Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159

www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro

Satellite communication over quantum channel

Laszlo Bacsardi∗
Department of Telecommunications, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary

Available online 19 March 2007

Abstract
Quantum computing offers revolutionary solutions in the field of computer sciences, applying the opportunities of quantum
physics which are incomparably richer than classical physics. Although quantum computers are going to be the tools of the far
future, there are already a few algorithms to solve problems which are very difficult to handle with traditional computers.
Perhaps the easiest example of a structure of a quantum system is a quantum channel. Typically, one is interested in some
basis in the Hilbert space representing the input of a channel, which is entangled with a second Hilbert space representing the
environment, and then another (possibly the same) basis for the first space at a later time. Free-space quantum key distribution
(QKD)—over an optical path of about 30 cm—was first introduced in 1991, and recent advances have led to demonstrations.
Indeed there are certain key distribution problems in this category for which free-space QKD has practical advantages (for
example it is not practical to send a courier to a satellite).
Quantum computing algorithms can be used to affirm our communication in several ways (open-air communication, satellite
communications, satellite broadcast, satellite-satellite communication). We set up a free-space quantum-channel-model at the uni-
versity and made several simulations. The main aim is to trace some adoptable algorithms in the communication between Earth
and the satellite and also between satellites. This paper is a theoretical study to compare the simulation results of the three models.
© 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Short introduction to quantum computing technology. Gordon Moore, founder of Intel observed
an interesting rule called Moore’s law in 1965. He
In this chapter a short introduction is given into the concluded that since the invention of the transistors the
interesting field of quantum informatics. After the pos- number of transistors per chip roughly doubled every
tulate of this informatics the qubit is presented, which 18–24 months (see in Fig. 1). It means an exponen-
is the basic element of quantum computing; the quan- tial increase in the computing power of computers.
tum interference and the quantum cryptography. This all Although this was en empirical observation in 1965 the
is necessary to understand the great power of quantum law seems to be valid nowadays. This law estimates
computing and quantum communications. serious problem around 2015.
The growth in processor’s performance is due to the
1.1. The Moore law fact that we put more transistors on the same size mi-
crochip. This requires smaller and smaller transistors,
Building electronic computers is a fast improving
which can be achieved if we are able to draw thinner
technology, but we have to determine the future of this
and thinner lines onto the surface of a semiconductor
disk. Around nanometer thickness we reach the nano-
∗ Tel.: +36 1 463 3261; fax: +36 1 463 3263. world, where the new rules are explained by the quan-
E-mail address: bacsardi@hit.bme.hu. tum mechanics.
0094-5765/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2007.01.024
152 L. Bacsardi / Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159

determined using the tensor product of the individual

system W = V ⊗ Y .

1.3. A basic element: the quantum bit

In the classical information the smallest information-

bearing unit is called a bit. Classical computer-use can
do calculations on only one set of numbers at once.
Fig. 1. Representation of the Moore law. Horizontally the years, In digital computers, the voltage between the plates of
vertically the number of electrons per device are represented. a capacitor represents a bit of information: a charged
capacitor denotes bit value 1 and an uncharged capacitor
bit value 0. But one bit of information can be encoded
using two different polarisations of light or two different
1.2. The postulates
electronic states of an atom. However, if we choose an
atom as a physical bit then quantum mechanics tells us
The quantum computing is based on postulate of the
that apart from the two distinct electronic states the atom
quantum mechanics, let us summarize them.
can be also prepared in a coherent superposition of the
First postulate (about state space): The actual state
two states. This means that the atom is both in state 0 and
of any closed physical system can be described by
state 1. Quantum computers use quantum states which
means of a so-called state vector v having complex
can be in a superposition of many different numbers at
coefficients and unit length in a Hilbert space V , i.e.
once. The simplest quantum system can be described by
a complex linear vector space equipped with an inner
means of a two-dimensional complex valued vector in a
product.
two-dimensional Hilbert space. We call it quantum bit,
Second postulate (about evolution): The evolution of
qubit or qbit (Fig. 2). A quantum computer manipulates
any closed physical system in time can be characterized
qubits by executing a series of quantum gates, each
by means of unitary transforms depending only on the
being unitary transformation acting on a single qubit or
starting and finishing time of evolution.
pair of qubits [1].
Third postulate (about measurement): Let X to be
In applying these gates in succession, quantum com-
the possible results of the measurement. A quantum
puters can perform complicated unitary transformations
measurement can be described by means of a set of
to a set of qubits in some initial state. The qubits can
measurement operators:
then be measured with this measurement serving as
the final computational result. This similarity in calcu-
M = {Mx }, x ∈ X, Mx ∈ H. lation between a classical and quantum computer af-
fords that in theory, classical computers can accurately
The operators should be satisfy the completeness rela- simulate quantum computers. The simulation of quan-
tion: tum computers on classical ones is a computationally

