The City School

Mirpur Khas Campus

Grammatical terminologies
1. Connectives are words or phrases that link sentences (or clauses) together. 
Types of connectives:
 Correlative:  Working in pairs (example: either/or, both/and, not only/but also, as/as) to join phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence. E.g.: I not only passed the exam, but also got 100%.
 Coordinating: Coordinating conjunction joins two main clauses or two complete sentences – both parts of the sentence can stand alone. There are 7 coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. They
can be remembered using the acronym FANBOYS. E.g.: I stayed up all night writing, so I was tired the next day.
 Subordinating: Subordinating conjunctions are one or more words that unite ideas in a complex sentence (example: as soon as, in case, unless, while). They link dependent clauses (incomplete thoughts) to
independent clauses (complete thoughts).E.g.: As soon as she’s finished her phone call, we’ll leave for the restaurant.
2. Phrase: A phrase is a small group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject and a verb.
 Noun phrase: A noun phrase is a group of words that have a noun or pronoun. It is used to modify the noun. In other words, it can be said that a noun phrase can function as a subject, an object or a complement
in a sentence.: E.g., My brother’s friend, red box, a decent black shirt.
 A prepositional phrase is a group of words consisting of a preposition, its object, and any words that modify the object. Most of the time, a prepositional phrase modifies a verb or a noun.  Mark is going out with
that beautiful woman.
 An embedded clause is a clause used in the middle of another clause to give the reader more information about a  sentence. Embedded clauses rely on the main clause and don't make sense in isolation. We
separate embedded clauses from the main sentence with punctuation on either side of the clause. This can be commas (,), dashes (—), or brackets (()). E.g. The coat, which was old, had a hole in the pocket.
3. Figure of speech:
 A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things and uses the words “like” or “as” and they are commonly used in everyday communication. E.g., The boy was as brave as a lion in the jungle.
 A metaphor compares two different things, similar to a simile. The main difference between a simile and a metaphor is that metaphors do not use the words “like” or “as.” 
 Personification is giving human characteristics to nonhuman or abstract things. This could be physical attributes (“the eye of the needle”), emotional attributes (“a single lonely shoe”), or human actions (“a
leaf dancing in the wind”).
 Sibilance is a type of literary device and figure of speech wherein a hissing sound is created in a group of words through the repetition of ‘s’ sounds. For example, “Sarah’s silly sister swallowed her sweet.”
It is important to remember that sibilance is all about the ‘s’ sound, not the letter ‘s’ itself. 
 Assonance is a figure of speech in which the same vowel sound repeats within a group of words. An example of assonance is: "I might like to take a flight to an island in the sky."
 Oxymoron is a figure of speech pairing two words together that are opposing and/or contradictory. Only choice, Same difference
 Imagery is language used by poets, novelists and other writers to create images in the mind of the reader. Imagery includes  figurative and metaphorical language to improve the reader’s experience through
their senses.The grass was green and the flowers were red.
1. Prefix:  Group of words added to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. (e. g., resubmitted, antilock, hyperactive).
2. Suffix:  Groups of words added to the end of a word to modify its meaning or change it into a different word class. (e. g., Biology, happiness, helpful).
3. Reported speech:
 Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no change in these words (e.g., He said, "I
am fine”).
 Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the
reported words. Inverted commas are not used (e.g., He said that he was fine”).
 Rhyme: Two words that end with the same sound are said to rhyme. For example, words like bell and well share the same ending. 
 Rhythm is the pattern of language in a line of a poem, marked by the stressed and unstressed syllables in the words. 
Punctuation marks:
 Exclamation mark: The! is called an exclamation point. Exclamation points are punctuation marks that show a sudden outcry in writing. They also emphasize a point more strongly than a period. Sudden outcry -
"Holy cow!" screamed Jane. To emphasize a point - My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!
 Semicolon: The ; is called a semicolon. Semicolons are punctuation marks that connect independent clauses to show a closer relationship between the clauses than a period would. They can also separate items in a
list that already include commas. Connecting independent clauses - John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him. Items in a list - I’ve visited Cleveland, Ohio; Los Angeles, California; and St. Louis,
Missouri.
 Colon: The: is called a colon. Colons introduce a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series. They can also clarify information or emphasize an important word or phrase. Introducing a series  - He was
planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology, and economics. Clarifying information - I didn't have time to get changed: I was already late. Emphasizing an important phrase - There was one thing
she loved more than any other: her dog.
The ellipsis (…) is a type of punctuation that represents a pause or that something has been intentionally left out.
Pronouns:
 First person pronouns are used by a speaker or a writer or a group to refer to himself or herself or themselves. E.g. I, me, my, mine, myself, we, us, our, ours, ourselves. 
 Second person pronouns refer to the reader or listener. A writer should use second person pronouns when speaking directly to the reader. E.g. you, your, yours, yourself, yourselves. 
 A third person pronoun is a pronoun that refers to an entity other than the speaker or listener. Mainly, third person pronouns refer to people or object not directly involved. E.g. he, him, his, himself, she,
her, hers, herself, it, its, itself, they, them, their, theirs, themselves. 
Types of noun:
 A proper noun is a name which refers only to a single person, place, or thing and there is no common name for it. In written English, a proper noun always begins with capital letters. Example: Melbourne,
James
 A common noun is a name for something which is common for many things, person, or places. It encompasses a particular type of things, person, or places. Example: Country, city, sea
 An abstract noun is a word for something that cannot be seen but is there. It has no physical existence. Generally, it refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions. Example: Truth, lies, happiness, sorrow,
 A concrete noun is the exact opposite of abstract noun. It refers to the things we see and have physical existence. Example: Chair, table, bat, etc.
 Countable noun: The nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. Countable nouns can take an article: a, an, the. Example: Chair, table.
 Uncountable noun: The nouns that cannot be counted are called non-countable nouns. Example: Water, sugar, oil, salt, etc.
 A collective noun is a word for a group of things, people, or animals, etc. Example: family, team, jury, cattle, etc.
Sentence structure is a grammatical component that tells you exactly where and how each component of a sentence should be placed in order to blend and make sense.
Components of a sentence: Like a sentence has two parts, it has five main components that make up the structure of a sentence, and they are,
Subject, Verb, Object, Complement, Adjunct

 Subject: A noun that performs the action in a sentence is considered as the subject. It answers the question ‘who’ or in other words, a subject can be identified by asking the question ‘who’. e.g. The
child kept crying. My son is in the eighth grade..

 Verb: A verb shows action or activity or work done by the subject. e.g. Neena is writing a letter. It was too dark
 Object: An object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action done by the subject.
 Complement: The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence can be referred to as the complement of the sentence. A complement can be an adjective, a name, a position or a profession. e.g. It
grew dark. He is a dentist.
 Adjunct: An adjunct is a word or a phrase that gives more information about an action, an event, a quality and so on. In short, it can be said that these words can include adverbs and adverb clauses. Adjuncts can be
identified by asking questions ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’, ‘how’, ‘how often’ and ‘to what extent’. e.g. Yesterday, we met at the park.. He is very tired.
SV
 The stars / are shining.
Subject / Verb
 It / is raining.
Subject / Verb

SVO
 Children / love / ice creams.
Subject / Verb / Object
 I / have / a pencil.
Subject / Verb / Object

SVC
 I / am / an Indian.
Subject + Verb + Complement
 Carol / is / a nurse.
Subject + Verb + Complement

SVA
 Ali / reached / early.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct
 He / went / upstairs.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct