BAYAN COLLEGE

GENERAL FOUNDATION PROGRAM

Math2/Level 3

LINEAR EQUATIONS

An Equation having the maximum order of 1 is known as a First Degree Linear equation.

Below are some examples of first degree linear equations in 1 variable, 2 variables and 3 variables:

Linear Equation in One Linear Equation in Two Linear Equation in Three

variable variable variable

3x+5=0 y+7x=3 x+y+z=0

32x+7=0 3a+2b = 5 a – 3b = c

98x = 49 6x+9y-12=0 3x + 12 y = ½ z

Standard Form of Linear Equation

Linear equations are a combination of constants and variables. 

The standard form of a linear equation in one variable is represented as ax + b = 0 where, a ≠ 0 and x is
the variable.

The standard form of a linear equation in two variables is represented as

ax + by  + c = 0, where, a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 , x and y are the variables.

The standard form of a linear equation in three variables is represented as

ax + by + cz + d = 0 where a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0, x, y, z are the variables.

The methods to solve first degree linear equations in two variables are:
 Substitution Method
 Elimination Method
 Graphical Method

1) Example of Substitution method

Solve:
x +2 y =4 -------- 1
x−2 y=1-------- 2
Cancel one variable and then substitute the value in the equation
x +2 y =4 -------- 1
x−2 y=1-------- 2
_____________________
2 x=5
X= 5/2
X=3.5
Substitute in equation 1 or 2 to get the answer of y
X+2(3.5)=4
X+7=4
X=4-7
X=-3
2) Example of Elimination Method

−2 x+ 8 y=9 --------------- 1
y−x =−3 ------------------- 2
Simplifying the 2nd equation to make it same as Equation 1 we rewrite it as
−2 x+ 8 y=9 --------------- 1
−x + y=−3 ------------------- 2
Multiplying 2nd equation by -8 we get
−2 x+ 8 y=9 --------------- 1
8 x−8 y=−3 ------------------- 2
Adding both equations we get the value for x
−2 x+ 8 y=9 --------------- 1
8 x−8 y=−3 ------------------- 2
_____________
6x=6
X=1
Substituting in 2nd equation we get the value of y
 −1+ y=−3 ------------------- 2
Y=-3+1
Y=-2
3) Example of Graphical Method

y=−x+ 4 --------------1.
y=x −2 --------------2.

Substitute x=0 in equation 1 to find value of y

y=−0+4 --------------1.
y=4
Substitute y=0 in equation 1 to find the value of x

0=−x+ 4 --------------1
−4=−x
x=4

Follow the same method for equation 2 also.

y=x −2 --------------2.
When y=0 x= 2
When x=0 y=-2
 Plot both the lines on the graph. The point at which both lines intersect is the solution of
the two linear equations.

The solution for the linear equations is (3,1)

1) Solve each pair of equation given below by using substitution method: 

a) x + y = 15                    x - y = 3
b) x + y = 0                      x - y = 2
c) 2x - y = 3                   4x + y = 3
d) 2x - 9y = 9               5x + 2y = 27
e) x + 4y = -4               3y - 5x = -1
 2) Solve each pair of equation given below using elimination method:

a) x + 2y = -4                        3x - 5y = -1

  b) 4x + 9y = 5                      -5x + 3y = 8

  c) 9x - 6y = 12                      4x + 6y = 14

  d) x + y = 3                         -3x + 2y = 1

  e) -3x + 2y = 5                       4x + 5y = 2

3) Solve the pair of linear equations graphically.

a) y + x=3 y=4 x−2

b) y=3 x +1 x−2 y=3
c) y−x =5 2 x−2 y=10
d) y=3 x +1 x−2 y=3
e) y=−x+3 2 x−2 y=10

Slope- Intercept form

.y=mx+b because the graph is a line and is said to be written in slope intercept form. Here m is the slope
Graphing a linear equation
a) y= 2x+1
When x= 0 y= 1 (0,1)

b) y= 2
y=mx+c
y=0(x)+2 when y= 0 x=2 , (0,2)

c) x+y=2
Y=-x+2 , m is -1, When y=0 x= 2 (2,0)

Finding the slope of a line

The slope m of the line through (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) is,
y 2−¿ y
m= 1
¿ , where x 2 ≠ x 1
x 2−¿x ¿
1

Example 1:
Find the slope of the line passing through (3,4) and (5,7)
y 2−¿ y 7−4 3
m= 1
¿= = = 1.5
x 2−¿x ¿
1
5−3 2
Example 2:
Find the slope of the line passing through each pair of points and plot graphically.
(-2,0) and (3,1)
Substituting the values we get the slope as m= 1/5

Practice exercise:
Find the slope of the line passing through:
a) (-1,2) and (2,2)
b) (0,4) and (1,-1)
c) (3,4) and (3,1)
Writing Linear Equations in Two Variables
If ( x 1 , y 1) is a point on a line of slope m and (x,y) is any other point on the line then
y− y 1
=m
x−x 1
y− y1 = m ( x−x 1) which is the point slope form of the equation

