Solutions

04 May 2023 19:35

 Key Points:
The chapter begins by defining what a solution
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that cannot be separated is and how it differs from a mixture. A solution is
by simple mechanical means. a homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances that cannot be separated by simple
 The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given quantity of the mechanical means. The substances present in
solution. the solution are the solute and solvent. The
concentration of a solution is the amount of
 The solubility of a substance is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given solute present in a given quantity of the
amount of solvent at a particular temperature and pressure. solution. Various concentration units such as
molarity, molality, mole fraction, and mass
 The mole fraction of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of that percent are discussed in detail. The chapter also
component to the total number of moles in the solution. explains the concept of solubility and factors
affecting it such as temperature, pressure, and
 Raoult's law states that the partial pressure of a component in a solution is proportional to nature of the solute and solvent.
its mole fraction in the solution.
Raoult's law is a fundamental law that helps us
 Colligative properties of solutions are those that depend only on the concentration of solute understand the behavior of solutions. It states
particles in the solution and not on their chemical nature. that the partial pressure of a component in a
solution is directly proportional to its mole
 The boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are examples of colligative fraction in the solution. The chapter explains the
properties. application of Raoult's law in calculating the
vapor pressure of solutions and the deviation of
real solutions from ideal solutions. The concept
Definitions: of ideal and non-ideal solutions and their phase
diagrams are also covered.
Solute: The substance that is dissolved in a solution.
The chapter then discusses colligative properties
Solvent: The substance in which the solute is dissolved to form a solution. of solutions, which are properties that depend
only on the concentration of solute particles in
Concentration: The amount of solute present in a given quantity of the solution. the solution and not on their chemical nature.
These properties include vapor pressure
Molarity: The number of moles of solute present in one liter of the solution. lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point
depression, and osmotic pressure. The chapter
Molality: The number of moles of solute present in one kilogram of the solvent. explains the equations used to calculate these
properties and their significance in various
Mole Fraction: The ratio of the number of moles of a particular component in a solution to the industries such as food preservation, medicine,
total number of moles in the solution. and industrial processes.

Raoult's Law: The law that states that the partial pressure of a component in a solution is The chapter concludes by discussing the
proportional to its mole fraction in the solution. colligative properties of electrolytic solutions
and the effect of ion association on colligative
Ideal Solution: A solution that obeys Raoult's law perfectly. properties. The chapter also highlights the
importance of solutions in our daily lives and
Non-Ideal Solution: A solution that deviates from Raoult's law. various applications of solutions in different
fields
Colligative Properties: The properties of a solution that depend only on the concentration of
solute particles and not on their chemical nature.

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04 May 2023 19:37

Molarity (M) = Number of moles of solute / Volume of solution in liters

Molality (m) = Number of moles of solute / Mass of solvent in kg

Mole Fraction (X) = Number of moles of a particular component / Total number of moles in the solution

Raoult's Law: P_A = X_A x P°_A, where P_A is the partial pressure of component A in the solution, X_A is the mole
fraction of component A, and P°_A is the vapor pressure of pure A.

Boiling Point Elevation (ΔT_b) = K_b x m x i, where K_b is the ebullioscopic constant, m is the molality of the
solution, and i is the van't Hoff factor.

Freezing Point Depression (ΔT_f) = K_f x m x i, where K_f is the cryoscopic constant, m is the molality of the
solution, and i is the van't Hoff factor.

Osmotic Pressure (Π) = MRT, where M is the molarity of the solution, R is the gas constant, and T is the
temperature in Kelvin.

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances that cannot be separated by simple
mechanical means.

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given quantity of the solution.

The solubility of a substance is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of
solvent at a particular temperature and pressure.

The mole fraction of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of that component to
the total number of moles in the solution.

Raoult's law states that the partial pressure of a component in a solution is proportional to its mole
fraction in the solution.

Colligative properties of solutions are those that depend only on the concentration of solute particles in
the solution and not on their chemical nature.

Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are examples of colligative properties.

