PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

LESSON 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience

Phineas Gage
A man who survived a severe head and brain injury.

BIOPSYCHOLOGY
o A scientific study of behavior based on a biological perspective.
o Psychobiology, behavioral biology, or behavioral neuroscience.
o The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs of the human body that is
responsible for controlling our emotions, motor behavior, memory, and every
process that regulates the body.

THE RELATIONSHIP OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY TO OTHER DISCIPLINES OF NEUROSCIENCE

1. Neuroanatomy
“The study of the structure of
parts of the nervous system.”
2. Neurochemistry
“The study of chemicals that control and influence the physiology of the nervous
system.”
3. Neuroendocrinology
the study of the interaction between the nervous system and endocrine system, that
is how the brain regulates the hormonal activity.
4. Neuropathology
“The study of diseases of the nervous system.”
5. Neuropharmacology
The study of how the drugs affect the neural activities through which they influence
behavior.
6. Neurophysiology
The study of the functions of the nervous system.
TYPES OF RESEARCH THAT CHARACTERIZED THE BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

1. Human and Nonhuman Subjects

o It is easy to study the relationship between brain functions and behavior
because animal brains are smaller and simpler.
o Can easily compare the different brain structures and functions of different
animal species.
o Humans have high intellectual functioning
o It is cheaper to use humans compared to animals as subjects of research.

2. Experimental and Nonexperimental

o Experimental research is used to infer causation or to identify the causal
relationship between the two or more variables.
o “Disconnected halves of the brain had their own independent
sensations, perceptions and learned separately, and without the other
half having any awareness” – SPERRY, 1968
Types of Experimental Research
 Between-subjects design is utilized when each group of subjects are
assigned to different experimental conditions
 Within-subjects design - each participant is allowed to be part of
each experimental condition.
VARIABLES
 The independent variables are variables that are manipulated in the study
and assess its effects through the dependent variables.
 Those variables other than the independent variables that seem to affect the
dependent variable is called the confounding variable
“The Effects of Split-Brain Surgery on the Frequency of Epileptic Seizures”
Quasi-experimental research is a semi- or not purely experimental
research which is used when manipulating the independent variable is impossible
and could also be due to important ethical considerations.
Case-study focuses on a single case or subject, which can help the researcher to get
in-depth information

PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH

o Pure research or also called basic research aims to gain knowledge about
theories and phenomena.
o Applied research aims to discover a solution or bring direct benefit to
humankind or simply relate the results to a particular situation.
MAJOR DIVERSIONS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY
o Physiological Psychology
“Focuses on direct manipulation and recording of neural mechanisms of
behavior using nonhuman subjects in a controlled experiment”
o Psychopharmacology
“Focuses on the manipulating neural mechanisms of the behavior through
inducing drugs.”
o Neuropsychology
“Focuses on studying the effects of brain damage to cognition and behavior in
human patients.”
o Psychophysiology
“Study the physiological activity of every psychological process such as
attention, emotion and information processes.”
o Cognitive Neuroscience
“Study of neural activity and connections in the brain which are involved in
cognition or higher intellectual processes”
o Comparative Psychology
“Studies the behavior and mental process of different animal species by using
comparative method to understand the evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness
of behavior.”
LESSON 2: Anatomy and Functions of the Nervous System

BASIC FEATURES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Three Main Functions
o Sensory
o Integration
o Motor
MENINGES

 Dura Mater
Outermost layer of meninges. It is composed of two layers: namely, the
periosteal/endosteal layer and the meningeal layer. The dura matter serves as a
protective function to the
brain and the spinal cord and limit the rotational movement of the brain (Kekere &
Alsayouri, 2020).
 Arachnoid Mater
the web-like meningeal layer underneath the dura mater.
 Pia Mater
the innermost thin membrane and directly adherent to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord.
 Subarachnoid Space
The space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater which is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and functions as a cushion to the CNS and skull (Heimer,
1983)

THE VENTRICULAR SYSTEM AND PRODUCTION OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

 The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) serves a protective function by acting as a shock
absorber
o It also provides essential nourishment and helps in removing waste from
the CNS (Telano, & Baker, 2020).
o subarachnoid space, cerebral ventricles of the brain, and the central canal of
the spinal cord.
 The central canal, or sometimes called spinal foramen or ependymal canal, extends
throughout the spinal cord.
 The ventricular system is composed of four internal chambers in the brain, the two
lateral ventricles, third and fourth ventricles.
 These three interconnected systems (subarachnoid space, central canal, &
ventricular system) form a single reservoir that facilitates the production and
removal of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain.
  The production and secretion of most cerebrospinal fluid occur in the choroidal
plexus of the ventricular system.
 It flows from the:
1. lateral ventricle to the third ventricle via the interventricular foramen (also
called the foramen of Monro).
2. It goes to the fourth ventricle by passing through the cerebral aqueduct (also
called the aqueduct of Sylvius).
3. It exits the fourth ventricle into the cerebral subarachnoid space through the
median aperture (also called the foramen of Magendie) and the two lateral
apertures (also called the foramen of Luschka).
4. The CSF continues into the spinal subarachnoid space through the central canal
of the spinal cord. (Adigun, & Al-Dhahir, 2019)