1) Find the slope intercept form of the equation of the line that has a slope of 3 and passes through
he point (1,-2)

y− y1 = m ( x−x 1)
y-(-2)= 3 ( x−1 ¿
y+2=3x-3
y=3x-5
When x= 0 y =-5 and when y=0 x= 5/3=1.6
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Slope of a line can be used to decide whether the lines in a plane are parallel, perpendicular or neither.
Example: Find the slope intercept forms of the equations of the lines that pass through the point (2,-1)
and are a) Parallel to and b) perpendicular to the line 2x-3y=5

Solution:

2x-3y=5
-3y=2x-5
2x 5
y= −
3 3
2 −5
m= y= x=0
3 3
2
a) Any line parallel to the given line must also have a slope ofm= . So the line through (2,-1) that is
3
parallel to the given line has the following
y− y1 = m ( x−x 1)
2
y-(-1)= ( x−2)
3
2
y+1= ( x−2)
3
3y+3=2x-4
2x-3y-4-3=0
2x-3y-7=0
2x-3y=7
-3y=7-2x
3y=2x-7
2x 7
y= −
3 3
b) Any line perpendicular to the given line must have a slope of -1/2/3= -3/2
So the line through (2,-1) that is perpendicular to the given line has the following equation
−3
=y-(-1)= ( x−2)
2
−3
Y+1= ( x−2 )
2
2y+2=-3x+6
2y+3x=6-2
2y+3x=4
2y=-3x+4
−3 x
y= +2
2

Practice Exercise:

Write the slope intercept forms of the equations of the lines through the given point a) parallel to the
given line b) perpendicular to the given line
1) Point (2,1) Line: 4x-2y=3
2) Point (-3,2) Line: x+y=7
3) Point (-1,0) Line: y=-3
4) Point (4,-2) Line: y=1
QUADRATIC EQUATION
A standard quadratic Equation can be expressed in the following manner:
a x 2 +bx+ c=0 where,
a is the co-efficient of x 2
b is the co-efficient of x
x is unknown variable
c is a constant
Every Quadratic Equation has two roots.
Rules to express an equation in Standard Quadratic Form
 1) Remove Parenthesis
2) Clear Fractions
3) Remove Radicals
4) Collect Like Terms

A) Express the following as standard quadratic equation:

1) x ( x +1 )=6
3
2) + x=4
x
2
3) x =25−5 x −15
4) 2x=√ x+ 3

Quadratic Equations can be solved to find roots using the following:

a) Factoring
b) Completing the Square Method
c) Quadratic Formula
d) Solving Graphically

B) Solve the following quadratic equations by using factoring method to find its roots
1) x ( x−4 )=5
2
2) x −x=6
16
3) x+ =8
x
4) x 2+ 9 x+20=0
2
5) a −49=0
6) 3 r 2−21 r =0

Solving incomplete quadratic equations

Rule: one root of the quadratic equation is zero when the equation lacks a constant term c.
Example:
1) x 2−4 x=0
x(x-4)=0
x=0 and x=4 are the roots

E) Solve the following

1) x 2−9=0
 2) x 2−4=0
3) 3 x 2=18 x
4) 4 x2 −49=0
5) 2 y 2=125−3 y 2
6) 9 x 2−2=5
8 x 16
7) =
25 x
8) 3 x 2=21 x
9) 5 y ( y−6 ) −8 y=2 y
10) 15 x 2=5 x
11) 3 ( y 2 +8 ) =24−15 y

F) Solving Quadratic Equation for an indicated letter

1) Solve for x:9 x 2−64 y 2=0
2) Solve for y:4 y 2−95 x 2=5 x 2
3) Solve for a:3 a2 =b2−a2
4) Solve for a: a ( a−4 )=b2−4 a
5) Solve for r: A=π r 2
6) Solve for r: π r 2 h=v
7) Solve for a: a 2+ b2=c 2
2
s
8) Solve for s: =A
4

G) Solving Quadratic Equation by Completing Square

Rule: If x 2 is the first term of a perfect trinomial square and the term in x is also given then the last
term may be found by squaring one half of coefficient of x
1) x 2+ 6 x−7=0
2) x 2+ 14 x−32=0
3) x ( x +18 ) =19
4) x 2+ 4 x−32=0
5) x 2+ 6 x+2=0
6) x 2−2 x−3=0
7) x 2+ 8 x+14=0

H) Solving Quadratic Equation by Quadratic Formula

 −b ± √ b −4 ac
2
If a x 2 +bx+ c=0 then, x=
2a
1) 3 x 2+ 4 x−5=0
2) x 2−2 x−10=0
3) 3 x 2−5 x=10
4) 2 x2 +5 x +1=0
5) x 2+ 7 x =−5
6) 3 x 2−2=4 x
7) 2 x2 −5 x =4
8) 5 x 2=10 x−4
9) 6 x 2=10 x−3
10) x 2=10−6 x
11) 9 x 2=2−x

