Physics E & M

DAY EIGHTEEN
Electrostatics
Learning & Revision for the Day
u Electric Charge u Electric Field due to u Electric Potential
u Coulomb’s Law of Forces a Point Charge u Electric Potential Energy
between Two Point Charges u Continuous Charge Distribution u Equipotential Surface
u Superposition Principle u Electric Dipole u Conductors and Insulators
u Electric Field u Electric Flux (φE ) u Electrical Capacitance
u Motion of A Charged Particle u Gauss Law u Capacitor
in An Electric Field
If the charge in a body does not move, then the fricitional electricity is known as static
electricity. The branch of physics which deals with static electricity is called
electrostatics.
Electric Charge
Electric charge is the property associated with matter due to which it produces and
experiences electric and magnetic effects.
Conservation of Charge
We can neither create nor destroy electric charge. The charge can simply be transferred
from one body to another. There are three modes of charge transfer:
(a) By friction (b) By conduction (c) By induction
Quantisation of Charge PREP

Electric charge is quantised. The minimum amount of charge, which may reside
independently is the electronic charge e having a value of 1.6 × 10 –19 C, i.e. Q = ± ne,
MIRROR
Your Personal Preparation Indicator
where, n is any integer.
Important properties of charges are listed below u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
l
Like charges repel while opposite charges attract each other.
u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
l
Charge is invariant i.e. charge does not change with change in velocity. (Without referring Explanations)
l
According to theory of relativity, the mass, time and length change with a change in
velocity but charge does not change. u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
l
A charged body attracts a lighter neutral body.
l
Electronic charge is additive, i.e. the total charge on a body is the algebraic sum of all In order to expect good rank in JEE,
the charges present in different parts of the body. For example, if a body has different your Accuracy Level should be above
85 & Prep Level should be above 75.
charges as + 2q, + 4q, − 3 q, − q, then the total charge on the body is + 2 q.
DAY EIGHTEEN ELECTROSTATICS 203
Electric field intensity (E) is a vector quantity.

Coulomb’s Law of Forces between The direction of electric field is same as that of force acting on
Two Point Charges the positive test charge. Unit of E is NC−1 or Vm −1.
l
If q 1 and q2 be two stationary point charges in free space
separated by a distance r, then the force of attraction / Electric Field Lines
repulsion between them is
An electric field line in an electric field is a smooth curve,
K |q 1||q2| 1 |q 1||q2|  1 
F = = ⋅ K = 4πε 
tangent to which, at any point, gives the direction of the
r 2
4π ε0 r2  0 electric field at that point.
9 × 10 9 × | q 1|| q2| Properties of electric field lines are given below
= [K = 9 × 10 9 N-m2 /c2 ]
r2 l
Electric field lines come out of a positive charge and go into
l
If some dielectric medium is completely filled between the the negative charge.
given charges, then the Coulomb’s force between them l
No two electric field lines intersect each other.
becomes l
Electric field lines are continuous but they never form a
1 q 1q2 1 q 1q2  ε  closed loop.
Fm = = Q ε = ε r or k 
4πε r 2 4πε 0ε r r 2  0  l
Electric field lines cannot exist inside a conductor. Electric
1 q q
= ⋅ 1 2 shielding is based on this property.
4πkε 0 r 2
Forces between Multiple Charges Motion of a Charged Particle in

When a number of point charges are present in a region then an Electric Field
force acting between any two point charges remains Let a charged particle of mass m and charge q, enters the
unaffected by the presence of other charges and remains same electric field along X -axis with speed u. The electric field E
as according to Coulomb’s law. If four identical charges of is along Y-axis is given by
magnitude q each are placed at the four corners of square of
side a, then the force on any one charge due to the rest of the F y = qE
three charges is and force along X -axis remains zero, i.e.
1 q2 Fx = 0
F = (2 2 + 1)
4πε 0 a2 Y E
P (x, y)
Superposition Principle
It states that, the net force on any one charge is equal to the O X
vector sum of the forces exerted on it by all other charges. If u
there are four charges q 1, q2 , q3 and q 4, then the force on q 1
∴Acceleration of the particle along Y-axis is given by
(say) due to q2 , q3 and q 4 is given by F1 = F12 + F13 + F14,
where F12 is the force on q 1 due to q2 , F13 that due to q3 and Fy qE
ay = =
F14 that due to q 4. m m
The initial velocity is zero along Y-axis (u y = 0).
Electric Field ∴The deflection of charged particle along Y-axis after time t
1
The space surrounding an electric charge q in which another is given by y = u y t + a y t 2
charge q 0 experiences a force of attraction or repulsion, is 2
called the electric field of charge q. The charge q is called the qE 2
= t
source charge and the charge q 0 is called the test charge. The 2m
test charge must be negligibly small so that it does not modify Along X -axis there is no acceleration, so the distance
the electric field of the source charge. covered by particle in time t along X -axis is given by x = ut
Eliminating t , we have
Intensity (or Strength) of Electric Field (E) y=
 qE 
x2 
 2 mu2 
The intensity of electric field at a point in an electric field is
the ratio of the forces acting on the test charge placed at that y ∝ x2
point to the magnitude of the test charge. This shows that the path of charged particle in
F perpendicular field is a parabola.
E= , where, F is the force acting on q 0.
q0
204 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY EIGHTEEN
Electric Field due to 4. Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged

Infinite Plane Sheet
a Point Charge
Electric field near a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet
1. Electric Field due to a Point Charge at a having surface charge density σ is given by
Distance σ
E=
2 ε0
Electric field at a distance r from a point charge q is
1 q
E = ⋅ 5. Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged
4πε 0 r 2
Thin Spherical Shell
l
If q 1 and q2 are two like point charges, separated by a distance
For a charged conducting sphere/ E r<R
r, a neutral point between them is obtained at a point distant shell of radius R and total charge
r1 from q 1, such that Q, the electric field is given by
r
r1 = Case I E = 0, for r < R
 q2  Q
1 +  Case II E = , for r = R O
R
 q1  4πε 0R 2 Variation of electric field
l
If q 1 and q2 are two charges of opposite nature separated by Q with distance for uniformly
a distance r, a neutral point is obtained in the extended line Case III E = , for r > R charge spherical shell
4πε 0r 2
joining them, at a distance r1 from q 1, such that,
r
r1 =
 q2  Continuous Charge Distribution
 − 1
 q1  The continuous charge distribution may be one dimensional,
2. Electric Field due to Infinitely Long Uniformly two dimensional and three-dimensional.
Charged Straight Wire 1. Linear charge density (λ ) If charge is distributed along a
Electric field at a point situated at a normal distance r, line, i. e., straight or curve is called linear charge
from an infinitely long uniformly charged straight wire distribution. The uniform charge distribution q over a
having a linear charge density λ, is length L of the straight rod.
λ Then, the linear charge density, λ =
q
E =
2 πε 0 r L
Its unit is coulomb metre −1 (Cm–1 ).
3. Electric Field due to a Charged Cylinder
2. Surface charge density (σ) If charge is distributed over a
l
For a conducting charged cylinder of linear charge density
surface is called surface charge density, i. e.,
λ and radius R, the electric field is given by
λ σ =q/A
E = , for r > R,
2 πε 0 r Its unit is coulomb m–2 (Cm–2 )
λ 3. Volume charge density (ρ) If charge is distributed over
E = , for r = R
2 πε 0 R the volume of an object, is called volume charge density,
q
and E = 0, for r < R i. e., p = . Its unit is coulomb metre −3 (Cm–3 ).
V
l
For a non-conducting charged cylinder, for r ≤ R,
λr λ
E = and E = , for r > R
2 πε 0R2 2 πε 0 r Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges
E Emax E Emax separated by a small distance.
A p B
r>R
R
r<
r>R –q +q
r
E ∝ 12
∝
2a
r
E
O
The dipole moment of a dipole is defined as the product
O r=R r r=R r of the magnitude of either charges and the distance
(a) Variation of electric field (b) Variation of electric field between them. Therefore, dipole moment
with distance for conducting with distance for
cylinder non-conducting cylinder p = q(2a)
Electric Field due to a Dipole Work Done in Rotating a Dipole

l
At a point distant r from the centre of a dipole, along its If an electric dipole initially kept in an uniform electric field E,
axial line E =
1
⋅ 2
2 pr making an angle θ 1, is rotated so as to finally subtend an angle
4πε 0 (r − a2 )2 θ2 , then the work done for rotating the dipole is,
[direction of E is the same as that of p] W = pE (cos θ 1 − cos θ2 )
For a short dipole,
E=
1 2p
⋅ [r > > a]
Potential Energy of a Dipole
4πε 0 r 3 It is the amount of work done in rotating an electric dipole
from a direction perpendicular to electric field to a particular
l
At a point distant r from the centre of a dipole, along its
direction.
equatorial line
1 p Hence, U = − pE cos θ or U = − p ⋅ E
E= ⋅
4πε 0 (r 2 + a2 )3 / 2
[direction of E is opposite to that of p] Electric Flux (φE )
1 p E
For a short dipole E = ⋅ [r > > a] It is a measure of the flow of
4πε 0 r 3 electric field through a surface. It
can be defined as the total ∆s n
l
At a point distant r from the centre of a short dipole, along
a line inclined at an angle θ with the dipole axis number of lines of electric field
1 p passes through a surface placed
E = ⋅ 3 3 cos2 θ + 1 perpendicular to direction of
4πε 0 r
field.
E Er i.e. φ E = ∫ EdS cos θ = ∫ E ⋅ dS = ∫ E ⋅ n$ dS
β
EQ P (r, θ)
Gauss’s Law
ds
The total electric flux linked with a E
z
1
closed surface is equal to times, the
θ ε0
θ
–q O +q net charge enclosed by that surface.
2d Thus,
E subtends an angle β from r such that 1
φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dS =
l
[Qenclosed ]
1 S ε0
tan β = tan θ
2 i= n
where, Q enclosed Σ q is the algebraic sum of all the charges
i
i= 1
Torque on a Dipole in a Uniform inside the closed surface.
Electric Field
When a dipole is placed in an external electric field, making Electric Potential
an angle θ with the direction of the uniform electric field E, it The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge,
experiences a torque given by without any acceleration, from infinity to that point, along
τ = qE × AC any arbitrary path.
τ=p×E V =
W
τ = pE sin θ q0
or qE × 2 d sin θ = (q × 2 d) E sin θ Electric potential is a state function and does not depend on
the path followed.
A
qE
+q 1. Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge
E
2d θ Potential due to a point charge Q, at a distance r is given
1 Q
by V = ⋅
4πε 0 r
qE – C
q B
2. Electric Potential Due to a System of Charges Electric Potential Energy

If a number of charges q 1, q2 , q3 ,… are present in space, The electric energy of a system of charges is the work that has
then the electric potential at any point will be been done in bringing those charges from infinity to near each
V = V1 + V2 + V3 +… other to form the system. For two point charges q 1 and q2
n separated by distance r12 , the potential energy is given by
1 q 1 q2 q3  1  qi  1 q 1q2
= 
4πε 0  r1
+
r2
+
r3
+… =
 4πε 0
∑  
 ri 
U=
4πε 0 r12
.
i= 1
In general, for a system of n charges, the electric potential

3. Electric Potential Due to an Electric Dipole energy is given by
1 p cos θ q iq j
At any general point, V = U= Σ
1
,i ≠ j
4πε 0 r2 2 4πε 0rij
1 p
On the dipole axis, θ = 0 ° and V = ⋅ 1 
4πε 0 r 2
2 is used as each term in summation will appear twice 
On the equitorial axis, θ = 90 ° and V = 0
4. Electric Potential due to Some Common Relation between E and V

Charge Distributions Because E is force per unit charge and V is work per unit
Potential at a point distant r V r < R charge. E and V are related in the same way as work and force.
from an infinitely long wire
having linear charge density λ, Work done against the field to take a unit positive charge from
P
is r>R infinity (reference point) to the given point VP = − ∫ E ⋅ dr volt
∞
λ
V = ⋅ ln r where, the negative sign indicates that the work is done
2 πε 0
O against the field.
r=R r
For a charged conducting
sphere/shell having total charge Q and radius R, the
potential at a point distant r from the centre of the Equipotential Surface
sphere/shell is
Equipotential surface is an imaginary
Q 1 Q
(i) V = , for r > R (ii) V = , for r = R surface joining the points of same
4πε 0r 4πε 0 R potential in an electric field. So, we
Q can say that the potential difference +q
(iii) V = , for r ≤ R
4πε 0R between any two points on an
For a charged non-conducting (dielectric) sphere of radius R, equipotential surface is zero.
the charge Q is uniformly distributed over the entire volume. The electric lines of force at each
Q point of an equipotential surface are
Hence, (i) V = , for r > R normal to the surface. Figure shows
4πε 0r
Q the electric lines of force due to point charge +q. The spherical
(ii) V = , for r = R surface will be the equipotential surface and the electrical
4πε 0R
lines of force emanating from the point charge will be radial
Q 3 R2 − r 2  and normal to the spherical surface.
and (iii) V =  , for r < R
4πε 0  2 R3  Regarding equipotential surface, following points are worth
At the centre of the sphere (r = 0) noting
3Q 3  Q  (i) Equipotential surface may be planar, solid etc. But

V = = Vs Vs = 4πε R  equipotential surface can never be point size.
8 πε 0 R 2  0 
(ii) Equipotential surface is single valued. So, equipotential
V surfaces never cross each other.
r<
R
(iii) Electric field is always perpendicular to equipotential
surface.
r>R (iv) Work done to move a point charge q between two points
on equipotential surface is zero.
O (v) The surface of a conductor in equilibrium is an
r=R r
equipotential.
Conductors and Insulators C1 C2 C3

+Q + – –Q +Q + – –Q +Q + – –Q
Conductors are those materials through which electricity + – + – + –
+ – + – + –
can pass through easily. e.g. metals like copper, silver, iron + – + – + –
etc. Insulators are those materials through which electricity V1 V2 V3
cannot pass through, e.g. rubber, ebonite, mica etc.
+ –
Dielectrics and Polarisation V
Dielectrics are insulating materials which transmit electric The equivalent capacitance Cs is given by
effect without actually conducting electricity. i= n
1 1 1 1 1
e.g. mica, glass, water etc. = + + +… = Σ
Cs C1 C2 C3 i = 1 Ci
When a dielectric is placed in an external electric field, so
the molecules of dielectric gain a permanent electric dipole 2. Parallel Grouping
moment. This process is called polarisation.
In a parallel arrangement, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +…
and Q1 : Q2 : Q3… = C1 : C2 : C3…
Electrical Capacitance C1
Capacitance of a conductor is the amount of charge needed in +Q1 + – –Q1
+ –
order to raise the potential of the conductor by unity. + –
+ –
Q
Mathematically, Capacitance C = C2
V +Q2 + – –Q2
+ –
+ –
+ –
Sharing of Charges +Q3 C3 –Q3
+ –
l
Let us have two charged conductors having charges + –
Q1 and Q2 (or potentials V1, V2 and capacitances C1, C2 + –
–
+
respectively). If these are joined together. In such a cases
Q + Q2 C1V1 + C2V2 + –
Common potential, V = 1 =
C1 + C2 C1 + C2 V
l
During sharing of charges, there is some loss of The equivalent capacitance is given by
electrostatic energy, which in turn reappears as heat or i= n
light. The loss of electrostatic energy C p = C1 + C2 + C3 + K = Σ Ci
i= 1
C1C2
∆U = Ui − U f = (V1 − V2 )2
2(C1 + C2 )
l
When charges are shared between any two bodies, their Capacitance of a Parallel Plate
potential become equal. The charges acquired are in the
ratio of their capacitances.
Capacitor
1. Capacitor without Dielectric Medium
Capacitor between the Plates
A B If the magnitude of charge on each plate of a parallel plate
A capacitor is a device which stores +Q –Q capacitor be Q and the overlapping area of plates be A,
electrostatic energy. It consists of
then
conductors of any shape and size
carrying charges of equal l
Electric field between the plates,
magnitudes and opposite signs and σ Q
E = =
separated by an insulating ε0 ε0 A
medium. d l
Potential difference between the plates
There are two types of combination σd Qd
of capacitors: V = E ⋅d = = , where d = separation between the two
ε0 ε0 A
1. Series Grouping plates.
In a series arrangement, V = V1 + V2 + V3 +… Q ε0 A
l
Capacitance, C = =
1 1 1 V d
and V1 : V2 : V3… = : : :…
C1 C2 C3
2. Capacitor with Dielectric Medium between Energy Stored in a Capacitor

the Plates If a capacitor of capacity C is charged to a potential V , the
l
If a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is electrostatic energy stored in it is,
completely filled between the plates of a capacitor, then its 1
capacitance becomes, U = CV 2
2
Kε A ′  ε A′ 
C′ = 0 = KC0  where, C0 = 0  1
= QV
d  d  2
l
If a dielectric slab/sheet of thickness t (where, t < d) is 1 Q2
introduced between the plates of the capacitor, then =
2 C
ε0 A
C′ =
 t 
d − t + 
 K
Energy Loss During Parallel
l
Magnitude of the attractive force between the plates of a
Combination
parallel plate capacitor is given by When two capacitor of C1 capacitance charge to potential V1 ,
whereas another of C2 charge to potential of V2 , then after
σ A
2
Q 2
CV 2
F = = = parallel combination.
2 ε 0 2 Aε 0 2d
1 C1C2
Loss in energy = (V1 − V2 )2
l
The energy density between the plates of a capacitor 2 C1 + C2
U 1
u= = ε0 E2
Volume 2
DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1
FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 Two balls of same mass and carrying equal charge are look like figure given in (figures are schematic and not
hung from a fixed support of length l. At electrostatic drawn to scale) ª JEE Main 2015
equilibrium, assuming that angles made by each thread
is small, the separation, X between the balls is
++++ +++
proportional ª JEE Main (Online) 2013 (a) +
–– ––
+
(b) ++ +
–– –
–– –– –– –––
(a) l (b) l 2 (c) l 2 / 3 (d) l1/ 3
2 In the basic CsCl crystal structure, Cs and − Cl ions are
+
arranged in a bcc configuration as shown below. The ++++

++++
net electrostatic force exerted by the 8 Cs + on the the –– –+
+
(c) –– ––+
+
(d) –
–– –– –– ––
Cl − ion is
Cs+ Cs+ 4 A positively charged particle P enters the region between

two parallel plates with a –
Cs+ Cs+
velocity u, in a direction
Cl –
parallel to the plates. There is
Cs+ a uniform electric field in this u
P
Cs+ E
region. P emerges from this
Cs+ Cs+ region with a velocity v.
Taking C as a constant, v will +
1 4e2 1 16e 2 1 32a 2 depend on u as
(a) (b) (c) (d) zero
4π ε0 3 a 2
4π ε0 3 a 2
4π ε0 3 a 2
(a) v = Cu (b) v = u 2 + Cu
3 A long cylindrical shell carries positive surface charge σ (c) v = u 2 +
C
(d) v = u 2 +
C
in the upper half and negative surface charge − σ in the u u2
lower half. The electric field lines around the cylinder will
DAY NINETEEN
Current
Electricity
u Electric Current u Series and Parallel Combinations of u Kirchhoff’s Laws and their
u Ohm’s Law Resistors Applications
u Electrical Resistivity u Electric Energy and Power u Wheatstone’s Bridge
u Electrical Resistance u Electric Cell u Meter Bridge (Special Case of
Potential Difference and emf of a Cell Wheatstone Bridge)
u Resistance of Different Materials u
Electric Current
Electric current is defined as the amount of charge flowing across any section of wire per
unit time. If charge ∆q passes through the area in time interval ∆t at uniform rate, then
current i is defined as
∆q
i= …(i)
∆t
SI unit of electric current is ampere (A).
l
Conventional direction of flow of current is taken to be the direction of flow of positive
charge or opposite to the direction of flow of negative charge.
l
Electric current is a scalar as it does not follow the law vector of addition.
Current Density PREP

Current per unit area is termed as current density. MIRROR
I Your Personal Preparation Indicator
J = (Am −2 )
A
It is a vector quantity. u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
No. of Correct Questions (z)—
Drift Velocity
u
(Without referring Explanations)

l
Drift velocity is the average uniform velocity acquired by conduction electrons inside
a metallic conductor on application of an external electric field. u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
The drift velocity is given by the relation
eE
vd = − τ In order to expect good rank in JEE,
m your Accuracy Level should be above
where, τ known as relaxation time.
220 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY NINETEEN
Drift velocity per unit electric field is called the mobility of

Resistance of Different Materials
l
the electrons. Thus, mobility,

A perfect conductor would have zero resistivity and a perfect
µ =vd 
= e τ
insulator would have infinite resistivity. Though these are ideal
E m
limits, the electrical resistivity of substances has a very wide
l
In terms of drift speed, electric current flowing through a range. Metals have low resistivity of 10 −8 Ωm to 10 −6 Ωm,
conductor is expressed as I = nAevd
while insulators like glass or rubber have resistivity, some 10 18
where, A = cross-section area of conductor, times (or even more) greater, Generally, good electrical
n = number of conduction electrons per unit volume, conductors like metals are also good conductors of heat, while
vd = drift velocity of electrons insulators like ceramic or plastic materials are also poor
and e = charge of one electron. thermal conductors.
Ohm’s Law V-I Characteristics of Ohmic and

Ohm’s law states that the physical conditions such as Non-ohmic Conductors
temperature, mechanical strain, etc., are kept constant, then
current (i) flowing through a conductor is directly Substances obeying Ohm’s law are called Ohmic resistors, e.g.
proportional to the potential difference across its two ends. metals and their alloys. Substances which do not obey Ohm’s
V law are called non-ohmic resistors, e.g. electrolytes, gases,
i.e. i ∝ V or V ∝ i or V = Ri or = R = a constant, thermionic tubes, transistors, rectifiers, etc.
i
where R depends on the nature of material and it given
dimension.
I I
Electrical Resistivity
The resistance of a resistor (an element in a circuit with some V V
resistance R) depends on its geometrical factors (length, Non-ohmic resistors Ohmic resistors
cross-sectional area) as also on the nature of the substance of
which the resistor is made. Electrical resistance of a
rectangular slab depends on its length (l ) and its Colour Code for Resistors
cross-sectional area ( A). The value of resistance used in electrical and electronic
i. e., R∝l …(i) circuits vary over a wide range. These resistances are usually
1 carbon resistances and a colour code is used to indicate the
and R∝ …(ii) value of resistance.
A
Combining the two relations, we get Their value ranges from kilo-ohm to mega-ohm. Their
percentage accuracy is indicated by a colour code printed on
l
R∝ …(iii) them. Carbon resistors are compact, inexpensive and are used
A in electronic circuits.
ρl
or R= …(iv) Colour Code for Carbon Resistors
A
where, ρ is a constant of proportionality called resistivity. Colour Letter of Number Multiplie Tolerance
m remember r
ρ= 2
ne τ Black B 0 10 0 —
1
Brown B 1 10 —
Resistance of Different Materials Red R 2 10 2 —
Resistance offered by the conductors is minimum while Orange O 3 10 3 —
resistance offered by an insulator is maximum. Yellow Y 4 10 4 —
Semiconductors have resistance which is intermediate to
conductor and insulator. Green G 5 10 5 —
6
Blue B 6 10 —
Electrical Resistance Violet V 7 10 7 —
Grey G 8 10 8 —
Electrical resistance is defined as the ratio in the potential
difference (v) across the ends of the conductor to the current (i) White W 9 10 9 —
V Gold — — 10 −1 5%
flowing through it, i.e. R =
i Silver — — 10 −2 10%
The SI unit of electrical restristance is Ω (ohm) and its No — — — 20%
dimension is [ML2 T −3 A −2 ]. colour
DAY NINETEEN CURRENT ELECTRICITY 221
Now to find the colour coding of carbon resistor, we must The equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel,
remember the bold capital letters of the following sentences: 1 1 1 1
= + + +K
Black Brown ROY Great Britain Very Good Wife Wearing R R1 R2 R3
Gold Silver Necklace
Or
Temperature Dependence
Black Brown Rods of Your Gate Became Very Good When
Given Silver Colour of Resistance
The colours of first two bands A and B correspond to figures Resistance and resistivity of metallic conductors increases
and the colour of the third band C represents multipliers, with increase in temperature. The relation is written as
respectively. The fourth band represents the tolerance.
Rθ = R0 (1 + αθ + βθ2 ) and ρ θ = ρ 0 (1 + αθ + βθ2 )
where, R0 and ρ 0 are values of resistance and resistivity at 0° C
and Rθ and ρ θ at θ° C. α and β are two constants whose value
vary from metal to metal.
A B C D
e.g. Consider a carbon resistor of bands A and B of black and Electric Energy and Power
red colour having figures 0 and 2. The third band C of green
Whenever the electric current is passed through a conductor,
colour having multiplier 10 5.
it becomes hot after short time. This effect is known as
∴ Resistance of the value is given by heating effect of current or Joule heating effect.
R = 02 × 10 5 Ω I 2 Rt
H = W = I 2 Rt joule = cal
But the fourth band D having gold colour, which represents a 418
.
tolerance of ± 5%.
The rate at which work is done by the source of emf in
Hence, the value of carbon resistance is maintaining the effect of current in a circuit is called electric
R = 02 × 10 5 Ω ± 5% power of the circuit,
P = VI watt
Other expressions for power,
Series and Parallel Combinations V2
P = I 2 R watt ⇒ P =
of Resistors R
Series Combination Electric Cell

A series circuit is a circuit in
R1 R2 R3 An electric cell is a device which maintains a continuous flow
which resistors are arranged in a V
chain, so the current has only one of charge (or electric current) in a circuit by a chemical
path to take. The current is the reaction. In an electric cell, there are two rods of different
I
same through each resistor. The metals called electrodes.
total resistance of the circuit is found by simply adding up the
resistance values of the individual resistors. Equivalent Internal Resistance of a Cell
resistance of resistors in series
Thus, when a current is drawn through a source, the potential
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + K difference between the terminal of the source is
V = E − ir
Parallel Combination This can also be shown as below
A parallel circuit is a circuit in I1 R1 E r
which the resistors are arranged I I2 I A B
I
with their heads connected R1 R2
together and their tails connected V I3 R3 V A − E + Ir = VB
together. The current in a parallel or V A − VB = E − Ir
circuit breaks up, with some
flowing along each parallel branch and recombining, when Following three special cases are possible
the branches meet again. The voltage across each resistor is (i) If the current flows in opposite direction (as in case of
parallel is the same. charging of battery), then V = E + Ir
The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by (ii) V = E , if the current through the cell is zero.
adding up the reciprocals of the resistance values, and then,
taking the reciprocal of the total. (iii) V = 0, if the cell is short circuited.
This is because current in the circuit,

E
Combination of Cells in Series and
I = or E = Ir
r in Parallel
∴ E − Ir = 0 or V = 0 A group of cells is called a battery. Two common grouping of
cells are
Short circuited 1. Series Grouping

