NAME OF THE STUDENT : ______________________________________

SUBJECTS TOPICS

1. ENGLISH : ADJECTIVE PREPOSITIONS, ADVERBS

ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE & PARTS OF
SPEECH
2. BIOLOGY : SKELETAL SYSTEM (BODY MOVEMENT)

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 SUBJECT: - ENGLISH
TOPIC – ADJECTIVE PREPOSITIONS
====================================================================
ADJECTIVES
Q1. Underline the adjectives and state their kinds.
a) Solomon was a wise king. ____________________
b) The tiger is a ferocious animal.______________________
c) The foolish crow opened his mouth to sing._______________________
d) You have no sense.__________________
e) She has little intelligence. __________________
f) He showed much patience. __________________
g) We did not receive sufficient rain this year. __________________
h) The whole amount was spent.___________________
i) Each hand has five fingers. ______________________
j) There are several pictures in this book.________________
k) There are some apples in the fridge.____________________
l) I have bought six eggs. ___________________
m) Each boy was given a prize.____________________
n) I have bought enough sugar. ___________________
o) We haven't got enough nails. ___________________
p) Whose bag is this? ___________________
q) Which way shall we go? _______________________
r) Neither answer is correct.______________________
s) Who is the first woman to win the Nobel Prize for Literature? ___________
t) Most children like cartoon shows._______________________

Q2. Complete the following sentences using the appropriate form of the
adjective given below.
a. He is ………………… than his neighbors.
rich richer richest
b. The brides were much ……………… than the grooms.
young younger youngest
c. He is too ………………… to be taught.
intelligent more intelligent most intelligent

Correct! Wrong!
d. He is ………………… than I thought him to be.
clever cleverer cleverest Correct! Wrong!
e. When the old woman became …………………, she began to move about.
stronger more strong Correct! Wrong!
f. He is much ………………… now.
good better best Correct! Wrong!

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g. The offer was too ………………… to be true.
good better best Correct! Wrong!
h. He fishes with ………………… success than I do.
great greater greatest Correct! Wrong!
i. Shakespeare is the ………………… playwright in English.
great greater greatest Correct! Wrong!
j. The pain was ………………… than he could bear.
much more most Correct! Wrong!
k. The ………………… thing of all was that his son was rude to him.
bad worse worst Correct! Wrong!
l. Jane was the ………………… player of the two.
good better best

Much / Many
Rule
Use much if the noun is non-countable (e.g., water, sand). Use many if the noun
is countable (e.g., oranges, children). For example:
1. I don’t have much money.
2. They own many houses.
Examples for much / many
a) Phillip owns many properties in France.
b) We didn’t earn much profit this year.
c) How much money have you got?
d) Sharon does not have many friends.
e) There are too many students in this class.
f) It doesn’t need much milk.
g) We had so much fun.
h) I spent many days there.

Q3. Much vs Many

Decide whether you have to use much or many:
a) We saw _____ animals at the zoo.
b) How _____ oranges did you put in the box?
c) There isn’t _____ sugar in my coffee.
d) I don’t have ______ friends.
e) The old man hasn’t got _____ hair on his head.
f) I’ve packed _____ bottles of water.
g) I didn’t get _____ sleep last night.
h) How _____ fruit do you eat in an average day?

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A Little / A Few
Rule
Use a little for non-countable nouns (e.g., jam, time). Use a few if the noun is
countable (e.g., jars of jam, students). For example:
1. I have coffee with a little milk.
2. She likes a few songs by Frank Sinatra.
Examples for a little / a few
a) I always enjoy a little cream and sugar in my coffee.
b) Jesse has a few speeding tickets, so his insurance rate is higher than mine.
c) We have a little extra time this afternoon; do you want to watch a movie?
d) There were a few horses grazing in front of the barn.
e) Have a little salsa on your eggs. It’s delicious!
f) A few coconuts fell from the tree. One of them hit Aaron, causing him to yelp
g) I really would like a litlle peace and quiet.
h) My neighbor let me pick a few peaches from his tree.

Q4. Decide whether you have to use a little or a few:

a) Can you please buy _______ apples?
b) We need _______ water.
c) I have _______ money left.
d) I take _______ sugar with my coffee.
e) We had _______ pints of beer there.
f) You have _______ time left.
g) There are _______ chairs in the room.
h) He only spent _______ dollars there.

