B.

Experiments

1
1. Simple pendulum

Objective: To find the gravitational acceleration

Theory

Figure 1. (a) Equilibrium position (b) Small oscillation

A simple pendulum consists of a small bob suspended by a string of length 𝐿 (Fig. 1). The upper end of the
string is fixed. If the object is displaced sideways and released, it tries to swing back to the equilibrium position
due to gravity with period

𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ .
𝑔 (1)

The period is the time duration of one oscillation. Therefore, by measuring periods for various lengths of the
string, the acceleration 𝑔 can be determined.

Experimental Setup

Figure 2 shows the experimental setup. The length of the pendulum can be changed by turning and locking the
pully.

Figure 2. Experimental setup

2
Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝑇 2 is on y-axis and 𝐿 on x-axis, state the slope.

2. Collect data on 𝐿 and 𝑇. Use uncertainty Δ𝑇 = 0.02 s.
3. Draw a graph of 𝑇 2 against 𝐿. Find the slope with uncertainties.
4. Calculate the gravitational acceleration 𝑔.

3
2. Standing wave on string

Objective: To analyze the pattern of standing waves on a string and determine the frequency of a vibrating
source

Theory

Figure 1. Modes of standing wave on a string.

Consider a string whose ends are fixed. Standing wave modes or patterns can be set up on the string; each mode
has its own frequency. Figure 1 shows different modes of standing wave on a string. The mode is characterized
by the number of loops, nodes and antinodes. The fundamental mode contains one loop and has the lowest
frequency (fundamental frequency). It takes two loops to make one complete wavelength. Therefore, if the
length of a loop is 𝐿, we can write down wavelength

𝜆 = 2𝐿 (1)

For a string under tension 𝑇 with the mass per unit length 𝜇, speed of wave on the string is given by 𝑣 = √𝑇/𝜇.
From the 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 where 𝑓 is the frequency of the wave, one can write

𝑇
√ = 𝑓𝜆. (2)
𝜇

For a piece of string vibrating at a certain frequency 𝑓, Eq. (2) relates the tension to the wavelength which in
turn relates to the number of loops of the standing wave pattern.

Experimental setup

Figure 2. Experimental setup

4
Figure 2 shows the experimental setup. The tension in the string can be varied by changing the hanging mass
𝑚 until a standing-wave mode is achieved. The wavelength of the standing wave can be found by using Eq. (1)
or by noting that wavelength is twice the length of one loop.

Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝐿2 is on y-axis and 𝑚 on x-axis, state the slope.

2. Collect data on 𝑚 and 𝐿. Use uncertainty Δ𝐿 = 0.01 m.
3. Draw a graph of 𝐿2 against 𝑚. Find the slope with uncertainty.

Use 𝜇 = (8.6 ± 0.1) × 10−4 kg m−1 and 𝑔 = 9.8 ms −2 .

4. Calculate the frequency 𝑓 of the source.

5
3. Specific heat capacity of water

Objective: To study heat transfer and find specific heat capacity of water

Theory

Figure 1. Heater transfers energy to water in a closed container.

Figure 1 shows a heating rod connected to a power source. Current 𝐼 is supplied to the heater that has electrical
resistance 𝑅. The electrical power is given by 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅. After time 𝑡, the amount of energy consumed is

𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡. (1)

The heater is submerged in water in a closed container. The energy from the heater is supplied to water, raising
the water temperature. For water of mass 𝑚 which receives heat 𝑄, the temperature 𝑇 changes according to

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐(𝑇 − 𝑇0 ), (2)

where 𝑐 is the specific heat capacity of water, and 𝑇0 is the initial temperature. By assuming 100% energy
conversion from the electrical energy to heat that the water receives, 𝐸 = 𝑄. Therefore, from Eqs. (1) and (2),

𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐(𝑇 − 𝑇0 ). (3)

This equation determines the temperature as a function of time.

Experimental setup

Figure 2 shows the apparatus. An insulated container is filled with water of a known mass. The lid of the
container has a heating rod in which electrical energy from a power source is converted into heat. The lid is
placed on the container so that the heating rod is in contact with the water in the container. A thermometer is
inserted to measure the temperature of the water inside the container.

6
 Figure 2. Apparatus

Caution

The heating rod can get very hot. Do not touch while in operation.

Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝑇 is on y-axis and 𝑡 on x-axis, state the slope.

2. Collect data on 𝑡 and 𝑇. Use uncertainty Δ𝑇 = 0.2℃
3. Draw a graph of 𝑇 against 𝑡. Find the slope with uncertainty.

Use 𝐼 = 3.40 ± 0.05 A, 𝑅 = 3.50 ± 0.05 Ω and 𝑚 = 0.150 kg.

4. Calculate the specific heat capacity of water 𝑐.

7
4. Newton’s law of cooling

Objective: To study Newton’s law of cooling and find the cooling coefficient

Theory

Figure 1. Cooling a hot object

Consider an object with an initial temperature of 𝑇0 (Fig. 1). This object cools by heat transfer to the
surroundings. Newton’s law of cooling state that the rate of heat loss is proportional to the difference between
the object’s temperature 𝑇 and the ambient temperature 𝑇𝑎 (𝑇𝑎 < 𝑇0 ). For a short time period after the cooling
begins, the law gives a formula for temperature of the object at time 𝑡:

𝑇 = −(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝑘𝑡 + 𝑇0 , (1)

where 𝑘 is the coefficient of heat transfer.

Experimental setup

Figure 2 shows the apparatus. A beaker is filled with hot water and exposed to air. A thermometer is inserted
into the water to record the temperature as the water cools.

Figure 2. Apparatus

Caution: Water is very hot and must be handled carefully.

Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝑇 is on y-axis and 𝑡 on x-axis, state the slope.

2. Record the ambient temperature 𝑇𝑎 . Collect data on 𝑡 and 𝑇. Use uncertainty Δ𝑇 = 0.2℃. Use the initial
temperature below 70℃.
3. Draw a graph of 𝑇 against 𝑡. Find the slope with uncertainty.
4. Calculate the coefficient of heat transfer 𝑘.

8
5. Resonance tube

Objective: To study resonance in a tube and find the speed of sound in air.

Theory

Figure 1. A resonance tube with adjustable length Figure 2. End correction.

Figure 1 shows a resonance tube with a movable piston. A speaker generates sound wave in the tube. The tube
contains a vibrating air column whose length can be adjusted to accommodate modes of standing wave. Each
mode has its own distinct frequency. The first mode (fundamental mode) occurs when the length of the air
column is a quarter of the sound wavelength:

𝜆
𝐿 = . (1)
4

The fundamental mode has the lowest frequency (fundamental frequency). At resonance, a loud sound is heard
at the open end (antinode).

At the open end of the tube is supposed to be an antinode. However, the actual antinode is a little away from
the open end outside the tube by a small distance 𝑒 whose value depends on the geometry of the tube. This
distance 𝑒 is called “end-correction”. Figure 2 shows a position of the antinode beyond the tube. The length of
the vibrating air column is thus 𝐿 + 𝑒. Therefore,

𝜆
𝐿 +𝑒 = . (2)
4

One can use the formula 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆, where 𝑓 is the frequency of the sound and 𝑣 is the speed of sound in air.

Experimental setup

Figure 3 shows an experimental setup. Sound with frequency 𝑓 is emitted from a speaker at the open end of
the tube. The piston can be moved to vary the length 𝐿 of the air column in the tube. For a particular sound
frequency 𝑓, adjust the length 𝐿 until a loud sound is heard. This is when the resonance occurs.

9
 Figure 3. Experimental setup

Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝐿 is on y-axis and 1⁄𝑓 on x-axis, state the slope and y-intercept.
2. Collect data on 𝑓 and 𝐿 . Use uncertainty Δ𝐿 = 0.3 cm.
3. Draw a graph of 𝐿 against 1⁄𝑓 . Find the slope and y-intercept with uncertainties.
4. Calculate the speed of sound 𝑣 and end correction 𝑒.

10
6. Simple harmonic motion

Objective: To analyze simple harmonic motion of a mass-spring system and find the unknowns.

Theory

Figure 1. A mass-spring system

Periodic motion is the motion that returns an object to a given position after a fixed time interval. Simple
harmonic motion (SHM) is a special kind of periodic motion in which the object oscillates sinusoidally,
smoothly. Figure 1 shows a mass-spring system which is known to perform the simple harmonic motion. An
oscillating object of mass 𝑚 is attached to an elastic spring whose spring constant is 𝑘. Period 𝑇 of the motion
is defined as the time to complete one oscillation, and it is given by

𝑚 + 𝑚𝑠 /3
𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ , (1)
𝑘

where 𝑚𝑠 is the mass of the spring. Therefore, by finding periods for different object’s masses, the spring
constant 𝑘 and the mass of the spring 𝑚𝑠 can be calculated.

Experimental setup

Figure 2. Experimental setup

Figure 2 shows an experimental setup. A holder of mass 50 g is suspended from a vertical spring. Each coin of
mass 100 g can be placed on the holder. The suspended holder is set to vibrate vertically by displacing it
downwards and letting go. The mass of the suspended object can be varied by inserting more coins on the
holder.

11
Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝑇 2 is on y-axis and 𝑚 on x-axis, state the slope and y-intercept.
2. Collect data on 𝑚 and 𝑇. Use uncertainty Δ𝑇 = 0.02 s.
3. Draw a graph of 𝑇 2 against 𝑚. Find the slope and y-intercept with uncertainties.
4. Calculate the spring constant 𝑘 and the mass of the spring 𝑚𝑠 .

12
 Appendix

Period of oscillation in case of massive spring

When an object attached to a light spring performs an oscillatory motion, the energies involved are potential
energy of the spring (𝑘𝑥 2 /2) and the kinetic energy of the object (𝑚𝑣 2 /2). If the spring itself has mass, the
additional energy will be the kinetic energy of the spring.

Figure A1. Small element of length 𝑑𝑦 at distance 𝑦 from fixed end

Assume that the spring has mass 𝑚𝑠 uniformly distributed along the length 𝐿 of the spring. Let 𝜆 denote mass
per unit length of the spring. Consider a small element of spring of length 𝑑𝑦 which is at distance 𝑦 from the
fixed end of the spring as shown in Fig. A1. This element has mass 𝑑𝑚𝑠 = 𝜆𝑑𝑦. The speed of the spring at the
point where the mass attached to is 𝑣 and that of the spring at the fixed point is zero. Therefore, the speed of
the small element, assuming linear dependence, is given by 𝑢 = (𝑦/𝐿)𝑣. One can write kinetic energy of the
small element as

1 1 𝑣𝑦 2 1 𝑣2 (A1)
𝑑𝐸𝑘 = (𝑑𝑚𝑠 )𝑢2 = 𝜆𝑑𝑦 ( ) = 𝜆 2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦.
2 2 𝐿 2 𝐿

By integrating from 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = 𝐿, one obtains the kinetic energy of the spring

1 𝑣2 𝐿 2 1 𝑣 2 𝐿3 1 (A2))
𝐸𝑘 = 𝜆 2 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = = 𝜆 2 ( ) = 𝜆𝐿𝑣 2 .
2 𝐿 0 2 𝐿 3 6

Substituting 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑠 /𝐿 gives

1 (A3)
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚 𝑣2.
6 𝑠

This kinetic energy of the spring is to be added to the kinetic energy of the mass when it moves. When the
spring is stretched by displacement 𝑥 and the speed of the mass is 𝑣, the total energy of the system is given by

1 2 1 1 (A4)
𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑠 𝑣 2
2 2 6
1 2 1 𝑚𝑠 (A5)
= 𝑘𝑥 + (𝑚 + ) 𝑣 2 .
2 2 3

Since the energy is constant, we can differentiate energy 𝐸 with respect to time and set the derivative to zero.
The result is

𝑑𝐸 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑘 (2𝑥 ) + (𝑚 + ) (2𝑣 ) (A6)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 3 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑣
0 = 𝑘𝑥𝑣 + (𝑚 + ) (𝑣 ) (A7)
3 𝑑𝑡

13
 𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑣
0 = 𝑘𝑥 + (𝑚 + ) ( ). (A8)
3 𝑑𝑡

Equation (A8) relates the acceleration 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎 with displacement 𝑥:

𝑘 (A9)
𝑎 = −( ) 𝑥.
𝑚 + 𝑚𝑠 /3

Comparison of Eq. (A9) with the simple harmonic motion relation 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥, the angular frequency reads

𝑘
𝜔=√ , (A10)
𝑚 + 𝑚𝑠 /3

and hence the period of oscillation is given by

2𝜋 𝑚 + 𝑚𝑠 /3
𝑇 = = 2𝜋√ . (A11)
𝜔 𝑘

In case of light spring, 𝑚𝑠 = 0 and we return to the usual formula 𝑇 = 2𝜋√(𝑚/𝑘).

14
7. Rolling motion

Objective: To study the acceleration of a rolling body downhill.

Theory

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Free-body diagram of an object (a) a sliding on a frictionless plane,

(b) a rolling on a rough plane

For an object sliding down an inclined frictionless plane, Newton’s second law gives the acceleration

𝑎 = 𝑔 sin 𝜃, (1)

where 𝜃 is the angle of the plane as shown in Fig. 1a. However, if the object rolls instead of sliding as shown in
Fig. 1b, the acceleration will be less than that given in Eq. (1). Certainly, friction will come into play in the case
of rolling. Objects of different geometry will also have different accelerations on the same inclined plane. This
is because of the moment of inertia of object. The moment of inertia determines how difficult to rotate a body
about a particular axis. The acceleration of the rolling object down the plane is

𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑎 = , (2)
1+𝑛

where 𝑛 (𝑛 > 0) is a numerical value depending on the shape of the object. For a solid sphere, 𝑛 = 2⁄5. For a
solid cylinder 𝑛 = 1⁄2. For a thin hollow cylinder, 𝑛 = 1. If there is no friction, the object slides and 𝑛 = 0.

For a linear motion with constant acceleration, the distance 𝑠 and time 𝑡 are related by the standard equation

1 2
𝑠 = 𝑎𝑡 . (3)
2

Experimental setup

15
 Figure 2. Experimental setup

Figure 2 shows an inclined plane on which an object rolls. The inclination angle is kept constant. Release the
object and let it roll down. Measure the distance 𝑠 and time 𝑡.

Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝑡 2 is plotted on y-axis and 𝑠 on x-axis, state the slope.
2. Collect data on 𝑠 and 𝑡. Use uncertainty Δ𝑡 = (𝑡max − 𝑡min )/2.
3. Draw a graph of 𝑡 2 against 𝑠. Find the slope and its uncertainty.

Use 𝜃 = 4.5° ± 0.1° and 𝑔 = 9.8 ms −2 .

4. Find the value of 𝑛.

16
8. Falling with drag force

Objective: To study drag force and find viscosity of glycerol.

Theory

Drag force on an object has a very interesting character of velocity dependence. The faster the object moves,
the larger drag force it experiences. One of the most familiar drag forces is the air resistance. For not too large
velocity, the drag force 𝑓 is proportional to the velocity 𝑣 in the standard linear form

𝑓 = −𝑏𝑣, (1)

where 𝑏 is the drag coefficient, depending on the property of the surroundings and also on the shape of the
object. The negative sign reflects the fact that the drag force has the opposite direction to the motion. Another
situation for the drag force is the resistance on a moving object through a viscous liquid such as honey and
crude oil. These materials provide a test on the nature of the linear drag force in which we will investigate
further.

Figure 1. Free-body diagram Figure 2. Graph of speed vs time

For a spherical body falling in a viscous liquid, the drag coefficient is proportional to the radius 𝑟 of the body
and to the viscosity 𝜂 of the liquid. Therefore, we can write 𝑏 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟. Figure 1 shows a free-body diagram of a
falling sphere of density 𝜌𝑜 and volume 𝑉 in liquid of density 𝜌𝑙 (𝜌𝑙 < 𝜌𝑜 ). The drag force 𝑓 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 and the
buoyancy force 𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑔 resist the motion and we can write, from Newton’s second law,

∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑑𝑣
𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹𝐵 − 𝑓 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑔 − 𝜌𝑙 𝑉𝑔 − 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = (𝜌𝑜 𝑉)
𝑑𝑡
4 4 4 𝑑𝑣 4 3
(𝜌𝑜 𝜋𝑟 3 ) 𝑔 − 𝜌𝑙 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔 − 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = (𝜌𝑜 𝜋𝑟 3 ) (𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 )
3 3 3 𝑑𝑡 3
4 4 𝑑𝑣
(𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 ) 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔 − 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = (𝜌𝑜 𝜋𝑟 3 ) . (2)
3 3 𝑑𝑡

Solving the above equation by integration is recommendable (see Appendix). As time goes on, the velocity of
the sphere increases but the acceleration decreases (Fig. 2). After a long time, the acceleration reaches zero
and the velocity becomes constant. This constant velocity is called terminal velocity 𝑣𝑡 .

When the terminal velocity is reached, the right-hand side of Eq. (2) is zero. It is often convenient to express
the size of the sphere in terms of its diameter 𝑑 (𝑟 = 𝑑 ⁄2). Therefore, we have an equation for the terminal
velocity

17
 1 (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 )𝑔 2
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑑 . (3)
18 𝜂

The terminal velocity is constant. When the sphere falls a distance 𝑠 in time 𝑡, 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑠⁄𝑡, and therefore,

𝑠 1 (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 )𝑔 2
= 𝑑 . (4)
𝑡 18 𝜂

Experimental setup

Figure 3. Experimental setup

An experimental setup is shown in Fig. 3. A measuring cylinder contains glycerol. Two marking tapes separated
by 𝑠 = 6.0 cm are attached near the bottom. Drop a steel ball into the cylinder. The ball reaches terminal speed
𝑣𝑡 quickly, much earlier than before it passes the marking tapes. When the travel time of the ball between the
marking tapes is 𝑡, the terminal speed is given by 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑠⁄𝑡.

Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 1⁄𝑡 is plotted on y-axis and 𝑑 2 on x-axis, state the slope.
2. Collect data on 𝑑 and 𝑡. Use uncertainty Δ𝑡 = (𝑡max − 𝑡min )/2.
3. Draw a graph of 1⁄𝑡 against 𝑑 2 . Find the slope and its uncertainty.

Use 𝜌𝑜 = (7.9 ± 0.1) × 103 kg m−3 , 𝜌𝑙 = (1.2 ± 0.1) × 103 kg m−3 , 𝑠 = 0.06 m and 𝑔 = 9.8 ms −2 .
4. Calculate the viscosity 𝜂 of the glycerol with its uncertainty.

18
 Appendix

Motion of a spherical object falling in a viscous fluid

The equation of motion that we try to solve is

4 4 𝑑𝑣
(𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 ) 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑔 − 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣 = (𝜌𝑜 𝜋𝑟 3 ) , (A1)
3 3 𝑑𝑡

which can be rearranged to get

𝑑𝑣 𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 9 𝜂
= ( )𝑔 − 𝑣. (A2)
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑜 2 𝜌0 𝑟 2

Let us denote the following parameters to save some writing:

𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 9 𝜂
𝐴 = ( ) 𝑔, 𝐵 = . (A3)
𝜌𝑜 2 𝜌0 𝑟 2