In series grouping, if all the cells are joined so as to supply
E r current in the same direction, then resultant
emf,
Thus, we can summarise, it was follows
E Eeq = E 1 + E2 + E3 + …
r
⇒ However, if one or more cells are joined so as to supply
I
current in reverse direction, then emf of that/those cells is
V = E − ir or V < E
taken as negative, while calculating the equivalent emf.
E r
⇒ E1 E2 E3
–ve
I +ve
V = E + Ir or V > E r1 r2 r3
E r
⇒ The equivalent internal resistance of the cell,
V = E , if I = 0 req = r1 + r2 + r3 + …
If n cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r, are joined
E in series, then
i
r
E eq = nE and req = nr
r
E 2. Parallel Grouping
V = 0 is short circuited
In parallel grouping, if positive terminals of all cells have
been joined at one point and all negative terminals at
Potential Difference and another point, then
1
=
1
+
1
+
1
+…
req r1 r2 r3
emf of a Cell
Electromotive force (emf) of a cell is the terminal potential
difference of cell when it is in an open circuit, i.e. it is not The equivalent emf of the parallel grouping is given by
supplying any current to the external circuit. However, when E eq E 1 E2 E
it is supplying a current to an external resistance, the voltage = + + 3 +…
req r1 r2 r3
across the terminals of cell is called the terminal voltage or
terminal potential difference. E1
+
If E be the emf and r the internal resistance of a cell and a r1
resistance R is joined with it, then current in the circuit,
E E
I = and terminal potential difference,
+ve + 2 –ve
R+r r2
ER
V = IR = E3
(R + r ) +
r3
or V = E − Ir
If n cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r, all joined
Internal resistance of cell, in parallel, then
E −V E 
r =  R = R  − 1 req =
r
 V  V  n
Terminal voltage is more than emf of cell when cell is charged But E eq = E
and it is given by V = E + Ir .
DAY NINETEEN CURRENT ELECTRICITY 223
Kirchhoff’s Laws and their Wheatstone’s Bridge

Applications For measuring accurately any resistance Wheatstone bridge is
widely used. It is an arrangement of four resistances used to
Many electric circuits cannot be reduced to simple series measure one of them in terms of the other three.
parallel combinations. For example, two circuits that cannot
Consider four resistances P, Q, R and S are connected in the
be so broken down are shown in figure
four arms of a quadrilateral according to figure, the bridge is
A B
R1 E1 said to be balanced when galvanometer gives zero deflection,
i.e. potential at point B and D is same (VB = VD ).
D C
R2 E2 In this condition,
P R
=
F E Q S
R3
T1 B
(a)
A
B P Q
C D
R1 P I1
A C
R2 R3 R4 G
I2 I2
S2
R S
I I
E1 E2 E3
D
F E
E G
H S1
I
R5
(b)
However, it is always possible to analyze such circuits by
Meter Bridge
applying two rules, derived by Kirchhoff. (Special Case of Wheatstone Bridge)
This is the simplest form of Wheastone bridge and is specially
Junction Rule useful for comparing resistances more accurately. The
The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction is zero. construction of the meter bridge is shown in the figure. It
consists of one metre resistance wire clamped between two
i.e. Σ i =0 metallic strips bent at right angles and it has two points for
junction
connection.
i2 There are two gaps; in one of whose value is to be determined
i1
is connected. The galvanometer is connected with the help of
i3 jockey across BD and the cell is connected across AC. After
i4 making connections, the jockey is moved along the wire and
the null point is found. Wheatstone bridge, wire used is of
uniform material and cross-section. the resistance can be
This law can also be written as, ‘‘the sum of all the currents found with the help of the following relation
directed towards a point in circuit is equal to the sum of all R S
the currents directed away from that point.’’
Thus, in figure, i 1 + i2 = i3 + i 4 B
The junction rule is bases on conservation of electric charge.
G
Loop Rule A D C
The algebraic sum of the potential difference in any loop I1 100 I1
including those associated emf’s and those of resistive
elements, must be equal to zero. Metre sale
That is, Σ ∆V = 0
closed loop
This law represent conservation of energy. V K1
Applying Kirchhoff’s law for the following circuit, we have
R l1 l1
Resulting equation is = or R =S
S (100 − l1) 100 − l1
Vr1 + Vr2 + Vr3 − 10 = 0.
Potentiometer Applications of Potentiometer

Principle Potentiometer is an ideal device to measure the (i) To find emf of an unknown battery
potential difference between two points. It consists of a long
resistance wire AB of uniform cross-section in which a steady E1 E1
direct current is set up by means of a battery.
E1 i i i i
l1 l1
A B A B
i i i C1 i C2
L i2 =0 i2 =0
A B G G
i C Ek EU
i2 =0
G We calibrate the device by replacing E2 by a source of known
E2 , r
emf E k and then by unknown emf Eu . Let the null points are
Potential gradient, obtained at lengths l1 and l2 .
Potential difference across AB Then, E K = i( ρl1) and EU = i ( ρl2 )
k =
Total length Here, ρ = resistance of wire AB per unit length
V l 
= AB ∴
E K l1
= or EU =  2  E K
L EU l2  l1 
iR AB
= = iλ So, by measuring the lengths l1 and l2 , we can find the emf of
L
R AB an unknown battery.
where, λ = = resistance per unit length of
L (ii) To find the internal resistance of a cell
potentiometer wire.
Firstly, the emf E of the cell is balanced against a length
The emf of source balanced between points B and C AD = l 1. For this, the switch S′ is left opened and S is closed. A
E2 = kl known resistance R is then connected to the cell as shown.
R The terminal voltage V is now balanced against a smaller
= i AB × l = iRCB length AD′ = l2 . Here, now switch is opened and S′ is closed.
l
l1
Here, AB is a long uniform resistance wire (length AB may be
ranging from 1 m to 10 m). E 0 is a battery whose emf is known l2
S
supplying a constant current I for flow through the
E
potentiometer wire. If R be the total resistance of
potentiometer wire and L its total length, then potential
gradient, i.e. fall in potential per unit length along the D′ D
A B
potentiometer will be
V IR (E, r)
k = = G
L L S′
E 0R
=
(R0 + R) L R
where, E 0 = emf of battery, E l1

Then, =
R0 = resistance inserted by means of rheostat Rh V l2
E R+r
k = potential gradient. Since, = {Q E = i(R + r ) and V = iR}
V R
L → balancing length
R + r l1 l 
J → jockey. or = ⇒ r =  1 − 1 R
R l2  l2 
DAY TWENTY ONE
Magnetic Effect
of Current
u Concept of Magnetic Field u Force on a Moving Charge in u Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying
u Biot-Savart’s Law and its Uniform Magnetic Field Conductor
Applications u Cyclotron u Moving Coil Galvanometer
u Ampere’s Circuital Law
Concept of Magnetic Field

If a magnet is placed in a magnetic field, then it experiences a force on it, Also, when a
magnet is placed near a current carrying conductor, then it experiences the similar force,
it means that current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. This effect
of current is called magnetic effect of current.
Biot-Savart’s Law and its Applications

The magnetic field d B at a point P, due to a current element I dl is given by
µ I (d l × r)
dB = 0
4π r3
where, θ is the angle between d l and r.
I PREP
MIRROR
θ Your Personal Preparation Indicator
dl
u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
r u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
P u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
X (Without referring Explanations)
inside
Direction of magnetic field produced due to a current carrying straight wire can be u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
obtained by the right hand thumb rule. u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
In order to expect good rank in JEE,

your Accuracy Level should be above
242 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY TWENTY ONE
For a wire of infinite length φ1 = φ2 = 90 ° and hence

Magnetic Field due to Circular l
µ I
B= 0
Current Loop 2 πr
l
If there is a circular coil of radius R and N number of turns, l
When the wire XY is of infinite length, but the point P
carrying a current I through the turns, then magnetic field lies near the end X or Y, then φ1 = 0 ° and φ2 = 90 ° and
at the centre of coil is given by µ I
hence, B= 0
µ NI 4πr
B= 0
2R l
When point P lies on axial position of current carrying
l
If there is a circular arc of wire R conductor, then magnetic field at P,
subtending an angle θ at the centre B = 0.
of arc, then the magnetic field at O θ I l
When wire is of infinite length, then magnetic field
the centre point near the end will be half, that of at the perpendicular
R
µ I  θ bisector.
B= 0  
2R  2π 
2. Magnetic Field due to a Thick (Cylindrical) Wire
l
At a point P situated at a distance
r from centre of a current Magnetic field at a point
I R outside the wire
carrying circular coil along its
axial line. µ I
O I P B = 0 , where r is the B
The magnetic field is 2 πr r P
µ 0 NIR2 distance of given point
B = r from centre of wire and I
2(R2 + r 2 )3 /2
r > R. R
µ 0NIR2 Thick cylindrical wire
If r >> R, then at a point along the axial line, B = l
Magnetic field at a point
2r3 inside the wire at a
distance r from centre of wire (r < R) is
µ I r
Ampere’s Circuital Law B= 0 ⋅ 2
2π R
The line integral of the magnetic
i5
l
Magnetic field inside a hollow current carrying
field B around any closed path is
conductor is zero.
equal to µ 0 times the net current I
B
threading through the area
enclosed by the closed path.
dI i2 3. Magnetic Field due to a Solenoid
Mathematically, ∫ B ⋅ dl = µ 0 ΣI i1
i3 A current carrying
i4 solenoid behaves as a bar
Now, consider the diagram above. magnet. The face, where
Here, ∑ I = i 1 + i2 − i3 current is flowing
Hence, ∫ B ⋅ dl = µ 0 ⋅ (i 1 + i2 − i3 ) clockwise behaves as
South pole and the face, (a) (b)
where current is seen
Applications of Ampere’s law flowing anti-clockwise, behaves as North pole.
For such a solenoid, the magnetic field inside it is uniform
1. Magnetic field due to Straight Current and directed axially.
Carrying Wire l
For a solenoid coil of infinite length at a point on its
The magnetic field due to a current
X axial line, the magnetic field, B = µ 0nI
carrying wire of finite length at a I where, n is number of turns per unit length.
point P situated at a normal distance φ2 1
r φ1
l
At the end of solenoid, B = µ 0nI
r is P 2
µ I At the end field is half of at the centre, this is called
B = 0 (sin φ1 + sin φ2 ) l
4πr end effect.