I) Solving Quadratic Equations Graphically

 The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola.
 The axis of symmetry of a parabola is a vertical line that divides the parabola into two congruent
halves
 The Coordinate of the vertex is the equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola
−b
 The Vertex (h,k) is found by h=
2a
 Range is a set of values got for Y after substituting for X values. In the below example range is
between ( x-2) and (x-6). So values range between 0 and 6
 Domain: The domain of a function is the set of all real values of x that will give real values of y
 Solve Graphically the following
1) y= x 2−2 x−3
2) y= x 2−6 x +9
3) y= x 2+ 8 x+16
4) y( x +3 )2−4
5) y= x 2−5 x−24

Linear Inequalities of One and Two Variables

The graph of Linear Inequality is the collection of all solutions of the inequality. For example
3 x−2 y< 6 and 2 x2 +3 y 2 ≥6 are linear inequalities in two variables where the graph of first degree linear
inequality is a real number line and the graph of second degree linear inequality is a parabola.
Solve the following Linear Inequalities in One and Two Variables graphically. See Video
https://www.nagwa.com/en/videos/254164084878/
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/inequality-solving.html
1) x >−2
2) y ≤3
3) x +3>2
4) 7 x <28
5) 5 ≥ x −1
6) 2 y+ 1≤ 7
7) x− y <2 , x>−2, y ≤3 . Find the vertex of the traingle
8) x 2− y ≤1 ,−x + y ≤ 1. Find the roots of the Parabola
Exponential functions and their graph
Exponential and logarithmic functions are examples of transcendental functions.
Definition of Exponential function
The exponential function is denoted by
f(x) =a x where a>0, a≠ 1 x is any real number
Evaluate exponential function
a) f(x)= 2 x where x=-3.1
b) f(x)= 2− x where x= π
c) f(x)= 12 x where x=5/7
d) f(x)=0.6 x where x= 3/2
Graphs of exponential functions
Example:
Graph of y=a x
Sketch the graph of each function on the same coordinate plane
a) f(x)=2 x b) g(x)= 4 x

x 2
x
4
x

-2 ¼=0.25 1/16=0.06
-1 ½=0.5 ¼=0.25
0 1 1
1 2 4
2 4 16
3 8 64
Practice Exercise:

Graph of y=a−x
Sketch the graph of the following functions in the same coordinate plane.

a) f(x)=2− x b) g(x)= 4 −x

Solving Exponential Equations

Example 1:.
A population is given by P= 149 (2¿¿ 1/9)t ¿, where t is in years. When does the population reach 596?

149 (2¿¿ 1/ 9)t ¿= 596

t
(2¿¿ 1/9) ¿=596/149
(2¿¿ 1/9)t ¿=4
Use the properties of exponents we write,
2t / 9=22
Using the properties of exponents where same base is there, we write,
t/9=2
t=18 years.

Practice exercise:

In a population of bacteria, there are initially 5 million bacteria, and the number doubles every hour. The
exponential equation is f(t)= 5 * 2t . Solve the equation for the given values of t and sketch the graph to
know the pattern of multiplication of bacteria.

t(hours) 3 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.81 3.9 4

y= 5 * 2t

Logarithmic functions

If a function is one to one where the function has a property that no horizontal line intersects the graph
of the function more than once – the function must have an inverse function. So, F(x)= a x has an inverse
function.

Definition:

For x> 0 and 0<a≠ 1,

Y= log a x , if and only if x=a y

The equations Y= log a x and x=a y are equivalent. The first equation is in the logarithmic form and the
second equation is in the exponential form. A logarithm is an exponent which can be expressed n
exponential form.
For example
log 2 8=3 can be written as f(x)= 23
1) Evaluate the logarithms
 a) f(x)= log 2 x where x= 32
b) f(x)= log 3 x where x= 1
c) f(x)= log 4 x where x= 2
d) f(x)=log 10 x where x= 1/100

Properties of logarithms

1) log a 1= 0 because a 0=1

2) log a a =1 because a 1=a
3) log a a x =x and a log x = x Inverse properties
a

4) If log a x =log a y , then x=y

5) log ( ab )=log a+ log b
a
6) log ( )=log a−log b
b
7) log b a=b log a

2) Using properties of logarithms solve

a) Solve for x: log 2 x =log 2 3
b) Solve for x: log 4 4 =x
c) Simplify: log 5 5 x
d) Simplify: 6 log 20
6

Graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions.

x f(x)=2 x g(x)=log 2 x
-2 ¼=0.25 undefined
-1 ½=0.5 undefined
0 1 undefined
1 2 0
2 4 1
3 8 1.584
2) Sketch the graph of f(x)=log 10 x

x log 10 x

-2

-1

0 undefined

1 0

2 0.301

3 0.477

4 0.602

5 0.698

6 0.778

7 0.845

8 0.903

9 0.954
 10 1

Natural Logarithmic functions

f ( x )=log e x=lnx , x>0 is called as natural logarithmic function.

f ( x )=e x ∧g ( x ) =lnx are inverse functions.

