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K^_kZ\mhkb^l_hkma^Ebf^DbegBg]nlmkb^l
H.-J. Klischat, H. Merker

:;LMK:<M

The lining of lime shaft and lime rotary kilns is quite complex, although the lime burning process consists mainly of the decarbonization
reaction of natural limestone to achieve calcium oxide. However, the construction of a lime shaft kiln can be rather complicated to realize
a reasonable thermal efficiency when a coarse-grained material is processed. On the other hand, in case of a fine-grained material with
a small particle size, a lime rotary kiln has to be used.

Every kiln system, whether shaft or rotary kiln, requires an especially tailored refractory lining design to achieve an optimum performance
Dr. Hans-Jürgen Klischat (41) and production behaviour. The various zones of each kiln system, preheating zone, burning zone, and cooling zone each have to be
studied Pit and Quarry lined with suitable refractories. Preheating and cooling zone are lined with refractories from the binary system Al2O3–SiO2, while the
between 1979–1986 at the burning zone is progressively more lined with basic bricks at the cost of andalusite and bauxite bricks due to increasing temperatures
Institut für Nichtmetallische and thermal load.
Werkstoffe of the Techni-
cal University Clausthal. He To achieve a satisfactory thermal insulation, shaft kilns are insulated by a multilayered wall consisting of silicate plates, lightweight bricks,
subsequently received his fireclay or insulating fireclay bricks and the working lining. Rotary kilns are insulated by a two-layer-lining or a lining with so-called clog
Ph.D at the Institut für bricks comprising a recess on the cold side. With an individual lining concept consisting of adjusted refractory grades, the lime kiln can
Nichtmetallische Werkstoffe, be operated satisfactorily and smoothly.
AG Keramik-Email in 1989. CN SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · (2000) (2)
Since 1989, he has been
employed at REFRATECHNIK
GmbH in Göttingen, and paring and upgrading natural carbonate rocks. The main
focusses on the field of
* Ablmhkb\ZeLnko^rh_Ebf^Ikh]n\mbhg
developing refractory bricks
component of limestone rocks is calcium carbonate. The
for the cement industry. In
Limestone is one of the few minerals present in almost limestone is called dolomitic or dolomite as the amount of
1997, he was named Head unlimited quantity throughout the world. About 7 % of the magnesium increases.
of the R&D Department of Earth’s crust consists of this material. The earliest traces of
REFRATECHNIK GmbH (all calcined limestone are about 12,000 years old, and about Depending on the degree of upgrading, a distinction is made
Germany). 5,500 years ago the first professional lime kiln went into between:
operation in Mesopotamia [1]. N
unburnt lime products
N
burnt lime products
N
slaked lime products.
+ Ebf^
+'* =^Ûgbmbhg After the limestone has been extracted, crushed, washed,
and classified, the first unburnt end product is obtained, the
The term lime is frequently used to describe lime products raw lime stone. This can then be fed in the required particle
such as quicklime and slaked lime. Often however “lime” size to a shaft or rotary kiln, resulting in the burnt product
Harald Merker (38) stud- is also incorrectly used to mean limestone products such quicklime. In the hydration plant the calcined lime is crushed
ied Mining Engineering at as lime fertilizer. This confusion of terms frequently leads to and ground, the end product being slaked lime. “Lime” in the
the Institute of Mining of misunderstandings. Lime products are produced by pre- following paper always means quicklime.
the Technical University
Clausthal between 1982
and 1988. Since 1989,
he has been employed at
REFRATECHNIK as a Sales
Engineer for the cement in-
dustry. Since the beginning
of 1999 he is Manager of
the company’s new Lime
Department (all Germany).

Fig. 1
World production
of quicklime and
slaked lime
including dead
burnt dolomite in
1998 [3]

36 CERAMIC NEWS SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · Volume 7 · No. 2, 2000

 -- Licensed for Guest User --

+'+ Phke]&pb]^Ebf^Ikh]n\mbhg
The world output of limestone and other minerals contain-
ing calcium carbonate, such as dolomite, is estimated at
between 2000 and 4000 million t per year. In most coun-
tries limestone is used mainly as an aggregate in the build-
ing industry and as a raw material for cement production.
Some limestone deposits contain over 95 mass-% CaCO3.
This high-quality limestone is used for producing quicklime
and slaked lime [2]. The world output of quicklime in 1998
is estimated at 116 million t. Fig. 1 shows the countries pro-
ducing more than 2 million t of lime per year in 1998. These
figures are taken from published market surveys. However,
actual lime production must be considerably higher since, as
according to unconfirmed reports, the real lime production
in China alone is estimated at over 100 million t [4], and
the lime produced by in-house plants in the steel and sugar
industry are usually not included in statistics.

