (41) 19 9
Requirement 6/0 10 12 X
Penalty 15 9 4 X

185
 Stores Availability Penalty
I II III IV
A (21) (16) (15) 11(13) X X
Warehouse B 6(17) 3(18) (14) 4(23) 13/9/3/0 4
C (32) (27) (18) (41) 19 9
Requirement X 10/7 12 X
Penalty X 9 4 X

Stores Availability Penalty

I II III IV
A (21) (16) (15) 11(13) X X
Warehouse B 6(17) 3(18) (14) 4(23) X X
C (32) 7(27) 12(18) (41) X X
Requirement X X X X
Penalty X X X X

Initial Basic Feasible Solution

x14 = 11, x21 = 6, x22 = 3, x24 = 4, x32 = 7, x33 = 12
The transportation cost is 11 (13) + 6 (17) + 3 (18) + 4 (23) + 7 (27) + 12 (18) = Rs. 796

186
Exercise
1. Determine an initial basic feasible solution to the following transportation
problem using north-west corner rule.
I II III IV Supply
A 13 11 15 20 2000
From B 17 14 12 13 6000
C 18 18 15 12 7000
Demand 3000 3000 4000 5000

[Ans. x11 = 2, x21 = 1, x22 = 3, x23 = 2, x34 = 5]

2. Determine an initial basic feasible solution to the following transportation

problem using row/column minima method.
To Supply
6 3 5 4 22
From 5 9 2 7 15
5 7 8 6 8
Demand 7 12 17 9

[Ans. x12 = 12, x13 = 1, x14 = 9, x23 = 15, x31 = 7, x33 = 1]

3. Obtain an initial basic feasible solution to the following transportation problem

using matrix minima method.
D1 D2 D3 D4 Capacity
O1 1 2 3 4 6
From O2 4 3 2 0 8
O3 0 2 2 1 10
Demand 4 6 8 6

187
[Ans. x12 = 6, x23 = 2, x24 = 6, x31 = 4, x32 = 0, x33 = 6]
4. Determine the minimum cost to the following transportation problem using
Vogel’s method.
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 Capacity
O1 2 11 10 3 7 4
From O2 1 4 7 2 1 8
O3 3 9 4 8 12 9
Demand 3 3 4 5 6 21

[Ans. Min cost = Rs 68]

5. Determine the minimum cost to the following transportation problem using matrix
minima method and vogel’s method
D1 D2 D3 D4 Capacity
O1 1 2 1 4 30
From O2 3 3 2 1 50
O3 4 2 5 9 20
Demand 20 40 30 10

[Ans. Min cost = Rs 180]

188
Unit 3

3.1 Examining the Initial Basic Feasible Solution for Non-Degeneracy

3.2 Transportation Algorithm for Minimization Problem
3.3 Worked Examples

3.1 Examining the Initial Basic Feasible Solution for Non-Degeneracy

Examine the initial basic feasible solution for non-degeneracy. If it is said to be non-
degenerate then it has the following two properties
 Initial basic feasible solution must contain exactly m + n – 1 number of individual
allocations.
 These allocations must be in independent positions

Independent Positions

  

  

 

 

 

 

189
Non-Independent Positions

3.2 Transportation Algorithm for Minimization Problem (MODI

Method)

Step 1
Construct the transportation table entering the origin capacities ai, the destination
requirement bj and the cost cij

Step 2
Find an initial basic feasible solution by vogel’s method or by any of the given method.

Step 3
190
For all the basic variables xij, solve the system of equations ui + vj = cij, for all i, j for
which cell (i, j) is in the basis, starting initially with some ui = 0, calculate the values of ui
and vj on the transportation table

Step 4
Compute the cost differences dij = cij – ( ui + vj ) for all the non-basic cells

Step 5
Apply optimality test by examining the sign of each dij
 If all dij ≥ 0, the current basic feasible solution is optimal
 If at least one dij < 0, select the variable xrs (most negative) to enter the basis.
 Solution under test is not optimal if any dij is negative and further improvement is
required by repeating the above process.

Step 6
Let the variable xrs enter the basis. Allocate an unknown quantity Ө to the cell (r, s). Then
construct a loop that starts and ends at the cell (r, s) and connects some of the basic cells.
The amount Ө is added to and subtracted from the transition cells of the loop in such a
manner that the availabilities and requirements remain satisfied.

Step 7
Assign the largest possible value to the Ө in such a way that the value of at least one
basic variable becomes zero and the other basic variables remain non-negative. The basic
cell whose allocation has been made zero will leave the basis.

Step 8
Now, return to step 3 and repeat the process until an optimal solution is obtained.

3.3 Worked Examples

191
Example 1
Find an optimal solution

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability
F1 19 30 50 10 7
F2 70 30 40 60 9
F3 40 8 70 20 18
Requirement 5 8 7 14

Solution

1. Applying vogel’s approximation method for finding the initial basic feasible
solution

W1 W2 W3 W4 Availability Penalty
F1 5(19) (30) (50) 2(10) X X
F2 (70) (30) 7(40) 2(60) X X
F3 (40) 8(8) (70) 10(20) X X
Requirement X X X X
Penalty X X X X

Minimum transportation cost is 5 (19) + 2 (10) + 7 (40) + 2 (60) + 8 (8) + 10 (20) = Rs.
779

2. Check for Non-degeneracy

The initial basic feasible solution has m + n – 1 i.e. 3 + 4 – 1 = 6 allocations in
independent positions. Hence optimality test is satisfied.
192
3. Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

ui
 (19)  (10) u1= -10
 (40)  (60) u2 = 40
 (8)  (20) u3 = 0
vj v1 = 29 v2 = 8 v3 = 0 v4 = 20
Assign a ‘u’
value to zero. (Convenient rule is to select the ui, which has the largest number of
allocations in its row)
Let u3 = 0, then
u3 + v4= 20 which implies 0 + v4 = 20, so v4 = 20
u2 + v4= 60 which implies u2 + 20 = 60, so u2 = 40
u1 + v4= 10 which implies u1 + 20 = 10, so u1 = -10
u2 + v3= 40 which implies 40 + v3 = 40, so v3 = 0
u3 + v2= 8 which implies 0 + v2 = 8, so v2 = 8
u1 + v1= 19 which implies -10 + v1= 19, so v1 = 29
4. Calculation of cost differences for non basic cells dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

cij ui + vj
 (30) (50)   -2 -10 
(70) (30)   69 48  
(40)  (70)  29  0 

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
 32 60 
1 -18  
11  70 

193
5. Optimality test
dij < 0 i.e. d22 = -18
so x22 is entering the basis

6. Construction of loop and allocation of unknown quantity Ө

We allocate Ө to the cell (2, 2). Reallocation is done by transferring the maximum
possible amount Ө in the marked cell. The value of Ө is obtained by equating to zero to
the corners of the closed loop. i.e. min(8-Ө, 2-Ө) = 0 which gives Ө = 2. Therefore x24 is
outgoing as it becomes zero.

5 (19) 2 (10)
2 (30) 7 (40)
6 (8) 12 (20)

Minimum transportation cost is 5 (19) + 2 (10) + 2 (30) + 7 (40) + 6 (8) + 12 (20) = Rs.
743

7. Improved Solution

ui
 (19)  (10) u1= -10
 (30)  (40) u2 = 22
 (8)  (20) u3 = 0

194
vj v1 = 29 v2 = 8 v3 = 18 v4 = 20

cij ui + vj
 (30) (50)   -2 8 
(70)   (60) 51   42
(40)  (70)  29  18 

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
 32 42 
19   18
11  52 

Since dij > 0, an optimal solution is obtained with minimal cost Rs.743

Example 2
Solve by lowest cost entry method and obtain an optimal solution for the following
problem

Available
50 30 220 1
From 90 45 170 3
250 200 50 4
Required 4 2 2

195
Solution
By lowest cost entry method

Available
1(30) 1/0
From 2(90) 1(45) 3/2/0
2(250) 2(50) 4/2/0
Required 4/2/2 2/1/0 2/0

Minimum transportation cost is 1 (30) + 2 (90) + 1 (45) + 2 (250) + 2 (50) = Rs. 855

Check for Non-degeneracy

The initial basic feasible solution has m + n – 1 i.e. 3 + 3 – 1 = 5 allocations in
independent positions. Hence optimality test is satisfied.

Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

ui
 (30) u1= -15
 (90)  (45) u2 = 0
 (250)  (50) u3 = 160
vj v1 = 90 v2 = 45 v3 = -110

Calculation of cost differences for non-basic cells dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

cij ui + vj
50  220 75  -125
  170   -110
 200   205 

196
 dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
-25  345
  280
 -5 

Optimality test
dij < 0 i.e. d11 = -25 is most negative
So x11 is entering the basis

Construction of loop and allocation of unknown quantity Ө

min(2-Ө, 1-Ө) = 0 which gives Ө = 1. Therefore x12 is outgoing as it becomes zero.

1(50)

1(90) 2(45)

2(250) 2(50)

Minimum transportation cost is 1 (50) + 1 (90) + 2 (45) + 2 (250) + 2 (50) = Rs. 830

197
II Iteration

Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

ui
 (50) u1= -40
 (90)  (45) u2 = 0
 (250)  (50) u3 = 160
vj v1 = 90 v2 = 45 v3 = -110

Calculation of dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

cij ui + vj
 30 220  5 -150
  170   -110
 200   205 

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
 25 370
  280
 -5 

Optimality test
dij < 0 i.e. d32 = -5
So x32 is entering the basis

Construction of loop and allocation of unknown quantity Ө

198
2 – Ө = 0 which gives Ө = 2. Therefore x22 and x31 is outgoing as it becomes zero.