Some / Any
Rule
Use some when the context is positive and any when it is negative as well as in
most cases of questions. For example:
1. I have some money / I don’t have any money
2. I put some jam in the sandwich / I didn’t put any jam in the sandwich
Examples for some / any
a) Would you like some ketchup to go with your fries?
b) We don’t have any olives.
c) I really want some striped socks.
d) Do you have any wrapping paper?
e) Let’s go have some fun.
f) I’ve never heard of any of these artists.
g) Chris found some wild strawberries growing by the side of the road.
h) Do we have any jam or are we all out?

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Q5. Decide whether you have to use some or any:
a) Is there _______ milk left?
b) There is _______ juice in the bottle.
c) Do you have _______ coffee?
d) I don’t have _______ money left.
e) She has _______ money.
f) Do you know _______ of these singers?
g) I don’t know _______ of them.
h) I know _______ of them.

Few / Little
Rule
Little refers to non-countable nouns, and is used with the singular form to
indicate that something exists only in a small amount or to a slight degree. Few
refers to countable nouns, and is used with the plural form to indicate not many
persons or things. For example:
1. I’ve got little money left in my account.
2. Ben has few friends in London.
Examples for few / little
a) Few people stopped to listen to the preacher on the corner.
b) There is little that you can do about the situation.
c) I happen to like spiders but few others agree with me.
d) I have little time to waste.
e) Although the car is old, I have few problems with it.
f) He’s so stubborn, there’s little use in talking to him.
g) There are few cars on the road after midnight.
h) There’s little chance of rain for the next few days

Q6. Decide whether you have to use few or little:

a) There’s _______ point in calling.
b) _______ people understood what he said.
c) There is _______ use in trying to do this.
d) There’s _______ space here as it is.
e) There’s _______ I can do about this.
f) Dan is a great student. He has _______ problems with history.
g) There was _______ traffic on the road.
h) I think Coventry will win the match but _______ people agree with me

PREPOSITIONS
Q1. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate preposition.
The philosophy …………………… (for / behind / about) Domo is that
humans and robots can work together to accomplish tasks that neither
could do all alone… ………………………… (As / For / Because) Domo or

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 any robot to safely interact ………………………. (with / to / at) humans
the robot has to be able to sense when a humans is touching it. Domo has
springs ………………………. (on / in / with) its arms, hands, and neck
that can sense force and respond ……………………… (to / at / with) it. If
you grab its hand and push, the robot will move the way you want it to.
But if you apply too much force or move its hands ……………………… (in
/ around / at) the wrong direction the robot will voice its displeasure
………………………. (by / with) saying ‘ouch’.
Q2. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate preposition.
1. We walked ……………………… the edge of the desert.
Please select 2 correct answers
as far as up to until
2. It is another three weeks ............................... the holidays.
Please select 2 correct answers
to until for up to
We can use ‘to’ when counting the time until a future event. Until is also
possible here.
3. I don’t know how she manages to support such a large family. She has
nothing ................................... her pension.
besides except apart from All of the above

After negative expressions like ‘no’, ‘nobody’ and ‘nothing’, all of these three
expressions can have the same meaning.
4. Are you wearing anything ………………………. your sweater?
below under underneath Either under or underneath

‘Underneath’ can be used as a preposition instead of ‘under’. But note that

‘underneath’ can only show position. ‘Under’, on the other hand, can also
mean ‘lower than’.
5. Do you mind? I was ……………………………. you!
Please select 2 correct answers
in front of in front off before

‘Before’ is possible here. ‘Before’ can be used to talk about the order in which
people or things come in lists, queues, etc. ‘In front of’ is also correct here.
It shows position.
6. We should arrive ……………………… their place ……………………. time
…………………… lunch.
at, in, for in, to, at at, for, in at, by, for

‘Arrive’ is followed by ‘at’ or ‘in’. ‘In time’ means ‘before the planned time’.
The option ‘for’ is also correctly used.

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7. They live ………………………. a small one bedroom flat …………………..
the third floor.
in, in on, on in, on on, in

‘In’ shows position inside something. We use ‘on’ for the number of the floor.
8. Granny is arriving ………………………. the 3.30 train.
in with on

We use ‘on’ and ‘off’ to talk about travel using public transport (buses, planes,
trains, etc).
9. Last year, there were a large number of mangoes …………………. the tree.
in at on with

‘On’ can mean ‘attached to’. The mangoes are attached to the tree.
10. His house is ……………………….. the way from Mumbai to Thane.
in at by on

To indicate position on a line (for example a road or a river), we use ‘on’.

11. He met and fell in love with a French girl when he was …………………….
the London School of Economics.
in at on

‘At’ is used to say where people study.