+', Ebf^:iieb\Zmbhgl
It is not generally known that modern industrial production
would be inconceivable without lime. Although usually not
visible in the end product, it is a necessary component of a
variety of products or is needed for their production. Fig. 2
shows a summary of the main applications of lime products.

, <Ze\bgZmbhgIkh\^ll
Lime-burning means thermal decomposition of limestone to
56 mass-% quicklime and 44 mass-% carbon dioxide (CO2).
In practice this process is much more complex as there ex-
ists many different kinds of limestone containing different
amounts and kinds of impurities. The calcination process
is as well influenced by the calcination temperature, the
residence time in the kiln, and the particle-size distribution. kilns and other types, (Fig. 4). In view of their capacity and Fig. 2
Oates [2] divides the path of a limestone “particle” through heat consumption, no new kilns of some of the above types Uses of lime in
main industrial
a shaft kiln into five phases (Fig. 3): have been built for some time. Instead there is a trend towards
processes
double-shaft kilns, of the QualiCal, Cimprogetti or Maerz
N
In the preheating zone of the kiln, considered to be (PFR principle) type or single-shaft kilns with or without side Fig. 3
phase I, the limestone is heated by the kiln gases from burners, type SIC or Fercalx. The five phases of
ambient temperature to approx. 800 °C. limestone burning
N
At about 800 °C the partial pressure of CO2 resulting Differences in the kiln systems and the selection criteria are
from dissociation of the limestone equals the partial pres- due to the different limestone deposits, the particle size of the
sure of the CO2 in the kiln gases. If the temperature con- kiln feed, the desired end product, the desired kiln capacity
Fig. 4
tinues to rise, the limestone begins to decompose into and particularly the specific energy consumption of individual Classification of
CaO and CO2. When the temperature reaches 900 °C, kilns. In general, vertical lime shaft kilns can burn limestone of kiln types for
the decomposed layer is about 0.5 mm thick. a particle size from about 20 mm. The Maerz fine lime kiln is burning lime
N
If the temperature is increased further, the partial pres-
sure exceeds 101.3 kPa and decomposition of the par-
ticle can proceed further inwards.
N
If all the CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) dissociates before
the particle leaves the combustion zone, the lime will
begin to sinter.
N
Lime particles, which still may contain small portions of
CaCO3, leave the burning zone at about 900 °C and
are cooled by the inflowing air for combustion.

- DbegLrlm^fl_hkEbf^;nkgbg`
The decomposition of limestone as previously described oc-
curs in all kinds of lime kilns. Modern lime kilns can be di-
vided basically into three main categories: shaft kilns, rotary

CERAMIC NEWS SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · Volume 7 · No. 2, 2000 37

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an exception, for which the minimum particle size is said to be of corundum. Their Al2O3-content is 70 mass-%. Bauxite
10 mm. Rotary kilns, depending on their type, can process par- bricks have to be distinguished between products based on
ticle sizes from 0–60 mm. This advantage, however, is unfor- diaspore, boehmite and gibbsite respectively. Although they
tunately compensated by the much higher heat consumption posses a comparable chemical composition, bricks based
of this kiln type. On average, the heat consumption of a rotary on gibbsitic bauxite form higher contents of mullite on fir-
lime kiln is about twice that of a modern lime shaft kiln. ing, thus providing a higher refractoriness and hot strength,
a higher density and lower porosity.
. <
 aZkZ\m^kblZmbhgh_K^_kZ\mhkrFZm^kbZel Fireclay and high-alumina bricks can either be ceramically
_hkEbf^Dbegl bonded (by ceramic sintering) or phosphate bonded (by ad-
dition of phospharic acid and a subsequent ceramic firing at
In the following a classification of refractory brick grades 1000–1500 °C). Phosphate bonded bricks are character-
for various lime burning systems and zones for lime kilns is ized by an increased resistance to slags, melts, and dust, as
shown. A good survey regarding classification and proper- their porosity is significantly decreased due to the formation
ties of refractories is given in [5]. of highly refractory aluminium phosphate during firing.
The refractoriness of alumina containing bricks is lowered in
.'* ?bk^\eZrZg]Ab`a:enfbgZ;kb\dl
the presence of further compounds (e.g. Fe2O3, TiO2 and al-
Especially for kiln zones with lower temperatures, which are kalies from the raw materials or CaO from the kiln feed). The
thermochemically lower loaded areas of lime burning systems, reaction with CaO, which can take place during lime burning
products from the binary systems SiO2–Al2O3 are still suc- especially at higher temperatures, led to a substitution of the
cessfully used, Fig. 5. All compositions are refractory, i.e. they alumina-containing lining in the hot kiln zones by a basic lining,
show a Seger cone of at least 18 (corresponding 1500 °C). a process which already took place in the cement industry.
A distinction is made between fireclay products containing
below or equal 45 mass-% Al2O3, and high alumina products .'+ ;Zlb\;kb\dl
containing more than 45 mass-% Al2O3. The main mineral
phases in this system are corundum (B-Al2O3) and mullite Due to the increasing loads in lime shaft and rotary kilns, a
(3Al2O3· 2SiO2, 2Al2O3·SiO2 respectively, as mullite is always transition from alumina bricks to basic bricks was observed.
a mixed crystal of varying composition). At first, cheap dolomite bricks were used, but due to their poor
thermal shock resistance and comparably low hot strength of
Fireclay bricks (sometimes also named chamotte bricks) are these installations several premature failures were observed.
made from fired clays or kaolinites. Acidic fireclay bricks con- Furthermore, because of their high hygroscopicity, each kiln
tain between 10 and 35 mass-% Al2O3. Although they show the stop gave problems because of the water pick-up of the dolo-
lowest melting temperatures in the system, they still exhibit an ad- mite lining and the subsequent brick destruction. In a period of
vantageous high alkali resistance. Fireclay bricks with alumina time, dolomitic linings of lime kilns will be a thing of the past.
contents between 35 and 45 mass-% are characterized as alu-
mina rich fireclay bricks, due to their higher Al2O3-content their Magnesia is an interesting material for all high-temperature ap-
refractoriness is increased, compared to acidic fireclay brick plications involving basic products and by-products, like lime
grades. Between 45 and 55 mass-% Al2O3, alumina enriched burning, cement burning, magnesia and dolomite burning, or
fireclay bricks with further increased refractoriness are located. steel production, because of a high refractoriness (melting tem-
perature 2800 °C). To increase the elasticity and the fracture
Bricks on the basis of andalusite (an equimolar natural alumi- toughness and thus the thermal shock resistance and the stress
nosilicate) contain a further increased alumina content of ap- resistivity of basic magnesia bricks, a second compound is add-
prox. 60–63 mass-% Al2O3. Bricks based on sillimanite and ed to the brick material. For many years this second compound
Fig. 5
kyanite, with the same chemical composition as andalusite, was chromite (chrome ore), and these magnesia chromite bricks
Brick grades in the
SiO2–Al2O3 system are used only subordinately. In the high alumina rich region, have become a standard lining in rotary kilns world-wide.
(according to bauxite and mullite bricks are located. They are used in abra-
Welch [6]) sive areas of shaft and rotary kilns due to their high content The bonding of the brick influences the performance of a
magnesia chromite brick refractory lining to a high degree.
In the so-called direct bonded magnesia bricks, often made
from seawater magnesia, the chrome ore grains are bonded
tightly to the surrounding matrix. These bricks were originally
developed for the use in the steel and nonferrous industry.
They distinguish themselves by a high hot strength, they show
only a low high temperature plasticity and a poor thermal
shock resistance. Anyhow, these bricks have been installed
in the hot zones of lime shaft kilns for a period of time.
As it is observed in several kilns, in the presence of alkalies in
oxidizing kiln atmosphere the chrome ore of magnesia chro-
mite bricks can degenerate. This reaction is accompanied
by the formation of presumably toxic hexavalent chromates.
Known from experience, MA-spinel (MgO · Al2O3) is very
suitable to increase the elasticity of basic refractory bricks.
Comparable investigations on the performance behaviour
showed that even an increase of the lining life time could be