1(50)

3(90) 0(45)

2(200) 2(50)

Minimum transportation cost is 1 (50) + 3 (90) + 2 (200) + 2 (50) = Rs. 820

III Iteration

Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

ui
 (50) u1= -40
 (90)  (45) u2 = 0
 (200)  (50) u3 = 155
vj v1 = 90 v2 = 45 v3 = -105

Calculation of dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

199
 cij ui + vj
 30 220  5 -145
  170   -105
250   245  

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
 25 365
  275
5  

Since dij > 0, an optimal solution is obtained with minimal cost Rs.820

Example 3
Is x13 = 50, x14 = 20, x21 = 55, x31 = 30, x32 = 35, x34 = 25 an optimal solution to the
transportation problem.

Available
6 1 9 3 70
From 11 5 2 8 55
10 12 4 7 90
Required 85 35 50 45

Solution

Available
From 50(9) 20(3) X

200
 55(11) X
30(10) 35(12) 25(7) X
Required X X X X

Minimum transportation cost is 50 (9) + 20 (3) + 55 (11) + 30 (10) + 35 (12) + 25 (7) =

Rs. 2010

Check for Non-degeneracy

The initial basic feasible solution has m + n – 1 i.e. 3 + 4 – 1 = 6 allocations in
independent positions. Hence optimality test is satisfied.

Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

ui
 (9)  (3) u1= -4
 (11) u2 = 1
 (10)  (12)  (7) u3 = 0
vj v1 = 10 v2 = 12 v3 = 13 v4 = 7

Calculation of cost differences for non-basic cells dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

cij ui + vj
6 1   6 8  
 5 2 8  13 14 8
  4    13 

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
0 -7  

201
  -8 -12 0
  -9 

Optimality test
dij < 0 i.e. d23 = -12 is most negative
So x23 is entering the basis

Construction of loop and allocation of unknown quantity Ө

min(50-Ө, 55-Ө, 25-Ө) = 25 which gives Ө = 25. Therefore x34 is outgoing as it becomes
zero.

25(9) 45(3)
30(11) 25(2)
55(10) 35(12)

Minimum transportation cost is 25 (9) + 45 (3) + 30 (11) + 25 (2) + 55 (10) + 35 (12) =

Rs. 1710
II iteration

Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

ui
 (9)  (3) u1= 8

202
  (11)  (2) u2 = 1
 (10)  (12) u3 = 0
vj v1 = 10 v2 = 12 v3 = 1 v4 = -5

Calculation of cost differences for non-basic cells dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

cij ui + vj
6 1   18 20  
 5  8  13  -4
  4 7   1 -5

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
-12 -19  
 -8  12
  3 12

Optimality test
dij < 0 i.e. d12 = -19 is most negative
So x12 is entering the basis

Construction of loop and allocation of unknown quantity Ө

203
min(25-Ө, 30-Ө, 35-Ө) = 25 which gives Ө = 25. Therefore x13 is outgoing as it becomes
zero.

25(1) 45(3)
5(11) 50(2)
80(10) 10(12)

Minimum transportation cost is 25 (1) + 45 (3) + 5 (11) + 50 (2) + 80 (10) + 10 (12) =

Rs. 1235

III Iteration

Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

ui
 (1)  (3) u1= -11
 (11)  (2) u2 = 1
 (10)  (12) u3 = 0
vj v1 = 10 v2 = 12 v3 = 1 v4 = 14

Calculation of cost differences for non-basic cells dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

cij ui + vj
6  9  -1  -10 
 5  8  13  15
  4 7   1 14

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

204
 7  19 
 -8  -7
  3 -7

Optimality test
dij < 0 i.e. d22 = -8 is most negative
So x22 is entering the basis

Construction of loop and allocation of unknown quantity Ө

min(5-Ө, 10-Ө) = 5 which gives Ө = 5. Therefore x21 is outgoing as it becomes zero.

25(1) 45(3)
5(5) 50(2)
85(10) 5(12)

Minimum transportation cost is 25 (1) + 45 (3) + 5 (5) + 50 (2) + 85 (10) + 5 (12) = Rs.
1195

IV Iteration

Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

205
 ui
 (1)  (3) u1= -11
 (5)  (2) u2 = -7
 (10)  (12) u3 = 0
vj v1 = 10 v2 = 12 v3 = 9 v4 = 14

Calculation of cost differences for non-basic cells dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

cij ui + vj
6  9  -1  -2 
11   8 3   7
  4 7   9 14

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
7  11 
8   1
  -5 -7

Optimality test
dij < 0 i.e. d34 = -7 is most negative
So x34 is entering the basis

Construction of loop and allocation of unknown quantity Ө

206
min(5-Ө, 45-Ө) = 5 which gives Ө = 5. Therefore x32 is outgoing as it becomes zero.

30(1) 40(3)
5(5) 50(2)
85(10) 5(7)

Minimum transportation cost is 30 (1) + 40 (3) + 5 (5) + 50 (2) + 85 (10) + 5 (7) = Rs.
1160

V Iteration

Calculation of ui and vj : - ui + vj = cij

ui
 (1)  (3) u1= -4
 (5)  (2) u2 = 0
 (10)  (7) u3 = 0
vj v1 = 10 v2 = 5 v3 = 2 v4 = 7

Calculation of cost differences for non-basic cells dij = cij – ( ui + vj )

cij ui + vj
6  9  6  -2 
11   8 10   7
 12 4   5 2 

dij = cij – ( ui + vj )
0  11 
1   1

207
  7 2 
Since dij > 0, an optimal solution is obtained with minimal cost Rs.1160. Further more d11
= 0 which indicates that alternative optimal solution also exists.
Exercise

1. Determine the optimal solution of the given transportation problem

To Supply
2 3 11 7 6
1 0 6 1 1
From
5 8 15 10 10
Demand 7 5 3 2 17

[Ans. x12 = 5, x13 = 1, x24 = 1, x31 = 7, x33 = 2, x34 = 1 Min cost = Rs 102]

2. Using North-West Corner rule for initial basic feasible solution, obtain an
optimum basic feasible solution to the following problem

To Available
7 3 4 2
From 2 1 3 3
3 4 6 5
Demand 4 1 5 10

[Ans. x13 = 2, x22 = 1, x23 = 2, x31 = 4, x33 = 1 Min cost = Rs 33]

3. Determine the optimal solution of the given transportation problem

To Supply
10 7 3 6 3

208
 From 1 6 7 3 5
7 4 5 3 7
Demand 3 2 6 4
[Ans. x13 = 3, x21 = 3, x24 = 2, x32 = 2, x33 = 3, x34 = 2, Min cost = Rs 47]

Module 5
Unit 1
1.1 Introduction to Assignment Problem
1.2 Algorithm for Assignment Problem
1.3 Worked Examples
1.4 Unbalanced Assignment Problem
1.5 Maximal Assignment Problem

1.1 Introduction to Assignment Problem

In assignment problems, the objective is to assign a number of jobs to the equal number
of persons at a minimum cost of maximum profit.

Suppose there are ‘n’ jobs to be performed and ‘n’ persons are available for doing these
jobs. Assume each person can do each job at a time with a varying degree of efficiency.
Let cij be the cost of ith person assigned to jth job. Then the problem is to find an
assignment so that the total cost for performing all jobs is minimum. Such problems are
known as assignment problems.

These problems may consist of assigning men to offices, classes to the rooms or
problems to the research team etc.

Mathematical formulation
Cost matrix: cij= c11 c12 c13 … c1n
c21 c22 c23 … c2n
.
209
 .

cn1 cn2 cn3 … cnn

Subject to restrictions of the form

Where xij denotes that jth job is to be assigned to the ith person.

This special structure of assignment problem allows a more convenient method of

solution in comparison to simplex method.

1.2 Algorithm for Assignment Problem (Hungarian Method)

Step 1
Subtract the minimum of each row of the effectiveness matrix, from all the elements of
the respective rows (Row reduced matrix).

Step 2
Further modify the resulting matrix by subtracting the minimum element of each column
from all the elements of the respective columns. Thus first modified matrix is obtained.

Step 3

210
Draw the minimum number of horizontal and vertical lines to cover all the zeroes in the
resulting matrix. Let the minimum number of lines be N. Now there may be two
possibilities
 If N = n, the number of rows (columns) of the given matrix then an optimal
assignment can be made. So make the zero assignment to get the required
solution.
 If N < n then proceed to step 4
Step 4
Determine the smallest element in the matrix, not covered by N lines. Subtract this
minimum element from all uncovered elements and add the same element at the
intersection of horizontal and vertical lines. Thus the second modified matrix is obtained.

Step 5
Repeat step 3 and step 4 until minimum number of lines become equal to number of rows
(columns) of the given matrix i.e. N = n.

Step 6
To make zero assignment - examine the rows successively until a row-wise exactly single
zero is found; mark this zero by ‘1’‘to make the assignment. Then, mark a ‘X’ over all
zeroes if lying in the column of the marked zero, showing that they cannot be considered
for further assignment. Continue in this manner until all the rows have been examined.
Repeat the same procedure for the columns also.

Step 7
Repeat the step 6 successively until one of the following situations arise
 If no unmarked zero is left, then process ends
 If there lies more than one of the unmarked zeroes in any column or row, then
mark ‘1’‘one of the unmarked zeroes arbitrarily and mark a cross in the cells of
remaining zeroes in its row and column. Repeat the process until no unmarked
zero is left in the matrix.

211
Step 8
Exactly one marked zero in each row and each column of the matrix is obtained. The
assignment corresponding to these marked zeroes will give the optimal assignment.

1.3 Worked Examples

Example 1

A department head has four subordinates and four tasks have to be performed.
Subordinates differ in efficiency and tasks differ in their intrinsic difficulty. Time each
man would take to perform each task is given in the effectiveness matrix. How the tasks
should be allocated to each person so as to minimize the total man-hours?