Properties of natural logarithm

ln 1=0because e 0=1
lne=1 because e 1=e
x nx
lne =x and e =x Inverse property
If ln x=ln y then x=y One-One property
Use the properties of natural log to simplify each expression.
1
a) ln = ln e−1=−1
e
b) e ln 5=5 Inverse property
 ln 1 0
c) = =0 Property 1
3 3
d) 2 ln e=2(1)=2 Property 2

Plot the following graphs

1) f ( x )=log 3 x +2
2) f ( x )=−log 3 ( x +2)
3) f ( x )=−log 3 x
4) f ( x )=log 3 (1−x )

Evaluate the following and write in exponential form

1) log 3 64=3
2) log 3 81=4

Write in logarithmic form

1) 53=125
2) 82 =64

Evaluate the following

1) f ( x )=log 2 x where x=16

2) f ( x )=log 16 x where x=4
3) f ( x )=log 7 x where x= 1
4) f ( x )=log 10 x where x= 10
5) f ( x )=log 10 x where x= 4/5
6) f ( x )=lnx where x= 18.42
7) f ( x )=3 ln x where x= 0.32
8) f ( x )=2 lnx where x= 0.75

Solving logarthmic equations

Example
Solve 3t =4000 using properties of logarithms
Taking log on both sides
log(3t )=log(4000)
t log 3= log (4000)
t=log 4000/log3
 =7.5496
Practice Exercise
Using properties of logarithms solve the following equations.
1) 10 x =a
2) 102 x=103+102
3) 3 ( logx ) +a=a2 +logx
4) Pa−kx =Q
5) Q=b x

Functions and its graph

Definition: A function f from a set of A to set B is a relation that assigns to each element in set B. The
set A is the domain of the function f and set B contains the range.
For eg,
Time of Day Temperature

2 -1
11
10
5
4 8
3
6 9 7

Characteristics of function from set A to set B

1) Each element in A must be matched with an element in B

2) Some element in B may not be matched with any element in A.
3) Two or more elements in A may be matched with the same element in B
4) An element in A ( the domain) cannot be matched with two different elements of B

Four ways to represent a function

1) Verbally by a sentence that describes how the input variable is related to the output variable
2) Numerically by a table or a list of ordered pairs that matches input values with output values
3) Graphically by points on a graph in a coordinate plane in which the input values are represented by
the horizontal axis and the output values are represented by the vertical axis
4) Algebraically by an equation in two variables

For example if we know that y is a function of x, then the notation is:

Input: x Output: f(x) Equation: f(x)=1- x 2

For instance the equation y= x 2 where y is a function of x represents the variable y as a function of x.
Here y is the dependent variable and x is the independent variable.

So y=f(x)
f is the name of the function
x is the value of the function at x.

Example 1:

f(x)=3-2x. Using the values of function -1,0,2 find f(x)

For x= -1 f(-1)=3-2(-1)=3+2=5 f(-1)= 5
For x=0 f(0)=3-0 f(0)=3
For x=2 f(2)=3-2(2) f(2)= -1

Example 2:

Which of the equations represent y as a function of x?

a) x 2+ y=1 For every value of x there corresponds only one value of y. So y is a function of x.
b) −x + y 2=1 Solving for y yields y 2=1+ x , y=± √ 1+ x

Example3:

If g(x)=−x 2+ 4 x +1 Find a) g(2) b) g(t) c) g(x+2)

a) g(2)=-4+4(2)+1 g(2)=5
b) g(t) = −t 2+ 4 t +1 g(t) = −t 2+ 4 t +1
c) g(x+2)= −( x+2)2 +4 ( x+ 2)+1 After simplification g(x+2)=−x 2+ 5

Piecewise defined function

Evaluate the function when x=-1,0 and -1

f(x)= { x 2+1 x<0
f(x)={x-1 x>= 0
Since x=-1 is <0, use it in equation 1
f(x)= x 2+1
f(-1)= (−1 )2 +1
= 1+1
=2
For x =0 use f(x)=x-1 to obtain f(0) =0+1 =1
For x=1 use f(1)=x-1
f(1)=x-1
=1-1=0

Practice Exercise

1) f(x)= 2x-3 Find a) f(1) b) f(-3) c) f(x-1)

7
2) g(y)=7-3y Find a) g(0) b) g( ¿ c) g (s+2)
3

Graph of a function

The graph of a function is a collection of ordered pairs (x,f(x)), such that x is in the domain of f, where,
x= the directed distance from y – axis
f(x)= the directed distance from x-axis
Finding the domain and range of a function
Using the graph given find the a) domain of f b) the function values f(-1) and f(2) c) Range of f
 a) The closed dot at (-1,1) indicates that x=-1 is in the domain of f, whereas the open dot at (5,2)
indicates x= 5 is not in the domain. So, the domain of f is all x in the interval (-1,5)
b) b) Because (-1,1) is a point on the graph of f, it follows that f(-1) = 1. Similarly, (2,-3) is a point
on the graph of f, it follows that f(2)= -3
c) Because the graph does not extend below f(2)=-3 or above f(0)=3, the range of f is the interval (-
3,3)

Zeroes of a function

If the graph of a function of x has an x-intercept at (a,0) then a is a zero of the function.
The zeroes of a function f of x are the x-values for which f(x)=0
Finding the zeroes of a function.