38 CERAMIC NEWS SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · Volume 7 · No. 2, 2000

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achieved by using magnesia spinel bricks instead of magne-

sia chromite bricks or alumina-containing bricks.
The stoichiometric composition of MA-spinel is 29 mass-%
MgO and 71 mass-% Al2O3. In the system MgO-Al2O3 two
eutectica exist with temperatures of 2135 and 2020 °C,
respectively (Fig. 6). For lime kiln refractories, spinels with
MgO-oversaturated spinels are preferred, as their eutecti-
cum of 2135 °C is much higher than the typical burning tem-
perature of lime (max. 1400 °C). Spinel itself is produced
either by fusion in an electric arc furnace or by sintering in a
rotary kiln at temperatures above 1700 °C.
Magnesia-based raw materials are either pure, natural or
synthetic materials being low in iron; the use of iron-rich al-
pine materials in magnesia spinel bricks was not successful
due to unsufficient refractoriness. For production of classical
magnesia spinel bricks a mixture of presynthesized spinel and
magnesia is pressed and fired, usually in high-temperature tun-
nel kilns. Because of a difference in the thermal expansion
coefficients between spinel and the surrounding magnesia
matrix, a microcrack system forms in the brick which results in
a significant increase of the bricks’ elasticity without a nega-
tive influence on its strength. A further production method for
magnesia spinel bricks is the addition of alumina to a magne- Magnesia zirconia bricks (like MAGNUM® brick grades) are Fig. 6
made from magnesia and zirconia, they consist mineralogical- Magnesia spinel
sia composition, the spinel forms during brick firing by an in-
bricks in the
situ-reaction. Magnesia spinel bricks are burnt at temperatures ly of periclase, stabilized zirconia, calcium zirconate, and low
MgO–Al2O3 system
up to 1700 °C and above, their alumina content is typically amounts of silicate phases. Zirconia is statistically distributed in
between 3–18 mass-%. Both methods result in products which the brick structure and improves the thermal shock resistance
vary in their composition and behaviour. and the fracture toughness because of a microcrack formation.
Due to the formation of a so-called elastic direct bonding be-
Low-iron magnesia spinel bricks are highly thermal shock resis- tween MgO and ZrO2, magnesia zirconia bricks are charcter-
tant, not sensible against alternating reducing/oxidizing (redox) ized by a high hot mechanical strength.
conditions and chemically stable against alkali oxides. Since
the middle of the 1970s, they are used increasingly in the burn- Magnesia zirconia bricks are corrosion resistant against
ing zone of rotary and shaft kilns not only for production of lime, alkali and earth alkali oxides and highly basic slags, they
but also of cement, dolomite, and magnesite. After use, they reveal a good thermal shock resistance and a high creep
can be disposed of more easily than magnesia chromite bricks strength, so they are increasingly used in shaft and rotary
due to the absence of hexavalent chromium compounds. kilns for lime burning.

Latest developments for cement kilns have shown that a new

/ Ebgbg`h_LaZ_mDbegl
generation of magnesia spinel bricks, the so-called magnesia
hercynite bricks, have a high tendency to form and hold a coat-
/'* ShgZe=blmkb[nmbhgh_LaZ_mDbegl
ing, if this is desired. These basic bricks (like FERROMAG® 90) use Owing to the wide variety of kiln systems it is impossible to
the iron aluminate mineral hercynite (a material which naturally propose a general method of refractory layout valid for all
occurs mainly in meteorites and in metal-lurgical slags) to in- types of kiln. All kiln types can be divided into three zones:
crease the bricks’ elasticity and reduce their stress sensitivity. Fig. 7
the preheating zone, the burning zone and the cooling zone. Division of various
Hercynite as an elastifying brick component should be used in Fig. 7 shows the division into zones for four different kinds shaft lime kilns
bricks containing a magnesia sinter with 1 mass-% Fe2O3 to of shaft kilns as an example. Shaft kilns have, as a further into zones
reduce the brick’s susceptibility against varying oxidizing and
reducing kiln conditions. The structure-destroying mineralogical
transformation of magnesioferrite to magnesia wustite and vice
versa on changing reducing and oxidizing conditions is omit-
ted. At the moment, first installations of this new brick type are
carried out in rotary lime kilns.

Products on the basis of MgO–ZrO2 are increasingly used

in kilns with a high thermochemical load by CaO because of
the higher resistance of zirconia compounds to this stress pat-
tern [7]. Both, magnesia chromite bricks and magnesia spinel
bricks, are attacked by thermal overload in the presence of
CaO, the spinel and the chrome ore form low melting mineral
phases with the result of a premature wear. On the other hand,
when zirconia is used, only the highly refractory calcium zir-
conate (CaZrO3) can form (melting point at 2340 °C), a ther-
mochemical wear is therefore less probable.