12. A few days after the accident she died ……………………….. the injuries.
of with from Either of or from

Q3. Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions.

a) Who is this present ________?
b) I am really angry _________ you.
c) ________ all this work to do, I won’t have time to take a holiday.
d) He was talking _____ such a low voice that I could not hear anything.
e) If we go ______ car, we will reach there before sunset.
f) The actress has always been very nice ______ her fans.
g) _______ friends like you, who needs enemies?
h) What kind of movies are you interested ______?
i) The cottage is pleasant to live _______.
j) Which flight is she travelling _______?
k) You are the only woman I have ever been in love _______.
l) That is what I am afraid ______.

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Q4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions. Choose your answers
from the options given in the brackets.
a) This material is different ………………… that. (from , to , with)
b) You should explain this ………………… them. (to, at ,with )
c) He has been absent ………………… Monday. (since, for , from)
d) I haven’t been to the theatre …………… a long time. (for, since, from)
e) He goes ……………….. school by car. (in, to, at)
f) This is a comfortable house to live ……………… (at ,on, in)
g) They are called …………………. different names. (With, by, for)
h) We should not spend money ………………. luxuries. (for ,on, at)
i) I gave him a chair to sit ………………. (in, on ,at )
j) The new term begins …………………. June 1st. (at, on, in)
k) He poured the tea ………………….. the mug. (into ,on, in)
l) He said that he was very pleased ……………. my work. (at ,for, with)

SUBJECT - ENGLISH
TOPIC - ADVERBS
Q1. In the following sentences underline the adverbs and state their kind.
a) The girl sang sweetly. ___________________
b) What is he doing outside? ___________________
c) He practices cricket every day. ___________________
d) I look forward to hearing from you soon. ___________________
e) The old woman was walking slowly. ___________________
f) The kittens are playing there. ___________________
g) Children usually rush about. ___________________
h) The girls danced gracefully. ___________________
i) She has travelled everywhere. ___________________
j) Kishore plays tennis well. ___________________
k) He arrived quite early. ___________________
l) When are you expecting them? ___________________
m) He often comes here. ___________________
n) The reason why he was absent is not known. ___________________
o) She goes there daily. ___________________

Q2. Choose an appropriate adverb to fill in the blanks.

slowly, carefully, beautifully, well, loudly, carelessly, easily,
excitedly, finally, suddenly, quickly, quietly
a) Come here ___________________. You have to see this!

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 b) We knew that she had got the job when we saw her _________________
talking on the phone.
c) He __________________ put the vase on the table. It fell to the floor.
d) Sharon is throwing a party on Saturday. She _________________
finished her PhD.
e) Let's walk ___________________. I don't want to be the first one at the
meeting.
f) Alex ___________________ put up the bookshelves. It was too difficult
for me to do on my own.
g) Everything happened so ___________________. We had to move to
California in less than a month.
h) Why does he always have to talk so _____________________. You can
hear him in the next room!
i) Although she speaks five languages, she did not do
___________________ on the translation exam.
j) I was so surprised. His new apartment was ___________________
decorated.

Q3. Fill in the words in brackets as adjective or adverb.

a) He ___________________ reads a book. (quick)
b) Mandy is a _________________ girl. (pretty)
c) The class is __________________ loud today. (terrible)
d) Max is a __________________ singer. (good)
e) You can _________________open this tin. (easy)
f) It's a _________________ day today. (terrible)
g) She sings the song _________________. (good)
h) He is a __________________ driver. (careful)
i) He drives the car _________________. (careful)
j) The dog barks __________________. (loud)
k) The bus driver was _________________injured. (serious)
l) Kevin is ________________clever. (extreme)
m) This hamburger tastes ________________. (awful)
n) Be ________________ with this glass of milk. It's hot. (careful)
o) Robin looks __________________. What's the matter with him? (sad)

Q4. Find the adjective in the first sentence and fill the gap with the adverb.
e.g. Joanne is happy. She smiles happily.
a) The boy is loud. He shouts _________________.
b) Her English is fluent. She speaks English __________________.
c) Our mum was angry. She spoke to us _________________.
d) My neighbour is a careless driver. He drives __________________.
e) The painter is awful. He paints __________________.
f) Jim is a wonderful piano player. He plays the piano ________________.

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 g) This girl is very quiet. She often sneaks out of the house _____________.
h) She is a good dancer. She dances really ___________________.
i) This exercise is simple. You ______ have to put one word in each space.
j) Billy was very eager for the show to begin. He waited ______________.
k) My father is a careful driver. He always drives __________________.
l) He was very kind. He ____________ showed me the way to the library.
m) Mariam was very calm. She ____________ waited for a doctor to arrive.
n) Mountain climbing is an extreme sport. It is _____________ dangerous.
o) I am a bad tennis player. I play tennis________________.
p) I ______________ ate my dinner. I was hungry.
q) That man is very honest. He _______________ told me what happened.
r) My cat is very lazy. It just ________________ sleeps all day.
s) He was angry. He shouted at me ____________________.
t) I’m a good dancer. I dance _____________________.

Q5. Complete the paragraph with the correct adjective or adverb form of the
words in brackets.
Paul and his boss don't get along very____________ (good). They see a lot
of things _______________ (different). Paul thinks he's a ______________
(careful) worker. He likes to do a job _______________ (proper). "In his
opinion he works very _____________ (hard). To his boss Paul seems
______________ (slow). When Paul doesn't work ________________ (quick)
enough his boss gets _______________ (impatient). He sometimes argues
with Paul and that ________________ (automatic) has a ______________
(bad) effect on Paul's work.

SUBJECT - ENGLISH
TOPIC – ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE
VOICE shows whether the subject of a verb acts or is acted upon.
There are two voices:-
 The active voice
 The passive voice
ACTIVE VOICE:
When the verb speaks of the subject as acting, it is said to be in the Active Voice.
E.g.: He wrote a letter.
Here the word ‘wrote’ is Active.
PASSIVE VOICE:
Look at the sentences given below:
The boys flew a kite A kite was flown by the boys.

Active Voice Passive Voice

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Passive means that subject is inactive; it does not perform any action.
In all these passive constructions there is a form of

be is
was
were These all are helping verbs or auxiliary verbs
are

In passive sentences –
 object functions as a subject.
 helping verb is placed before the main verb.
 the preposition is placed before that word which was the subject in the
active construction.
 passive constructions are also used when the agent is not known or is too
 obvious.

When the word speaks of its subject of being acted upon or having something
done to it, it is said to be in the Passive Voice.
E.g.: A lyric was composed by her.
Here the verb ‘was composed’ is passive.
(ii) She nursed the kitten. (Active voice)
The kitten was nursed by her. (Passive Voice)

RULES FOR CHANGING THE VOICE:

General form of Active voice ---- Subject + Verb
General form of Passive voce ---- Object + ‘Be’ form + P.P

Rule 1: The object of the Active voice is changed into Passive.

Rule 2: The Subject of the Active voice is changed into Object in the Passive
preceding ‘by’. The object is often omitted in the passive.
Rule 3: After the subject, use proper form of ‘Be’ according to the tense and
number of the subject.
‘Be’ forms --- am/is/are/was/were
E.g.: (i) The hunter killed a tiger. (Active voice)
S + V + Object
A tiger was killed by the hunter. (Passive voice)
Subject + ‘Be’ form + P.P + Object
Note that even though ‘a tiger’ is the object of the Active Voice, it is the subject in
the Passive.
2. She nursed the kitten. (Active voice)
The kitten was nursed by her. (Passive Voice)
3. We watched three films. (A.V)
Three films + were + watched + by us. (P.V)
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TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES ---- VOICE CHANGE
PRESENT TENSE:
1. Simple Present Tense : ( S + V in he present) (A.V)
He + writes + a letter. (A.V)
A letter + is + written + by him. (P.V)
Form--- Subject + am/is/are + Past Participle. (P.V)

2. Present Continuous Tense: ( S + am/is/are + ing)

He + is + writing + a letter. (A.V)
A letter + is + being + written + by him. (P.V)
Form--- Subject + am/is/are + being + Past Participle. (P.V)

3. Present Perfect: ( S + has/have + P.P) (A.V)

He + has + written + a letter. (A.V)
A letter + has + been + written + by him. (P.V)
Form---S + has/have + been + Past Participle (P.V)

PAST TENSE:
1. Simple Past: (S+V in the Past)
He + wrote + a letter. (A.V)
A letter + was+ written + by him. (P.V)
Form--- S + was/were + Past Participle. (P.V)

2. Past Continuous: (S + was/were + ing) (A.V)

He + was + writing + a letter. (A.V)
A letter + was + being + written + by him. (P.V)
Form--- S + was/were + being + Past Participle (P.V)

3. Past Perfect: (S + had + P. P) (A.V)

He + had + written + a letter. (A. V)
A letter + had + been + written + by him. (P.V)
Form--- S + had +been +P.P (P.V)