Y
l
If point P lies symmetrically on
the perpendicular bisector of wire XY, then φ1 = φ2 = φ 4. Toroidal Solenoids
(say) and hence For a toroid (i.e. a ring shaped closed solenoid) magnetic
µ I
B = 0 ⋅ 2 sin φ = µ 0I sin φ field at any point within the core of toroid B = µ 0nI ,
4πr 2 πr N
where n = , R = radius of toroid.
2πR
DAY TWENTY ONE MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT 243
If the direction of a v is parallel or anti-parallel to B, θ = 0

Force on a Moving Charge in
l
or θ = 180 ° and therefore F = 0. Hence, the trajectory of the

Uniform Magnetic Field and particle is a straight line.
Electric Field If the velocity of the charged particle is not perpendicular to
the field, we will break the velocity in parallel ( v|| ) and
l
If a charge q is moving with velocity v enters in a region in perpendicular (v⊥ ) components.
which electric field E and magnetic field B both are mv⊥
present, it experiences force due to both fields r=
qB
simultaneously. The force experienced by the charged
particle is given by the expression Pitch, p = (v||)T
F = q (v × B) + qE
Here, magnetic force Fm = q (v × B) = Bqv sin θ and electric Cyclotron
force Fe = qE.
l
The direction of magnetic force is same as v × B if charge is It is a device used to accelerate positively charged particles,
positive and opposite to v × B, if charge q is negative. e.g. proton, deuteron, α-particle and other heavy ions to
high energy of 100 MeV or more.
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Cyclotron frequency, ν =
Bq
.
2 πm
Uniform Magnetic Field
Maximum energy gained by the charged particle
l
(i) If a charge particle enters a uniform magnetic field B
with a velocity v in a direction perpendicular to that of q 2 B2  2
E max =  r
B (i.e.θ = 90 ° ), then the charged particle experiences a  2m 
force Fm = qvB. Under its influence, the particle
describes a circular path, such that where, r = maximum radius of the circular path followed by
mv the positive ion.
Radius of circular path, r =
qB Maximum energy obtained by the particle is in the form of
In general, kinetic energy.
mv p 2mK
r= = =
qB qB qB Magnetic Force on a Current
=
2 mqV
=
1 2 mV Carrying Conductor
qB B q If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field B,
where, p = mv = momentum of charged then a small current element I dl experiences a force given by
particle, K = kinetic energy of charged particle dFm = Idl × B
and V = accelerating potential difference. and the total force experienced by whole current carrying
2πm conductor will be
(ii) The period of revolution of charged particle T = ,
qB Fm = ∫ dFm = ∫ I(dl × B)
qB
the frequency of revolution ν = The direction of force can also be determined by applying
2 πm Fleming’s left hand rule or right hand thumb rule.
qB
or angular frequency ω = ⋅ Force between Two Parallel Current
m
Carrying Conductors
l
(i) If a charged particle is moving at an angle θ, to the 1 2 1 2
magnetic field (where θ, is other than 0°, 90° or 180°), it
l
Two parallel current
describes a helical path, where carrying conductors
radius of helical path, exert magnetic force on I2 I2
one another. I1 I1
mv sin θ
r= . l
Magnetic force
qB
2πm experienced by length l
(ii) Revolution period, T = F12 F21 F12 F21
of any one conductor
qB
due to the other
qB r
or Frequency, ν = current carrying r
2 πm conductor is (a) (b)
(iii) Moreover, pitch (the linear distance travelled during µ 0 2I1 I2
F = ⋅ l
one complete revolution) of helical path is given by 4π r
2 πmv cos θ F µ 2I I
p = v cos θ ⋅ T = Force per unit length, = F0 = 0 ⋅ 1 2
qB I 4π r
244 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY TWENTY ONE
NOTE If the conductors carries current in same direction, then pivoted type moving coil galvanometer G. S is known as
force between them will be attractive. shunt.
If the conductor carries current in opposite direction, then
force will be repulsive. G
I Ig I
Torque I – Ig
When a current carrying loop placed in a uniform magnetic
field, it experience torque, S
τ = NIAB sin θ
Ammeter
where, NiA is defined as the magnitude of the dipole moment
of the coil Then, from circuit,
(pm ) ⋅ τ = pm B sin θ I g × G = (I − I g ) × S
⇒ τ = pm × B  Ig 
⇒ S = G
I − I g 
NOTE • A current carrying loop (of any shape) behaves as a
magnetic dipole whose magnetic moment is given by So, S << G, only a small fraction of current goes through the
( pm ) = IA galvanometer.
• If we have a current carrying coil having N turns, then l
Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter
magnetic moment Pm of dipole will be A voltmeter is made by connecting a resistor of high
( pm ) = NIA resistance R in series with a pivoted type moving coil
• Magnetic moment of a current carrying coil is a vector and galvanometer G.
its direction is given by right hand thumb rule. V
a b
Moving Coil Ig
Galvanometer (MCG)
MCG is used to measure the current upto nanoampere. The G R
deflecting torque of MCG,
Voltmeter
τdef = NBIA
A restoring torque is set up in the suspension fibre. If α is the V V
From the circuit, Ig = ⇒R = −G
angle of trust, the restoring torque is G+ R Ig
τ restoring = KI l
Current Sensitivity The current sensitivity of a
where, K is galvanometer constant. galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the
galvanometer per unit current flowing through it.
α NBA
Some Important Concepts Related to Sl = =
I C
Moving Coil Galvanometer l
Voltage Sensitivity Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is
Some of the important concepts related to galvanometer, i.e. defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer per
current sensitivity, voltage sensitivity and some of
unit voltage applied to it.
conversions used in galvanometer are given below.
α α S I NBA
l
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter An ammeter is SV = = = =
V IR R RC
made by connecting a low resistance S in parallel with a
DAY TWENTY TWO
Magnetism
u Current Loop as a Magnetic u Magnetic Field Lines u Hysteresis Curve

Dipole u The Earth’s Magnetism u Electromagnet
u Bar Magnet u Magnetic Behaviour of Materials
Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole

A current loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole. If A(= πa2 ) be the area of the loop, then
the magnitude of its dipole moment is
pm = iA = iπa2
where, a is radius of coil, i is current flowing through it
p
i = m2 …(i)
πa
Magnetic field at the centre of a circular current loop is given by
µ i
B= 0 …(ii)
2a
Putting the value of i from Eq. (i) in Eq. (ii), we get
µ p
B= 0 m
2 π a3
This is the expression for the magnetic field at the centre of the current loop in terms of
its dipole moment. Instead of circular loop, if there is a circular coil having n turns, its
dipole moment would be pm = ni A = ni πa2 .
Bar Magnet PREP

A bar magnet may be viewed as a combination of two magnetic poles, North pole and
MIRROR
South pole, separated by some distance. The distance is known as the magnetic length
of the given bar magnet. u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
A bar magnet exhibits two important properties, namely u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
(i) the attractive property and (ii) the directive property. u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
(Without referring Explanations)
l
If m is the pole strength and 2l the magnetic length of the bar magnet,then its
magnetic moment is M = m (2 l ). u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
l
Magnetic moment is a vector quantity whose direction is from S pole towards N pole. u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
l
SI unit of magnetic pole strength (m), is ampere metre (Am) and of magnetic dipole
moment (M) is ampere metre2 (Am2 ). In order to expect good rank in JEE,
l
If a bar magnet is broken, the fragments are independent magnetic dipoles and not 85 & Prep Level should be above 75.
isolated magnetic poles.
DAY TWENTY TWO MAGNETISM 255
Magnetic Field due to a Bar Magnet Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid

The magnetic field in free space, at a point having distance r The magnetic field (axial) at a point at a distance r and
from the given bar magnet (or magnetic dipole) is calculated µ 0 nlIa2
in two conditions, along axial line and along equatorial line. radius a of solenoid is given by B =
r3
µ 2 Mr
l
Along axial line B = 0 2 and magnetic moment of solenoid is M = n (2 l) Iπa2
4π (r − l 2 )2
and the direction of B is the same as the direction of M. For NOTE • Even a single electron moving in its orbit behaves as a
a short dipole (or for a far away point on the axis) when magnetic dipole and has a definite magnetic moment.
r > > l , the above relation is simplified as • Bohr magnetron is the magnetic moment due to the orbital
µ 2M motion of an electron revolving in the inner most orbit
B= 0 3 eh
4π r ( n = 1). Its value is m B = = 9.27 × 10 −24 A-m 2
N 4 πme
S
P Torque on a Magnetic Dipole in a

l
r Magnetic Field
l
Along the equatorial line A magnetic dipole when placed in an uniform magnetic field,
µ M does not experience any net force. However, it experiences a
B= 0 2 torque given by τ = M × B or τ = MB sin θ
4π (r + l 2 )3 /2
where, θ is the angle from the magnetic field, along which the
µ0 M
If r > > l , the relation is modified as, B = dipole has been placed.
4π r 3 l
Work done in rotating a magnetic dipole in a uniform
However, along the equatorial line, magnetic field B from an initial orientation θ1 to the final
the direction of B is opposite to that of M. orientation θ2 , is given by W = MB(cos θ1 − cos θ2 ).
q m1
qm1
Normal
l I Normal
r
I
r r θ1 θ2
l
I I
S N qm2
qm2
l
Initial position Final position
fig. (i) fig. (ii)
l
In general, in a direction making an angle θ from with the
magnetic axis, the magnetic field is given by l
Potential energy of a magnetic dipole placed in a uniform
µ M magnetic field, is given by UB = − M ⋅ B = − MB cos θ
B = 0 3 (3 cos2 θ + 1)
4π r where, θ is the angle from the direction of magnetic field
In these relations, µ 0 is a constant having a value of and the axis of dipole.
4π × 10 −7 T mA −1 and it is known as the magnetic l
The magnetic compass (needle) of magnetic moment M
permeability of free space. and moment of inertia I and allowing it to oscillate in the
magnetic field. Then, its time-period is T = 2 π I / MB
For solenoid B = µ 0 ni
where, n is number of turns per unit length of solenoid and l
Behaviour of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field, is
i the current through it. similar to the behaviour of an electric dipole in an electric
1 µ
B Br field. However, the constant is replaced by 0 .
Bθ α 4πε 0 4π
P
l
If a magnetic dipole is in the form of a wire or a thin rod,
when bent, its magnetic dipole moment M changes because
the separation between its poles has changed.
r
Magnetic Field Lines

S M
N The magnetic field lines is defined as the path along which
O the compass needles are aligned. They are used to represent
magnetic field in a region.
256 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY TWENTY TWO
l
Magnetic field lines are closed continuous curves. Similarly, at the magnetic equator, BV = BE sin 0 ° = 0
l
Tangent drawn at any point on magnetic field lines gives and at the poles, BV = BE sin 90 ° = BE .
the direction of magnetic field at that point. Magnetic elements of the earth at a place change with time also.
l
Two magnetic field lines cannot intersect each other.
l
Outside a magnet, they are directed from north to south pole
Neutral Points
and inside a magnet they are directed from south to north. A neutral point is a point at which the resultant magnetic field
is zero. Following two cases are of special interest.
The Earth’s Magnetism 1. When a bar magnet is placed along the magnetic meridian
The earth is a natural source of magnetic field, thus a with its North pole pointing towards geographical North,
magnetic field is always present everywhere near the surface of two neutral points are obtained on either side of the
the earth. A freely suspended magnet always points in the magnet along its equatorial line. If r be the distance of the
µ M
north-south direction even in the absence of any other neutral point, then 0 3 = BH .
magnet. This suggests that the earth itself behaves as a magnet 4π r
which causes a freely suspended magnet (or magnetic needle) 2. When a bar magnet is placed along the magnetic
to point always in a particular direction : north and south. The meridian, with its North pole pointing towards the
shape of earth’s magnetic field resembles that of a bar magnet geographical South, two neutral points are obtained on
of length one-fifth of earth’s diameter buried at its centre. either side of the magnet along its axial line.
Magnetic field of earth is shown in the figure given below. µ 2M
Hence, we have 0 = BH .
Geographical L 4π r 3
North
Magnetic P α O Tangent Galvanometer
North H δ
It is an instrument to measure electric current. The essential
Geographical S parts are a vertical coil of conducting wire and a small
meridian compass needle pivoted at centre of coil. The deflection, θ of
Magnetic N needle is given by,
meridian M V B µ IN
tan θ = ⇒ BH tan θ = 0
BE BH 2r
Q R
2 r BH
or i= tan θ = K tan θ
µ 0N
Magnetic Elements of Earth
l
Angle of Declination (α) At a given place, the acute angle Magnetisation of Materials
between the magnetic meridian and the geographical There are some substances/materials which acquire magnetic
meridian is called the angle of declination (or magnetic properties on placing them in magnetic field. This phenomena
declination) α at that place. is called magnetisation of materials.
l
Angle of Inclination or Dip (δ ) The angle of dip δ at a place To describe the magnetic properties of material, we have to
is the angle which the direction of the earth’s total understand the following terms:
magnetic field BE subtends with the horizontal direction. (i) Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux Density (B)
Whenever a piece of magnetic substance is placed in an
l
Horizontal Component of the Earth’s Magnetic Field
external magnetising field, the substance becomes
( B H ) As earth’s magnetic field, in general, is inclined at an magnetised. If B0 is the magnetic field in free space, then
angle δ with the horizontal direction, it may be resolved B = µ r B0 .
into horizontal component BH and a vertical component BV ,
where BH = BE cos δ and BV = BE sin δ ∫ B ⋅ dS is magnetic flux which is equal to µ 0 m inside , where
m inside is the net pole strength inside a close surface.
B
⇒ BE = B2H + B2V and tan δ = V (ii) Magnetic Permeability (µ ) It is the degree or extent to
BH
which the magnetic lines of induction may pass through a
given distance.
Variation of Magnetic Elements Magnetic permeability of free space µ 0 has a value of
4π × 10 −7 TmA −1 . However, for a magnetic material,
of the Earth
absolute permeability ( µ) has a value, different than µ 0 .
At the magnetic equator, angle of dip is zero. Value of the
angle of dip gradually increases, on going from equator to µ B
For any magnetic substance, = = µ r = relative
magnetic poles. At the magnetic poles, value of the dip angle µ 0 B0
is 90°. magnetic permeability of that substance. Relative
At the magnetic equator, BH = BE cos 0 ° = BE magnetic permeability µ r is a unitless and dimensionless
and at poles, BH = BE cos 90 ° = 0. term.
DAY TWENTY TWO MAGNETISM 257
(iii) Intensity of Magnetisation (I) Intensity of magnetisation of a Oxygen, air, platinum, aluminium, etc., are examples of
substance is defined as the magnetic moment induced in the paramagnetic materials.
substance per unit volume, when placed in the magnetising l
In a paramagnetic material, the net magnetic moment
M
field. Thus, I = of every atom is non-zero.
V l
Paramagnetic materials are feebly attracted in an
It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is Am−1 .
external magnetic field and thus, have a tendency to
(iv) Intensity of Magnetising Field or Magnetic Intensity (H) It is a shift from the weaker to the stronger regions of
measure of the capability of external magnetising field to magnetic field.
magnetise the given substance and is mathematically defined l
The relative permeability µ r of a paramagnetic
as
material is slightly greater than one (µ r > 1). Magnetic
B B susceptibility χ m of paramagnetic materials is positive.
H = 0 or H =
µ0 µ l
Paramagnetism is temperature dependent. According
Magnetic intensity H is a vector quantity and its SI unit is Am −1 . to the Curie’s law, the magnetic susceptibility of a
(v) Magnetic Susceptibility ( χ m ) Magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to its
temperature T.
substance is the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation I induced
I C
in the substance to the magnetic intensity H.Thus, χ m = .It is Mathematically, χ m = , where C is the Curie constant.
H T
a scalar quantity and it has no units or dimensions.
Relation between µ r and χ m we have, B = µ 0 (I + H ) Ferromagnetic Materials
 I  B These are the materials which are strongly attracted by a
or B = µ 0 H  + 1 or B = B0 (χ m + 1) or = χm + 1
H  B0 magnetic field and can themselves be magnetised even in
a weak magnetising field. Iron, steel,nickel and cobalt are
B µ
But = = µ r = relative permeability ferromagnetic.
B0 µ 0 l
These materials show a large increase in the magnetic
∴ µr = χm + 1 flux, when placed in a magnetic field. Thus, for them
µ r > > 1. Accordingly, χ m is positive and large.
Magnetic Materials l
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit all properties
According to behaviour of magnetic substances, they are classified exhibited by paramagnetic substances and by a much
into three cases: larger measure.
l
Magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic Materials decreases steadily with a rise in temperature. Above a
These are materials which show a very small decrease in magnetic certain temperature Tc (known as Curie temperature),
flux, when placed in a strong magnetising field. Hydrogen, water, the substance loses its ferromagnetic character and
copper, zinc, antimony, bismuth, etc., are examples of diamagnetic begins to behave as a paramagnetic substance.
materials. l
Above the Curie temperature Tc , the magnetic
l
In a diamagnetic material, the net magnetic moment (sum of susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material varies as
that due to orbital motion and spin motion of electrons) of an 1 C
atom is zero. The external magnetic field B distorts the electron χm ∝ or χ m =
(T − Tc ) (T − Tc )
orbit and thus induces a small magnetic moment in the opposite
direction. where, C is a constant. It is known as the Curie-Weiss
l
Diamagnetic materials are feebly repelled in an external law.
magnetic field and thus have a tendency to shift from the
stronger to weaker regions of the magnetic field. Hysteresis Curve
l
The relative permeability of any diamagnetic substance is The lag of intensity of I
slightly less than 1 (i.e. µ r < 1) and susceptibility has a small magnetisation behind the
A
negative value. magnetising field during B
the process of Retentivity
l
Diamagnetism is an intrinsic property and does not vary with
magnetisation and C
H
magnetic field B or temperature. demagnetisation of a O F
ferromagnetic material is
Paramagnetic Materials called hysteresis. The D
E
These are the materials which show a small increase in the whole graph ABCDEFA is a
magnetic flux when placed in a magnetising field. closed loop and known as Coercivity
hysteresis loop.
258 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY TWENTY TWO
The effect is the multiplication of the magnetic field by