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 Bio molecules
04 May 2023 19:38

The CBSE Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 14 Bio-molecules covers the chemistry of important biomolecules • Bio-molecules are important organic
present in living organisms, including carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Below are some of compounds found in living organisms.
the key points and a summary of this chapter: • The four major types of bio-molecules
1. Carbohydrates are important biomolecules that provide energy to living organisms. They are classified into are carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and acids, and lipids.
galactose, while disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides include starch, • Carbohydrates are classified as
cellulose, and glycogen. monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
2. Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules present in living organisms. They are made up of amino acids polysaccharides.
and play important roles in various biological processes such as enzyme catalysis, regulation of gene • Proteins are made up of amino acids
expression, and transport of molecules. and have a wide range of functions in
3. Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information. They the body.
are made up of nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar molecule, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate • Nucleic acids are responsible for
group. storing and transmitting genetic
4. Lipids are important biomolecules that play structural and functional roles in living organisms. They include information.
triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol. • Lipids are important components of
5. Various analytical techniques, including chromatography and electrophoresis, are used to separate and cell membranes and also serve as
identify different biomolecules. energy storage molecules.
• Analytical techniques such as
chromatography and electrophoresis
Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their are used to separate and identify
chemical structure. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose, while different bio-molecules.
disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides include starch, cellulose, and
glycogen.
The chapter then moves on to proteins, which are the most abundant bio-molecules in living
organisms. Proteins are made up of amino acids and have a wide range of functions, such as enzyme
catalysis, regulation of gene expression, and transport of molecules. The chapter covers the different
types of amino acids, the chemical structure of proteins, and the process of protein synthesis.
Next, the chapter discusses nucleic acids, which are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic
information. The two types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. The chapter covers the chemical
structure of nucleotides, which make up nucleic acids, and the process of DNA replication.
Finally, the chapter covers lipids, which are important components of cell membranes and also serve
as energy storage molecules. The chapter discusses the different types of lipids, including
triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol.

1. Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed further
to yield simpler sugars. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
2. Disaccharides: Disaccharides are carbohydrates made up of two monosaccharide units. Examples of
disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
3. Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharide units.
Examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
4. Amino acids: Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They are organic molecules containing
an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a side chain. There are 20 different types of
amino acids that are commonly found in proteins.
5. Peptide bond: A peptide bond is a covalent bond that links two amino acids together in a protein. It is
formed through a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the
amino group of another amino acid.
6. Primary structure of protein: The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids in the
polypeptide chain.
7. Secondary structure of protein: The secondary structure of a protein is the local folding of the
polypeptide chain into alpha-helices, beta-sheets, or random coils.
8. Tertiary structure of protein: The tertiary structure of a protein is the overall 3D folding of the
polypeptide chain into a compact, globular shape.
9. Quaternary structure of protein: The quaternary structure of a protein is the arrangement of two or
more polypeptide chains in a protein complex.
10. Nucleotide: A nucleotide is the basic building block of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. It is
composed of a sugar molecule, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.
11. DNA: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded nucleic acid that carries genetic information. It
is composed of four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine
(T).
12. RNA: RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded nucleic acid that is involved in protein synthesis. It is
composed of four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U).
13. Lipids: Lipids are a diverse group of biomolecules that are insoluble in water. They include
triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol.
14. Triglycerides: Triglycerides are lipids composed of three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule. They are
the primary form of energy storage in the body.
15. Phospholipids: Phospholipids are lipids composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol molecule, and a
phosphate group. They are important components of cell membranes.