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER

Functions:
1. It manages the microenvironment (regulates the substances and structures around
a particular area)
2. It regulates the entry of nutrients
3. Regulates the exit of brain waste
4. It regulates the ion and fluids between the blood and the brain
5. Helps maintain relatively normal levels of hormones
 Transport Types
1. Diffusion
2. Paracellular transport
3. Transport protein
4. Receptor-mediated transcytosis
5. Adsorptive transcytosis
6. Efflux

NEUROANOTOMICAL TECHNIQUES
1. Golgi Staining Technique
o Camillo Golgi
o Uses silver nitrate to densely stain an entire single neuron including its
dendrite and axon branches.
o This helps researchers see the structure of a single neuron, although in
silhouette form.
o Cannot provide evidence about the number of single neurons in a particular
area.
2. NISSL Staining Technique
o Franz Nissl
o uses dyes such as Cresyl violet and other Nissl dyes to estimate the number
of cell bodies in a particular part of the brain by counting the Nissl-stained
dots.
3. Electron Microscopy
o Used to get information about the detailed structure of neurons.
o Uses a scanning electron microscope to obtain an electron micrograph.
o However, due to a detailed picture of the neurons, it becomes difficult to get
visualize general aspects of neuron structure.
NEUROANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS
 Anterior/ventral means towards the “front” and posterior/dorsal means towards
the “back”.
 Superior/cranial/ rostral means towards the head end or upper/higher part of the
body, and inferior/caudal means away from the head or the lower part of the body.
 Medial means towards the midline of the body, while lateral means away from the
midline.

 Coronal plane (frontal plane) -divided into anterior and posterior which is
created by slicing the brain vertically.
 Horizontal plane (transverse plane) - divides the brain into superior/rostral and
inferior/caudal directions which is done by slicing the brain horizontally.
 Sagittal plane – created by slicing the brain in the middle, thus dividing it into right
and left cerebral hemispheres

LESSON 2 PART II: Anatomy and Functions of the Nervous System (Central Nervous
System)

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Development of the Central Nervous System
 The CNS starts to develop during the third week of the embryonic stage.
 The developing central nervous system contains three interconnected chambers
that later becomes the ventricles.
  The tissues that surround the ventricles form the three primary vesicles: the
prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and the rhombencephalon
(hindbrain).
 As the brain continuously develops, the rostral chamber becomes the three separate
division of chambers: the left and right ventricles, and the third ventricles.
 The area surrounding the lateral ventricles becomes the telencephalon and the area
surrounding the third ventricle becomes the diencephalon.
 In the final structure, the chamber inside the midbrain (mesencephalon) becomes
narrow, forming the cerebral aqueduct, and the two structures develop in the
hindbrain: the metencephalon and the myencephalon.

THREE MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN

1. Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
2. Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
3. Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)

I. FOREBRAIN
1. Telencephalon
 Cerebral Cortex
 The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the neural tissue of the cerebrum.
 A long and deep grove between the convoluted cortex is called the fissures and the
short and small grove is called the sulci (plural: sulcus).
 The gyri (plural: gyrus) is the ridge on the surface of the brain which is separated by
fissures and sulci
 The cerebral cortex covers the two portions of the cerebral hemispheres: the left
and right hemispheres.
 It is separated by long and deep fissures, called the longitudinal fissures.
 These two hemispheres are connected by a bundle of nerve fibers underneath the
cerebral cortex, called the cerebral commissures.
 The largest commissure is called the corpus callosum which served as the
communicating pathway between the two cerebral hemispheres.
 The frontal lobe is responsible for performing complex cognitive (frontal cortex
anterior to the precentral gyrus/motor cortex) and motor functions (precentral
gyrus).
 The parietal lobe regulates the body temperature, control movement, and process
information related to taste and touch. Specifically, the postcentral gyrus regulates
the sense of touch and the remaining parts of the parietal lobe are responsible for
the perception of our body and objects location as well as in directing attention to a
particular stimulus.
 The occipital lobe is responsible for the vision.
 The temporal lobe processes memory and information perceived by the sense of
taste, hearing, sight, and touch.
 The superior temporal gyrus is responsible for processing information related to
hearing and language
 The inferior temporal gyrus deals in identifying complex visual information, and
the medial part of the temporal lobe play an important role in certain kinds of
memory processes.
o The allocortex covers 10% of the cerebral cortex.
 o The neocortex constitutes 90% or the major area of the cerebral cortex
which is responsible for an individual's direct attention, thought, perception,
and episodic memory (Bennett, 2019).

Characteristics of Neocortex
1. The cortical neurons can either be pyramidal or stellate cells. The pyramidal
cells are multipolar pyramid-shaped neurons/cells with huge dendrites
(apical dendrites), while the stellate cells are small star-shaped neurons with
short or no axons.
2. Cortical neurons in different layers have different density and sizes.
3. Many of the axons and dendrites in the neocortex are organized vertically.
4. The thickness of each layer varies from area to area.