CERAMIC NEWS SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · Volume 7 · No. 2, 2000 39

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/'+ K
 ^_kZ\mhkr@kZ]^l_hkma^=b__^k^gm
Shg^lh_LaZ_mDbegl
The choice of suitable refractory grades for the different zones
of a kiln is particularly important because of the various loads
from the kiln feed and the kiln atmosphere on the refractory
lining, [8]. Fig. 8 shows the basic wall structure of a lime shaft
kiln divided into the working lining, permanent lining, and insu-
lating layers. In a lime shaft kiln the working lining, i.e. the layer
which is in direct contact with the charge, has to withstand the
following loads in order to ensure a maximum service life:
N
abrasion by kiln charge
N
mechanical forces, e.g. by expansion of the lining
N
thermal shocks
N
chemical corrosion.
The permanent lining must have sufficient strength not to be
destroyed by the static pressure of the limestone column, and
to absorb the expansion stresses of the working lining which
are not compensated by the expansion allowance. It should
also have certain “emergency running properties”, so when
the working lining is worn the kiln can operate at least for a
short time without a complete burn-through of the refractory
lining down to the kiln shell.
The kiln operator will quickly realize what the situation is,
owing to the increased temperature of a limited region of the
kiln shell, and will plan the required repair. The insulation be-
hind the permanent lining – usually two or three layers – must
be calculated in a way to adjust the kiln shell temperature to
a preset value without heat accumulating in the individual
layers and adversely affecting the layers in front. Using the
wall structure of a burning zone as an example, two different
possible methods of insulation are described.
The main difference between the two alternatives relates
Fig. 8 to the permanent lining. In the conventional wall structure on
Wall structure and important loads of a typical lime shaft kiln the left side of the diagram, a fireclay brick containing about
30 mass-% Al2O3, (e.g. KRONEX® 30) is used behind the
Fig. 9 working lining. As an alternative, an insulating fireclay brick
Comparison of heat transfer through a conventional lining and a lining with an
insulating brick (as an example in this case REFRATHERM® 150) in the burning zone when
with a porosity of 25–35 mass-% (here REFRATHERM® 150) as
installed with a basic magnesia spinel working lining (as an example REFRAMAG® 85) the first layer behind the working lining can be installed, as
shown on the right side in Fig. 9.

Table 1 This brick combines the properties of a purely insulating

Characteristics of fireclay and insulating fireclay bricks brick with those of a “working-lining” brick. Moreover, this is
Fireclay Bricks Insulating Fireclay Bricks an economic alternative to the lightweight refractory bricks
(e.g. KRONEX® 30) (e.g. REFRATHERM® 150) used in the insulating lining if the “standard” brick with
Chemical Analysis 30 mass-% Al2O3 is to be retained. A comparison between
[mass-%] the details of the discussed brick grades is given in Table 1.
Al2O3 30–34 22–26 The burning zone is of course the most highly stressed zone of
SiO2 62–66 64–69
a kiln. If constructions such as burner arches, vaults, support-
Fe2O3 approx. 1.0 approx. 2.5
ing arches etc. are necessary in this zone, depending on the
Density 2.05–2.20 g/cm3 1.60–1. 75 g/cm3 kiln type, magnesia spinel or magnesia zirconia brick grades
Porosity 14–18 % 25–35 % (like REFRAMAG® 85, MAGPURE®, or MAGNUM®) can be used in
Cold crushing strength 40 N/mm2 20 N/mm2 addition to standard grades containing increased amounts of
Refractoriness under load ta  1.400 °C ta  1.350 °C Fe2O3. Due to the prevailing abrasion stresses on the lining,
the bricks should have a cold crushing strength of r45 MPa.
Thermal shock resistance 
30 cycles 50 cycles
To install a lining which is resistant to redox (alternating reduc-
Thermal conductivity (1000 °C) 1.2 W/m · K 0.6 W/m · K
ing and oxidizing) conditions, the Fe2O3-content of the bricks
should be 1 mass-%.
feature, the wall construction of the refractory lining in com-
mon. This can basically be divided into the working lining, the Owing to the wide variety of different kiln types, it is generally
permanent lining and the insulation. It has to be mentioned necessary to discuss the lining for any kiln in detail with the lime
that the typical basic wall construction applies to all zones producer, in order to respond quickly to any special features,
of a shaft kiln. such as fuel, qualities of raw materials, kiln furniture, alkali load