Subordinates
I II III IV
Tasks A 8 26 17 11
B 13 28 4 26
C 38 19 18 15
D 19 26 24 10

Solution

Row Reduced Matrix

0 18 9 3
9 24 0 22
23 4 3 0
9 16 14 0

I Modified Matrix

212
N = 4, n = 4
Since N = n, we move on to zero assignment

Zero assignment

Total man-hours = 8 + 4 + 19 + 10 = 41 hours

Example 2
A car hire company has one car at each of five depots a, b, c, d and e. a customer requires
a car in each town namely A, B, C, D and E. Distance (kms) between depots (origins) and
towns (destinations) are given in the following distance matrix

a b c d e
A 160 130 175 190 200
B 135 120 130 160 175
C 140 110 155 170 185
D 50 50 80 80 110
E 55 35 70 80 105

213
Solution

Row Reduced Matrix

30 0 45 60 70
15 0 10 40 55
30 0 45 60 75
0 0 30 30 60
20 0 35 45 70

I Modified Matrix

N < n i.e. 3 < 5, so move to next modified matrix

II Modified Matrix

N = 5, n = 5
Since N = n, we move on to zero assignment
Zero assignment

214
Minimum distance travelled = 200 + 130 + 110 + 50 + 80 = 570 kms

Example 3
Solve the assignment problem whose effectiveness matrix is given in the table

1 2 3 4
A 49 60 45 61
B 55 63 45 69
C 52 62 49 68
D 55 64 48 66

Solution

Row-Reduced Matrix
4 15 0 16
10 18 0 24
3 13 0 19
7 16 0 18

I Modified Matrix

215
N < n i.e 3 < 4, so II modified matrix

II Modified Matrix

N < n i.e 3 < 4

III Modified matrix

Since N = n, we move on to zero assignment

Zero assignment

Multiple optimal assignments exists

Solution - I

216
Total cost = 49 + 45 + 62 + 66 = 222 units

Solution – II

Minimum cost = 61 + 45 + 52 + 64 = 222 units

Example 4
Certain equipment needs 5 repair jobs which have to be assigned to 5 machines. The
estimated time (in hours) that a mechanic requires to complete the repair job is given in
the table. Assuming that each mechanic can be assigned only one job, determine the
minimum time assignment.

J1 J2 J3 J4 J5
M1 7 5 9 8 11
M2 9 12 7 11 10
M3 8 5 4 6 9
M4 7 3 6 9 5
M5 4 6 7 5 11

Solution

Row Reduced Matrix

217
 2 0 4 3 6
2 5 0 4 3
4 1 0 2 5
4 0 3 6 2
0 2 3 1 7

I Modified Matrix

N<n

II Modified Matrix

N=n

Zero assignment

Minimum time = 5 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 = 27 hours

218
1.4 Unbalanced Assignment Problems

If the number of rows and columns are not equal then such type of problems are called as
unbalanced assignment problems.

Example 1
A company has 4 machines on which to do 3 jobs. Each job can be assigned to one and
only one machine. The cost of each job on each machine is given in the following table

Machines
W X Y Z
A 18 24 28 32
Jobs
B 8 13 17 19
C 10 15 19 22

Solution

18 24 28 32
8 13 17 19
10 15 19 22
0 0 0 0

Row Reduced matrix

219
 0 6 10 14
0 5 9 11
0 5 9 12
0 0 0 0

I Modified Matrix

N < n i.e. 2 < 4

II Modified Matrix

N < n i.e. 3 < 4

III Modified Matrix

N=n

Zero assignment

220
Multiple assignments exists

Solution -I

Minimum cost = 18 + 13 + 19 = Rs 50

Solution -II

Minimum cost = 18 + 17 + 15 = Rs 50

Example 2
Solve the assignment problem whose effectiveness matrix is given in the table

R1 R2 R3 R4
C1 9 14 19 15
C2 7 17 20 19
C3 9 18 21 18
C4 10 12 18 19
221
 C5 10 15 21 16
Solution

9 14 19 15 0
7 17 20 19 0
9 18 21 18 0
10 12 18 19 0
10 15 21 16 0

Row Reduced Matrix

9 14 19 15 0
7 17 20 19 0
9 18 21 18 0
10 12 18 19 0
10 15 21 16 0

I Modified Matrix

N < n i.e. 4 < 5

II Modified Matrix

222
N < n i.e. 4 < 5

III Modified Matrix

N=n

Zero assignment

Minimum cost = 19 + 7 + 12 + 16 = 54 units

1.5 Maximal Assignment Problem

Example 1

223
A company has 5 jobs to be done. The following matrix shows the return in terms of
rupees on assigning ith ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ) machine to the jth job ( j = A, B, C, D, E ).
Assign the five jobs to the five machines so as to maximize the total expected profit.

Jobs
A B C D E
1 5 11 10 12 4
2 2 4 6 3 5
Machines
3 3 12 5 14 6
4 6 14 4 11 7
5 7 9 8 12 5

Solution

Subtract all the elements from the highest element

Highest element = 14

9 3 4 2 10
12 10 8 11 9
11 2 9 0 8
8 0 10 3 7
7 5 6 2 9

Row Reduced matrix

7 1 2 0 8
4 2 0 3 1
11 2 9 0 8

224
 8 0 10 3 7
5 3 4 0 7

I Modified Matrix

N < n i.e. 3 < 5

II Modified Matrix

N < n i.e. 4 < 5

III Modified Matrix

N=n

Zero assignment

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Optimal assignment 1 – C 2 – E 3 – D 4 – B 5 – A
Maximum profit = 10 + 5 + 14 + 14 + 7 = Rs. 50

Exercise

What is assignment problem? Give any two areas of its applications

Find the optimal solution for the assignment problem with the following cost matrix

I II III IV
A 5 3 1 8
B 7 9 2 6
C 6 4 5 7

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 D 5 7 7 6

[Ans. A - III, B - IV, C - II, D – I, Min cost = Rs.16]

Solve the following assignment problem

1 2 3 4
A 10 12 19 11
B 5 10 7 8
C 12 14 13 11
D 8 15 11 9

[Ans. A - 2, B - 3, C - 4, D – 1, Min cost = Rs.38]

The jobs A, B, C are to be assigned to three machines X, Y, Z. The processing costs (Rs.)
are as given in the matrix below. Find the allocation which will minimize the overall
processing cost.
X Y Z
A 19 28 31
B 11 17 16
C 12 15 13

[Ans. A – X, B - Y, C – Z]
A company is faced with the problem of assigning 4 machines to 6 different jobs (one
machine to one job only).the profits are estimated as follows

A B C D
1 3 6 2 6
2 7 1 4 4
3 3 8 5 8
4 6 4 3 7

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 5 5 2 4 3
6 5 7 6 4

[Ans. 2 - A, 3 - B, 4 - D, 6 – C, Max profit = Rs.28]

Unit 2

2.1 Introduction to Game Theory

2.2 Properties of a Game
2.3 Characteristics of Game Theory
2.4 Classification of Games
2.5 Limitations of Game Theory

228
2.5 Solving Two-Person and Zero-Sum Game

2.1 Introduction to Game Theory

Game theory is a distinct and interdisciplinary approach to the study of human behavior.
The disciplines most involved in game theory are mathematics, economics and the other
social and behavioral sciences. Game theory (like computational theory and so many
other contributions) was founded by the great mathematician John von Neumann.

Game theory is a type of decision theory in which one’s choice of action is determined
after taking into account all possible alternatives available to an opponent playing the
same game, rather than just by the possibilities of several outcome results. Game theory
does not insist on how a game should be played but tells the procedure and principles by
which action should be selected. Thus it is a decision theory useful in competitive
situations.

Game is defined as an activity between two or more persons according to a set of rules at
the end of which each person receives some benefit or suffers loss. The set of rules
defines the game. Going through the set of rules once by the participants defines a play.

A Scientific Metaphor

Since the work of John von Neumann, "games" have been a scientific metaphor for a
much wider range of human interactions in which the outcomes depend on the interactive
strategies of two or more persons, who have opposed or at best mixed motives. Among
the issues discussed in game theory are

1) What does it mean to choose strategies "rationally" when outcomes depend on the
strategies chosen by others and when information is incomplete?

229
2) In "games" that allow mutual gain (or mutual loss) is it "rational" to cooperate to
realize the mutual gain (or avoid the mutual loss) or is it "rational" to act aggressively in
seeking individual gain regardless of mutual gain or loss?

3) If the answers to 2) are "sometimes," in what circumstances is aggression rational and

in what circumstances is cooperation rational?

4) In particular, do ongoing relationships differ from one-off encounters in this

connection?

5) Can moral rules of cooperation emerge spontaneously from the interactions of rational
egoists?

6) How does real human behavior correspond to "rational" behavior in these cases?

7) If it differs, in what direction? Are people more cooperative than would be "rational?"
More aggressive? Both?

Thus, among the "games" studied by game theory are

 Bankruptcy
 Barbarians at the Gate
 Battle of the Networks
 Caveat Emptor
 Conscription
 Coordination
 Escape and Evasion
 Frogs Call for Mates
 Hawk versus Dove
 Mutually Assured Destruction
 Majority Rule
 Market Niche
 Mutual Defense
230
  Prisoner's Dilemma
 Subsidized Small Business
 Tragedy of the Commons
 Ultimatum
 Video System Coordination

Why Do Economists Study Games?

• Games are a convenient way in which to model the strategic interactions among
economic agents.
• Many economic issues involve strategic interaction.
– Behavior in imperfectly competitive markets, e.g. Coca-Cola versus Pepsi.
– Behavior in auctions, e.g. Investment banks bidding on U.S. Treasury
bills.
– Behavior in economic negotiations, e.g. trade.
• Game theory is not limited to Economics

2.2 Properties of a Game

1. There are finite numbers of competitors called ‘players’

2. Each player has a finite number of possible courses of action called ‘strategies’
3. All the strategies and their effects are known to the players but player does not
know which strategy is to be chosen.
4. A game is played when each player chooses one of his strategies. The strategies
are assumed to be made simultaneously with an outcome such that no player
knows his opponents strategy until he decides his own strategy.
5. The game is a combination of the strategies and in certain units which determines
the gain or loss.
6. The figures shown as the outcomes of strategies in a matrix form are called ‘pay-
off matrix’.