FUTURE TENSE:
1. Simple Future Tense: ( S + will/shall + root of the verb) (A.V)
He + will + write + a letter. (A. V)
A letter + will + be +written + by him. (P.V)
Form--- S + will/ shall + be + Past Pariciple (P.V)

Future Perfect ( S + will/shall + have + P.P) (A.V)

He + will + have + written + a letter. (A.V)
A letter + will + have + been + written + by him. (P.V)
Form--- S + will/shall + have + been + P.P (P.V)

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IMPERATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES
Note: When and imperative ‘command’s to be transformed the form will be:
Let + S +Be + Past Participle
(i) Punish him. (A.V)
Let + him + be + punished. (P.V)
Let + S +Be + Past Participle

(ii) Give the order. (A. V)

Let + the + order + be + given. (P.V)

(Note how Interrogative sentences are changed.)

(i) Who killed the snake? (A.V)
By whom + was + the snake + killed? (P.V)
Form--- (Q. word + auxiliary verb + S + P.)

(ii) Who broke the glass?

By whom + was + the glass+ broken?
In the same way Passive Voice can be changed into Active just by
reversing the forms and rules applied.

1). Complete the conversation with Steve Hobs, the manager at Grapple
Phones.
Interviewer: Your new Smartphone Z __________ now. (sell)
Does it bring any new features?
Steve Hobs: Yes, it does. Smartphone Z ___________ last week (launch) with all
the revolutionary features which ____________ (develop) for the previous
Smartphone Y.
And two new functionalities _____________ now to generation Z. (add)
Interviewer: Could you give us more details?
Steve Hobs: There is no home button in Smartphone Z. The home screen _________
(access) by tapping on the screen.
Interviewer: And the second functionality?
Steve Hobs: Unlocking the device __________ (done) with a new voice recognition
system. It means that your phone can recognize your voice and it unlocks if you ask
it to do so.
Interviewer: It is something like the facial recognition system in other phones.
Steve Hobs: Exactly. But the voice recognition system __________ (design) for
Smartphone Z because your voice, unlike your face, never changes.
Interviewer: Are you planning any other revolutionary features for the next
generation of your Smartphone?

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Steve Hobs: Next year we want to release a phone which, apart from other
functions, ___________ (use) as a microwave oven.
Interviewer: Pardon?
2). Change the following into Passive voice:
a. Ms Sullivan teaches us grammar.
b. The teacher praised him.
c. The firemen took the injured to the hospital.
d. An earthquake destroyed the town.
e. The boy’s work pleased the teacher.
f. The fire damaged the building.
g. Who taught you French?
h. The manager will give you a ticket.
i. Spectators thronged the streets.
j. Everyone will blame us.
k. The wind blew down the trees.
l. The police caught the thieves.
m. Alice posted the letter.
n. The hostess received us.
o. They/somebody killed the snake with a stick.
p. Who did the job?
q. Can you break the door?
r. Will she sing a song?
s. Is he speaking English?
t. Are you eating a banana?
u. Why are you washing the car?
v. When will he give the money?
w. Where will he met you?
x. How do you make a cake?
y. Whom did you tell the story?

3). Change the following into Active Voice.

a. He was struck by lightning.
b. I was quite shocked by the language that he used.
c. We were both filled with horror by the sight of that event.
d. I was much hurt by his voice and manner.
e. Should I be found at home by him, he would not be received by me.
f. They were welcomed back by the city on their return.
g. He was punished by the master for speaking in class.
h. I was called upon by the meeting to give my reasons.
i. He was known by me by his voice, when I was spoken to by him in the
dark.
j. His return was not expected by us.
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 SUBJECT: - ENGLISH
TOPIC – PARTS OF SPEECH
Summary Chart
Here are some examples of parts of speech:

1. My (adjective) friend (noun) speaks (verb) English (noun) fluently (adverb).

2. Oh! (interjection) I ( pronoun) went (verb) to (preposition) school (noun) and
(conjunction) I ( pronoun) met (verb) Fred (noun).

Decide which parts of speech are the underlined words

1. You have to believe in yourself if you ever expect to be successful at something.

2. We left for the mountain just before six in the morning.
3. We first went to the store to buy a few things.
4. We had a breakfast at a café near the rail station.
5. My friend wasn't strong enough to lift his heavy rucksack.
6. I helped him carry it.
7. The weather was very cold.