a) g(x)= √ 10−x 2

√ 10−x 2 =0
2
10−x =0
X=± √10
X=± 3.16
2t−3
b) h(t)=
t+5
2t −3
=0
t+5
2t-3=0
T=3/2
(3/2,0)

Combination of functions

Just as two real numbers can be combined by the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division to form other real numbers, two functions can be combined to create new functions. For
example, the functions f(x)=2x-3 and g(x)= x 2−1 can be combined to form the sum, difference, product
and quotient of f and g.
f(x)+g(x) =(2x-3)+( x 2−1 ¿
= x 2+2 x−4
f(x)-g(x) =(2x-3)- (x 2−1)
=- x 2+2x-2
f(x) * g(x) =(2x-3)* ( x 2−1)
=2 x3 −3 x2−2 x +3
f (x ) 2 x−3
=¿ 2
g ( x) x −1

The domain of an arithmetic combination of function of f and g consists of all real numbers that are
common to the domains of the quotient f(x)/g(x), g(x)≠ 0

Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of functions.

Let f and g be two functions with overlapping domains. Then, for all x common to both domains, the
sum, difference, product and quotient of f and g are defined as follows:

1) Sum: (f+g) (x) =f(x)+g(x)

2) Difference: (f-g) (x) = f(x) – g(x)
3) Product: (fg) (x) = f(x).g(x)
4) Quotient: (f/g) (x)= f(x)/g(x) g(x) ≠ 0

Practice Exercise
Given f(x)=2x+1 and g(x)= x 2+ 2 x−1.

1) Find (f+g) (x), (f-g) (x), (fg) (x), (f/g) (x)

2) Find (f-g) (2)
3) Find the domains of (f/g) (x) and (g/f) (x)

Composition of functions

The composition of the function f with function g is

(fog) (x) = f(g(x))
The domain of (fog) is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.

fog

x g(x)
f(g(x))
g f

Example:
Given f(x)=x+2 and g(x)=4- x 2 find a) (fog) (x) b) (gof) (x) c) (gof) (-2)
a) (fog) (x) = f(g(x))
= f(4- x 2) Substitute f(x) = x+2
=4- x 2+2
=- x 2+6
Practice exercise

Given f(x)=x+2 and g(x)=4- x 2 find b) (gof) (x) c) (gof) (-2)

Graphs of different functions

Linear function with two points is a straight line that passes through the two points.
Example:
Write the linear function f for which f(1)=3 and f(4)= 0
y 2−¿ y 0−3
m= 1
¿= =-1
x 2−¿x ¿
1
4−1

Point slope intercept form

y− y1 = m ( x−x 1)
y-3=-1(x-1)
y-3=-x+1
y+x=1+3
y=-x+4
when y= 0 x= 4, when x=0 y=4
f(x)=-x+4

Graph of a constant function

f(x)=c where c is a set of real numbers

Graph of identity function has the notation

f(x)= x
Here y intercept (0,0) and slope m=1
Y=mx+c

Graph of squaring function

f(x)= x 2
The graph has an intercept at (0,0)
The graph is decreasing on the interval (-∞ , 0 ¿ and increasing on the interval (0 , ∞ ¿
The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis

Graph of cubic function

The graph has intercept at (0,0)
The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin
The graph is increasing on interval (−∞ , ∞¿
Graph of square root function
f(x)=√ x
The graph has its intercept at (0,0) and increasing in interval (0,∞ ¿

The graph of reciprocal function f(x)= 1/x

The graph does not have any intercepts
The graph is decreasing on the intervals (−∞ , 0 ¿∧(0 , ∞)
The graph is symmetric to the origin

Exercises
Find a) (f+g) (x) b) (f-g) (x) c) (fg) (x) d) (f/g) (x)
1) f(x)= x+2 g(x)= x-2
2) f(x)= 2x-5 g(x)=2-x
3) f(x)= x 2 g(x)= 4x-5

Find the indicated function for f(x)= x 2+ ¿1 and g(x)= x-4

1) (f+g) (2)
2) (f-g) (-1)
3) (f-g) (0)
4) (f+g) (1)

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND INTEREST

Interest is defined as charge for using borrowed money. Interest is charged on the principal amount
at a certain rate for a certain period. For example: 10% per year, 4% per quarter and 2% per month.
Principal is the loan amount borrowed from a financial institution. Interest on the principal amount is
calculated using two methods:
1. Simple Interest Method
2. Compound Interest Method

Formula to calculate Simple Interest

SI= Pin
I =Simple Interest
P= Principal Amount
I= rate of interest
N= number of periods

loan of Ro 10000 has been issued for 6 years. Compute the amount to be repaid to the borrower if the
interest charged per year is 5%