LIMBIC SYSTEM
 The limbic system is a set of brain structures that is responsible for an individual’s
emotions, motivated behaviors, regulating autonomous and endocrine function, and
consolidating memories (Stephani, 2014).
 Amygdala - is involved in regulating emotional responses such as anger, violence, fear,
and anxiety
 Hippocampus - learning, memory, and associating emotional responses to particular
situations of events
 Fornix - damage to fornix may result in deficits in declarative memories which deal
with autobiographical information
 Cingulate cortex - regulates emotions and behavior
 Septum is a midline nucleus located in the subcortical area of the brain.
 Mammillary bodies are a pair of small round bodies, located at the end of the anterior
part of the fornix.

5 F’s
1. Feeding (satiety and hunger)
 2. Forgetting (memory)
3. Fighting (emotional response)
4. Family (sexual reproduction, maternal instincts)
5. Fornicating (sexual arousal)
BASAL GANGLIA
 involved in motor control and learning, executive functions, behavior, and
emotions
 amygdala - emotion.
 caudate nucleus - is responsible for executing movements, motor learning,
motivation and reward
 globus pallidus- is located between the putamen and thalamus and controls
conscious and proprioceptive movements
o knowing whether feet are on soft grass or hard cement without looking
(even while wearing shoes)
o balancing on one leg
o throwing a ball without having to look at the throwing arm.

DIENCEPHALON THALAMUS
 relay the motor and sensory neurons to the cerebral cortex.
 One of the most understood is the sensory relay nuclei which receive the sensory
signal, then processes, transmit, and project sensory information to areas of the
sensory cortex.
 Examples of sensory relay nuclei are lateral geniculate nuclei which relay visual
information, medial geniculate nuclei which relay auditory information, and
ventral posterior nuclei which relay somatosensory information to areas of the
sensory cortex.

HYPOTHALAMUS
 It is also involved in regulating some of the motivated behaviors such as
sleeping, eating, and sexual behaviors.
  It also controls the endocrine system by regulating the release of hormones from
the pituitary gland

OPTIC CHIASM AND MAMMILLARY BODIES

 The optic chiasm is an X-shaped structure formed by the crossing of the optic
nerves in the brain which allows the visual cortex to generate binocular vision.

II. MIDBRAIN
Mesencephalon
TECTUM
o The tectum composed of two pairs of bumps called colliculi. The inferior
colliculi are for auditory function and superior colliculi for visual-motor
function. These two colliculi formed the corpora quadrigeminy.
TEGMENTUM
o the periaqueductal gray matter, substantia nigra, and the red nucleus. The
periaqueductal gray matter -regulates heart rate and blood pressure,
autonomic processes, production of vocalization, and fearful and
defensive reactions. It is also a particular interest to biopsychologist
because of its important role in analgesia (inability to feel pain).
o substantia nigra and red nucleus play an important part in the
sensorimotor system.

III. HINDBRAIN
1. Metencephalon
 pons, the point of origin or termination for four of the cranial nerves that
transfer sensory information and motor impulses to and from the facial region
and the brain.
  The cerebellum is the large, convoluted structure on the brain stem’s dorsal
surface. It is an important sensorimotor structure; cerebellar damage eliminates
the ability to precisely control one’s movements and to adapt them to changing
conditions.
2. Myelencephalon
 Medulla oblongata – is responsible for regulating several basic functions of the
autonomic nervous system, including respiration, cardiac function, vasodilation,
and reflexes like vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and swallowing.
 Reticular formation – it plays a fundamental role in arousal and consciousness,
control of movement and sensation, and in regulation of visceral functions.

LESSON 2: Anatomy and Functions of the Nervous System (Peripheral Nervous

System)

SPINAL CORD
 The spinal cord is a long, thin, tube-like structure that extends from the end of
the brainstem up to the bottom of the spine. It is a communication pathway
wherein the transmission of sensory and motor signals from the brain to the rest
of the body, or vice versa takes place.
 The spinal cord consists of two major areas: the gray and white matter. The gray
matter which is composed largely of soma (cell bodies) and few unmyelinated
neurons are located beneath the spinal cord. On the other hand, the white matter
forms the outer layer and is made of myelinated axons. The two dorsal arms are
called dorsal horns, whereas the two ventral arms are called ventral horns.
 Thirty-one pairs of peripheral nerves are directly connected to the spinal cord.
Each of these nerves divides and connects to the spinal cord through one of two
roots, the dorsal and ventral root. All dorsal roots are sensory or afferent
unipolar neurons that contain a group of cell bodies outside the cord, thus,
forming the dorsal root ganglion. On the other hand, the ventral roots are motor
 or efferent multipolar neurons where their cell bodies can be found in the
ventral horns.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Spinal Nerves
 A spinal nerve is a nerve directly connected to the spinal cord which carries
sensory, motor, and autonomic signals from the body to the brain, or vice versa.
There are 31 pairs in different levels of the spine: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5
lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020).
Each pair connects the spinal cord with a specific region of the body (The Editors
of Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020).