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8. My friend said, "Oh! What a cold weather!"
9. We didn't spend the night there.
10. We got back home late at night but we didn't go to sleep immediately. We were
very hungry.
11. I remember to drive safely.
12. Don't talk like that.
13. Sally and Tom are coming back soon.
14. This is a pretty vase.
15. Let's do it.
16. The cat is on the table.
17. Oh, I didn't know that.
18. Do you want to go out or stay home?
19. New York is a big city.
20. I want the blue ball.
21. We finished it yesterday.
22. What am I going to do without you?
23. Wow, those are great news!
24. We have pens, pencil, notebooks and markers.
25. They went into the hall.

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 SUBJECT: - SCIENCE (BIOLOGY)
TOPIC – SKELETAL SYSTEM (BODY MOVEMENT)

What is Locomotion?
Locomotion refers to the movement of any organism from place to place. To
move from one place to another, humans or any organism walk, run, swim, or
fly using various body parts (legs and feet, fins and tail, wings, and others).

What is Movement?
Movement, on the other hand, refers to any type of motion. It can take place at
any level: atomic, cellular, or within an organ. In addition, movement can be
voluntary or involuntary. Clapping your hands is an example of a voluntary
movement while breathing is an example of movement that is involuntary.
Based on the definition of movement, locomotion is one of its examples.

Relation to Original Position

Locomotion involves moving away from the original position of the organism.
Movement can happen with or without moving away from the organism’s
original position.

Types of Locomotion and Movement

Locomotion in animals can fall under the following broad types:
• Aerial (flying)
• Arboreal (living in and moving through trees)
• Aquatic (moving on water)
• running
• digging and living underground
• jumping or hopping
Movement, on the other hand, implies the following basic mechanisms:
• Amoeboid (in amoeba and certain cells in other organisms, such
as the
movement of leucocytes in the blood of humans)
• Ciliary (in ciliated protozoans)
• Muscular (in most vertebrates)

Locomotion is typically a voluntary movement.

Movement can be either voluntary or involuntary.

Locomotion and Movement in Plants

Plants do not usually move from place to place. Thus, they do not exhibit
locomotion. However, different types of movements can occur inside plants.
Plants can also demonstrate movement in response to stimuli.

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HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of

around 270 bones at birth–this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood
after some bones get fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton reaches
maximum density around age 21. The human skeleton can be divided into the
axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

Bones of the Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and
other associated bones. The Axial Skeleton is the central core of the human body
housing and protecting its vital organs. The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones:
• 29 bones in the head - (8 cranial and 14 facial bones) and then also
7 associated bones (6 auditory ossicles and the Hyoid Bone)
• 25 bones of the thorax - (the sternum and 24 ribs)
• 26 bones in the vertebral column (24 vertebrae, the sacrum, and the
coccyx)

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The function of the Axial skeleton

The Axial Skeleton has 2 functions. The first is to support and protect the
organs in the dorsal and ventral cavities. The second being that it creates a
surface for the attachment of muscles.

Appendicular skeleton: Of the 206 bones in the human body 126 of these
make up the appendicular skeleton.
The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed
by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower
limbs.
Bones of the Appendicular skeleton:
• 4 bones in the shoulder girdle (clavicle and scapula each side)
• 6 bones in the arm and forearm (humerus, ulna, and radius)
• 54 bones in the hands (carpals 16, metacarpals 10, phalanges 28)
• 2 pelvis bones
• 8 bones in the legs (femur, tibia, patella, and fibula)
• 52 bones in the feet (tarsals 14, metatarsals10, phalanges 28)

Function of Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the
upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions
are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion,
excretion and reproduction.

Functions of skeletal system

1. Support
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its
shape.
For e.g. Without the rib cage, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the
lungs would collapse.

2. Movement
The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of
movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of
movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles,
bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all
coordinated by the nervous system.

3. Protection
The skeleton helps to protect our many vital internal organs from being
damaged.
• The skull protects the brain

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• The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
• The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood
vessels.

4. Blood cell production

The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that
takes place in the bone marrow. In children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in
the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs
mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.

5. Storage
The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and
bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism.

6. Endocrine regulation
Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the
regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition.

PARTS OF HUMAN SKELETON

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SKULL
Skull is a bony structure that forms the head in vertebrates. It supports the
structures of the face and provides a protective cavity for the brain. The skull is
composed of two parts:
The cranium- covers and protects
the brain. The bones are flat and are
held firmly in zipper like manner.

Facial bones - Consist of various

bones of face and upper and lower
jaw
Lower jaw is the only movable bone
that helps us to eat and speak.