Electromagnet factors of ten to eleven thousands. The solenoid field
Electromagnets are usually in the form of iron core solenoids. relationship is B = k µ 0 nI , where µ = k µ 0 and k is the
The ferromagnetic property of the iron core causes the internal relative permeability of the iron, the figure shows the
magnetic domains of the iron to line up with the smaller magnetic effect of the iron core.
driving magnetic field produced by the current in the
solenoid.
Permanent Magnet
N = North pole Substances which at room temperature retain their
N
ferromagnetic property for a long period of time are called
permanent magnets. Permanent magnets can be made in a
Iron core variety of ways.
An efficient way to make a permanent magnet is to place a
S ferromagnetic rod in a solenoid and pass a current. The
S = South pole magnetic field of the solenoid magnetises the rod.
DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1
FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30° with a (a) 0.2 T (b) 0.3 T (c) 0.5 T (d) 0.4 T
uniform external magnetic field of 0.16 T, experiences a 5 A magnetic needle of magnetic moment 6.7 × 10−2 Am 2
torque of magnitude 0.032 J. The magnetic moment of and moment of inertia 7.5 × 10−6 kg m 2 is performing
the bar magnet will be simple harmonic oscillations in a magnetic field of 0.01 T.
(a) 0.23 JT −1 (b) 0.40 JT −1 Time taken for 10 complete oscillations is
(c) 0.80 JT −1 (d) zero ª JEE Main 2017 (Offline)
2 A bar magnet of length 10 cm and having pole strength (a) 8.89 s (b) 6.98 s
equal to 10−3 Wb, is kept in a magnetic field having (c) 8.76 s (d) 6.65 s
magnetic induction B equal to 4π × 10−3 T. It makes an 6 Hysteresis loops for two magnetic materials A and B are
angle of 30° with the direction of magnetic induction. The as given below
value of the torque acting on the magnet is
B B
(a) 0.5 N-m (b) 2 π × 10−5 N-m
(c) π × 10−5 N-m (d) 0.5 × 10 2 N-m
3 M and M 3 are the M H H
magnetic dipole moments
of the two magnets, which
q (A) (B)
are joined to form a cross B
figure. The inclination of These materials are used to make magnets for electric
the system with the field, if generators, transformer core and electromagnet core.
their combination is MÖ3
Then, it is proper to use ª JEE Main 2016 (Offline)
suspended freely in a
(a)A for electric generators and transformers
uniform external magnetic field B is (b)A for electromagnets and B for electric generators
(a) θ = 30° (b) θ = 45 ° (c) θ = 60° (d) θ = 15 ° (c)A for transformers and B for electric generators
−3 (d)B for electromagnets and transformers
4 A coil of 50 turns and area1.25 × 10 2
m is pivoted
about a vertical diameter in an uniform horizontal 7 The coercivity of a small magnet where the ferromagnet
magnetic field and carries a current of 2 A. When the coil gets demagnetised is 3 × 103 Am −1. The current required
is held with its plane in the N-S direction, it experiences a to be passed in a solenoid of length 10 cm and number
couple of 0.04 Nm, and when its plane is along the of turns 100, so that the magnet gets demagnetised when
East-West direction, it experiences a couple of 0.03 Nm. inside the solenoid is ª JEE Main 2014
The magnetic induction is (a) 30 mA (b) 60 mA (c) 3 A (d) 6 A
DAY TWENTY THREE
Electromagnetic
Induction
u Magnetic Flux ( φB ) u Motional Emf u Mutual Induction
u Faraday’s Law of u Rotational Emf u Combination of Inductors
Electromagnetic Induction u Self-Induction u Eddy Currents
Magnetic Flux ( φB )
ds
The flux associated with a magnetic field is defined in a similar B
manner to that used to define electric flux. Consider an element
θ
of area ds on an arbitrary shaped surface as shown in figure. If
the magnetic field at this element is B, the magnetic flux
through the element is,
dφB = B ⋅ ds = Bds cos θ
Here, ds is a vector that is perpendicular to the surface and has a
magnitude equal to the area ds and θ is the angle between B and ds at that element.
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. Outward magnetic flux is taken as positive
(i.e. θ < 90 °) and inward flux is taken as negative (i.e. θ > 90 °).
SI unit of magnetic flux is 1 weber (1 Wb).
where, 1 Wb = 1 T × 1 m2 = 1 T-m2
Dimensional formula of magnetic flux is [ML2 T−2 A−1 ] . PREP
MIRROR
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
This law states that, the induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate
of change of magnetic flux through the loop.
dφ B
u
Induced emf, |e | = (Without referring Explanations)

dt
dφ B Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
|e | = N
u
l
For N turns,
dt u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
However, if we consider the direction of induced emf, then
In order to expect good rank in JEE,
dφ B Nd(BA cos θ) − NBA(cos θ2 − cos θ 1) your Accuracy Level should be above
e=−N =− = 85 & Prep Level should be above 75.
dt dt ∆t
DAY TWENTY THREE ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 265
If the given electric circuit is a closed circuit having a total

Rotational Emf
l
resistance R, then the induced current,

e N dφ B Let a conducting rod of length l rotate about an axis passing
I = =− through one of its ends (that end may be fixed), with an angular
R R dt
velocity ω in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field B, then
N
Induced charge, dq = Idt = − dφ B an induced emf is set up between the ends of the rod, whose
R magnitude is given by
2
e2 N 2  dφ B 
and induced power, P = =   |e | =
1 2
Bl ω
R R  dt  2
Lenz’s Law Self-Induction

The negative sign in Faraday’s equations of electromagnetic Self-induction is the phenomenon due to which an induced
induction describes the direction in which the induced emf emf is set up in a coil or a circuit whenever the current
drives current around a circuit. However, that direction is passing through it changes. The induced emf opposes the
most easily determined with the help of Lenz’s law. This law change that causes it and is thus known as back emf.
states that the direction of any magnetic induction effect is Induced current
such as to oppose the cause of the effect. (make)
Later, we will see that Lenz’s law is directly related to energy
Induced current +
conservation. A
(break) –
Motional Emf + –
Let a conducting rod of length l be moving with a uniform
K Rh
velocity v perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B, an
induced emf is set up. l
Inductance is the inherent property of electrical circuits
X X X X + X X X X and is known as the electrical inertia.
l X X X X v X X X X
l
An inductor is said to be an ideal inductor if its resistance
is zero.
X X X X – X X X X
l
An inductor does not oppose current but opposes changes
The magnitude of the induced emf will be (growth or decay of current) in the circuit.
|e | = B l v
l
If the rod is moving such that it makes an angle θ with the Self-Inductance
direction of the magnetic field, then
Flux linked with the coil is
| e| = B l v sin θ
Nφ B ∝ I or Nφ B = LI,
Hence, for the motion parallel to B, the induced emf is zero.
where the constant L is known as the coefficient of
l
When a conducting rod moves horizontally, then an
self-induction or self-inductance of the given coil.
induced emf is set up between its ends due to the vertical
component of the earth’s magnetic field. However, at the It may be defined as the magnetic flux linked with the coil,
magnetic equator, induced emf will be zero, because when a constant current of 1 A is passed through it.
B V = 0. Induced emf due to self-induction,
If during landing or taking off, the wings of an aeroplane dφ dI
e=–N =–L
l
are along the East-West direction, an induced emf is set up dt dt

across the wings (due to the effect of BH ). SI unit of inductance is henry.
Motional Emf in a Loop Magnetic Potential Energy of an Inductor