40 CERAMIC NEWS SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · Volume 7 · No. 2, 2000

 -- Licensed for Guest User --

etc. Table 2 summarises the refractory grades mainly used in Table 2

the various zones of a kiln, depending on the kiln type. Lining concept for recommended refractory grades in a lime shaft kiln
Zone Working Lining Permanent Insulation
0 K^_kZ\mhkr@kZ]^l_hkKhmZkrEbf^Dbegl Lining
Preheating fireclay bricks insulating fireclay
Hitherto especially lime shaft kilns were discussed, but also zone (40 % Al2O3) bricks
rotary lime kilns have to be considered in greater detail. In alumina enriched
Europe, rotary lime kilns account for only a very small part fireclay bricks insulating bricks
of total lime production, whereas in the USA, for example, (50 % Al2O3)
more than 90 % of lime is still burnt in rotary kilns. During Burning magnesia spinel fireclay bricks kieselguhr bricks
the last 30 years all new kilns in the USA, apart from a few zone bricks
exceptions, have been equipped with preheaters. magnesia zirconia insulating insulating materials
bricks fireclay bricks
This was due mainly to the comparatively large capacity of
Cooling fireclay bricks insulating materials
rotary kilns, the quality of the limestone, and the low fuel zone (30 % Al2O3)
costs. In the world paper industry, likewise, rotary kilns are fireclay bricks
almost exclusively in operation for recovering the lime re- (40 % Al2O3)
quired in the production process. These kilns therefore are
also frequently called lime recovery kilns.
Traditionally, rotary lime kilns have been and still are lined
with high-alumina products in the preheating and cooling
zones and also in the burning zones if the specific thermal
load is b 2 GJ/m2 · h1. In view of the lining’s response to
high temperatures and alkali corrosion, however, it is often an
inevitable step to switch to basic products, particularly in the
burning zone, as the specific thermal load increases in these
kilns from values of 2 GJ/m2 · h1 to values 6 GJ/m2 · h1.
Owing to the higher thermal conductivity of basic bricks,
compared with fireclay and high-alumina products, and the
absence of a clinker coating in the burning zone of rotary
lime kilns, steps have to be taken to prevent excessive kiln-
shell temperatures and heat losses. In the case of rotary kilns,
the following two alternatives are state of the art. The first
one is the classic two-layer lining (Fig. 10) where the basic
working lining is based on an insulating layer [9, 10].
For this installation method, the increased costs of insulation
and, more seriously, possible relative movement of the work-
ing lining to the insulating brickwork have to be considered.
This may result in mechanical failure of the insulating layer
by abrasion, which in turn may result in complete loosening
or, in the worst case, collapse of the lining.
To prevent this relative movement, the insertion of a number
of “anchor strips” uniformly across the periphery is recom-
mended. The anchor strips consist of standard rotary-kiln
shapes which are higher by the thickness of the insulating
layer than the working lining resting on the insulation. With
this measure, a uniform lining thickness is achieved. How-
long and fed with limestone having a particle size of 0–60 mm Fig. 10
ever, there is still the disadvantage of higher lining costs, Two-layer lining in
(Fig. 12). For higher wear factors, generally the following brick
although the possibility of the lining’s loosening is reduced. the final keying
grades should be used:
The second practical and successful method of insulating in section of the
rotary kilns is the use of a clog brick lining (Fig. 11) [9, 10]. lining of a rotary
N
Kiln inlet: bauxite bricks (e.g. KRONEX® 85)
lime kiln
As Fig. 11 shows, the lining consists of only one layer of clog N
Calcination zone: andalusite bricks (e.g. REFRALUSIT® 63)
bricks. The recess on the cold side of the brick results in an N
Burning zone: magnesia spinel brick (e.g. Fig. 11
air cushion with considerable insulating power. In a number REFRAMAG® 85); magnesia A refractory lining
of cases the shell temperature has been found to be up to zirconia brick (e.g. MAGNUM®) using clog bricks in
N
Kiln outlet: Andalusite bricks (e.g. REFRALUSIT® 63). the final keying
70 °C lower than with a solid-brick lining. An example for a
section of the
rotary lime kiln lining is given in Fig. 12. lining of a rotary
With regard to the large number of different rotary lime kilns, lime kiln
1  hglmkn\mbhgZe=^mZbelNlbg`OZkbhnl
<
each distinguished by different burning conditions and kiln LaZ_mDbegLrlm^flZlZg>qZfie^
feed composition, it has to be mentioned that it is impossible
to propose individual solutions. The following lining is an ex- Detailed constructions for various problem solutions are
ample for a rotary lime kiln approx. 4.00 m in diameter, 90 m shown with reference to two shaft-kiln examples:

CERAMIC NEWS SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · Volume 7 · No. 2, 2000 41

 -- Licensed for Guest User --

Fig. 12
Installation of
various refractory
grades in a rotary
lime kiln

most significant between the burners, this section is shown in

Fig. 13. The basic working lining consisting of magnesia spinel
bricks (e.g. MAGPURE® 93 or REFRAMAG® 85), expands much
more than the permanent lining consisting of fireclay brick
grades. To prevent the vertical expansion of the working lining
from interlocking with the layer of the insulating back-up lining
at working temperatures, the layers of back-up lining in the
offset region are moved out by 25 mm in the vertical direction.
The interlocking effect would result in increased mechanical
stresses which, in extreme cases, might result in mechanical
destruction of either the working lining, the rear lining or both
of them. Displacement of this kind could also lead to open
joints through which hot gases could reach up to the insulating
layers and damage them by overheating. A further advantage
of this type of expansion allowance in the rear lining is that the
working lining need not to be interrupted, thus avoiding further
potential weak points during operation.
Expansion in the horizontal direction is made possible by in-
stalling a 10 mm thick layer of polystyrene, which burns out
during heating-up and leaves sufficient space for the natural
volume effect. This example already shows the critical influ-
ence of expansion allowance in the shaft kiln sector. If a shaft
kiln is emptied for inspection and repair, it is essential to ensure
that open gaps caused by cooling of the refractory lining are
cleanly scraped out and subsequently filled with rock wool or
similar materials. This prevents fine material from settling in the
joints when the kiln is filled, so that the lining cannot expand.
The result would be increased annular stress and possible
bursting of the brick heads when heated up.

1'+ M a^Kbg`&<aZgg^e<^bebg`h_Z
FZ^ksDbeg
As a second example of a detailed solution the ring channel
Fig. 13 N
shaft kiln with side burners (type SIC) ceiling of a Maerz shaft kiln is shown. Fig. 14 shows two possi-
Detail of a vertical N
Maerz-PFR kiln with ring channel. ble constructions of the ring channel ceiling. On the left, large
allowance for special shapes form a horizontal ceiling. Various constructions
expansion
1'* LaZ_mDbeglpbmaLb]^;nkg^kl are possible, thus requiring a variable number of shapes. The
Fig. 14 right-hand side shows an alternative ceiling construction in the
Detail of ring- At first, the shaft-kiln type with side burners (SIC construction) form of an arch. Similarly, the construction can vary by chang-
channel ceiling of is discussed. In this kiln, in the burner sector (a certain number ing the shapes and the radius of the arch. A common feature
a Maerz-GGR kiln
of burners are uniformly distributed around the periphery on for both solutions is the need for a support of the ceiling con-
one level) the inside diameter of the lining is changed from struction on both the inner and the outer cylindrical brickwork.
2200 mm below the burner level to 2038 mm above the burn- Varying expansions of the inner and outer brickwork may re-
er level. Since the stepping between the individual layers is sult in a tilting of the ceiling construction so that gaps may

42 CERAMIC NEWS SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · Volume 7 · No. 2, 2000

 -- Licensed for Guest User --

open, through which the hot gases can reach the insulating
layers and damage them by overheating.
A new proposed construction for a ring-channel ceiling is il-
lustrated in Fig. 15. To illustrate the idea underlying this pro-
posal, a spherical dish which is limited by an outer cylinder
is considered. The cylinder axis passes through the centre of
the spherical dish. Furthermore, a second, smaller cylinder is
inserted into the first cylinder through the spherical dish. As-
suming that the outer cylinder is the outer boundary of a ring
channel and the inner cylinder is the inner cylindrical lining of
a Maerz-PFR kiln, the remaining part of the spherical-shape
portion is the ring-channel ceiling (Fig. 16). The lining is pro-
vided in concentric rings, using shapes with edges pointing
towards the centre of the sphere. Under these conditions a
ring is intrinsically stable as soon as it is closed, i.e. it does not
need a second internal support in addition to the external one.
Another advantage of this solution is the lining of the complete
ring-channel ceiling with only 2 different shapes.