Compound Interest Method

Under this method the interest is charged not only on the Principal amount but also on the accumulated
interest every year.
Compound Amount = P(1+i)n
Where A= CompoundedAmount
P= Principal Amount
 i= rate of interest
n= number of periods
1) National Bank of Oman has issued a loan of RO 5000 to a sole proprietor for a period of 5 years.
The rate of interest is 5%. Calculate the compound interest
2) Calculate using Compound Interest method the interest on used car loan of RO 5000 at the rate
of 15% for a period of 5 years.
3) Calculate the amount owed using Simple Interest Method on an investment of RO 10000 into
money market at an interest rate of 1.75% for 1 year
4) When your cousin was born, your grandparents deposited $5000 in a long – term investment in
which the interest was compounded quarterly. Today, on your cousin’s 25th birthday, the value of
the investment is $25,062.59. What is the annual interest rate for this investment?
r nt
A= P(1+ )
n
A= $25,062.59
P= $5000
r=?
n=4 (quarterly)
t= 25 years
r 4∗25
$25,062.59=$5000 (1+ )
4
$ 25,062.59 4 +r 100
=( )
$ 5000 4
4 +r
1
(5.0125) =( 4 )
100

1.01625*4=4+r
4.065=4+r
r=0.065

The formula given above can be utilized to find the continuously compounded interest. This happens
when we leave the number of compundings n increase without bound. In the formula for n
compoundings per year, let m= n/r. This results in n=mr

mrt
r
A= P(1+ )
mr
Continuously compounded interest- an example of application of exponential functions.
 ( )
mrt
1
A= P 1+
m
rt
1
¿ P[(1+ )¿ ¿ m] ¿
m
As m increases without bound, it can be shown that ¿ ¿ approaches e. (Try values of
m=10,10,000 and 10,000,000), From this we can conclude that the formula for continuous
compounding is
A= Pe rt
STATISTICS
Statistics means numerical facts. In statistics we have some terms to learn and understand
Population:
A population consists of all elements – individuals, items, or objects. The population that is
studied is called target population.
Sample:
A portion of the population selected for study is referred to as a sample

Population Sample

Element: An Element or Member of a sample is a specific subject or object

Variable: A variable is a characteristic under study that assumes different values for different
elements.
Observation: The value of a variable is called an observation
Data Set: A data set is a collection of observations on one or more variables
Graphical Presentation of Qualitative Data

Example 1: A sample of 30 employees were selected and these employees were asked how stressful
their jobs were.
Somewhat None Somewhat Very Very None
Very Somewhat Somewhat Very Somewhat Somewhat
Very Somewhat None Very None Somewhat
Somewhat Very Somewhat Somewhat Very None
Somewhat Very Very Somewhat None Somewhat

Bar Graphs: A graph made of bars whose heights represent the frequencies of respective
categories is called a bar graph
In the Example 1 the bar graph can be drawn as follows

ssertS boJ
61

41

21

01
ssertS boJ
8

0
yreV tahwemoS enoN

Pie Chart:
A circle divided into portions that represent the relative frequencies or percentages of a
population or a sample belonging to different categories is called a pie chart

ssertS boJ

yreV
tahwemoS
enoN
 Histograms
A histogram can assume any one of a large number of shapes. The most common of these shapes
are:
1. Symmetric
2. Skewed
3. Uniform or Rectangular
A symmetric histogram is identical on both sides of its central point.

A uniform or rectangular histogram has the same frequency for each class
A skewed Histogram is non symmetric. For a skewed histogram a tail on one side is longer than
tail on the other side. A skewed to the right histogram has a longer tail on the right side and
skewed to the left histogram has a longer tail on the left side

Mean: The mean also called the arithmetic mean, is the most frequently used measure of central
tendency. The mean for ungrouped data is obtained by dividing the sum of all values by the
number of values in the data set.
Mean for Population Data:

μ=
∑x
N
Where μis the Population Mean
∑ x is the sum of all values
N is the Population
Mean for Sample Data:

x=
∑x
n
Where
x is the sample mean
n is the sample size
∑ x is the sum of all values
Median:
The median is the value of the middle term in the data set that has been ranked in increasing
order. It divides the data set into two equal halves. The calculation of the median consists of the
following two steps:
1. Rank the data set in increasing order
2. Find the middle term. The value of the middle term is the median
Mode is the value that occurs with the highest frequency in a data set. Mode can be calculated
for both qualitative and quantitative data.
Example 1: Calculate the mean for the following fraud victims in six states of the USA.

State Fraud Victims

California 43839
Florida 16062
Illinois 11138
New York 17680
Ohio 6956
Texas 26454

Example 2: The following are the ages of all eight employees of a small company. Find the
mean age of these employees
53, 32, 61, 27, 39, 44, 49, 57
Example 3: Find the median for the following data collected in 12 cities:
 City Car Thefts
Phoenix 40769
Washington 33956
Miami 21088
Atlanta 29920
Chicago 42082
Kansas 11669
Maryland 13435
Michigan 40197
Missouri 18215
Nevada 18103
New Jersey 14413
Texas 26343

Example 4: The prices of the same brand of television set at eight stores are found to be $895,
$886, $903, $895,$870,$905,$870,$899. Find the mode.

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation involves the notion of deviation from the mean or simply deviation:
Deviation of a data value = Difference between that value and the mean value.
= Data value- Mean value
Example:
A naturalist measures the clutch size (the number of eggs in the nest) for two different subspecies
of ptarmigan, a same bird, recording her results in the table given below. Do the mean clutch
sizes of these two data sets give a reasonable description of the differences between them?