RIBS
The ribs are thin, flat, curved bones that form a protective cage around the
organs in the upper body. They are comprised 24 bones arranged in 12 pairs.
These bones are divided into three categories:
The first seven bones are called
the true ribs. These bones are
connected to the spine (the
backbone) in back. In the front,
the true ribs are connected
directly to the breastbone or
sternum by a strips of cartilage
called the costal cartilage.

False Ribs
The next three pairs of bones are called false ribs. These bones are slightly
shorter than the true ribs and are connected to the spine in back. However,
instead of being attached directly to the sternum in front, the false ribs are
attached to the lowest true ribs

Floating Ribs
The last two sets of rib bones are called
floating ribs. Floating ribs are smaller
than both the true ribs and the false ribs.
They are attached to the spine at the back,
but are not connected to anything in the
front.

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FUNCTION OF RIBS
The ribs form a kind of cage that encloses the upper body. They give the chest
its familiar shape.
The ribs serve several important purposes. They protect the heart and lungs
from injuries and shocks that might damage them. Ribs also protect parts of
the stomach, spleen, and kidneys. The ribs help you to breathe. As you inhale,
the muscles in between the ribs lift the rib cage up, allowing the lungs to
expand. When you exhale, the rib cage moves down again, squeezing the air
out of your lungs.

Back bone
In a human's vertebral column there are normally
thirty-three vertebrae, the upper twenty-four are
articulating and separated from each other by
intervertebral discs, and the lower nine are fused
in adults, five in the sacrum and four in the
coccyx or tailbone. The articulating vertebrae are
named according to their region of the spine.
There are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve
thoracic vertebrae and five lumbar vertebrae.

A fully grown adult features 26 bones in the

spine, whereas a child can have 33 or 34.
• Cervical vertebrae (set of 7 bones)
• Thoracic vertebrae (set of 12 bones)
• Lumbar vertebrae (set of 5 bones)
• Sacral vertebrae (set of 5 bones at birth, and later
fused
into one)
• Coccygeal vertebrae or tail bone (set of 4 or 5 bones
at birth; some or all fuse together into one)

PECTORAL GIRDLE
The shoulder girdle or pectoral girdle is the set of bones in the appendicular
skeleton which connects to the arm on each side. In humans it consists of the
clavicle and scapula;
The humerus is one of the three long bones of the arm. It joins with the scapula
at the shoulder joint and with the other long bones of the arm, the ulna and
radius at the elbow joint.

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The elbow is the hinge joint between the end of the humerus and the ends of the
radius and ulna.
One forelimb have 30 bones, out of which 27 bones are present in hand.
Bone in upper arm: HUMERUS. (1)
Bones in lower arm: RADIUS AND ULNA. (1+1)
Bones in hand:
CARPAL (8)
METACARPAL (5)
AND PHALANGES(14).
So, 8+5+14 =27 bones in each hand.

PELVIC GIRDLE
Pelvic girdle, also called bony pelvis, in human anatomy, basin-shaped complex
of bones that connects the trunk and the legs, supports and balances the trunk,
and contains and supports the intestines, the urinary bladder, and the internal
sex organs.
A leg bone is a bone found in the leg. These can include any the following:
• Femur – the bone in the thigh
• Patella – the knee cap
• Tibia – the shin bone, the larger of the two leg bones located below the
knee cap
• Fibula – the smaller of the two leg bones located below the knee cap.
There are 26 bones in the human foot.

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7 tarsals of the ankle, 5 metatarsals of the sole, and 14 phalanges of the toes that
form the digits.

JOINTS
A joint is a point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of joints;
Fibrous (immovable), Cartilaginous (partially moveable) and the Synovial (freely
moveable) joint.
Synovial Joints
There are 6 types of synovial joints. They have varying shapes, but the important thing
about them is the movement they allow. Joints determine what positions our bodies
can take.

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The 6 types of synovial joints are: Hinge, Pivot, Ball & Socket, Ellipsoid
(condyloid), Saddle, and Plane (gliding joint).

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 TENDON AND LIGAMENT

Muscular System
Types of Muscles
There are three types of muscle found in the human body:
• Skeletal Muscle
• Smooth Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle (heart muscle)

Skeletal muscle
Skeletal Muscles are those which attach to bones and have the main function
of contracting to facilitate movement of our skeletons. They are also
sometimes known as striated muscles due to their appearance.
Skeletal muscles are also sometimes called voluntary muscles, because we
have direct control over them through nervous impulses from our brains
sending messages to the muscle.

