The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

1). Explain the concept of liberal nationalism which developed in Europe in the early 19th
century.
• Liberalism: Derived from the Latin word 'liber means 'free'. It meant differently to different
people.
• Middle class: For the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom of individual and
equality of all before the law.

• Politically: It emphasised the concept of government by consent. The right to vote was
meant to be only for property-owning men. The lower classes were, therefore, not
included. In general, it stood for the inviolability of private property and freedom of the
markets from state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods.
Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical
privileges, a constitutional and representative government through parliament.

2). How was the Habsburg Empire a patchwork of many different regions and peoples in
Europe?
• The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria—Hungary included the Alpine regions—the
Tyrol Austria and the Sudetenland—as well as Bohemia where the aristocracy was pre-
dominantly German-speaking.
• The Empire also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.

• In Hungary half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of
dialects. In Galicia the aristocracy spoke Polish. Besides these dominant groups there also
lived within the boundaries of the empire a mass of subject peasant peoples—Bohemians
and Slovaks to the north Slovenes in Carniola Croats to the south and Romans to the east
in Transylvania.

3). Why were the years of 1830s of great economic hardship in Europe? Explain any five
reasons. OR ‘The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe’. Give arguments in
support of the statement.
• The first half of the 19th century witnessed increase in population all over Europe.
• Job-seekers were more and employment opportunities were less.

• People from rural areas migrated to cities and made cities over-crowded slums.

• Small producers often faced stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made
goods.

• Peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.

4). How did nationalism develop through culture in Europe? Explain.
Nationalism developed through culture in Europe in the following ways:
• Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation. Art, poetry, stories and
music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings.
• Romanticism, a cultural movement, sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and
science and focused, on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.

• German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to
be discovered among the common people- das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry
and folk dances that the true spirit of a nation was popularized.

• The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was used to
carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterates.

5). Explain any three provisions of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815.

Provisions of Treaty of Vienna (1815):
• Bourbon Dynasty was restored to power in France.
• France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.

• The kingdom of Netherlands was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont
in the south.

• Prussia was given new territories on its western frontiers.

• Austria was given control of Northern Italy.

• Russia was given a part of Poland and Prussia was given a part of Saxony.

6). What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in
the territories ruled by him?
Napoleon introduced the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient
in Europe:
• The Civil Code of 1804, known as Napoleonic Code, did away with all the privileges based
on birth.
• Administration became more efficient.
• Secured the right to property.
• Simplified administrative divisions.
• Abolished feudal system.
• Freed peasants from serfdom and dues.
• In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed.
 • Transport and communication improved.

Reactions to these changes:

Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed newfound freedom. Businessmen
and small-scale producers of goods in particular, began to realise uniform laws, standardized
weights and measures would facilitate the movement of goods and capital from one region to
another.
7). Explain the contribution of Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe.
• Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807.

• He was a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. Later he himself founded two
secret societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and the second, Young Europe in Berne, to
spread his revolutionary ideas.

• He believed that nations are natural units of mankind and thus should not be fragmented
into smaller states and kingdoms.

• He sought to unify Italy into a single republic which could form the basis of Italian liberty.

• He relentlessly opposed the monarchy and brought in sight his vision of a democratic
republic. He also attempted to bring revolution in Liguria in 1831.

8). How did Balkans become the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after
1871? Explain.
• The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variations comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia,
Serbia and Montenegro. The inhabitants of these regions were known as Slavs.

• A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

• As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence,
the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.

• The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more
territory at the expense of other.

9). Briefly trace the process of unification of Italy.

• In the 1800s, nationalist feelings were strong in the hearts of the middle-class Germans.

• During the Vienna Congress in 1815, Germany was identified as a loose confederation of
39 states.

• They united in 1848 to create a nation-state out of the numerous German states.
 • Prussia soon became the leader of German unification movement.

• Chief Minister of Prussia Otto von Bismarck was the architect of the process with the
support from the Prussian army and bureaucracy.

• The unification process was completed after Prussia won wars with Austria, Denmark
and France over a time period of seven years.

• In January 1871, the Prussian King, William I, was proclaimed the German Emperor in a
ceremony held at Versailles.

10). “The idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half of the century, but became a
narrow creed with limited ends.” Support the statement in the context of Balkan nationalism
in the early 19th century.
Sentiment of Nationalism in the first half of the 19th century:
• Towards the last quarter of the 19th century, nationalism could not retain its idealistic
liberal-democratic sentiments of the first half of the century but became a narrow belief
with inadequate ends.

• Nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant, which led to war.

• Major European powers manipulated the nationalist aspirations to further their own
imperialist aims.

• Source of nationalist tension in Europe was the area called Balkans.

• Idea of romantic nationalism in the Balkan together with the disintegration of the
Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.

• One by one, European nationalities broke away from its control and declared
independence.

• The Balkan people based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality
to prove that they were once independent but were subjugated by a foreign power.

• Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence. Hence, the
Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
11). How had the female figures become an allegory of the nation during 19th century in
Europe? Analyse.
• In olden times the best way to present a personifications. This was the most common
and appealing way to invite people's attention.
 • From 1789 females appeared in paintings as symbol of liberty and revolution.

• During the French Revolution, many symbolic personifications of liberty' and 'reason'
appeared.

• Marianne was the female figure invented by artists in the nineteenth century to
represent the French nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and
the Republic-the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in
public places to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them
to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

• Similarly, Germania became the symbol of the German nation. This work was done by
the artist Philip Viet. He depicted Germania as a female figure standing against a
background where beams of sunlight shone through the tricolour fabric of the national
flag. Germania was wearing a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for
heroism.

12). What were the effects of revolutionary upheaval in France in 1830?

The effects of revolutionary upheaval in France in 1830 were:
• The Bourbon dynasty, which was restored in 1815, was overthrown by liberal
revolutionaries.

• A constitutional monarchy was installed with Louis Philippe as its head.

• An uprising was seen in Brussels, which led to Belgium breaking away from the United
Kingdom of Netherlands.