MxT Mx = I.
x

The probability of measuring m if the system is in state

v can be calculated as

px = |MxT Mx |.

The state of system after measurement is the following:

Mx |
√ .
px

Fourth postulate (about composite system): The Fig. 2. The general representation of a qubit in a two-dimensional
state space of a composite physical system W can be Hilbert-space.
 L. Bacsardi / Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159 153

difficult problem because the correlations among quan-

tum bits are qualitatively different from correlations
among classical bits, as first explained by John Bell
[1]. For example: take a system of only a few hundred
qubits, this exists in a Hilbert space of dimension ∼
1090 that in simulation would require a classical com-
puter to work with exponentially large matrixes (to per-
form calculations on each individual state, which is also
represented as a matrix), meaning it would take an
exponentially longer time than even with a primitive
quantum computer. Fig. 3. Arrangement of an experiment for quantum-interference with
The simplest quantum system is a half-state of the two full and two half-silvered mirrors. On the top and right side can
two-level spin. Its basic states, spin-down | ↓ and spin- be the detectors, on the left side the source founded. This experiment
is showing that a qubit can exist simultaneously as both 0 and 1.
up | ↑, may be relabelled to represent binary zero and
one, i.e. |0 and |1, respectively. The state of such
a single particle is described by the following wave
function: However, experiments show that in reality this arrange-
ment causes all collisions at detector A and none at de-
tector B. The only conceivable conclusion is that the
 = |0 + |1.
photon somehow travelled both paths simultaneously
creating interference at the point of intersection that de-
The squares of the complex coefficients—||2 and
stroyed the possibility for the signal to reach detector B.
||2 —represent the probabilities for finding the particle
This is known as quantum interference and results
in the corresponding states.
from the superposition of the possible photon states or
Generalizing this statement to a set of k spin- 21 par-
potential paths. So although only a single photon is
ticles we find that there are now 2k basis states (quan- emitted, it appears as though an identical photon ex-
tum mechanical vectors that span a Hilbert space) which ists and only detectable by the interference it causes
equals telling that there are 2k possible bit-strings of with the original photon when their paths come together
length k. again.
However, observing the system would cause it to col- If, for example, either of the paths is blocked with
lapse into a single quantum state corresponding to a sin- an absorbing screen, detector B registers hits again, just
gle answer—a single list of 500 1s and 0s—as dictated as in the first experiment. This unique characteristic,
by the measurement axiom of quantum mechanics. The among others, makes the current research in quantum
reason for this is an exciting result derived from the computing not merely a continuation of today’s idea of a
massive quantum parallelism achieved through super- computer, but rather an entirely new branch of thought.
position, which would be the equivalent of performing
the same operation on a classical super-computer with
∼ 10150 separate processors. 1.5. Quantum applications