231
 7. The player playing the game always tries to choose the best course of action
which results in optimal pay off called ‘optimal strategy’.
8. The expected pay off when all the players of the game follow their optimal
strategies is known as ‘value of the game’. The main objective of a problem of a
game is to find the value of the game.
9. The game is said to be ‘fair’ game if the value of the game is zero otherwise it s
known as ‘unfair’.

2.3 Characteristics of Game Theory

1. Competitive game
A competitive situation is called a competitive game if it has the following four
properties
1. There are finite number of competitors such that n ≥ 2. In case n = 2, it is called a
two-person game and in case n > 2, it is referred as n-person game.
2. Each player has a list of finite number of possible activities.
3. A play is said to occur when each player chooses one of his activities. The choices
are assumed to be made simultaneously i.e. no player knows the choice of the
other until he has decided on his own.
4. Every combination of activities determines an outcome which results in a gain of
payments to each player, provided each player is playing uncompromisingly to
get as much as possible. Negative gain implies the loss of same amount.

2. Strategy
The strategy of a player is the predetermined rule by which player decides his course of
action from his own list during the game. The two types of strategy are
1. Pure strategy
2. Mixed strategy

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 Pure Strategy
If a player knows exactly what the other player is going to do, a deterministic
situation is obtained and objective function is to maximize the gain. Therefore, the
pure strategy is a decision rule always to select a particular course of action.

Mixed Strategy
If a player is guessing as to which activity is to be selected by the other on any
particular occasion, a probabilistic situation is obtained and objective function is
to maximize the expected gain. Thus the mixed strategy is a selection among pure
strategies with fixed probabilities.

Repeated Game Strategies

• In repeated games, the sequential nature of the relationship allows for the
adoption of strategies that are contingent on the actions chosen in previous plays
of the game.
• Most contingent strategies are of the type known as "trigger" strategies.
• Example trigger strategies
– In prisoners' dilemma: Initially play doesn’t confess. If your opponent
plays Confess, then play Confess in the next round. If your opponent plays
don’t confess, then play doesn’t confess in the next round. This is known
as the "tit for tat" strategy.
– In the investment game, if you are the sender: Initially play Send. Play
Send as long as the receiver plays Return. If the receiver plays keep, never
play Send again. This is known as the "grim trigger" strategy.

3. Number of persons

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A game is called ‘n’ person game if the number of persons playing is ‘n’. The person
means an individual or a group aiming at a particular objective.

Two-person, zero-sum game

A game with only two players (player A and player B) is called a ‘two-person,
zero-sum game’, if the losses of one player are equivalent to the gains of the other
so that the sum of their net gains is zero.
Two-person, zero-sum games are also called rectangular games as these are
usually represented by a payoff matrix in a rectangular form.

4. Number of activities
The activities may be finite or infinite.

5. Payoff
The quantitative measure of satisfaction a person gets at the end of each play is called a
payoff

6. Payoff matrix
Suppose the player A has ‘m’ activities and the player B has ‘n’ activities. Then a payoff
matrix can be formed by adopting the following rules
 Row designations for each matrix are the activities available to player A
 Column designations for each matrix are the activities available to player B
 Cell entry Vij is the payment to player A in A’s payoff matrix when A chooses the
activity i and B chooses the activity j.
 With a zero-sum, two-person game, the cell entry in the player B’s payoff matrix
will be negative of the corresponding cell entry Vij in the player A’s payoff matrix
so that sum of payoff matrices for player A and player B is ultimately zero.

234
7. Value of the game
Value of the game is the maximum guaranteed game to player A (maximizing player) if
both the players uses their best strategies. It is generally denoted by ‘V’ and it is unique.

2.4 Classification of Games

Simultaneous v. Sequential Move Games

• Games where players choose actions simultaneously are simultaneous move

games.
– Examples: Prisoners' Dilemma, Sealed-Bid Auctions.
– Must anticipate what your opponent will do right now, recognizing that
your opponent is doing the same.
• Games where players choose actions in a particular sequence are sequential move
games.
– Examples: Chess, Bargaining/Negotiations.
– Must look ahead in order to know what action to choose now.
– Many sequential move games have deadlines/ time limits on moves.
• Many strategic situations involve both sequential and simultaneous moves.

One-Shot versus Repeated Games

• One-shot: play of the game occurs once.

– Players likely to not know much about one another.
– Example - tipping on your vacation
• Repeated: play of the game is repeated with the same players.
– Indefinitely versus finitely repeated games
– Reputational concerns matter; opportunities for cooperative behavior may
arise.
• Advise: If you plan to pursue an aggressive strategy, ask yourself whether you are
in a one-shot or in a repeated game. If a repeated game, think again.

235
Generally games are classified into
 Pure strategy games
 Mixed strategy games

The method for solving these two types varies. By solving a game, we need to find best
strategies for both the players and also to find the value of the game.

Pure strategy games can be solved by saddle point method.

The different methods for solving a mixed strategy game are

 Analytical method
 Graphical method
 Dominance rule
 Simplex method

2.5 Limitations of game theory

The major limitations are
 The assumption that the players have the knowledge about their own payoffs and
others is rather unrealistic.
 As the number of players increase in the game, the analysis of the gaming
strategies become increasingly complex and difficult.
 The assumptions of maximin and minimax show that the players are risk-averse
and have complete knowledge of the strategies. It doesn’t seem practical.
 Rather than each player in an oligopoly situation working under uncertain
conditions, the players will allow each other to share the secrets of business in
order to work out collusion. Then the mixed strategies are not very useful.

2.6 Solving Two-Person and Zero-Sum Game

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Two-person zero-sum games may be deterministic or probabilistic. The deterministic
games will have saddle points and pure strategies exist in such games. In contrast, the
probabilistic games will have no saddle points and mixed strategies are taken with the
help of probabilities.

Definition of saddle point

A saddle point of a matrix is the position of such an element in the payoff matrix, which
is minimum in its row and the maximum in its column.

Procedure to find the saddle point

 Select the minimum element of each row of the payoff matrix and mark them with
circles.
 Select the maximum element of each column of the payoff matrix and mark them
with squares.
 If their appears an element in the payoff matrix with a circle and a square together
then that position is called saddle point and the element is the value of the game.

Solution of games with saddle point

To obtain a solution of a game with a saddle point, it is feasible to find out
 Best strategy for player A
 Best strategy for player B
 The value of the game

The best strategies for player A and B will be those which correspond to the row and
column respectively through the saddle point.
Examples
Solve the payoff matrix
1.
Player B
Player A
B1 B2 B3

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 A1 2 4 5
A2 10 7 9
A3 4 5 6

Solution

Strategy of player A – A2
Strategy of player B – B2
Value of the game = 7

2.

Player B
I II III IV V
I -2 0 0 5 3
Player A II 3 2 1 2 2
III -4 -3 0 -2 6
IV 5 3 -4 2 -6

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Solution

Strategy of player A – II
Strategy of player B - III
Value of the game = 1

3..

B1 B2 B3 B4
A1 1 7 3 4
A2 5 6 4 5
A3 7 2 0 3

Solution

239
Strategy of player A – A2
Strategy of player B – B3
Value of the game = 4

4.

B’s Strategy
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
A1 8 10 -3 -8 -12
A’s A2 3 6 0 6 12
Strategy A3 7 5 -2 -8 17
A4 -11 12 -10 10 20
A5 -7 0 0 6 2

Solution

240
Strategy of player A – A2
Strategy of player B – B3
Value of the game = 0

5.

Solution

241
Value of the game = 4

242
Exercise
1. Explain the concept of game theory.
2. What is a rectangular game?
3. What is a saddle point?
4. Define pure and mixed strategy in a game.
5. What are the characteristics of game theory?
6. Explain two-person zero-sum game giving suitable examples.
7. What are the limitations of game theory?
8. Explain the following terms
a. Competitive Game
b. Strategy
c. Value of the game
d. Pay-off-matrix
e. Optimal strategy
9. Explain Maximin and Minimax used in game theory
10. For the game with payoff matrix

Determine the best strategies for player A and B and also the value of the game.

243
Unit 3
3.1 Games with Mixed Strategies
3.1.1 Analytical Method
3.1.2 Graphical Method
3.1.3 Simplex Method

3.1 Games with Mixed Strategies

In certain cases, no pure strategy solutions exist for the game. In other words, saddle
point does not exist. In all such game, both players may adopt an optimal blend of the
strategies called Mixed Strategy to find a saddle point. The optimal mix for each player
may be determined by assigning each strategy a probability of it being chosen. Thus these
mixed strategies are probabilistic combinations of available better strategies and these
games hence called Probabilistic games.

The probabilistic mixed strategy games without saddle points are commonly solved by
any of the following methods

Sl.
Method Applicable to
No.
1 Analytical Method 2x2 games
2 Graphical Method 2x2, mx2 and 2xn games
3 Simplex Method 2x2, mx2, 2xn and mxn games

3.1.1 Analytical Method

A 2 x 2 payoff matrix where there is no saddle point can be solved by analytical method.
Given the matrix

244
Value of the game is

With the coordinates

Alternative procedure to solve the strategy

 Find the difference of two numbers in column 1 and enter the resultant under
column 2. Neglect the negative sign if it occurs.
 Find the difference of two numbers in column 2 and enter the resultant under
column 1. Neglect the negative sign if it occurs.
 Repeat the same procedure for the two rows.

1. Solve

Solution
It is a 2 x 2 matrix and no saddle point exists. We can solve by analytical method

245
V = 17 / 5
SA = (x1, x2) = (1/5, 4 /5)
SB = (y1, y2) = (3/5, 2 /5)

2. Solve the given matrix

Solution

V=-1/4
SA = (x1, x2) = (1/4, 3 /4)
SB = (y1, y2) = (1/4, 3 /4)

3.1.2 Graphical method

The graphical method is used to solve the games whose payoff matrix has
246
  Two rows and n columns (2 x n)
 m rows and two columns (m x 2)

Algorithm for solving 2 x n matrix games

 Draw two vertical axes 1 unit apart. The two lines are x1 = 0, x1 = 1
 Take the points of the first row in the payoff matrix on the vertical line x1 = 1 and
the points of the second row in the payoff matrix on the vertical line x1 = 0.
 The point a1j on axis x1 = 1 is then joined to the point a2j on the axis x1 = 0 to give
a straight line. Draw ‘n’ straight lines for j=1, 2… n and determine the highest
point of the lower envelope obtained. This will be the maximin point.
 The two or more lines passing through the maximin point determines the required
2 x 2 payoff matrix. This in turn gives the optimum solution by making use of
analytical method.