2. Cranial Nerves
 The cranial nerves are pairs of nerves that connect the brain and different parts
of the head, neck, and truck. There are 12 pairs of it, and each corresponds to a
roman numeral which is based on the location, from front to back. They are
typically categorized as sensory, motor, or both. The sensory nerves are involved
with senses, whereas, the motor nerves are in charge of controlling movements.
(Seladi-Schulman, 2019)
a. Olfactory nerve (sensory)- it is a nerve that transmits sensory information
perceived by the person’s sense of smell via the olfactory bulb (Johnson,
2019).
b. Optic nerve (sensory) - it is responsible for carrying visual information to
the brain (Johnson, 2019).
c. Oculomotor nerve (motor)- this nerve is in charge of controlling muscle
movements of the eye including the movement of eyeballs and eyelids. It also
performs involuntary functions such that pupil size changes as it responds to
light. The pupil constricts when the light is bright to allow less light to pass
 through and the pupil dilates when dark to allow more light to enter.
(Johnson, 2019)
d. Trochlear nerve (motor)- this nerve is also involved in movements of the
eye, specifically controls the downward and inward movements (Johnson,
2019).
e. Trigeminal nerve (sensory & motor)- this largest cranial nerve is
responsible for chewing and clenching teeth (motor functions), as well as
sensations (sensory function) to three divisions (ophthalmic, maxillary, &
mandibular) of the face (Johnson, 2019).
f. Abducens nerve (motor)- this nerve controls the lateral rectus muscle
which is also involved in controlling eye movements (e.g., outward gaze)
(Seladi-Schulman, 2019).
g. Facial nerve (sensory & motor)- this is the most complex cranial nerve
which consists of four nuclei responsible for controlling muscle movements
(used for facial expression chewing, swallowing, and jaw movements), sense
of taste of the major parts of the tongue, the sensation from the external ear
and supply major glands in the head and neck (Seladi-Schulman, 2019).
h. Vestibulocochlear nerve (sensory)- it is composed of the vestibular nerve
and cochlear nerve which are responsible for balance and hearing,
respectively (Johnson, 2019; Seladi-Schulman, 2019).
i. Glossopharyngeal nerve (sensory & motor)- this 9th cranial nerve is
involved in receiving sensory information from the throat, inner ear, and
back of the tongue (involved in the sensation of taste) (sensory functions). It
is also involved in controlling the stylopharyngeus, a muscle that allowsthe
throat (pharynx) to shorten and widen (Johnson, 2019; Seladi-Schulman,
2019).
j. Vagus nerve (sensory & motor)- it is the longest nerve involved in the
sensation perceived from the outer ear and the internal organs in the neck,
chest, and abdomen. It also controls the muscles in the throat and soft palate
which helps the person speak and swallow. The vagus nerve plays a minor
role in taste sensation. Additionally, it is also involved in the sensation to the
 heart which detects changes in blood pressure and oxygen levels in the
blood. (Johnson, 2019; Neuroscientifically Challenged, 2019; Seladi-
Schulman, 2019).
k. Accessory nerve (motor)- this cranial nerve controls the neck muscles
responsible for rotating, flexing, and extending the neck and shoulders. It is
divided into two parts: the spinal and cranial portion (Johnson, 2019; Seladi-
Schulman, 2019).
l. Hypoglossal nerve (motor)- this is nerve is responsible for controlling the
movements of the major parts of the tongue wherein, damage to this nerve
can cause tongue paralysis (Johnson, 2019; Seladi-Schulman, 2019).

3. Autonomic Nervous System

 The autonomic nervous system is the control system of the peripheral nervous
system which is responsible for involuntary bodily functions including heart
rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal (Waxenbaum,
Reddy, & Varacallo, 2020). It is composed of two main subdivisions: the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Both of these systems
consist of afferent and efferent neurons which facilitate and transmit the sensory
and motor signals from the internal organs to the brain, or vice versa.

A. Sympathetic Nervous System- The sympathetic nervous system is mostly

involved in the fight or flight response of the body. This means that this division
of the autonomic nervous system is usually activated when confronted by
stressful and emergencies. For instance, a person’s heart tends to beat faster and
saliva tends to be overly produced when a person is being chased by a king
cobra.
B. Parasympathetic Nervous System- The parasympathetic nervous system is
known as the rest and digest system, as it controls bodily processes during
ordinary situations. It supports the activities that are involved in the constriction
of pupils, decreased heart rate and blood pressure, constriction of bronchial
 muscles, increase digestion, increased production of saliva and mucus, and
increase in urine secretion (Noyes, & Barber-Westin, 2017).
LESSON 3: Anatomy and Functions of Cells of the Nervous System (Communication
Within a Neuron)

MEASURING ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL OF AXONS

 Electrode – electrical conductors that provide a path for electricity to enter or
leave the medium
 Microelectrode – a very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of
individual neurons.
 Membrane potential – electrical charge
 Oscilloscope – instrument capable of displaying graph of voltage
 Resting potential – the membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being
altered by excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (-70 mV)
 Depolarization – reduction (towards 0) of the membrane potential of a cell
from its normal resting potential.
 Hyperpolarization – an increased in the membrane potential of a cell, relative
to the normal resting potential.
 Action potential – the brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for
conduction of information along an axon.
 Threshold of excitation – voltage level that triggers an action potential.