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 • The rate of a chemical reaction is
Chemical kinetics' defined as the change in concentration
04 May 2023 19:48 of reactants or products per unit time.
• Factors that affect reaction rate include
concentration of reactants,
1. Reaction rate: The rate of a chemical reaction is defined as the change in concentration of reactants or products temperature, surface area, and the
per unit time. presence of a catalyst.
2. Factors affecting reaction rate: The factors that affect reaction rate include concentration of reactants, • The rate law expresses the relationship
temperature, surface area, and the presence of a catalyst. between the rate of a reaction and the
3. Rate law: The rate law expresses the relationship between the rate of a reaction and the concentrations of the concentrations of the reactants.
reactants. • The order of a reaction is the sum of the
4. Order of reaction: The order of a reaction is the sum of the exponents in the rate law equation for that reaction. exponents in the rate law equation for
5. Integrated rate laws: The integrated rate laws express the relationship between the concentration of a reactant that reaction.
and time for a given reaction. • The integrated rate laws express the
6. Half-life: The half-life of a reaction is the time it takes for the concentration of a reactant to decrease to half its relationship between the concentration
initial value. of a reactant and time for a given
7. Activation energy: The activation energy is the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur. reaction.
8. Arrhenius equation: The Arrhenius equation relates the rate constant of a reaction to the activation energy and • The half-life of a reaction is the time it
temperature. takes for the concentration of a reactant
to decrease to half its initial value.
• The activation energy is the minimum
energy required for a reaction to occur.
Chapter 4 of CBSE Class 12 Chemistry, "Chemical Kinetics," begins with an introduction to the concept of
• The Arrhenius equation relates the rate
reaction rate, which is defined as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.
constant of a reaction to the activation
The factors that affect reaction rate, such as concentration of reactants, temperature, surface area, and
energy and temperature.
the presence of a catalyst, are discussed in detail.
Next, the chapter explains the rate law, which expresses the relationship between the rate of a reaction
and the concentrations of the reactants. The order of a reaction, which is the sum of the exponents in
the rate law equation for that reaction, is also discussed.
The integrated rate laws, which express the relationship between the concentration of a reactant and 1. Reaction rate: The rate of a chemical
time for a given reaction, are then explained. The half-life of a reaction, which is the time it takes for the reaction is defined as the change in
concentration of a reactant to decrease to half its initial value, is also discussed in this section. concentration of reactants or products per
The chapter then moves on to the concept of activation energy, which is the minimum energy required unit time.
for a reaction to occur. The Arrhenius equation, which relates the rate constant of a reaction to the 2. Factors affecting reaction rate: The factors
activation energy and temperature, is explained in detail. that affect reaction rate include
In conclusion, CBSE Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 4, "Chemical Kinetics," is an essential chapter for concentration of reactants, temperature,
students preparing for their CBSE examinations. The concepts of reaction rate, rate law, order of surface area, and the presence of a catalyst.
reaction, integrated rate laws, half-life, activation energy, and the Arrhenius equation are explained in 3. Rate law: The rate law expresses the
detail. relationship between the rate of a reaction
and the concentrations of the reactants.
4. Order of reaction: The order of a reaction is
the sum of the exponents in the rate law
1. Rate law: The rate law expresses the relationship between the rate of a reaction and the concentrations equation for that reaction.
of the reactants. 5. Integrated rate laws: The integrated rate
• Rate = k[A]^m[B]^n laws express the relationship between the
2. Order of reaction: The order of a reaction is the sum of the exponents in the rate law equation for that concentration of a reactant and time for a
reaction. given reaction.
• Order of reaction = m + n 6. Half-life: The half-life of a reaction is the
3. Integrated rate laws: The integrated rate laws express the relationship between the concentration of a time it takes for the concentration of a
reactant and time for a given reaction. reactant to decrease to half its initial value.
• Zero order reaction: [A] = -kt + [A]0 7. Activation energy: The activation energy is
• First order reaction: ln[A] = -kt + ln[A]0 the minimum energy required for a reaction
• Second order reaction: 1/[A] = kt + 1/[A]0 to occur.
4. Half-life: The half-life of a reaction is the time it takes for the concentration of a reactant to decrease to 8. Arrhenius equation: The Arrhenius equation
half its initial value. relates the rate constant of a reaction to the
• Zero order reaction: t1/2 = [A]0/2k activation energy and temperature.
• First order reaction: t1/2 = 0.693/k 9. First order reaction: A first order reaction is
• Second order reaction: t1/2 = 1/(k[A]0) a reaction where the rate is proportional to
5. Arrhenius equation: The Arrhenius equation relates the rate constant of a reaction to the activation the concentration of one reactant raised to
energy and temperature. the first power.
• k = Ae^(-Ea/RT) 10. Second order reaction: A second order
reaction is a reaction where the rate is
proportional to the concentration of one
reactant raised to the second power, or to
the product of the concentrations of two
reactants, each raised to the first power.
11. Pseudo first order reaction: A pseudo first
order reaction is a reaction where one of
the reactants is present in excess, and its
concentration remains essentially constant
throughout the reaction.
12. Rate determining step: The rate
determining step is the slowest step in a
reaction mechanism, which determines the
overall rate of the reaction.
13. Catalyst: A catalyst is a substance that
increases the rate of a chemical reaction
without being consumed in the reaction

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