2 <hg\enlbhg
Limestone or quicklime and the various products manufac-
tured therefrom (slaked lime, milk of lime etc.) have for thou-
sands of years been used by human beings in various sectors
and industrial processes. Limestone deposits of relatively high
quality are available throughout the world, and consequently
the lime industry has also developed world-wide. The leading
lime-producing countries today are China, the USA and the
European countries.
The main uses of lime are closely dependent on the epoch and
geographical conditions. In the past century, the iron and steel
industry was the main customer of the lime industry, with an in-
creasing requirement for lime by the chemical industry, particu-
larly for environmental protection, which has almost overtaken
the iron and steel industry with regard to lime consumption [11]
in the USA. The basically simple calcining process for produc- tory lining of shaft kilns, the working lining, the permanent lin- Fig. 15
ing lime from limestone has become a highly-developed high- ing and the insulation have to be distinguished. The shaft kiln Proposed lining of
the ring-channel
tech process as a result of various impurities in the raw material, is divided into the preheating zone, the burning zone and the
ceiling in a Maerz
variations in the fuel, different kiln systems and the increasingly cooling zone. Generally, with regard to the working lining, kiln
stricter environmental requirements on lime producers. Modern this area should be lined with fireclay brick grades containing
lime producers can choose from a number of kiln systems. One 40 mass-% Al2O3 or, at higher temperatures, 50 mass-% Al2O3 Fig. 16
A new construction
criterion is the specific energy consumption (both of fuel and in the preheating zone. For the burning zone, a lining with ba-
of a ring-channel
electric energy). However, the raw materials, their particle size, sic brick grades (magnesia spinel bricks or magnesia zirconia ceiling proposed by
the kiln capacity and the desired end product properties are bricks) has to be considered with special regard to an increase REFRATECHNIK®
also decisive in the selection of the kiln system. Every lime kiln of the thermal load in all kiln types. In the cooling area, fireclay
requires a special lining design to achieve its optimum produc- brick grades can be used. With this conceptional design, an
tion and performance behaviour. With regard to the refrac- advantageous price-/performance ratio can be achieved.

K>?>K>G<>L
[1] Naturstein und Kalk - Pro und Contra. Arbeitsgemeinschaft [8] F. Dobrowsky, R. Steinwender: Neuzeitliches Zustellkonzept für
Naturstein, März 1998 die Öfen der Kalkindustrie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung
[2] J. A. H. Oates: Lime and Limestone. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim der Normalschachtöfen (Modern lining schemes for kilns in the
1998 lime industry with particular reference to standard shaft kilns).
[3] U. S. Geological Survey: Mineral Industry Survey – Lime 1998 Zement-Kalk-Gips -, (1990) [8] 376–380
Annual review. Reston, VA, USA, August 1999 [9] H.-J. Klischat, P. Bartha, G. Weibel: Stoffliche und konstruktive
[4] G. Chenxiang: The Structural Characteristics and Rationality of Maßnahmen zur thermischen Isolierung von Drehofenanlagen.
China New Type Ordinary Shaft Kiln. Proc. 4th North American Preprint 40th Int. Koll. on Refractories, Aachen 1997, 72–77
Ind. Min. Annual Meeting, San Francisco, October 1999 [10] P. Bartha, E. Hobrecht, H.-J. Klischat, G. Weibel: The Use of Ba-
[5] G. Routschka (ed.): Pocket Manual Refractory Materials. 1st ed., sic and High-Alumina Bricks in Highly Thermally and Chemically
Vulkan Verlag, Essen 1997 Stressed Lime Recovery Kilns with Special regard to Thermal In-
[6] J. W. Welch: Nature 186 (1960) 546 sulation Considerations. REFRATECHNIK®-Report No. 56, REFRATECHNIK
[7] P. Bartha, H.-J. Klischat: Klassifikation von Magnesiasteinen GmbH, Göttingen 1998
nach Spezifikation und Gebrauchswert im Zementdrehofen. [11] B. Brown: Demand and Supply in the US Lime Industry in 2000
ZKG Intern. -0 (1994) [10] E 277–E 280 and Beyond. Proceedings Global Lime Conference 2000,
Geneva, March 2000

CERAMIC NEWS SPECIAL REFRACTORIES · Volume 7 · No. 2, 2000 43