THE MEMBRANE POTENTIAL: BALANCE OF TWO FORCES

1. The Force of Diffusion: Movement of molecules from regions of high concentration
to regions of low concentration.
2. The Force of Electrostatic Pressure: The attractive force between atomic particles
charged with opposite signs or the repulsive force between atomic particles charged
with the same sign.
 Cations (-)
 Anions (+)
IONS IN THE EXTRACELLULAR AND INTRACELLULAR FLUID
1. Intracellular fluid – the fluid contained within cells
2. Extracellular fluid – body fluids located outside the cells
3. (A-) : organic anions (negatively charged proteins and intermediate products of the
cell’s metabolic processes are found only in the intracellular fluid)
4. Chloride ions (Cl-) - found predominantly in extracellular fluid
5. Sodium ions (Na+) - Natrium (found predominantly in extracellular fluid)
6. Potassium ions (K+) - Kalium (found predominantly in intracellular fluid)

How can Na+ remain in greatest concentration in the extracellular fluid, despite the fact that
both forces (diffusion and electrostatic pressure) tend to push it inside?
 The membrane is impermeable to Na+, as it is to A-, the organic anions.

Sodium-potassium transporter – a protein found in the membrane of all cells that

transports sodium ions out of the cell and transports potassium ions into the cell

What would happen if the membrane suddenly became permeable to Na+?

 The sudden inflow of positively charged ions would drastically change the
membrane potential.

THE ACTION POTENTIAL

 Ion Channel – a specialized protein molecule that permit specific ions to enter or
leave the cell.
CONDUCTION OF THE ACTION POTENTIAL
 Saltatory conduction – conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The
action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next.
LESSON 3: Anatomy and Functions of Cells of the Nervous System (Communication
Between Neurons)

GENERIC NEUROTRANSMITTER SYSTEM

 To describe the ways in which neurons can communicate with each other.
 These communications make it possible for circuits of neurons to gather sensory
information, make plans and initiate behaviors.
 The primary means of communication between neurons is synaptic transmission –
the transmission of messages from one neuron to another through a synapse.
 These messages are carried by neurotransmitters, released by terminal buttons.
These chemicals diffuse across the fluid-filled gap between the terminal buttons and
the membranes of the neurons with which they form synapses.
 Neurotransmitters produce postsynaptic potentials –alterations in the membrane
potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by release of neurotransmitter at the
synapse – that increase or decrease the rate of firing of the axon of the postsynaptic
neuron.
 Ligand - chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor.
 Neurotransmitters are natural ligands, produced and released by neurons.

STRUCTURE OF THE SYNAPSES
Synapses can occur in three places:
1. Axodendritic synapses – can occur on the smooth surface of a dendrite or on
dendritic spines – a small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal
button from another neuron forms a synapse.
2. Axosomatic synapse – occur on somatic membrane
3. Axoaxonic synapse - consists of synapses between two terminal buttons.
a. Presynaptic membrane – the membrane of the terminal button that lies
adjacent to the post-synaptic membrane
 b. Postsynaptic membrane – the cell membrane opposite the terminal button
in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message.
c. Synaptic cleft – the space between the presynaptic membrane and the
postsynaptic membrane.

Contains extracellular fluid, through which the neurotransmitter diffuses.

Synaptic vesicle – a small, hollow, beadlike structure found in terminal buttons; contains
molecules of a neurotransmitter.
Release zone – a region of the interior of the presynaptic membrane to which synaptic
vesicles attach and release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.

RELEASE OF NEUROTRANSMITTER

Activation of Receptors
 They do so by diffusing across the fluid that fills the synaptic cleft. Once they reach
the other side of the synaptic cleft, they attach to the binding sites of the
postsynaptic receptors – a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane that
contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter.
 Once binding occurs, the postsynaptic receptors open neurotransmitter-dependent
ion channels – an ion channel that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter
binds with postsynaptic receptor – which permit the passage of specific ion to pass
through the membrane, changing the local membrane potential.
 o The direct methods is simpler, when a molecule of the appropriate
neurotransmitter attaches to the binding sites, the ion channel opens.
o The indirect method is more complicated. Most receptors do not open ion
channels directly but instead starts a chain of chemical events.

POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIALS
Major Types f Neurotransmitter-Dependent Ion Channels found in the Postsynaptic
Membrane
a. Sodium (Na+)
b. Potassium (K+)
c. Chloride (Cl-)
TERMINATION OF THE POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL
Postsynaptic potentials are brief
depolarization or hyperpolarization caused by the activation of postsynaptic receptors with
molecules of a neurotransmitter.
Two mechanisms keep them brief:
 Reuptake – the reentry of the neurotransmitter just releases by a terminal button
back through its membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential.
 Enzymatic deactivation – the destruction of the neurotransmitter by an enzyme
after it release.
o Acetylcholine (ACh) – a neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord,
and parts of the PNS; responsible for muscle contraction.
o Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) – the enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon
after it is released by the terminal buttons, thus terminating the postsynaptic
potential.

EFFECTS OF POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL: NEURAL INTEGRATION

 Excitatory postsynaptic potentials increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic
neuron will fire; inhibitory postsynaptic potentials decrease this likelihood.
 Thus, the rate at which an axon fires is determined by the relative activity of the
excitatory and inhibitory synapses on the soma and dendrites of the cell.
 Neural integration – the process by which inhibitory and excitatory potentials
summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron.
 The interaction of the effects of excitatory and inhibitory synapses on a particular
neuron

 Excitatory synapses become active – the release of the neurotransmitter produces

depolarizing EPSPs in the dendrites of a neuron. These EPSPs are then transmitted
 down the dendrites, across the soma, to the base of the axon. If the depolarization is
still strong enough when it reaches this point, the axon will fire.
 Inhibitory synapses become active – inhibitory postsynaptic potentials are
hyperpolarizing – they bring the membrane potential away from the threshold of
excitation. Thus, they tend to cancel the effects of excitatory postsynaptic potentials.
 The rate at which a neuron fires is controlled by the relative activity of the
excitatory and inhibitory synapses on its dendrites and soma. If the activity of the
excitatory synapses goes up, the rate of firing will go up. If the rate of inhibitory
synapses goes up, the rate of firing will go down

AUTORECEPTORS
 A receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter
released by that neuron.
 Postsynaptic receptors detect the presence of a neurotransmitter in the synaptic
cleft and initiate excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. But the
postsynaptic membrane is not the only location of receptors that respond to
neurotransmitters.
 Many neurons also possess receptors that respond to the neurotransmitter that
they release, called auto receptors.
 Auto receptors do not control ion channels. Thus, when stimulated by a molecule
of the appropriate neurotransmitter, auto receptors do not produce changes in
the membrane potential. Instead, they regulate internal processes, including the
synthesis and release of the neurotransmitter.
 In most cases, the effects of auto receptor activation are inhibitory; that is, the
presence of the neurotransmitter in the extracellular fluid in the vicinity of the
neuron causes a decrease in the rate of the synthesis or release of the
neurotransmitter.
 Auto receptors are part of a regulatory system that controls the amount of
neurotransmitter release.
  If too much is release; if not enough is released, the rates of production and
release go up.

COMMUNICATION AT AXOAXONIC SYNAPSES

 Axoaxonic synapses do not contribute directly to neural integration. Instead,
axoaxonic synapses alter the amount of a neurotransmitter released by the terminal
buttons of the postsynaptic axon.
 The release of a neurotransmitter by a terminal button is initiated by an action
potential. Normally, a particular terminal button releases a fixed amount of
neurotransmitter each time an action potential arrives.
 The release of the neurotransmitter can be modulated by the activity of the
axoaxonic synapses.
 They can produce presynaptic modulation:
o Presynaptic inhibition – the action potential of a presynaptic terminal
button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter
released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
o Presynaptic facilitation – the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an
axoaxonic synapse; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by
the postsynaptic terminal button.

NONSYNAPTIC COMMUNICATION: NEUROMODULATORS AND HORMONES

 Neuromodulators – a naturally secreted substance that acts like a
neurotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses
through the extracellular fluid.
 Hormones – are produced in cells located in the endocrine glands
 Endocrine gland – a gland that releases its secretions into the extracellular fluid
around capillaries and hence into the blood-stream.
 Target cell – the type of cell that is directly affected by a hormone or nerve fiber.
 ----LESSON 4-----

TWO MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN

1. It controls the movement of the muscles
2. It regulates the body’s internal environment

SENSORY RECEPTOR- a specialized neuron that detects a particular category of physical

events.

SENSORY TRANSDUCTION- the process by which sensory stimuli are transduced into
slow, graded receptor potentials.
 Converts stimuli into graded potentials
 Such changes in receptor membrane potential are known as the receptor potential
and the generator potential.
 RECEPTOR POTENTIAL- a slow, graded electrical potential produced by a receptor
cell in response to a physical stimulus.

STIMULUS- Perceptual dimensions of color

 HUE- the dominant wavelength
 BRIGHTNESS- intensity
 SATURATION- purity
EYES
 held in place and moved by six extraocular muscles attached to the tough, white
outer coat of the eye called the sclera.
 Conjunctiva- These mucous membranes line the eyelid and fold back to attach to
the eye
 Accommodation – changes in the thickness of the lens of the eye, accomplished
by the ciliary muscles, that focus images of near or distant objects of the retina.
o After passing through the lens, light passes through the main part of the
eye, which contains the vitreous humor
o Light falls on the retina
 Retina- the neural tissue and photoreceptive cells located on the inner surface of
the posterior portion of the eye.
RECEPTOR CELLS OF RETINA
o Rod- Sensitive to light to low intensity
o Cone- maxillary sensitive to one of three different wavelengths of
light and hence encodes color vision.
o The human retina contains approx. 120 million rods and cons.
 Photoreceptor- transduces photic energy into electrical potentials.
 Fovea- the region of the retina that mediates the most acute vision of birds and
higher mammals.
 Color sensitive to cones constitute the only type of photoreceptor found in the fovea
 Optic Disk- the location of the exit point from the retina of the fibers of the
ganglion cells that form the optic nerve.
o Responsible for the blind spot
o This is where the axons conveying visual information gather together and
leave the eye through the optic nerve.
  Bipolar Cell- a bipolar neuron located in the middle layer of the retina, conveying
information from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells.
 Ganglion Cell- a neuron located in the retina that receives visual information from
bipolar cells.
o Its axons give rise to the optic nerve
 Horizontal Cell- a neuron in the retina that interconnects adjacent photoreceptors
and the outer processes of the bipolar cells.
 Amacrine cell – a neuron in the retina that interconnects adjacent ganglion cells and
the inner processes of the bipolar cells

PHOTORECEPTORS
 Lamella- a layer of membrane containing photopigments
o Found in rods and cones of the retina.
 Photopigment – a protein dye bonded to retinal, a substance derived from vitamin
A
o responsible for transduction of visual information

TWO PARTS OF MOLECULES:

1. OSPIN (a protein)- a class of protein that, together with retinal, constitutes the
photopigments.
Example: Rhodopsin- a particular opsin found in rods.
2. RETINAL (a lipid)- a chemical synthesized from Vitamin A; joins with an opsin to
form a photopigment.
  When a molecule of rhodopsin is exposed to light, it breaks into its two
constituents, rod opsin and retinal.
 When that happens, the rod opsin changes from its rosy color to a pale yellow;
hence, we say that the light bleaches the photopigment.
 The splitting of the photopigment causes a change in the membrane potential of
the photoreceptor, which changes the rate at which the photoreceptor releases it
neurotransmitter, glutamate.
 The first two types of cells in the circuit do not produce action potentials. Instead,
their release of neurotransmitter is regulated by the value of their membrane
potential; depolarizations increase the release, and hyperpolarization decrease it

LESSON 4: PART 2 VISUAL SYSTEM

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN EYE AND BRAIN

 The axons of the retinal ganglion cells bring information to the rest of the brain.
 They ascend through the optic nerves and reach the dorsal lateral geniculate
nucleus.
 Dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus – a group of cell bodies within the lateral
geniculate body of the thalamus
o receives inputs from the retina and projects to the primary visual cortex.
o Contains six layers of neurons, each of which receives input from only one eye.
  Magnocellular layer – the two inner layers of cells in the dorsal lateral geniculate
nucleus
o transmits information necessary for the perception of form, movement, depth,
and small differences in brightness
 Parvocellular layer –the four outer layers of cells in the nucleus
o transmit information necessary for the perception of color and fine details.
 Calcarine fissure – a horizontal fissure on the inner surface of the posterior
cerebral cortex
o the location of the primary visual cortex
 Striate cortex – often called the primary visual cortex because it contains a dark-
staining layer of cells.

CODING OF VISUAL INFORMATION IN THE RETINA

 CODING OF LIGHT AND DARK. One of the most important methods for studying
the physiology of the visual system is the use of microelectrodes to record the
electrical activity of single neurons.
o Receptive field – the portion of the visual field in which the presentation of
visual stimuli will produce an alteration in the firing rate of a particular
neuron.
o The location of the receptive field of a particular neuron depends on the
location of the photoreceptors that provide it with visual information
o If a neuron receives information from photoreceptors located in the fovea, its
receptive field will be at the fixation point – the point in which the eye is
looking.
o If the neuron receives information from the photoreceptors located in the
periphery of the retina, its receptive field will be located off to one side.
HARTLINE (1938) discovered that the frog retina contained three types of ganglion
cells.
1. ON cells – responded with an excitatory burst when the retina was illuminated.
2. OFF cells – responded when the light was turned off
3. ON/OFF cells – responded briefly when the light went on and again when it went
off.
KUFFLER (1952-1953), discovered that their receptive field consists of a roughly
circular center, surrounded by a ring

 The second characteristic of the receptive fields of ganglion cells – their center
surround organization –enhances our ability to detect the outlines of objects even
when the contrast between the object and the background is low.
 These exaggerated borders do not exist in the illustration; they are added by our
visual system because of the center-surround organization of the receptive fields of
the retinal ganglion cells.

CODING OF COLOR
COLOR MIXING
 Trichromatic (three-color) theory – Thomas Young
o eye detected different colors because it contained three types of receptors,
each sensitive to a single hue. (Yellow, Red, Blue)
 o Human observer any color can be reproduced by mixing various quantities of
three colors judiciously selected from different points along the spectrum.
o Color mixing refers to the addition of two or more light sources.
o He visual system uses the process of color mixing, not pigment mixing.