Example 1
Solve by graphical method

Solution

247
V = 66/13
SA = (4/13, 9 /13)
SB = (0, 10/13, 3 /13)

Example 2

Solve by graphical method

Solution

248
V = 8/7
SA = (3/7, 4 /7)
SB = (2/7, 0, 5 /7)

Algorithm for solving m x 2 matrix games

 Draw two vertical axes 1 unit apart. The two lines are x1 =0, x1 = 1
 Take the points of the first row in the payoff matrix on the vertical line x1 = 1 and
the points of the second row in the payoff matrix on the vertical line x1 = 0.
 The point a1j on axis x1 = 1 is then joined to the point a2j on the axis x1 = 0 to give
a straight line. Draw ‘n’ straight lines for j=1, 2… n and determine the lowest
point of the upper envelope obtained. This will be the minimax point.

249
  The two or more lines passing through the minimax point determines the required
2 x 2 payoff matrix. This in turn gives the optimum solution by making use of
analytical method.

Example 1
Solve by graphical method

Solution

250
V = 3/9 = 1/3
SA = (0, 5 /9, 4/9, 0)
SB = (3/9, 6 /9)

Example 2

Solve by graphical method

Solution

251
V = 73/17
SA = (0, 16/17, 1/17, 0, 0)
SB = (5/17, 12 /17)

252
3.1.3 Simplex Method

Let us consider the 3 x 3 matrix

As per the assumptions, A always attempts to choose the set of strategies with the non-
zero probabilities say p1, p2, p3 where p1 + p2 + p3 = 1 that maximizes his minimum
expected gain.

Similarly B would choose the set of strategies with the non-zero probabilities say q1, q2,
q3 where q1 + q2 + q3 = 1 that minimizes his maximum expected loss.

Step 1
Find the minimax and maximin value from the given matrix

Step 2
The objective of A is to maximize the value, which is equivalent to minimizing the value
1/V. The LPP is written as
Min 1/V = p1/V + p2/V + p3/V
and constraints ≥ 1
It is written as
Min 1/V = x1 + x2 + x3
and constraints ≥ 1

Similarly for B, we get the LPP as the dual of the above LPP
Max 1/V = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
and constraints ≤ 1
253
 Where Y1 = q1/V, Y2 = q2/V, Y3 = q3/V

Step 3
Solve the LPP by using simplex table and obtain the best strategy for the players

Example 1
Solve by Simplex method

Solution

We can infer that 2 ≤ V ≤ 3. Hence it can be concluded that the value of the game lies
between 2 and 3 and the V > 0.

LPP
Max 1/V = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
Subject to
3Y1 – 2Y2 + 4Y3 ≤ 1
-1Y1 + 4Y2 + 2Y3 ≤ 1
2Y1 + 2Y2 + 6Y3 ≤ 1
Y1, Y2, Y3 ≥ 0
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SLPP
Max 1/V = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
Subject to
3Y1 – 2Y2 + 4Y3 + s1 = 1
-1Y1 + 4Y2 + 2Y3 + s2 =1
2Y1 + 2Y2 + 6Y3 + s3 = 1
Y1, Y2, Y3, s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0

Cj→ 1 1 1 0 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB YB Y1 Y2 Y3 S1 S2 S3
Variables YB / YK
S1 0 1 3 -2 4 1 0 0 1/3→
S2 0 1 -1 4 2 0 1 0 -
S3 0 1 2 2 6 0 0 1 1/2
↑
1/V = 0 -1 -1 -1 0 0 0
Y1 1 1/3 1 -2/3 4/3 1/3 0 0 -
S2 0 4/3 0 10/3 10/3 1/3 1 0 2/5
S3 0 1/3 0 10/3 10/3 -2/3 0 1 1/10→
↑
1/V =1/3 0 -5/3 1/3 1/3 0 0
Y1 1 2/5 1 0 2 1/5 0 1/5
S2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 -1
Y2 1 1/10 0 1 1 -1/5 0 3/10

1/V = 1/2 0 0 2 0 0 1/2

1/V =1/2
V=2

255
y1 = 2/5 * 2 = 4/5
y2 = 1/10 * 2 = 1/5
y3 = 0 * 2 = 0

x1 = 0*2 = 0
x2 = 0*2 = 0
x3 = 1/2*2 = 1

SA = (0, 0, 1)
SB = (4/5, 1/5, 0)
Value = 2

Example 2

Solution

Maximin = -1
Minimax = 1

We can infer that -1 ≤ V ≤ 1

256
Since maximin value is -1, it is possible that value of the game may be negative or zero,
thus the constant ‘C’ is added to all the elements of matrix which is at least equal to the
negative of maximin.

Let C = 1, add this value to all the elements of the matrix. The resultant matrix is

LPP
Max 1/V = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
Subject to
2Y1 + 0Y2 + 0Y3 ≤ 1
0Y1 + 0Y2 + 4Y3 ≤ 1
0Y1 + 3Y2 + 0Y3 ≤ 1
Y1, Y2, Y3 ≥ 0

SLPP
Max 1/V = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
Subject to
2Y1 + 0Y2 + 0Y3 + s1 = 1
0Y1 + 0Y2 + 4Y3 + s2 = 1
0Y1 + 3Y2 + 0Y3 + s3 = 1
Y1, Y2, Y3, s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0

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 Cj→ 1 1 1 0 0 0
Basic Min Ratio
CB YB Y1 Y2 Y3 S1 S2 S3
Variables YB / YK
S1 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1/2→
S2 0 1 0 0 4 0 1 0 -
S3 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 1 -
↑
1/V =0 -1 -1 -1 0 0 0
Y1 1 1/2 1 0 0 1/2 0 0 -
S2 0 1 0 0 4 0 1 0 -
S3 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 1 1/3→
↑
1/V =1/2 0 -1 -1 1/2 0 0
Y1 1 1/2 1 0 0 1/2 0 0 -
S2 0 1 0 0 4 0 1 0 1/4→
Y2 1 1/3 0 1 0 0 0 1/3 -
↑
1/V = 5/6 0 0 -1 1/2 0 1/3
Y1 1 1/2 1 0 0 1/2 0 0
Y3 1 1/4 0 0 1 0 1/4 0
Y2 1 1/3 0 1 0 0 0 1/3

1/V =13/12 0 0 0 1/2 1/4 1/3

1/V =13/12
V = 12/13

y1 = 1/2 * 12/13 = 6/13

258
y2 = 1/3 * 12/13 = 4/13
y3 = 1/4 * 12/13 = 3/13

x1 = 1/2*12/13 = 6/13
x2 = 1/4 * 12/13 = 3/13
x3 = 1/3 * 12/13 = 4/13

SA = (6/13, 3/13, 4/13)

SB = (6/13, 4/13, 3/13)

Value = 12/13 – C =12/13 -1 = -1/13

Exercise

1. Explain the method of solving a problem with mixed strategy using algebraic method.

2. Solve the following game graphically

1.

2.

259
3. Use simplex to solve the following
1.

2.

4. Two companies A and B are competing for the same product. Their different strategies
are given in the following pay off matrix

Module 6

Unit 1
1.1 Shortest Route Problem
1.2 Minimal Spanning Tree Problem

260
1.3 Maximal Flow Problem

1.1 Shortest Route Problem

The criterion of this method is to find the shortest distance between two nodes with
minimal cost.

Example 1
Find the shortest path

Solution
Solved
nodes Closest
nth
directly connected Total distance Minimum Last
n nearest
connected to unsolved involved distance connection
node
unsolved node
nodes
1 a c 7 c 7 a-c
a b 13 b 13 a-b
2
c e 7+6 =13 e 13 c-e
b d 13+5 =18 d 18 b-d
3 c f 7+11 =18 f 18 c-f
e h 13+8 =21 - - -
4 e h 13+8 =21 h 21 e-h
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 d g 18+9 =27 - - -
f h 18+5 =23 - - -
e g 13+10 =23 g 23 e-g
5 h i 21+10 =31 - - -
d g 18+9 =27 - - -
g i 23+6 =29 i 29 g-i
6
h i 21+10 =31 - - -

The shortest path from a to i is a → c →e →g → i

Distance = 7 + 6 + 10 + 6 = 29 units

Example 2

262
Solution

Solved nodes
Closest
directly Total
connected nth nearest Minimum Last
n connected to distance
unsolved node distance connection
unsolved involved
node
nodes
1 1 3 1 3 1 1-3
1 2 5 - - -
2
3 2 1+2 =3 2 3 3-2
2 5 3+1 =4 5 4 2-5
3
3 4 1+6 =7 - - -
2 6 3+6 =9 - - -
4 3 4 1+6 =7 4 7 3-4
5 4 4+3 =7 4 7 5-4
2 6 3+6 =9 6 9 2-6
5 4 6 7+4 =11 - - -
5 6 4+5 =9 6 9 5-6
4 7 7+6 =13 - - -
6 5 7 4+9 =13 - - -
6 7 9+2 =11 7 11 6-7

The shortest path from 1 to 7 can be

263
1 →3 → 2 → 6 →7
Total distance is 11 units

1 → 3 → 2 →5 → 6 →7
Total distance = 11 units

1.2 Minimal Spanning Tree Problem

A tree is defined to be an undirected, acyclic and connected graph. A spanning tree is a

subgraph of G (undirected, connected graph), is a tree and contains all the vertices of G.
A minimum spanning tree is a spanning tree but has weights or lengths associated with
edges and the total weight is at the minimum.

264
Prim’s Algorithm
 It starts at any vertex (say A) in a graph and finds the least cost vertex (say B)
connected to the start vertex.
 Now either from A or B, it will find the next least costly vertex connection,
without creating cycle (say C)
 Now either from A, B or C find the next least costly vertex connection, without
creating a cycle and so on.
 Eventually all the vertices will be connected without any cycles and a minimum
spanning tree will be the result.

Example 1
Suppose it is desired to establish a cable communication network that links major cities,
which is shown in the figure. Determine how the cities are connected such that the total
cable mileage is minimized.

Solution

C = {LA} C' = {SE, DE, DA, EH, NY, DC}

C = {LA, SE} C' = {DE, DA, EH, NY, DC}

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C = {LA, SE, DE} C' = {DA, EH, NY, DC}
C = {LA, SE, DE, DA} C' = {EH, NY, DC}
C = {LA, SE, DE, DA, EH} C' = {NY, DC}
C = {LA, SE, DE, DA, EH, NY} C' = {DC}
C = {LA, SE, DE, DA, EH, NY, DC} C' = { }

The resultant network is

Thus the total cable mileage is 1100 + 1300 + 780 + 900 + 800 + 200 = 5080

Example 2
For the following graph obtain the minimum spanning tree. The numbers on the branches
represent the cost.

Solution

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C = {A} C' = {B, C, D, E, F, G}
C = {A, D} C' = {B, C, E, F, G}
C = {A, D, B} C' = {C, E, F, G}
C = {A, D, B, C} C' = {E, F, G}
C = {A, D, B, C, G} C' = {E, F}
C = {A, D, B, C, G, F} C' = {E}
C = {A, D, B, C, G, F, E} C' = { }

The resultant network is

Cost = 2 + 1 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 5 = 18 units

Example 3
Solve the minimum spanning problem for the given network. The numbers on the
branches represent in terms of miles.

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Solution

C = {1} C' = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

C = {1, 2} C' = {3, 4, 5, 6}
C = {1, 2, 5} C' = {3, 4, 6}
C = {1, 2, 5, 4} C' = {3, 6}
C = {1, 2, 5, 4, 6} C' = {3}
C = {1, 2, 5, 4, 6, 3} C' = {}

The resultant network is

1 + 4 + 5+ 3 + 3 = 16 miles

1.3 Maximal Flow Problem

Algorithm
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Step1
Find a path from source to sink that can accommodate a positive flow of material. If no
path exists go to step 5

Step2
Determine the maximum flow that can be shipped from this path and denote by ‘k’ units.

Step3
Decrease the direct capacity (the capacity in the direction of flow of k units) of each
branch of this path ‘k’ and increase the reverse capacity k1. Add ‘k’ units to the amount
delivered to sink.

Step4
Goto step1

Step5
The maximal flow is the amount of material delivered to the sink. The optimal shipping
schedule is determined by comparing the original network with the final network. Any
reduction in capacity signifies shipment.

Example 1
Consider the following network and determine the amount of flow between the networks.

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Solution

Iteration 1: 1 – 3 – 5

Iteration 2: 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5

270
Iteration 3: 1 – 4 – 5

Iteration 4: 1 – 2 – 5

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Iteration 5: 1 – 3 – 2 – 5

Maximum flow is 60 units. Therefore the network can be written as

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Example 2
Solve the maximal flow problem

Solution

Iteration 1: O – A – D – T

Iteration 2: O – B – E – T

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Iteration 3: O – A – B – D – T

Iteration 4: O – C – E – D – T

Iteration 5: O – C – E – T

274
Iteration 6: O – B – D – T

Therefore there are no more augmenting paths. So the current flow pattern is optimal.
The maximum flow is 13 units.

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Exercise
1. Find the shortest path

2. Solve the maximal flow problem

3. Explain prim’s algorithm

4. Solve the minimal spanning tree

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Unit 2
2.1 Introduction to CPM / PERT Techniques
2.2 Applications of CPM / PERT
2.3 Basic Steps in PERT / CPM
2.4 Frame work of PERT/CPM
2.5 Network Diagram Representation
2.6 Rules for Drawing Network Diagrams
2.7 Common Errors in Drawing Networks
2.8 Advantages and Disadvantages
2.9 Critical Path in Network Analysis

2.1 Introduction to CPM / PERT Techniques

CPM/PERT or Network Analysis as the technique is sometimes called, developed along

two parallel streams, one industrial and the other military.

CPM (Critical Path Method) was the discovery of M.R.Walker of E.I.Du Pont de
Nemours & Co. and J.E.Kelly of Remington Rand, circa 1957. The computation was
designed for the UNIVAC-I computer. The first test was made in 1958, when CPM was
applied to the construction of a new chemical plant. In March 1959, the method was
applied to maintenance shut-down at the Du Pont works in Louisville, Kentucky.
Unproductive time was reduced from 125 to 93 hours.

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PERT (Project Evaluation and Review Technique) was devised in 1958 for the
POLARIS missile program by the Program Evaluation Branch of the Special Projects
office of the U.S.Navy, helped by the Lockheed Missile Systems division and the
Consultant firm of Booz-Allen & Hamilton. The calculations were so arranged so that
they could be carried out on the IBM Naval Ordinance Research Computer (NORC) at
Dahlgren, Virginia.

The methods are essentially network-oriented techniques using the same principle.
PERT and CPM are basically time-oriented methods in the sense that they both lead to
determination of a time schedule for the project. The significant difference between two
approaches is that the time estimates for the different activities in CPM were assumed to
be deterministic while in PERT these are described probabilistically. These techniques
are referred as project scheduling techniques.

In CPM activities are shown as a network of precedence relationships using activity-on-

node network construction

– Single estimate of activity time

– Deterministic activity times

USED IN: Production management - for the jobs of repetitive in nature where the
activity time estimates can be predicted with considerable certainty due to the existence
of past experience.

In PERT activities are shown as a network of precedence relationships using activity-on-

arrow network construction

– Multiple time estimates

– Probabilistic activity times

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USED IN: Project management - for non-repetitive jobs (research and development
work), where the time and cost estimates tend to be quite uncertain. This technique uses
probabilistic time estimates.

Benefits of PERT/CPM

 Useful at many stages of project management

 Mathematically simple

 Give critical path and slack time

 Provide project documentation

 Useful in monitoring costs

Limitations of PERT/CPM

 Clearly defined, independent and stable activities

 Specified precedence relationships

 Over emphasis on critical paths

2.2 Applications of CPM / PERT

These methods have been applied to a wide variety of problems in industries and have
found acceptance even in government organizations. These include
 Construction of a dam or a canal system in a region
 Construction of a building or highway
 Maintenance or overhaul of airplanes or oil refinery
 Space flight
 Cost control of a project using PERT / COST
 Designing a prototype of a machine
 Development of supersonic planes
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2.3 Basic Steps in PERT / CPM

Project scheduling by PERT / CPM consists of four main steps

1. Planning
 The planning phase is started by splitting the total project in to small projects.
These smaller projects in turn are divided into activities and are analyzed by the
department or section.
 The relationship of each activity with respect to other activities are defined and
established and the corresponding responsibilities and the authority are also
stated.
 Thus the possibility of overlooking any task necessary for the completion of the
project is reduced substantially.

2. Scheduling
 The ultimate objective of the scheduling phase is to prepare a time chart showing
the start and finish times for each activity as well as its relationship to other
activities of the project.
 Moreover the schedule must pinpoint the critical path activities which require
special attention if the project is to be completed in time.
 For non-critical activities, the schedule must show the amount of slack or float
times which can be used advantageously when such activities are delayed or when
limited resources are to be utilized effectively.

3. Allocation of resources
 Allocation of resources is performed to achieve the desired objective. A resource
is a physical variable such as labour, finance, equipment and space which will
impose a limitation on time for the project.

280
  When resources are limited and conflicting, demands are made for the same type
of resources a systematic method for allocation of resources become essential.
 Resource allocation usually incurs a compromise and the choice of this
compromise depends on the judgment of managers.

4. Controlling
 The final phase in project management is controlling. Critical path methods
facilitate the application of the principle of management by expectation to identify
areas that are critical to the completion of the project.
 By having progress reports from time to time and updating the network
continuously, a better financial as well as technical control over the project is
exercised.
 Arrow diagrams and time charts are used for making periodic progress reports. If
required, a new course of action is determined for the remaining portion of the
project.

2.4 The Framework for PERT and CPM

Essentially, there are six steps which are common to both the techniques. The procedure
is listed below:

I. Define the Project and all of its significant activities or tasks. The Project (made

up of several tasks) should have only a single start activity and a single finish
activity.

II. Develop the relationships among the activities. Decide which activities must
precede and which must follow others.

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III. Draw the "Network" connecting all the activities. Each Activity should have
unique event numbers. Dummy arrows are used where required to avoid giving
the same numbering to two activities.

IV. Assign time and/or cost estimates to each activity

V. Compute the longest time path through the network. This is called the critical
path.

VI. Use the Network to help plan, schedule, and monitor and control the project.

The Key Concept used by CPM/PERT is that a small set of activities, which make up the
longest path through the activity network control the entire project. If these "critical"
activities could be identified and assigned to responsible persons, management resources
could be optimally used by concentrating on the few activities which determine the fate
of the entire project.

Non-critical activities can be replanned, rescheduled and resources for them can be
reallocated flexibly, without affecting the whole project.

Five useful questions to ask when preparing an activity network are:

 Is this a Start Activity?

 Is this a Finish Activity?
 What Activity Precedes this?
 What Activity Follows this?
 What Activity is Concurrent with this?

2.5 Network Diagram Representation

In a network representation of a project certain definitions are used

1. Activity
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Any individual operation which utilizes resources and has an end and a beginning is
called activity. An arrow is commonly used to represent an activity with its head
indicating the direction of progress in the project. These are classified into four categories
1. Predecessor activity – Activities that must be completed immediately prior to the
start of another activity are called predecessor activities.
2. Successor activity – Activities that cannot be started until one or more of other
activities are completed but immediately succeed them are called successor
activities.
3. Concurrent activity – Activities which can be accomplished concurrently are
known as concurrent activities. It may be noted that an activity can be a
predecessor or a successor to an event or it may be concurrent with one or more of
other activities.
4. Dummy activity – An activity which does not consume any kind of resource but
merely depicts the technological dependence is called a dummy activity.