One of the most gripping application of a quantum

1.4. An interesting experiment computer capable of implementing this algorithm lies
in the field of encryption, where RSA—a common en-
This is an elementary experiment to introduce and cryption algorithm, described in 1977 by Ron Rivest,
understand quantum informatics. In this experiment the Adi Shamir and Len Adleman at MIT; the letters RSA
photon first encounters a half-silvered mirror, then a are the initials of their surnames—relies heavily on
fully silvered mirror, and finally another half-silvered the difficulty of factoring very large composite num-
mirror before reaching a detector, where each half- bers into primes. A computer which can do this easily
silvered mirror introduces the probability of the photon is naturally of great interest to numerous government
travelling down one path or the other (Fig. 3). agencies that use RSA—previously considered to be
Once a photon strikes the mirror along either of the ‘uncrackable’—and anyone interested in electronic and
two paths after the first beam splitter, one might pre- financial privacy.
sume that the photon will reach the two detectors A (the Generally cryptography allows two parties (named
top one) and B (the right one) with equal probability. ‘Alice’ and ‘Bob’) to render their communications
154 L. Bacsardi / Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159

illegible to a third party (named ‘Eve’), provided they (possibly the same) basis for the first space at a later
both possess a secret random bit sequence, known as a time.
cryptographic key, which is required as an initial param- Any device taking classical or quantum systems of a
eter in their encryption devices. Secure key distribution certain type as input and (possibly different) classical
is then essential; Eve must not be able to obtain even or quantum systems as output may be referred to as a
partial knowledge of the key. Key distribution using a ‘channel’ [2]. Mathematically a channel is represented
secure channel (named ‘trusted couriers’) is effective by mapping input states to output states or, dually, out-
but cumbersome in practice, potentially vulnerable to put observables to input observables. For many ques-
insider betrayal and may not even be feasible in some tions in quantum information theory it is crucial to
applications. characterize precisely the set of maps describing ‘possi-
Encryption is only one application of quantum ble’ devices. One way to characterize the possible chan-
computers. In addition, Shor, a pioneer researcher of nels is ‘constructive’. That is, we allow just those chan-
quantum computing, has put together a toolbox of nels, which can be built from the basic operations of
mathematical operations that can only be performed tensoring with a second system in a specified state, uni-
on a quantum computer, many of which he used in his tary transformation, and reduction to a subsystem [3].
factorization algorithm [1]. Furthermore, Feynman as- The noise appearing in the channel is the result of the
serted that a quantum computer could function as a kind interlocking with the environment, which is the adverse
of simulator for quantum physics, potentially opening consequences of quantum communication, and causes
the doors to many discoveries in the field. Nowadays problems in building such quantum applications.
the power and capability of a quantum computer is
primarily theoretical speculation; the advent of the first 2.2. Quantum key distribution
fully functional quantum computer will undoubtedly
bring many new and exciting applications [1]. Quantum cryptography was introduced in the mid-
1980s as a new method for generating the shared, se-
cret random number sequences, known as cryptographic
2. The model of free-space quantum channel keys that are used in cryptosystems to provide commu-
nications security. The appeal of quantum cryptography
This chapter presents a general model of a quan- is that its security is based on laws of nature, in con-
tum channel, introducing the quantum key distribution trast to existing methods of key distribution that derive
(QKD) and the free-space quantum channel. their security from the perceived intractability of certain
problems in number theory, or from the physical secu-
2.1. General model of quantum channel rity of the distribution process. Since the introduction
of quantum cryptography, several groups have demon-
Perhaps the simplest example of a structure involv- strated quantum communications and QKD over multi-
ing multiple times histories of a quantum system is a kilometer distances of optical fibre [4].
quantum channel (Fig. 4). Typically, one is interesting QKD is a promising approach to the ancient prob-
in some basis for the Hilbert space representing the in- lem of protecting sensitive communications from the
put of a channel, which is tensored to a second Hilbert enemy. QKD is not in itself a method of enciphering
space representing the environment, and then another information: it is instead a means of arranging that sep-
arated parties may share a completely secret, random
sequence of symbols to be used as a key for the purpose
of enciphering a message.