Clutch sizes in various nests.

Subspecies A 7 8 10 8 7 7 9 8

Subspecies B 9 5 11 6 6 7 8 12

Mean clutch sizes of subspecies A=

∑ xi = 7+ 8+10+8+7+ 7+9+8 = 64 =8
n 8 8
 Mean clutch sizes of subspecies B=
∑ xi = 9+ 5+11+ 6+6+7 +8+12 = 64 =8
n 8 8
Deviations for subspecies A = Data value- mean value= 7-8=-1, 8-8=0, 10-8=2 and so on.
Finding the deviations for species A and B we get the below table

Deviations for 7-8 8-8 10-8 8-8 7-8 7-8 9-8 8-8
Subspecies A

Deviations for 9-8 5-8 11-8 6-8 6-8 7-8 8-8 12-8
Subspecies B

Deviations for -1 0 2 0 -1 -1 -1 0
Subspecies A

Deviations for 1 -3 3 -2 -2 -1 0 4
Subspecies B

Variance

The variance of data set is the mean of the squared deviations:

Variance=
∑ of squared deviations
Number of values

From the above example the variance is calculated by squaring and adding the deviations

Variance for −1
2
0
2
2
2
0
2 2
−1 −1
2
−1
2
0
2

Subspecies A

Variance for 1
2
−3
2
3
2
−2
2 2
−2 −1
2
0
2
4
2

Subspecies B
 Variance for 1 0 4 0 1 1 1 0
Subspecies A

Variance for 1 9 9 4 4 1 0 16
Subspecies B

Variance for 1+ 0+4 +0+1+1+1+0 8

= =1
8 8
Subspecies A

Variance for 1+ 9+9+ 4+ 4+1+0+ 16 44

= =5.5
8 8
Subspecies B

Standard Deviation
We define the standard deviation of a data set with n values as
σ =√ Variance
In the above example the standard deviation for subspecies A and B are:
σ A= √ 1=1 egg
σ B= √ 5.5=2.345 eggs
So the standard deviation notation is:

√
n
1
σ = ∑ (x i− x)2
n i=1
Practice Exercise

Find the mean, median, mode, variance and standard deviation of the following data sets.

1) 13,14,19,28,30,31,50
2) 25,30,32,32,41,45,45,57,62
3) 81,57,14,98,20,20,6
4) 16,66,30,99,74,50,35,7

Probability
Probability is the likelihood of an event happening.
Number of ways of achieving success
Probability=
Possible outcomes
For example, the probability of flipping a coin and it being head is ½, because there is 1 way of getting a
head and the total number of possible outcomes is 2 (a head or tail). We write P (heads) = ½.
Experiment outcomes and sample space:
An experiment is a process, that when performed results only in one and only one of many observations.
These observations are called the outcomes of the experiment. The collection of all the outcomes for an
experiment is called the sample space.
A sample space is denoted by S. The sample space for the example of inspecting a tennis ball is written
as S= {good, defective}. The elements of sample space are called sample points.

Examples of Experiments, Outcomes and Sample Spaces

Experiment Outcomes Sample Space
Toss a coin Head, Tail S={Head, Tail}
Roll a die once 1,2,3,4,5,6 S= {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Toss a coin twice HH,TT, TH, TT S={HH,TT,TH,TT}
Play lottery Win, Lose S={Win, Lose}
Take a test Pass, Fail S={Pass, Fail}
Select a student Male, Female S={Male, Female}

Sample space can also be illustrated by Venn diagram or tree diagram. Venn diagram is a closed
geometrical shape such as circle, square or rectangle that depicts all the possible outcomes of an
experiment.
In a tree diagram each sample space is represented by the branch of the tree.
Example1:
Draw the Venn Diagram of tossing a coin once.
S={H,T}
Venn Diagram Tree Diagram

Head H
S= H T
Tail T

Example 2:
Draw the Venn Diagram and Tree Diagram of tossing a coin twice
Venn Diagram Tree Diagram HH
 Head H
HT
S= HH TT TH
TH HT Tail
T
TT

Practice Exercises:

1) Two students are randomly selected from a statistics class and it is observed whether or not they suffer
from anxiety. How many total outcomes are possible? Draw a tree diagram
2) In a group of adults, some are computer literate and some are computer illiterate. If two adults are
randomly selected from this group, how many total outcomes are possible. Draw a tree diagram for this.

Single Events

Example

There are 6 beads in a bag, 3 are red, 2 are yellow and 1 is blue. What is the probability of picking a
yellow?

The probability is the number of yellows in the bag divided by the total number of balls, i.e. 2/6 = 1/3.

Multiple Events

Independent and Dependent Events

Suppose now we consider the probability of 2 events happening. For example, we might throw 2 dice
and consider the probability that both are 6's.

We call two events independent if the outcome of one of the events doesn't affect the outcome of
another. For example, if we throw two dice, the probability of getting a 6 on the second die is the same,
no matter what we get with the first one- it's still 1/6.

When the probability of one event depends on another, the events are dependent.