The dummy activity is inserted in the network to clarify the activity pattern in the
following two situations
 To make activities with common starting and finishing points distinguishable
 To identify and maintain the proper precedence relationship between activities
that is not connected by events.
For example, consider a situation where A and B are concurrent activities. C is dependent
on A and D is dependent on A and B both. Such a situation can be handled by using a
dummy activity as shown in the figure.

2. Event

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An event represents a point in time signifying the completion of some activities and the
beginning of new ones. This is usually represented by a circle in a network which is also
called a node or connector.
The events are classified in to three categories
1. Merge event – When more than one activity comes and joins an event such an
event is known as merge event.
2. Burst event – When more than one activity leaves an event such an event is
known as burst event.
3. Merge and Burst event – An activity may be merge and burst event at the same
time as with respect to some activities it can be a merge event and with respect to
some other activities it may be a burst event.

3. Sequencing
The first prerequisite in the development of network is to maintain the precedence
relationships. In order to make a network, the following points should be taken into
considerations
 What job or jobs precede it?
 What job or jobs could run concurrently?
 What job or jobs follow it?
 What controls the start and finish of a job?
Since all further calculations are based on the network, it is necessary that a network be
drawn with full care.
2.6 Rules for Drawing Network Diagram

Rule 1
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Each activity is represented by one and only one arrow in the network

Rule 2
No two activities can be identified by the same end events

Rule 3
In order to ensure the correct precedence relationship in the arrow diagram, following
questions must be checked whenever any activity is added to the network
 What activity must be completed immediately before this activity can start?
 What activities must follow this activity?
 What activities must occur simultaneously with this activity?

In case of large network, it is essential that certain good habits be practiced to draw an
easy to follow network
 Try to avoid arrows which cross each other
 Use straight arrows
 Do not attempt to represent duration of activity by its arrow length
 Use arrows from left to right. Avoid mixing two directions, vertical and standing
arrows may be used if necessary.
 Use dummies freely in rough draft but final network should not have any
redundant dummies.

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  The network has only one entry point called start event and one point of
emergence called the end event.

2.7 Common Errors in Drawing Networks

The three types of errors are most commonly observed in drawing network diagrams

1. Dangling
To disconnect an activity before the completion of all activities in a network diagram is
known as dangling. As shown in the figure activities (5 – 10) and (6 – 7) are not the last
activities in the network. So the diagram is wrong and indicates the error of dangling

2. Looping or Cycling
Looping error is also known as cycling error in a network diagram. Drawing an endless
loop in a network is known as error of looping as shown in the following figure.

286
3. Redundancy
Unnecessarily inserting the dummy activity in network logic is known as the error of
redundancy as shown in the following diagram

2.8 Advantages and Disadvantages

PERT/CPM has the following advantages

 A PERT/CPM chart explicitly defines and makes visible dependencies

(precedence relationships) between the elements,

 PERT/CPM facilitates identification of the critical path and makes this visible,

 PERT/CPM facilitates identification of early start, late start, and slack for each
activity,

 PERT/CPM provides for potentially reduced project duration due to better

understanding of dependencies leading to improved overlapping of activities and
tasks where feasible.

PERT/CPM has the following disadvantages:

 There can be potentially hundreds or thousands of activities and individual

dependency relationships,

 The network charts tend to be large and unwieldy requiring several pages to print
and requiring special size paper,

 The lack of a timeframe on most PERT/CPM charts makes it harder to show

status although colours can help (e.g., specific colour for completed nodes),

287
  When the PERT/CPM charts become unwieldy, they are no longer used to
manage the project.

2.9 Critical Path in Network Analysis

Basic Scheduling Computations

The notations used are

(i, j) = Activity with tail event i and head event j
Ei = Earliest occurrence time of event i
Lj = Latest allowable occurrence time of event j
Dij = Estimated completion time of activity (i, j)
(Es)ij = Earliest starting time of activity (i, j)
(Ef)ij = Earliest finishing time of activity (i, j)
(Ls)ij = Latest starting time of activity (i, j)
(Lf)ij = Latest finishing time of activity (i, j)

The procedure is as follows

1. Determination of Earliest time (Ej): Forward Pass computation

 Step 1
The computation begins from the start node and move towards the end node. For
easiness, the forward pass computation starts by assuming the earliest occurrence
time of zero for the initial project event.

 Step 2
i. Earliest starting time of activity (i, j) is the earliest event time of the tail
end event i.e. (Es)ij = Ei

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 ii. Earliest finish time of activity (i, j) is the earliest starting time + the
activity time i.e. (Ef)ij = (Es)ij + Dij or (Ef)ij = Ei + Dij
iii. Earliest event time for event j is the maximum of the earliest finish times
of all activities ending in to that event i.e. Ej = max [(Ef)ij for all
immediate predecessor of (i, j)] or Ej =max [Ei + Dij]

2. Backward Pass computation (for latest allowable time)

 Step 1
For ending event assume E = L. Remember that all E’s have been computed by
forward pass computations.

 Step 2
Latest finish time for activity (i, j) is equal to the latest event time of event j i.e.
(Lf)ij = Lj

 Step 3
Latest starting time of activity (i, j) = the latest completion time of (i, j) – the
activity time or (Ls)ij =(Lf)ij - Dij or (Ls)ij = Lj - Dij

 Step 4
Latest event time for event ‘i’ is the minimum of the latest start time of all
activities originating from that event i.e. Li = min [(Ls)ij for all immediate
successor of (i, j)] = min [(Lf)ij - Dij] = min [Lj - Dij]

3. Determination of floats and slack times

There are three kinds of floats

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  Total float – The amount of time by which the completion of an activity could be
delayed beyond the earliest expected completion time without affecting the
overall project duration time.
Mathematically
(Tf)ij = (Latest start – Earliest start) for activity ( i – j)
(Tf)ij = (Ls)ij - (Es)ij or (Tf)ij = (Lj - Dij) - Ei

 Free float – The time by which the completion of an activity can be delayed
beyond the earliest finish time without affecting the earliest start of a subsequent
activity.
Mathematically
(Ff)ij = (Earliest time for event j – Earliest time for event i) – Activity time for ( i,
j)
(Ff)ij = (Ej - Ei) - Dij

 Independent float – The amount of time by which the start of an activity can be
delayed without effecting the earliest start time of any immediately following
activities, assuming that the preceding activity has finished at its latest finish time.
Mathematically
(If)ij = (Ej - Li) - Dij
The negative independent float is always taken as zero.

 Event slack - It is defined as the difference between the latest event and earliest
event times.
Mathematically
Head event slack = Lj – Ej, Tail event slack = Li - Ei

4. Determination of critical path

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 Critical event – The events with zero slack times are called critical events. In
other words the event i is said to be critical if Ei = Li

 Critical activity – The activities with zero total float are known as critical
activities. In other words an activity is said to be critical if a delay in its start will
cause a further delay in the completion date of the entire project.

 Critical path – The sequence of critical activities in a network is called critical

path. The critical path is the longest path in the network from the starting event to
ending event and defines the minimum time required to complete the project.

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Exercise
1. What is PERT and CPM?

2. What are the advantages of using PERT/CPM?

3. Mention the applications of PERT/CPM

4. Explain the following terms

a. Earliest time

b. Latest time

c. Total activity slack

d. Event slack

e. Critical path

5. Explain the CPM in network analysis.

6. What are the rules for drawing network diagram? Also mention the common
errors that occur in drawing networks.

7. What is the difference between PERT and CPM/

8. What are the uses of PERT and CPM?

9. Explain the basic steps in PERT/CPM techniques.

10. Write the framework of PERT/CPM.

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Unit 3
3.1 Worked Examples on CPM
3.2 PERT
3.3 Worked Examples

3.1 Worked Examples on CPM

Example 1
Determine the early start and late start in respect of all node points and identify critical
path for the following network.

Solution
Calculation of E and L for each node is shown in the network

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 Normal Earliest Time Latest Time
Activity(i, Float Time
Time Start Finish Start Finish
j) (Li - Dij ) - Ei
(Dij) (Ei) (Ei + Dij ) (Li - Dij ) (Li)
(1, 2) 10 0 10 0 10 0
(1, 3) 8 0 8 1 9 1
(1, 4) 9 0 9 1 10 1
(2, 5) 8 10 18 10 18 0
(4, 6) 7 9 16 10 17 1
(3, 7) 16 8 24 9 25 1
(5, 7) 7 18 25 18 25 0
(6, 7) 7 16 23 18 25 2
(5, 8) 6 18 24 18 24 0
(6, 9) 5 16 21 17 22 1
(7, 10) 12 25 37 25 37 0
(8, 10) 13 24 37 24 37 0
(9, 10) 15 21 36 22 37 1
Network Analysis Table

From the table, the critical nodes are (1, 2), (2, 5), (5, 7), (5, 8), (7, 10) and (8, 10)

From the table, there are two possible critical paths

i. 1 → 2 → 5 → 8 → 10
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 ii. 1 → 2 → 5 → 7 → 10

Example 2
Find the critical path and calculate the slack time for the following network

Solution

The earliest time and the latest time are obtained below

Normal Earliest Time Latest Time

Float Time
Activity(i, j) Time Start Finish Start Finish
(Li - Dij ) - Ei
(Dij) (Ei) (Ei + Dij ) (Li - Dij ) (Li)
(1, 2) 2 0 2 5 7 5
(1, 3) 2 0 2 0 2 0
(1, 4) 1 0 1 6 7 6
(2, 6) 4 2 6 7 11 5
(3, 7) 5 2 7 3 8 1
(3, 5) 8 2 10 2 10 0
(4, 5) 3 1 4 7 10 6
(5, 9) 5 10 15 10 15 0
(6, 8) 1 6 7 11 12 5
(7, 8) 4 7 11 8 12 1