2.3. Free-space quantum channel

From 1991, when the free-space QKD was first in-

troduced over an optical path of about 30 cm several
demonstrations (indoor optical paths of 205 m and out-
door optical paths of 75 m) increased the utility of QKD
Fig. 4. General model of quantum channel. On the left side are the by extending it to line-of-site laser communications sys-
input variables (environment and the source), on the right side is tems. There are certain key distribution problems in this
the drain and the changed environment. category for which free-space QKD would have definite
 L. Bacsardi / Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159 155

practical advantages (as for example, it is impractical show ‘that QKD between a ground station and a low-
to send a courier to a satellite). earth orbit satellite should be possible on night-time
In 1998 a research group at Los Alamos National orbits and possibly even in full daylight. During the
Laboratory, New Mexico, USA developed a free-space several minutes that a satellite would be in view of the
QKD over outdoor optical paths of up to 950 m un- ground station there would be adequate time to generate
der night-time conditions [4]. Four years later, in 2002 tens of thousands of raw key bits, from which a shorter
the same laboratory have demonstrated that free-space error-free key stream of several thousand bits would be
QKD is possible in daylight or at night, protected against produced after error correction and privacy amplifica-
intercept/resend, beamsplitting and unambiguous state tion [4].
discrimination (USD) eavesdropping, and even photon At present, quantum computers and quantum in-
number splitting (PNS) eavesdropping at night, over a formation technology remains in its pioneering stage.
10 km, 1-airmass path, which is representative of poten- Error correction has made promising progress to date,
tial ground-to-ground applications and is several times nearing a point now where we may have the tools re-
longer than any previously reported results. Their sys- quired to build a computer robust enough to adequately
tem provided cryptographic quality secret key transfer withstand the effects of decoherence. Quantum hard-
with a number of secret bits per one second quantums. ware, on the other hand, remains an emerging field, but
This research published in their report is as follows: the work done thus far suggests that it will only be a
‘we believe that the methodology that we have devel- matter of time before having devices large enough to
oped for relating the overall system performance to in- test quantum algorithms. Thereby, quantum comput-
strumental and quantum channel properties may also ers will emerge as the superior computational devices
be applicable to other QKD systems, including optical at the very least, and perhaps one day make today’s
fiber based ones’ [5]. modern computer obsolete. Quantum computation has
its origins in highly specialized fields of theoretical
3. Telecommunication over quantum channel physics, but its future undoubtedly lies in its profound
effect.
In this chapter we examine how can we use the free- In my point of view the quantum computing al-
space quantum channel in the future year’s telecommu- gorithms can be use to affirm our communication in
nication. following four ways [6]:
At first we should know a bit about the earth-satellite
communication. If we would like to detect a single QKD 1. Open-air communication (horizontal telecommuni-
photon, it is necessary to know when it will arrive. The cation, below 100 km, instead of optical cable, using
photon arrival time can be communicated to the receiver the twisted surface of Earth).
by using a bright precursor reference pulse. Received 2. Satellite communications (between 300 and 800 km
bright pulses allow the receiver to set a 1-ns time win- altitude, signal encoding and decoding). Quantum er-
dow within which to look for the QKD-photon. This ror correction allows quantum computation in noisy
short time window reduces background photon counts environment. Quantum computation of any length
dramatically, and the background can be further reduced can be created as accurate as desired, as long as the
by using narrow bandwidth filters. noise is below a certain threshold, e.g. P < 10−4 .
According to Buttler’s report, the atmospheric turbu- 3. Satellite broadcast (our broadcast satellite orbit at
lence impacts the rate at which QKD photons would be 36,000 km, using 27 MHz signal) [7]. In quadrature
received at a satellite from a ground station transmit- phase shift keying (QPSK) every symbol contains
ter. Assuming 30-cm diameter optics at both the trans- two bits, this is why the bit speed is 55 Mbs. Half
mitter and the satellite receiver, the diffraction-limited the bits is for error-coding, in the best case we
spot size would be 1.2-m diameter at a 300-km altitude only have 38 Mbs, but in common solutions there
satellite. is only 27–28 Mbs, in which 5–6 TV-channels can
Errors would arise from background photons col- be stored with a bandwidth of 2–5 Mbs each. The
lected at the satellite. The background rate depend on quantum algorithms can prove the effective band-
full or new moon: the error rate will be dominated by width to fill better the brand as in the traditional
background photons during full moon periods and by case.
detector noise during a new moon. 4. Satellite-satellite communication (between broadcast
Because the optical influence of turbulence is domi- or others satellite, using free-space, for signal coding
nated by the lowest 2 km of the atmosphere, the results and encoding, super density coding etc.).
156 L. Bacsardi / Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159