The AND and OR rules

The AND rule is:

 If two events A and B are independent (this means that one event does not depend on the other),
then the probability of both A and B occurring is found by multiplying the probability of A
occurring by the probability of B occurring.
 P ( A ∩ B )=P ( A ) P(B)

The OR rule is:

 If we have two events A and B and it isn't possible for both events to occur, then the probability
of A or B occuring is the probability of A occurring + the probability of B occurring.

P ( A ∪ B ) =P ( A )+ P ¿ )

Conditional Probability

A
The conditional probability of event A given event B, written as P( ), is the probability that event A
B
occurs given that event B occurs. To find the conditional probability we divide a table by a row or
column total, not by the grand total.

Example:

A geneticist seeks to establish a link between a certain gene and a certain type of cancer. She studies 250
mice and records her result as given in the table. A mouse is selected at random from this group.

Event A stands for picking a mouse having the gene.

Event B stands for picking a mouse not having the gene.

Event C stands for picking a mouse developing the cancer

Event D stands for picking a mouse not developing the cancer.

Evaluate the following expressions:

a) P ( A ∩ C )
b) P ( C ∩ A )
c) P ( C ∩ B )
A
d) P( )
C
C
e) P( )
A
 C
f) P( )
B

Has gene Lacks gene Total

Develops cancer 10 15 25
Does not develop 43 182 225
cancer
Total 53 197 250

a) This is joint probability so we write

P ( A ∩ C ) =10 mice have the gene and develop cancer/ 250 mice= 4%

b) This is joint probability which is same as “a” so we write

P ( C ∩ A ) =10 mice have the gene and develop cancer/ 250 mice= 4%
c) P ( C ∩ B ) = 15 mice develop cancer and lack the gene/ 250= 6%
A
d) P( )= 10 mice have the gene and develop cancer/ 25 mice develop cancer= 40%
C
C
e) P( )= 10 mice develop the cancer and have the gene/ 53 mice have the gene= 18.9%
A
C
f) P( )= 15 mice develop the cancer and lack the gene/ 197= 7.61%
B

Practice Exercise:
The questions below relate to drawing a card from a pack of playing cards.
1) P(Black)
2) P(Black ∩ Queen)
3) P (Jack ∩ Red )
4) P (Black/ King)
5) P (Red/ Diamond)
6) P (King/ Black)
7) P (Spade/ Black)
8) P (Spade/ Club)

FACTORIALS, COMBINATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS

FACTORIALS
The symbol ! is used to denote factorials. The value of the factorial is obtained by multiplying all the
integers from that number 1. For example 7! Indicates all numbers from 7 to 1.
 n !=n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) ( n−3 ) … .3∗2∗1
EXAMPLE 1:
1) Evaluate (12-4)!

(12-4)!= 8!= 8*7*6*5*4*3*2*1 =40,320

2) Evaluate (5-5)!

(5-5)!= 0! =1
Combinations
Combinations give the number of ways x elements can be selected from n elements. The notation used
to denote the total number of combinations is
❑ n!
C x=
n
x ! ( n−x ) !
Example
An ice cream parlor has six flavors of ice cream. Kristen wants to buy two flavors of ice cream. If she
randomly selects two flavors out of six, how many possible combinations are there?
n= total number of ice cream flavors = 6
n= number of ice cream flavors to be selected= 2
Therefore, the number of ways in which Kristen can select two flavors of ice cream out of six is
❑ n!
C x=
n
x ! ( n−x ) !
❑ 6!
6C 2= =15
2! ( 6−2 ) !
Practice Exercise:
1) Three members will be selected randomly from a jury of 5 people. How many different
combinations are possible?
2) A company advertise to hire financial manager. The company has received applications from 10
candidates who are equally qualified. The company manager decides to call just three candidates.
If she randomly selects three from the 10, how many total selections are possible.

PERMUTATIONS
Permutations give the total selection of x elements from n (different) elements in such a way that the
order of selections is important. The notation used to denote the permutations is
❑ n!
n P x=
( n−x ) !
Which is read as “the number of permutations of selecting x elements from n elements”. Permutations
are also called as arrangements.
Example:
A club has 20 members. They are to select three office holders- president, secretary and treasurer for
next year. They always select these office holders by drawing three names randomly from the names of
all members. The first person selected becomes the president, the second person becomes the secretary
and third person the treasurer. Thus the order in which three names are selected is important. Find the
total arrangements of three names from these 20.
❑ n! 20 !
n P x= =¿ =6840
( n−x ) ! ( 20−3 ) !
Practice exercise:
A class has 30 students. Three students are selected in the order of Student council head, Class Head and
Sports events head. Find the total arrangements for these three students from a class of 30 students.

Reference Books:
Barnett Rich & Philip A. Schmidt (2004) Elementary Algebra Third Edition, United States of America,
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Ron Larson, Robert.P Hostetler & David C.Falvo (2004) Algebra and Trigonometry Sixth Edition,
Boston, New York, Houghton Mifflin Company.
Prem S. Mann (2007) Introductory Statistics Sixth Edition John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA
William G. McCallum, Eric Connally, Deborah Hughes-Hallet & et al (2010) Algebra Form and
Function, John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA