ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

An environmental study is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human

interaction with the environment. Environmental studies connects principles from  
● The physical sciences,  (Physics, chemistry, astronomy)
● Commerce/economics,  
● The humanities/Social sciences to address complex contemporary environmental issues.  

It is a broad field of study that includes the natural environment, the built environment, and the
relationship between them. The field encompasses study in basic principles of ecology and
environmental science, as well as associated subjects such as  
● ETHICS,  
● GEOGRAPHY,  
● ANTHROPOLOGY,  
● POLICY,  
● POLITICS,  
● URBAN PLANNING,  
● LAW,  
● ECONOMICS,  
● PHILOSOPHY,  
● SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE,  
● PLANNING,  
● POLLUTION CONTROL 
● NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT.  
 
 
 
Environmental Studies provide a wide range of skills and analytical tools needed to face the
environmental issues of our world head on.  
Few latest/ongoing researches -  
● Air quality. Acid rain. Air pollution. ... 
● Climate change. Global warming. Greenhouse effect. ... 
● Ecosystems. Coastal ecosystems. Coral reefs. ... 
● Energy. Alternative fuels. ... 
● Environmental disasters. Chemical spills. ... 
● Environmental economics. Economic development. ... 
● Environmental education. Environmental studies. ... 
● Environmental ethics. Deep ecology. 
 COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
The basic components of the environment are atmosphere or the
air, lithosphere or the rocks and soil, hydrosphere or the water, and
the living component of the environment or the biosphere. the thick
gaseous layer surrounding the earth. It spreads up to 300 km

Atmosphere –

The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the planet. On

Earth, the atmosphere helps make life possible. Besides providing
us with something to breathe, it shields us from most of the harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun, warms the surface of
our planet by about 33° C (59° F) via the greenhouse effect, and
largely prevents extreme differences between daytime and night-
time temperatures. The other planets in our solar system also have
an atmosphere, but none of them have the same ratio of gases and
layered structure as Earth's atmosphere. 
Earth's atmosphere has five major and several secondary layers. From lowest to highest, the
major layers are

1. Troposphere - The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere,

ranging from the Earth's surface to an altitude of about 10–15 km, depending on
latitude and time of year
2. Stratosphere - The stratosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere. It is the
second layer of the atmosphere as you go upward. The troposphere, the lowest
layer, is right below the stratosphere
3. Mesosphere - The next higher layer above the stratosphere is the
mesosphere. 
4. Thermosphere  - The thermosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere that is
directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. It extends from about
90 km (56 miles) to between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above our planet.
5. Exosphere- The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's
atmosphere (i.e., the upper limit of the atmosphere) and extends from the exobase,
which is located at the top of the thermosphere.
LITHOSPHERE - The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of
the Earth. The lithosphere includes the brittle upper portion of
the mantle and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth’s structure.
It is bounded by the atmosphere above and
the asthenosphere (another part of the upper mantle) below.

There are two types of lithosphere:

Oceanic lithosphere - Oceanic lithosphere is associated

with oceanic crust, and is slightly denser than
continental lithosphere.

Continental lithosphere - The continental lithosphere consists of

the continental crust and, typically, some non-convecting part of the
underlying upper mantle. In plate tectonics terms, the continental
lithosphere is part of the rigid outer ring of the Earth, which is
segmented into several major plates.

Plate Tectonics

The most well-known feature associated

with Earth’s lithosphere is tectonic activity. Tectonic
activity describes the interaction of the huge slabs
of lithosphere called tectonic plates.

The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates including the North

American, Caribbean, South American, Scotia, Antarctic, Eurasian,
Arabian, African, Indian, Philippine, Australian, Pacific, Juan de
Fuca, Cocos, and Nazca.

Most tectonic activity takes place at the boundaries of these plates,

where they may collide, tear apart, or slide against each other. The
movement of tectonic plates is made possible by thermal
energy (heat) from the mantle part of the lithosphere. Thermal
energy makes the rocks of the lithosphere more elastic.
 Tectonic activity is responsible for some of Earth's most
dramatic geologic events: earthquakes, volcanoes, orogeny (mount
ain-building), and deep ocean trenches can all be formed
by tectonic activity in the lithosphere.

Tectonic activity can shape the lithosphere itself: Both oceanic and

continental lithospheres are thinnest at rift valleys and ocean ridges,
where tectonic plates are shifting apart from one another.

HYDROSPHERE –

A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The

hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of the planet,
underground, and in the air. A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid,
vapor, or ice. On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the
form of oceans, lakes and rivers.
The components are oceans, freshwater, surface water,
groundwater, glacial water, and atmospheric water vapour.

BIOSPHERE –

The biosphere is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists—all

ecosystems. The biosphere extends from the deepest root systems
of trees, to the dark environments of ocean trenches, to lush rain
forests, high mountaintops, and transition zones like this one, where
ocean and terrestrial ecosystems meet.
Examples of Biosphere

● Tundras-IN physical geography, tundra is a type of biome where the

tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing
seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian тундра from the
Kildin Sámi word тӯндар meaning "uplands", "treeless mountain
tract
● Prairies - Prairies are ecosystems considered part of the temperate
grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on
similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and a composition of
grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant
vegetation type.
● Deserts.
● Tropical rainforests.
● Deciduous forests.
● Oceans.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The scope of environmental studies is very wide and it deals with
many areas like
i) Conservation of natural resources,
ii) ecological aspects,
iii) pollution of the surrounding natural resources,
iv) controlling the pollution,
v) social issues connected to it,
vi) impacts of human population on the environment.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

It helps us to establish a standard for a safe, clean and healthy
natural ecosystem. It also deals with important issues like safe and
clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions and clean and fresh
air, fertility of land, healthy food and development.

CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability means meeting our own needs without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In addition
to natural resources, we also need social and economic resources.
Sustainability is not just environmental- ism.
 CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable development is the overarching paradigm of the United
Nations. The concept of sustainable development was described by
the 1987 Bruntland Commission Report as “development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs
EXAMPLE - Using recycled materials or renewable resources when
building is an example of sustainable development. Building a new
community in a previously undeveloped area without destroying the
ecosystem or harming the environment is an example of
sustainable development.

HOW TO ATTAIN SUSTAINABILITY

1. Control your needs
2. Promote indigenous communities
3. Waste management
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental issues are issues related to human impact on the
living environment, habitats, land use and natural resources. The
following alphabetical list shows some of the main known
environmental issues by major topic title:
● Air quality (air pollution, ozone pollution, ties to human
health with asthma, diesel emissions, etc.)
● Biodiversity (conservation of biological diversity)
● Climate change (encompasses "global warming",
greenhouse effect, loss of glaciers, climate refugees,
climate justice, equity, etc)
● Conservation (nature and animal conservation, etc.)
● Consumerism (linking the state of consumers within the
economy to environmental degradation and social malaise,
planned obsolescence)
● Deforestation (illegal logging, impact of fires, rapid pace of
destruction, etc.)
● Desertification
● Ecotourism
● Endangered species (CITES, loss of species, impact of
chemical use on species, cultural use, species extinction,
invasive species, etc.)
● Energy (use, conservation, extraction of resources to
create energy, efficient use, renewable energy, etc.)
● Environmental degradation
● Environmental health (poor environmental quality causing
poor health in human beings, bio-accumulation, poisoning)
● Environmental impact assessment (one major current form
of assessing human impact on the environment)
● Food safety (including food justice, impacts of additives,
etc.)
● Genetically modified organisms and other forms of genetic
engineering or modification
● Global environmental issues (in recognition that
environmental issues cross borders)
● Global warming
● Grassroots solutions (local and regional environmental
issues solved from the bottom-up)
● Habitat loss (destruction, fragmentation, changed use)
● Intergenerational equity (recognition that future
generations deserve a healthy environment)
● Intensive farming and biointensive farming
● Invasive species (weeds, pests, feral animals, etc.)
● Land degradation
● Land use / Land use planning (includes urban sprawl)
● Natural disasters (linked to climate change, desertification,
deforestation, loss of natural resources such as wetlands,
etc.)
● Nuclear energy, waste and pollution
● Ocean acidification (includes algal bloom, coral reef loss,
etc.)
 ● Over-exploitation of natural resources (plant and animal
stocks, mineral resources (mining), etc.)
● Overfishing (depletion of ocean fish stocks)
● Ozone depletion (CFCs, Montreal Protocol)
● Pollution (air, water, land, toxins, light, point source and
non-point source, use of coal/gas/etc., reclaimed land
issues)
● Population growth and related issues, like overpopulation,
access to reproductive control (reproductive health), etc.
● Reduce, reuse, repair and recycle (ways to reduce impact,
minimise footprint, etc.)
● Soil conservation (includes soil erosion, contamination and
salination of land, especially fertile land; see also
desertification and deforestation)
● Sustainability (finding ways to live more sustainably on the
planet, lessening human footprint, increasing human
fulfillment with less impact) (see also sustainable
development and poverty alleviation)
● Toxic chemicals (persistent organic pollutants, prior
informed consent, pesticides, endocrine disruptors, etc.)
● Waste (landfills, recycling, incineration, various types of
waste produced from human endeavors, etc.)
● Water pollution (fresh water and ocean pollution, Great
Pacific Garbage Patch, river and lake pollution, riparian
issues)
● Water scarcity
● Acid Rain

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the Earth's

climate over an extended period.

The impact of climate change

● Increasing heat stresses as global temperatures rise.
While some regions such as Canada may benefit to some
 degree from rising temperatures, the overall effects on the
ability of the planet to support life will be negative. As
temperatures rise, many equatorial regions will become
hostile to life;
● Changing weather patterns, especially more extreme
weather events and changing rainfall patterns, specifically
increasing or decreasing precipitation levels. Increasing
floods and drought periods will have a generally negative
effect on farming
● Natural disasters (ie mud slides, hurricanes, ...) are
expected to increase in their severity. Death toll in 2003 =
150,000 people
● Sea level rise will contaminate a very large percentage of
the planets' agricultural fields with sea salt and make them
no longer suitable for continued food production. In
addition, many low-lying islands and coastlines will need to
be abandoned, forcing many people to move.
● Increasing ocean acidity. As the pH of water decreases
due to the input of carbonic acid (resulting from CO2
dissolving in water), life forms that rely on a chalk shell will
find it increasingly impossible to survive. This will have
negative effects on many ocean ecosystems, especially
coral reefs which are the most bio-diverse of any
ecosystem on the planet.

Climate Change Mitigation

Several options are available to reduce the impacts of a changing
climate. Most of these (the most efficient ones) are lifestyle changes
(i.e. stop the burning of fossil fuels, stop eating meat, etc.) and can
be put in place today. We also do not need to wait for any specific
technology to become available. Rather, the essential technology is
already here today. Politicians often portray a different picture but it
is rarely based in reality. Selected options include:

● Reducing the release of greenhouse gasesW (GHG's) into

the atmosphere (ie through energy efficiency, ...)
 ● Prevent carbon dioxide from being released into the
atmosphere (ie through carbon capture and storage (CCS),
biochar, ...). With Carbon sequestration/CCS, after
combusting a fuel, the CO2 is stored in a cavity
underground.
● Remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, e.g. through
geo-engineering ocean fertilisation, planting extra trees, ...
● Shield some of the planet from the sun, or reflect a
proportion of sunlight back into space (i.e. by painting
roads, parking spaces and roofs white, spraying sulfate
aerosols into the stratosphere, ...)
● Climate change mitigation: build heat tolerant houses
(passive solar with suitable insulation), flood control
barriers, ...

Global Warming
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and
weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, but since the 1800s,
human activities have been the main driver of climate change,
primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and gas),
which produces heat-trapping gases.

Causes of Climate Change

● Greenhouse Gas Emissions
● Reflectivity or Absorption of the Sun’s Energy

Greenhouse Gases
Concentrations of the key greenhouse gases have all increased
since the Industrial Revolution due to human activities. Carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide concentrations are now more
abundant in the earth’s atmosphere than any time in the last
800,000 years. These greenhouse gas emissions have increased
the greenhouse effect and caused the earth’s surface temperature
to rise. Burning fossil fuels changes the climate more than any other
human activity.
Carbon dioxide: Human activities currently release over 30 billion
tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere every year.6
Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have increased by more
than 40 percent since pre-industrial times, from approximately 280
parts per million (ppm) in the 18th century7 to 414 ppm in 2020.8
Methane: Human activities increased methane concentrations
during most of the 20th century to more than 2.5 times the pre-
industrial level, from approximately 722 parts per billion (ppb) in the
18th century to 1,867 ppb in 2019.
Nitrous oxide: Nitrous oxide concentrations have risen
approximately 20 percent since the start of the Industrial
Revolution, with a relatively rapid increase toward the end of the
20th century. Nitrous oxide concentrations have increased from a
pre-industrial level of 270 ppb to 332 ppb in 2019.

Solutions
Everyone can help limit climate change. From the way we travel, to
the electricity we use and the food we eat, we can make a
difference. Start with these 10 actions to help tackle the climate
crisis.

Save energy at home

Much of our electricity and heat are powered by coal, oil, and gas.
Use less energy by lowering your heating and cooling, switching to
LED light bulbs and energy-efficient electric appliances, washing
your laundry with cold water, or hanging things to dry instead of
using a dryer.

Walk, cycle, or take public transport

The world’s roads are clogged with vehicles, most of them burning
diesel or petrol. Walking or riding a bike instead of driving will
reduce greenhouse gas emissions – and help your health and
fitness. For longer distances, consider taking a train or bus. And
carpool whenever possible.

Eat more vegetables

Eating more vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts and

seeds, and less meat and dairy, can significantly lower your
environmental impact. Producing plant-based foods generally
results in fewer greenhouse gas emissions and requires less
energy, land, and water.

Ozone Layer Definition

The ozone layer is a region in the earth’s stratosphere that contains
high concentrations of ozone and protects the earth from the
harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun.

The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s
atmosphere. It has the potential to absorb around 97-99% of
the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun that can
damage life on earth. If the ozone layer was absent, millions of
people would develop skin diseases and may have weakened
immune systems.
However, scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer
over Antarctica. This has focussed their concern on various
environmental issues and steps to control them. The main reasons
for the ozone hole are chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride,
methyl bromide and hydrochlorofluorocarbons.
 Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a
number of factors. The main causes responsible for the depletion of
the ozone layer are listed below:

Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer
depletion. These are released by solvents, spray aerosols,
refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are
broken down by ultraviolet radiations and release chlorine atoms.
These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.
Unregulated Rocket Launches
Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in
much more depletion of the ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not
controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the ozone layer by the
year 2050.
Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly
responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural
processes such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But it does
not cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer depletion.
The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of
the ozone layer.

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the
environment. Let us see the major effects of ozone layer depletion
on man and environment.
Effects on Human Health
Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation
of the sun due to the depletion of the ozone layer. This might result
in serious health issues among humans, such as skin diseases,
cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune
system.
Effects on Animals
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye
cancer in animals.

Effects on the Environment

Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and
photosynthesis in plants. The forests also have to bear the
harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.

Effects on Marine Life

Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet
rays. These are higher in the aquatic food chain. If the planktons
are destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain are
also affected.

Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various

programmes have been launched by the government of various
countries to prevent it. However, steps should be taken at the
individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.
Following are some points that would help in preventing this
problem at a global level:
Avoid Using ODS
Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use
of CFCs in refrigerators and air conditioners, replacing the halon
based fire extinguishers, etc.
Minimise the Use of Vehicles
The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to
global warming as well as ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of
vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.
Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing
chemicals that find a way into the atmosphere and affect the ozone
layer. These should be substituted with natural products to protect
the environment.
Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited
The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful
nitrous oxide that is adversely affecting the ozone layer. People
should be made aware of the harmful effects of nitrous oxide and
the products emitting the gas so that its use is minimised at the
individual level as well.

Acid Rain
Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind
and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and
other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix
with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
Sulfuric acid ( H2SO4 ), nitric acid ( HNO3 ), and carbonic acid (
H2CO3 ) are the major components of acid rain.

Ecological effects of acid deposition-

Effects on lakes and rivers- Increasing amounts of acid deposition
in sensitive areas caused tens of thousands of lakes and
streams in Europe and North America to become much more
acidic than they had been in previous decades. Acid-sensitive
areas are those that are predisposed to acidification because the
region’s soils have a low buffering capacity, or low acid-neutralizing
capacity (ANC). In addition, acidification can release aluminum
bound to soils, which in its dissolved form can be toxic to both
plant and animal life. High concentrations of dissolved aluminum
released from soils often enter streams and lakes. In conjunction
with rising acidity in aquatic environments, aluminum can damage
fish gills and thus impair respiration.

Effects on forested and mountainous regions-

It leads to forest dieback and tree mortality. It is likely that the

dieback was the result of many factors, including acid deposition
(e.g., soil acidification and loss of buffering capacity,
mobilization of toxic aluminum, direct effects of acid on
foliage), exposure to ground-level ozone, possible excess
fertilization from the deposition of nitrogen compounds (such as
nitrates, ammonium, and ammonia compounds), and general stress
caused by a combination of these factors. Once a tree is in a
weakened condition, it is more likely to succumb to other
environmental stressors such as drought, insect infestation, and
infection by pathogens. The areas of forest dieback were often
found to be associated with regions with low buffering
capacity where damage to aquatic ecosystems due to acid
deposition was also occurring.
Acid deposition has been implicated in the alteration of soil
chemistry and the decline of several tree species through both
direct and indirect means
Effects on human-made structures-

Acid deposition also affects human-made structures. The most

notable effects occur on marble and limestone, which are
common building materials found in many historic structures,
monuments, and gravestones. Sulfur dioxide, an acid rain
precursor, can react directly with limestone in the presence of
water to form gypsum, which eventually flakes off or is
dissolved by water. In addition, acid rain can dissolve limestone
and marble through direct contact.

ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and

other organisms, as well as weather and landscape, work
together to form a bubble of life. Ecosystems contain biotic or
living, parts, as well as abiotic factors, or nonliving parts.
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where
the living organisms interact with each other and the surrounding
environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of
interactions between organisms and their environment. The term
“Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English
botanist, in 1935.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation
of both biotic and abiotic components. This includes the distribution
of energy in our environment. It also includes the climatic conditions
prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main
components, namely:
● Biotic Components
● Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem.
It is an open system where the energy and components can flow
throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem.
Based on nutrition, biotic components can be categorised into
autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
● Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are
called autotrophs as they can produce food through the
process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms
higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
● Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend
on other organisms for food. Consumers are further
classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
● Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely
on producers for food.
● Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers
for energy. They can either be carnivores or omnivores.
● Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on
secondary consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can
also be carnivores or omnivores.
● Quaternary consumers are present in some food
chains. These organisms prey on tertiary consumers for
energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a
food chain as they have no natural predators.
● Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and
bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead and decaying
organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem
as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants .

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem.
It includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients,
wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports
life systems and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between
biotic and abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels
in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic
components ( carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ) that involve the
exchange of energy.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components
that work together in an ecosystem are:
● Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass ( made of material that comes
from living organisms, such as plants and animals- wood, harvest leftover. ) production.

● Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which

energy flows from one trophic level to another. The energy
captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and
then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
● Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead
organic material. The top-soil is the major site for
decomposition.
● Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed
and recycled back in various forms for the utilisation by
various organisms.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as
an ocean, spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of
ecosystem:
● Terrestrial Ecosystem
● Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems.
There are different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed
around various geological zones. They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees,
animals and microorganisms that live in coordination with the
abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses
and herbs. Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna
grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold
climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow
for most of the year. Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the Arctic
or mountain tops.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little
rainfall and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are
cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water.
These can be further divided into two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes
lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt
content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a
more substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison
to the freshwater ecosystem.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the
energy required for all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the
process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into
chemical energy and is passed on through successive trophic
levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and
eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food
chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken
down into its constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb
these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers liberate
molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the
producers.

2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the
number, energy, and biomass of the successive trophic levels of an
ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the
producer level to the consumer level are represented in the form of
a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers,
followed by primary and secondary consumers. The tertiary
consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary
consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and
similarly, the primary consumers outnumber the secondary
consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend
as the other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably
lower than the secondary consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and
wheat, which are plentiful. These grasshoppers are then preyed
upon by common mouse, which are comparatively less in number.
The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are
ultimately preyed on by apex predators such as the brown snake
eagle.
In essence:

Grasshopper →Mouse→ Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle

3. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises
all the food chains within a single ecosystem. It helps in
understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains.
In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary
producer.
 International Agreement and Programmer
International agreements are formal understandings or
commitments between two or more countries. An agreement
between two countries is called “bilateral,” while an agreement
between several countries is “multilateral.” The countries bound
by an international agreement are generally referred to as “States
Parties.”

The United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (UNCED), also known as the 'Earth Summit', was
held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992. It had political
leaders, diplomats, scientists, representatives of the media and non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive
effort to focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the
environment

The 'Earth Summit' concluded that the concept of sustainable development

was an attainable goal for all the people of the world, regardless of whether
they were at the local, national, regional or international level. It also
recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social and
environmental concerns in meeting our needs is vital for sustaining human
life on the planet and that such an integrated approach is possible.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC)
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change established
an international environmental treaty to combat "dangerous human
interference with the climate system", in part by stabilizing greenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

Purpose

The UNFCCC's ultimate objective is to achieve the stabilization of

greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous interference with the climate system

Principles of UNFCCC
 1. Promoting transparency, accuracy, completeness, consistency and
comparability;
2. Avoiding duplication of work and undue burden on Parties and the
secretariat;
3. Ensuring that Parties maintain at least the frequency and quality of
reporting in accordance with their respective obligations under the
Convention.

The Kyoto Protocol

It was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification

process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192
Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and
economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG)
emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The Convention
itself only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on
mitigation and to report periodically.

The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the

Convention and follows its annex-based structure. It only binds developed
countries, and places a heavier burden on them under the principle of
“common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”,
because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current high
levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.

In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto

Protocol was adopted for a second commitment period, starting in 2013
and lasting until 2020.

As of 28 October 2020, 147 Parties deposited their instrument of

acceptance, therefore the threshold of 144 instruments of acceptance for
entry into force of the Doha Amendment was achieved. The amendment
entered into force on 31 December 2020.

The amendment includes:

New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to
take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January
2013 to 31 December 2020;

A revised list of GHG to be reported on by Parties in the second

commitment period; and

Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically

referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and which
needed to be updated for the second commitment period.

On 21 December 2012, the amendment was circulated by the Secretary-

General of the United Nations, acting in his capacity as Depositary, to all
Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in accordance with Articles 20 and 21 of the
Protocol.

1. During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and

economies in transition and the European Community committed to
reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990
levels.
2. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce
GHG emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-
year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the composition of Parties
in the second commitment period is different from the first.

MONTREAL PROTOCOL (SELF STUDY)

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the international legal
instrument /global agreement between countries based on natural and
biological resources.for-

1.The conservation of biological diversity,

2. The sustainable use of its components
3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the
utilization of genetic resources