OPONNENT-COLOR SYSTEM
 Ewald Hering
 Hue might be represented in the visual system as opponent colors
 Yellow, blue, red & green (black and white)
 Some colors appear to blend, whereas others do not.

PHOTORECEPTORS: TRICHROMATIC CODING

 Physiological investigation of retinal photoreceptors in higher primates have found
that Young was right: three different types of photoreceptors (3 different types of
cones) are responsible for color vision.
 Blue [short wavelength– 420 nm (blue-violet)], green [medium wavelength– 530 nm
(green)], and red [long wavelength– 560 nm (yellow-green)].

DEFECTIVE COLOR VISION

1. Protanopia (first-color defect)- confuse red and green. They see the world in
shades of yellow and blue: both red and green look yellowish to them.
2. Deuteranopia (second-color defect)- also confuse red and green and also have
normal visual acuity. Their green cones appear to be filled with “red” cone opsin.
3. Tritanopia (third-color defect)- have difficulty with hues of short-wavelengths
and see the world in greens and reds.

RETINAL GANGLION CELLS: OPPONENT-PROCESS CODING

 Daw (1968) and Gouras (1968) found that retinal ganglion cells respond
specifically to pairs of primary colors, with red opposing green and blue opposing
yellow.
  The retina contains two kinds of color-sensitive ganglion cells: red-green and
yellow-blue.

LESSON 4: PART 3 Analysis of Visual Information

ANALYSIS OF VISUAL INFORMATION: ROLE OF THE STIATE CORTEX

Striate cortex is the cerebral gateway for vision, and is of fundamental importance in the
control of visually guided eye movements (Hubel and Wiesel, 2005).

ANATOMY OF THE STRIATE CORTEX

 These layers contain the nuclei of cell bodies and dendritic trees that show up as
bands of light or dark in sections of tissue that have been dyed with a cell-body
stain.
 In primates, information from the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus enters the
middle layer (layer IVc) of the striate cortex. From there, it is relayed upward and
downward, to be analyzed by circuits of neurons in different layers
 Hubel and Wiesel discovered that neurons in the visual cortex did not simply
respond to spots of light; they selectively responded to specific features of the
visual world.

VISUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STRIATE CORTEX

 Orientation and Movement
 Spatial Frequency
 Retinal Disparity
 Color

ORIENTATION AND MOVEMENT

 Most neurons in the striate cortex are sensitive to orientation.
 Simple cells – an orientation-sensitive neuron in the striate cortex whose receptive
field is organized in an opponent fashion.
  Complex cells – a neuron in the visual cortex that responds to the presence of a line
segment with a particular orientation located within its receptive field, especially
when the line moves perpendicularly to its orientation.

SPATIAL FREQUENCY
 Sine-wave grating – a series of straight parallel bands varying continuously in
brightness according to a sine-wave function, along a line perpendicular to their
lengths.
 Spatial frequency – the relative width of the bands in a sine-wave grating,
measured in cycles per degree of visual angle.

RETINAL DISPLAY
 Retinal disparity – the fact that points on objects located at different distances
from the observer will fall on slightly different locations on the two retinas;
provides the basis for stereopsis.

COLOR
 In the striate cortex, information from color-sensitive ganglion cells is transmitted,
through the parvocellular layers of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, to special
cells grouped together in cytochrome oxidase (CO) blobs.
 Cytochrome oxidase (CO) blob - the central region of module of the primary visual
cortex, revealed by a stain for cytochrome oxidase; contains wavelength-sensitive
neurons; part of the parvocellular system.

MODULAR ORGANIZATION OF THE STRIATE CORTEX

 SEGMENTS
a. Surrounding a CO blob – sensitive to color and to low spatial frequencies
b. Outside the CO blob – neurons show sensitivity to orientation, movement,
spatial frequency, texture and binocular disparity– but most do not respond
to color.
  Ocular dominance – the extent to which particular neuron receives more input
from one eye than from the other.

BLINDSIGHT
 Visual perception depends on the integrity of the connections between the retina
and the striate cortex.
 Blindsight - the ability of a person to reach for objects located in his or her “blind’
field; occurs after damage restricted to the primary visual cortex.

ANALYSIS OF VISUAL INFORMATION: ROLE OF THE VISUAL CORTEX

The primary purpose of the visual cortex is to receive, segment, and integrate visual
information. The processed information from the visual cortex is subsequently sent to
other regions of the brain to be analyzed and utilized.

TWO STREAMS OF THE VISUAL ANALYSIS

o Dorsal stream
o Ventral stream

 The parvocellular and magnocellular systems provide different kinds of

information.
 Extrastriate cortex – a region of visual association cortex; receives fibers from the
striate cortex and from the superior colliculi and projects to the inferior temporal
cortex.

PERCEPTION OF COLOR
 Studies with laboratory animals
 Studies with Humans
ANALYSIS OF FORM
 Studies with laboratory animals
 Studies with Humans