Hence, Eq. (A2) can be rewritten in the form

𝑑𝑣
= 𝐴 − 𝐵𝑣. (A4)
𝑑𝑡

Standard procedure of solving the differential equation proceeds as follow:

𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝐴 − 𝐵𝑣 0
1 𝐵
− ln (1 − 𝑣) = 𝑡
𝐵 𝐴
𝐵
1− 𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝐵𝑡
𝐴
𝐴
𝑣 = (1 − 𝑒 −𝐵𝑡 ). (A5)
𝐵

Equation (A5) describes velocity 𝑣 of the object as a function time. The velocity increases until 𝑡 → ∞ beyond
which 𝑣 cannot increase further. This maximum velocity is the terminal velocity

𝐴
𝑣𝑡 =
𝐵
2 (𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑙 )𝑔 2
= 𝑟 . (Use Eq. (A3)) (A6)
9 𝜂

Substituting 𝑟 = 𝑑⁄2 where 𝑑 is the diameter of the object gives Eq. (3).

19
9. Ideal gas: isothermal process

Objective: To analyze ideal gas equation and find the number of moles of air in a closed system.

Theory

The state of an ideal gas of pressure 𝑝 in a closed container of volume 𝑉 at temperature 𝑇 follows ideal gas
equation

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇, (1)

where 𝑛 is the number of moles of the gas and 𝑅 = 8.3 J. mol−1 . K −1 is gas constant.

Experimental setup

Figure 1. Experimental setup

Figure 1 shows experimental setup. The syringe contains air whose volume 𝑉 can be varied by pushing or
pulling the piston. The syringe is connected to a box with installed pressure and temperature sensors. Some air
occupies a volume in the connecting tube and in the box; this volume is denoted by 𝑉0 which is a constant.
Pressure 𝑝 can be read directly from the display on the screen. Hence, from Eq. (1),

𝑝(𝑉 + 𝑉0 ) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇. (2)

Try to maintain constant temperature by moving the piston slowly.

Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 1⁄𝑝 is on y-axis and 𝑉 on x-axis, state the slope.
2. Record temperature. Collect data on 𝑉 and 𝑝. Use uncertainty Δ𝑝 = 0.005 × 105 Pa.
3. Draw a graph of 1⁄𝑝 against 𝑉. Find the slope with uncertainty.

Use 𝑅 = 8.3 J. mol−1 . K −1

4. Calculate the number of moles 𝑛 of air in the container.

20
10. Ideal gas: isochoric process

Objective: To study an ideal gas simulation and find the simulation volume

Theory

Figure 1. Cooling causes the gas pressure inside the can to reduce.

The state of an ideal gas of pressure 𝑝 in a closed container of volume 𝑉 at temperature 𝑇 follows ideal gas
equation

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇, (1)

where 𝑁 is the number of gas particles and 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 J.K −1 is the Boltzmann constant. If the volume is
held fixed, it can be seen that the pressure is proportional to the temperature. Figure 1 shows that the gas inside
the can is cooled, and its pressure inside is reduced. As a result, the can is compressed by the external air
pressure.

Experimental setup

Below is the link to the simulation page. On the page “Gas Properties”, choose “Ideal”

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/gas-properties/latest/gas-properties_en.html

21
On the simulation page (Fig 2), you can change the simulation volume by “click and drag” the handle on the
left. Particles can be added by clicking the sign “+” on the right. The temperature can be changed by “click
and drag” the bar at the bottom of the page. On the top of the page, you find a thermometer and a pressure
gauge.

Figure 2. Simulation page

Procedure

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝑝 is on y-axis and 𝑇 on x-axis, state the slope.

Adjust 𝑉 to maximum. Use 𝑁 = 500.
2. Collect data on 𝑝 and 𝑇. Use uncertainty Δ𝑝 = 0.3 atm.

Use 1 atm = 1.0 × 105 Pa.

3. Draw a graph of 𝑝 against 𝑇. Find the slope and its uncertainty.
4. Calculate the maximum simulation volume 𝑉.

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