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SMOOTH MUSCLE
Smooth muscle is also sometimes known as Involuntary muscle due to our
inability to control its movements, or unstriated as it does not have the stripy
appearance of Skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow
organs such as the Stomach, Oesophagus, Bronchi and in the walls of blood
vessels.

Cardiac muscle (heart muscle)

This type of muscle is found solely in the walls of the heart. It has similarities
with skeletal muscles in that it is striated and with smooth muscles in that its
contractions are not under conscious control. However this type of muscle is
highly specialised

The muscular system works with the skeletal system to allow movement. Like
all muscles, the muscles that produce movement are made up of individual cells
called muscle fibers. These fibers contract and relax.
Most of the muscles involved in moving the body work in pairs. As they
contract, muscles shorten, pulling against bones. It may surprise you to know
that muscles do not push. Rather, a muscle on one side of a bone pulls in one
direction, while another muscle relaxes. Muscles are attached to bones by
stretchy connective tissue.

For example, the biceps and triceps muscles work together to allow you to bend
and straighten your elbow. When you want to bend your elbow, your biceps
muscle contracts and, at the same time, the triceps muscle relaxes. The biceps is
the flexor, and the triceps is the extensor of your elbow joint. Other muscles that
work together are the quadriceps and hamstrings used to bend and straighten
the knee, and the pectorals and trapezius used to move the arms and shoulders
forward and backward. During daily routines we do not use muscles equally.

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 GIAT OF ANIMALS
GAIT OF SNAKES
Snakes are vertebrates with vertebral column.
Body is supported by a skeleton made up of vertebrae which run
continuously from head to tail.
As they do not have any limbs, snakes do not have appendicular skeleton.
Snakes move in a loop-like, zig-zag manner. They cannot move in a
straight line. T
hey have difficulty in moving on very smooth surfaces.
Snakes have a long back bone and many interconnected muscles that help
them to slither.
They have muscles connecting the backbone, ribs and skin.
Snakes move in grass, sand and water. Though the snakes do not have
arms or legs, they can climb trees.

GAIT OF COCKROACHES
Cockroach is an arthropod with six jointed legs.
Six legs of the insect help it to walk, and two pairs of wings help it to fly.
Cockroach does not possess any bones making up endoskeleton.
Exoskeleton is the hard and stiff outer covering of the body made up of
chitin.
Exoskeleton is a jointed structure which helps in the movement of the
body.
A cockroach moves its legs with the help of muscles near the limbs.
It uses its breast muscles to move its wings and fly.
A cockroach can walk, fly and even climb.

GAIT OF SNAILS
Snail is a small molluscan with thick exoskeleton.
Snail is protected by its external skeleton called as shell.
Snails are found in wet places.
Entire body except the foot lies inside the shell. When disturbed, snail
even retracts the foot in to the shell. Snail moves with the help of single
muscular foot.
The under surface of the muscular foot is lubricated with mucus. The
muscular foot glides over the surface. The rhythmic contractions and
relaxations of this muscular foot brings about pulling action in the body.
The secreted mucus also reduces the risk of injury from sharp objects.

For example, we use our biceps more than our triceps due to lifting against
gravity.

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GAIT OF FISH
Fish is a vertebrate with vertebral column in its body.
The body of the fish is supported by endoskeleton made up of bones.
Fish possess a streamlined body which helps them to swim in water. Fish
swim with the help of their fins. The tail flaps from side to side to make
them swim in the right direction.
Some fish, however, move by bending their bodies from one side to
another in quick succession. This produces a thrust that helps it move
forward.
Movement of fish in water is also supported by air bladder filled with air.
It helps the fish to rise or dive deep into water.

GAIT OF EARTHWORMS
Earthworm is a small annelidan which mostly lives in the soil.
Earthworms are small worms which can move easily on hard surfaces.
Earthworms move with help of tiny, stiff hair-like projections called
bristles.
Every body segment of the earthworm possesses setae which help in their
movement. Setae get firm hold on the ground.
Earthworms move forward by repeated contractions and relaxations of
their muscles in the skin.
A slimy substance secreted by the earthworm helps in its movement.

GAIT OF BIRDS
Birds are arboreal in habit. Birds exhibit two types of locomotion.
They fly in the air. They can also walk.
A bird has a body best suited for flight.
Forelimbs are modified into its wings.
Birds have light and hollow bones.
The breast bones are connected to strong muscles which help them to flap
their wings during flight.
The tail controls the direction of flight. Birds have very strong shoulder
bones.
Birds can walk and perch on trees with the help of their hind limbs.

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