4. Simulating communication over a quantum 1. channel

channel Sender
Source Erasing Rotating
(Alice)
A three-type simulation model is reviewed in this
chapter, with a detailed description and simulation
results, and some plans for the future. Eavesdropper (Eve)
2. channel
Receiver Sender
Erasing Rotating
4.1. Simulation model

We hope that the free-space quantum channel will

be an important part of our communication, this is
Receiver
why we are studying the free-space quantum channel (Bob)
at Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Fig. 5. Overview of simulated channel. Some elements between
Department of Telecommunications. As computer engi- Alice (source) and Bob (drain) can be dropped out.
neers our project is to study and understand this type of
channel and to set up a working model. The supervisor
of the program is Dr. Sandor Imre [6]. cation party, named Alice and Bob, as can be seen in
We set up our quantum channel model in the follow- the Fig. 5.
ing three ways: First of all we simulated the Bennett–Brassard 1984
(BB84) QKD protocol, which is the simplest quan-
1. Distance-independent model (infinite channel with a tum key distribution protocol. Shor and Preskill already
source and a drain). proved concisely the unconditional security of this pro-
2. Linear model (linear parameter for noise). tocol [8].
3. Fractional distances model (different items have their We had to find the BER of the empty channel, to be
own noise-parameters). able to calculate with it furthermore. After we simu-
lated a successful QKD with BB84 and we built a more
In each case we started by examining the bit error complicated channel.
rate (BER) on the empty channel, in second phase we
attacked the channel, last we tried to find different
4.3. Simulation results
methods to protect the channel.
In the third case (the distance exists fractional) the
The first version simulator-program was written in
distances are divided into three items:
Microsoft C++ language, the second in Microsoft.NET
language to make it more comfortable and easier to de-
1. 0–20 km: bottom layer of atmosphere.
sign. The name of the beta-version- program is Quan-
2. 20–1000 km: top layer of atmosphere.
tum Circuit, written by Attila Pereszlenyi. Although we
3. 1000–36,000 km: space.
are able to handle different gates which allow to use
other than the BB84 algorithm, most of simulation were
Firstly, each of this items is characterised by a constant
made with this protocol, which is a significant element
noise-parameter depending on different physically pa-
of the quantum cryptography.
rameters, like probability of turbulence, of cloudy or
The first step was the calibration of the simulating-
rainy weather etc. These parameters are increasing by
model, examining the independent, depolarizing errors
function of the distance simulating the real environ-
in a channel, to determine the minimum number of
ment. These noise-parameters will be refined by com-
required bits (one of the results showed in Fig. 6).
paring our results with effective physical measures from
We determined the necessity of at least 1000 bits. In
around the world.
the second step we carried the BB84 into execution,
with different type of noise-parameters and different
4.2. Description of the simulated model number of bits. The simulation results for parameters
X = 0.1, Y = 0.2, and Z = 0.3 (three different direc-
In our channel overview the third party named Eve tions, the value is the error probability) with different
(the eavesdropper) can step between the two communi- number of bits is shown in Fig. 7. This is a good type
 L. Bacsardi / Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159 157

1.20000000

1.00000000

0.80000000
BER

0.60000000

0.40000000

0.20000000

0.00000000
1 42 83 124 165 206 247 288 329 370 411 452 493 534 575 616 657 698 739 780 821 862 903 944 985
Number of bits

Fig. 6. Simulated channel, horizontally the number of bits, vertically the BER is represented. The chart is a special field-diagram.