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 (8, 9) 3 11 14 12 15 1

From the above table, the critical nodes are the activities (1, 3), (3, 5) and (5, 9)

The critical path is 1 → 3 → 5 → 9

Example 3
A project has the following times schedule

Activity Times in weeks Activity Times in weeks

(1 – 2) 4
(5 – 7) 8
(1 – 3) 1
(6 – 8) 1
(2 – 4) 1
(7 – 8) 2
(3 – 4) 1
(8 – 9) 1
(3 – 5) 6
(8 – 10) 8
(4 – 9) 5
(9 – 10) 7
(5 – 6) 4

Construct the network and compute

1. TE and TL for each event

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 2. Float for each activity
3. Critical path and its duration

Solution

The network is

Event No.: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TE: 0 4 1 5 7 11 15 17 18 25
TL: 0 12 1 13 7 16 15 17 18 25

Float = TL (Head event) – TE (Tail event) – Duration

Activity Duration TE (Tail event) TL (Head event) Float

(1 – 2) 4 0 12 8
(1 – 3) 1 0 1 0
(2 – 4) 1 4 13 8
(3 – 4) 1 1 13 11
(3 – 5) 6 1 7 0
(4 – 9) 5 5 18 8
(5 – 6) 4 7 16 5
(5 – 7) 8 7 15 0

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 (6 – 8) 1 11 17 5
(7 – 8) 2 15 17 0
(8 – 9) 1 17 18 0
(8 – 10) 8 17 25 0
(9 – 10) 7 18 25 0

The resultant network shows the critical path

The two critical paths are

i. 1 → 3 → 5 →7 → 8 → 9 →10
ii. 1 → 3 → 5 → 7 → 8 →10

3.2 Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

The main objective in the analysis through PERT is to find out the completion for a
particular event within specified date. The PERT approach takes into account the
uncertainties. The three time values are associated with each activity

1. Optimistic time – It is the shortest possible time in which the activity can be
finished. It assumes that every thing goes very well. This is denoted by t0.

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 2. Most likely time – It is the estimate of the normal time the activity would take.
This assumes normal delays. If a graph is plotted in the time of completion and
the frequency of completion in that time period, then most likely time will
represent the highest frequency of occurrence. This is denoted by tm.
3. Pessimistic time – It represents the longest time the activity could take if
everything goes wrong. As in optimistic estimate, this value may be such that
only one in hundred or one in twenty will take time longer than this value. This is
denoted by tp.

In PERT calculation, all values are used to obtain the percent expected value.

1. Expected time – It is the average time an activity will take if it were to be

repeated on large number of times and is based on the assumption that the activity
time follows Beta distribution, this is given by
te = ( t0 + 4 tm + tp ) / 6

2. The variance for the activity is given by

σ2 = [(tp – to) / 6] 2

3.3 Worked Examples

Example 1
For the project

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Task: A B C D E F G H I J K

Least time: 4 5 8 2 4 6 8 5 3 5 6

Greatest time: 8 10 12 7 10 15 16 9 7 11 13

Most likely time: 5 7 11 3 7 9 12 6 5 8 9

Find the earliest and latest expected time to each event and also critical path in the
network.

Solution

Greatest time Most likely Expected time

Task Least time(t0)
(tp) time (tm) (to + tp + 4tm)/6
A 4 8 5 5.33
B 5 10 7 7.17
C 8 12 11 10.67
D 2 7 3 3.5
E 4 10 7 7
F 6 15 9 9.5
G 8 16 12 12
H 5 9 6 6.33
I 3 7 5 5
J 5 11 8 8
K 6 13 9 9.17

Expected Start Finish

Task Total float
time (te) Earliest Latest Earliest Latest
A 5.33 0 0 5.33 5.33 0
B 7.17 0 8.83 7.17 16 8.83

300
 C 10.67 5.33 5.33 16 16 0
D 3.5 0 10 3.5 13.5 10
E 7 16 16 23 23 0
F 9.5 3.5 13.5 13 23 10
G 12 3.5 18.5 15.5 30.5 15
H 6.33 23 23 29.33 29.33 0
I 5 23 25.5 28 30.5 2.5
J 8 28 30.5 36 38.5 2.5
K 9.17 29.33 29.33 31.5 38.5 0

The network is

The critical path is A →C →E → H → K

Example 2
A project has the following characteristics

Most optimistic time Most pessimistic time Most likely time

Activity
(a) (b) (m)
(1 – 2) 1 5 1.5

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(2 – 3) 1 3 2
(2 – 4) 1 5 3
(3 – 5) 3 5 4
(4 – 5) 2 4 3
(4 – 6) 3 7 5
(5 – 7) 4 6 5
(6 – 7) 6 8 7
(7 – 8) 2 6 4
(7 – 9) 5 8 6
(8 – 10) 1 3 2
(9 – 10) 3 7 5
Construct a PERT network. Find the critical path and variance for each event.

Solution

te v
Activity (a) (b) (m) (4m)
(a + b + 4m)/6 [(b – a) / 6]2
(1 – 2) 1 5 1.5 6 2 4/9
(2 – 3) 1 3 2 8 2 1/9
(2 – 4) 1 5 3 12 3 4/9
(3 – 5) 3 5 4 16 4 1/9
(4 – 5) 2 4 3 12 3 1/9
(4 – 6) 3 7 5 20 5 4/9
(5 – 7) 4 6 5 20 5 1/9
(6 – 7) 6 8 7 28 7 1/9
(7 – 8) 2 6 4 16 4 4/9
(7 – 9) 5 8 6 24 6.17 1/4
(8 – 10) 1 3 2 8 2 1/9
(9 – 10) 3 7 5 20 5 4/9

The network is constructed as shown below

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The critical path = 1 → 2 → 4 → 6 → 7 →9 →10

Example 3

Calculate the variance and the expected time for each activity

Solution

te v
Activity (to) (tm) (tp)
(to + tp + 4tm)/6 [(tp – to) / 6]2
(1 – 2) 3 6 10 6.2 1.36
(1 – 3) 6 7 12 7.7 1.00
(1 – 4) 7 9 12 9.2 0.69
(2 – 3) 0 0 0 0.0 0.00

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 (2 – 5) 8 12 17 12.2 2.25
(3 – 6) 10 12 15 12.2 0.69
(4 – 7) 8 13 19 13.2 3.36
(5 – 8) 12 14 15 13.9 0.25
(6 – 7) 8 9 10 9.0 0.11
(6 – 9) 13 16 19 16.0 1.00
(8 – 9) 4 7 10 7.0 1.00
(7 – 10) 10 13 17 13.2 1.36
(9 – 11) 6 8 12 8.4 1.00
(10 – 11) 10 12 14 12.0 0.66

Example 4

A project is represented by the network as shown below and has the following data

Task: A B C D E F G H I

Least time: 5 18 26 16 15 6 7 7 3

Greatest time: 10 22 40 20 25 12 12 9 5

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Most likely time: 15 20 33 18 20 9 10 8 4

Determine the following

1. Expected task time and their variance

2. Earliest and latest time

Solution

1.

Least time Greatest time Most likely Expected time Variance

Activity
(t0) (tp) time (tm) (to + tp + 4tm)/6 (σ2)
(1-2) 5 10 8 7.8 0.69
(1-3) 18 22 20 20.0 0.44
(1-4) 26 40 33 33.0 5.43
(2-5) 16 20 18 18.0 0.44
(2-6) 15 25 20 20.0 2.78
(3-6) 6 12 9 9.0 1.00
(4-7) 7 12 10 9.8 0.69
(5-7) 7 9 8 8.0 0.11
(6-7) 3 5 4 4.0 0.11

2.

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Earliest time

E1 = 0

E2 = 0 +7.8 = 7.8

E3 = 0 +20 = 20

E4 = 0 +33 = 33

E5 = 7.8 + 18 = 25.8

E6 = max [7.8 + 20, 20 + 9] = 29

E7 = max [33 + 9.8, 25.8 + 8, 29 + 4] = 42.8

Latest time

L7 = 42.8

L6 = 42.8 – 4 = 38.8

L5 = 42.8 – 8 = 34.3

L4 = 42.8 – 9.8 = 33

L3 = 38.8 – 9 = 29.8

L2 = min [34.8 – 18, 38.8 – 20] = 16.8

L1 = min [16.8 – 7.8, 29.8 – 20, 33 - 33] = 0

Exercise

1. What is PERT?

2. For the following data, draw network. Find the critical path, slack time after
calculating the earliest expected time and the latest allowable time
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 Activity Duration Activity Duration
(1 – 2) 5 (5 – 9) 3
(1 – 3) 8 (6 – 10) 5
(2 – 4) 6 (7 – 10) 4
(2 – 5) 4 (8 – 11) 9
(2 – 6) 4 (9 – 12) 2
(3– 7) 5 (10 – 12) 4
(3 – 8) 3 (11 – 13) 1
(4 – 9) 1 (12 – 13) 7

[Ans. Critical path: 1 → 3 → 7 → 10 → 12 →13]

3. A project schedule has the following characteristics

Activity Most optimistic time Most likely time Most pessimistic time

(1 – 2) 1 2 3
(2 – 3) 1 2 3
(2 – 4) 1 3 5
(3 – 5) 3 4 5
(4 – 5) 2 5 4
(4 – 6) 3 5 7
(5 – 7) 4 5 6
(6 – 7) 6 7 8
(7 – 8) 2 4 6
(7 – 9) 4 6 8
(8 – 10) 1 2 3
(9 – 10) 3 5 7

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Construct a PERT network and find out

a. The earliest possible time

b. Latest allowable time

c. Slack values

d. Critical path

4. Explain the following terms

a. optimistic time

b. Most likely time

c. Pessimistic time

d. Expected time

e. Variance

5. Calculate the variance and the expected time for each activity

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