Number of same basic-states BER Eve knowledge about Alice's key

Eve knowledge about Bob's key
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
Percent

50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Different type of channels

Fig. 7. Independent, depolarizing errors at BB84-simulated channel. Horizontal is the number of bits (10,000, 1000, 100), vertical the
percentages (in the first case the same basic-states, in the second the BER).

of channel, because the error-rate is lower with less The figures proves the need of a accurate selection
of bits. of channel–noise-parameter. The sixth type of channel
In the third step I examined different noise- seems to be to have the best properties.
parameters of more than 20 different theoretical-
channels. 4.4. Future plans
In Fig. 8 a summary chart shows 10 different type
of channel. The main-parameters for this simulation- This is just one step on the way to reach our object, to
summary are represented in Table 1. simulate a real free space quantum channel. The main
158 L. Bacsardi / Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159

60.0000 There is a lot of work to be done with the simulation

Percent of same basic-state BER
50.0000
model as well. At first we should find a correct noise
parameter to describe the different type of atmosphere
40.0000 (setting the parameter should be based on the American
Percent

30.0000 team’s report or measurement from the other’s team or

20.0000
ITU-recommendations).
Eve’s attendance raises some issues. The main ques-
10.0000 tion is whether there exists a method or equipment to
0.0000 discover and/or eliminate Eve’s presence in the com-
1 2 3 munication. The examination of the satellite communi-
Number of bits cation with quantum informatics algorithms seems to
be only valid within this step. The programs used for
Fig. 8. Summary diagram with 10 different type of channels,
source-length 1000 bit. The different values: number of same
the simulations allow to simulate optional quantum-
basic-states, BER, Eve knowledge about Alice’s key, Eve knowledge networks and quantum channels.
about Bob’s key. In the not so distant future I would like to realise
other protocols than BB84 for better simulation of the
broadcast and the data transmission, because in this case
aims that should be achieved in quantum communica- other type of bitstream are used.
tion are the followings: These are only the first steps, I hope to continue
studying this type of communication in the next years.
1. production of single quantum bits (e.g photons),
2. amplification of the quantum-based signal, and 5. Summary
3. solution of the one-to-many communication (broad-
cast). Quantum communications is one of the promising
new fields of the new millennium. Quantum mechanics
In the field of free space channel the aims are the forces us to redefine the notions of information, infor-
following (most of them are physical problems): mation processing and computational complexity. More
and more people are becoming interested in the quan-
1. minimizing the disturbing influence of atmosphere, tum computing and not only physicists or mathemati-
2. increasing the free-space distance of the quantum cians but also engineers.
channel, and We hope that in the next years algorithms based on
3. building respective receivers and senders for the free- quantum computing will appear in more technologies
space quantum communications. as they do now. The field of satellite communications

Table 1
Different type of simulated channels

No. Channel description

1. Noiseless channel
2. Noiseless channel, attendance of Eve
3. In the first part noise channel (parameters X = 25%, Y = 25%, and Z = 25%), in the second
part noiseless channel
4. In the first part noise channel (parameters X = 25%, Y = 25%, and Z = 25%) in the second
part noiseless channel, attendance of Eve
5. In both parts noise channel (parameters X = 25%, Y = 25%, and Z = 25%)
6. In both parts noise channel (parameters X =25%, Y =25%, and Z =25%), attendance of Eve
7. In both parts noise channel (parameters X = 10%, Y = 20%, and Z = 25%)
8. In both parts noise channel (parameters X =10%, Y =20%, and Z =25%), attendance of Eve
9. In the first part rotating channel (with probability 0.2), in the second noise channel (param-
eters X = 10%, Y = 20%, and Z = 25%)
10. In the first part rotating channel (with probability 0.2), in the second noise channel (param-
eters X = 10%, Y = 20%, and Z = 25%), attendance of Eve
 L. Bacsardi / Acta Astronautica 61 (2007) 151 – 159 159

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