l
In building, a steady current in an electric circuit, some
If a conducting rod moves on two parallel conducting rails,
work is done by the emf of the source, against the
then an emf is induced whose magnitude is|e | = B l v
self-inductance of the coil.
and the direction is given by the Fleming’s right hand rule.
1
|e | B l v The work done, W = LI 2
l
Induced current,| I | = = 2
R R l
The work done is stored as the magnetic potential energy of
B2 l2 v that inductor.
l
Magnetic force, Fm = BIl =
R 1
Thus, U = L I2
2
266 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY TWENTY THREE
Formulae for Self-Inductance For a pair of two magnetically coupled coils of self-inductances
L1 and L2 respectively, the mutual inductance,
l
For a circular coil of radius R and N turns, the
self-inductance, M 12 = M21 = M = k L1L2
1 where, k is the coupling coefficient.
L = µ0 π N2 R
2
l
For a solenoid coil having length l, total number of turns N Formulae for Mutual Inductance
and cross-sectional area A, l
Assuming the coupling coefficient k = 1 and medium to be
µ0 N2 A  N a free space or air. Mutual inductance of a pair of concentric
L= = µ 0 n2 Al where, n = l 
l circular coils is
For a toroid of radius R and number of turns N, µ 0N 1N2 πr 2
M=
l
1 2R
L = µ0 N2 R
2 where, r = radius of the coil (of small radius)
l
For a square coil of side a and number of turns N, and R = radius of the coil (of larger radius).
2 2 l
For a pair of two solenoid coils, wound one over the
L= µ0 N2 a µ N N A
π other, M= 0 1 2
l
For a pair of concentric coplanar square coils,
Mutual Induction 2 2 µ 0N 1N2 a2
Mutual induction is the phenomenon due to which an emf is M=
πb
induced in a coil when the current flowing through a
neighbouring coil changes. where, a = side of the smaller coil and b = side of the larger
coil.
For a given pair of coils, mutually coupled, then according
Mutual Inductance
l
to theorem of reciprocity,
Mutual inductance of a pair of coils is defined as the magnetic M 12 = M21 = M
flux linked with one coil, when a constant current of unit
magnitude, flows through the other coil.
Mathematically, NφB2 = MI 1 Combination of Inductors
where, M is known as the mutual inductance for the given l
If two coils of self-inductances L 1 and L 2 are placed quite
pair of coils. far apart and are arranged in series, then their equivalent
Induced emf due to mutual inductance, inductance,
dφB2 dI L s = L1 + L 2
e2 = – N =–M 1
dt dt l
If the coils are placed quite close to each other, so as to
Hence, mutual inductance for a pair of coils is numerically mutually affect each other, then their equivalent inductance,
equal to the magnitude of induced emf in one coil when L s = L1 + L2 ± 2 M
current in the other coil changes at a rate of 1 As −1. Here, M has been written with ± sign depending on the fact
SI unit of mutual inductance M, is henry. whether currents in the two coils are flowing in same sense
or opposite sense.
Mutual inductance of a pair of coils is maximum, when the
two coils are wound on the same frame. However, mutual
l
If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L 2 are connected in
inductance is negligible when the two coils are oriented parallel, then equivalent inductance L p is given by
mutually perpendicular to each other (see figure). In this 1 1 1 L1L 2
= + ⇒ Lp =
context, we define a term coupling coefficient k. L p L1 L 2 L1 + L 2
S
S
Eddy Currents
P S Currents induced in the body of bulk of the conductors due to
P
change in magnetic flux linked to them, are called the eddy
P currents. The production of eddy currents in a metallic
(a) (b) (c)
conductor leads to a loss of electric energy in the form of
Coupling coefficient is given by heat energy.
Magnetic flux linked with secondary coil Eddy currents can be minimised by taking the metal
k =
Magnetic flux developed in primary coil (generally soft iron) core in the form of a combination of thin
laminated sheets or by slotting process.
It is observed that 0 ≤ k ≤ 1.
DAY TWENTY FOUR
Alternating
Current
u Peak and RMS Values of u Series AC Circuits u AC Generator
Alternating Current/Voltage u Power in an AC Circuit u Transformer
u Different Types of AC Circuits
An alternating current is the current (or voltage) whose magnitude keeps on changing
continuously with time, between zero and a maximum value and its direction also
reverses periodically.
VI
I0
V0 t
0
T T 3T T
4 2 4
Peak and RMS Values of

Alternating Current/ Voltage
1 V
PREP
RMS value of alternating voltage is equal to times of peak value. i.e. Vrms = 0 MIRROR
2 2
I0 Your Personal Preparation Indicator
Similarly, I rms =
2 u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
Mean Value or Average Value u
u
No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
The steady current, which when passes through a circuit for half the time period of (Without referring Explanations)
alternating current, sends the same amount of charge as done by the alternating current
in the same time through the same circuit, is called mean or average value of alternating u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—
current. It is denoted by i m or i av u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
2i
i m or i av = 0 = 0.636i 0
π In order to expect good rank in JEE,
Mean or average value of alternating current during a half cycle is 0.636 times (or 63.6% your Accuracy Level should be above
of) its peak value (i 0).
276 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY TWENTY FOUR
Similarly, mean or average value of alternating emf
Irms
2V R I
Vm or Vav = 0 = 0.636 0 V
π
Peak Value V = V0 sin wt

V
(a) (b) (c)
The maximum value (amplitude) of alternating current and
voltage is called peak value. Current and voltage are in the same phase, i.e. current is
given by I = I 0 sin ωt .
RMS Value 2. Pure Inductive Circuit
The steady current, which when passes through a resistance
Let an alternating voltage V = V0 sin ωt be applied across a
for a given time will produce the same amount of heat as the
alternating current does in the same resistance and in the pure inductance L.
same time, is called rms value of alternating current. It is π
i Then, the average power = Vrms I rms cos = 0
denoted by i rms or i v = 0 = 0.707 i 0 2
2
The inductance offers some opposition to the flow of AC,
where, i 0 = peak value of alternating current known as inductive reactance X L = 2πνL = Lω.
Similarly, rms value of alternating emf Thus, a pure inductance does not oppose the flow of DC
V (ω = 0) but opposes the flow of AC.
V rms = 0 = 0.707 V0
2 V
Current flowing, I =
XL
Reactance and Impedance V XL
l
The opposition offered by a pure inductor or capacitor or
both to the flow of AC, through it, is called reactance (X ). L (b) (c)
(a)
Its unit is ohm (Ω) and dimensional formula is π
[ML 2 T−3 A −2 ]. 2
V = V0 sin ωt 0 I 0 V
l
Reactance is of two types
(i) Inductive reactance, X L = Lω and In pure inductive circuit, current decreases with an
1 π
(ii) Capacitive reactance, X C = increase in frequency, it lags behind the voltage by
Cω 2
π
l
Reciprocal of reactance is known as susceptance. (or voltage leads the current by ) and is thus given by
1 2
Thus, S =  π
X I = I 0 sin ωt − 
 2
l
Total opposition offered by an AC circuit to the flow of
current through it, is called its impedance (Z). Its unit is
ohm and dimensional formula is [ML 2 T −3 A −2 ]. 3. Pure Capacitive Circuit
Let an alternating voltage V = V0 sin ωt be applied across a
For an AC circuit, Z = X 2 + R2 = ( X L − X C )2 + R2
pure capacitance C. Then, the capacitance offers some
opposition to the flow of current, but allows AC to pass
l
Reciprocal of impedance is known as admittance.
1 through it. The opposition offered is known as the
Thus, Y = . Its unit is Siemens (S). capacitive reactance.
Z
1
XC = Ω
Cω
Different Types of AC Circuits =
1
Ω
C × 2 πν
The circuit consists of only resistor or only capacitor or only
inductor are called pure resistive, pure inductive and pure V
Current flowing, I =
capacitive circuit. XC
I XC
1. Pure Resistive Circuit π
2
Let an alternating voltage V = V0 sin ωt be applied across a (a) C (b) (c)
pure resistance R. Then,
V V
Current, I = or I rms = rms V = V0 sin ωt V
V
R R
DAY TWENTY FOUR ALTERNATING CURRENT 277
In pure capacitive circuit, current increases with an ∴ V = VR2 + VC2

π
increase in frequency and leads the voltage by (or
2 where, VR = voltage across resistor R
π
voltage lags behind the current by ) and is thus, given by and VC = voltage across capacitor.
2
 π
I = I 0 sin ωt + 
 2
3. Series L-C Circuit
The potential difference across a capacitor in AC lags in
phase by 90° and leads in phase by 90° across inductor
Series AC Circuits with the current in the circuit.
Some of the series AC circuits are given below V0
V = V0 sin ωt , I = sin(ωt − φ)
Z
1. Series L-R Circuit X L − XC
where, Z = X L − X C and tan φ = =∞
The potential difference across the resistance in an AC 0
circuit is in phase with current and it leads in phase by L C VL
90° with current across the inductor.
L R VL – VC
VL V
VL VR I
φ V = V0 sin ωt
VR I VC
V = V0 sin ωt π π
For X L > X C , φ = and for X L < X C , φ = −
2 2
V0 1
V = V0 sin ωt and I = sin(ωt − φ) If X L = X C i.e. at ω = , Z = 0 and I 0 becomes infinity.
Z LC
This condition is termed as the resonant condition and
where, Z = R2 + (ωL)2 this frequency is termed as natural frequency of the
circuit.
Current lags behind the voltage by φ. I Z
ωL
and tan φ =
R
∴ V = VR2 + VL2
where, VR = voltage across resistor R ω ω

ω0 ω0
and VL = voltage across inductor. Variation of I with Variation of Z with
ω in L-C circuit ω in L-C circuit
2. Series R-C Circuit

The potential difference across a resistance in AC circuit
4. Series L-C-R Circuit
is in phase with current and it lags in phase by 90° with V0
For L-C-R circuit V = V0 sin ωt , I = sin (ωt − φ)
the current in the capacitor. Z
V 2
V = V0 sin ωt and I = 0 sin (ωt + φ)  1 
Z where, Z = R2 + ωL − 
 ωC 
2
 1  X L − XC
where, Z = R2 +   and tan φ =
 ωC  Z
Current leads the voltage by φ. VL
−1 / ωC L C R
and tan φ = VL – VC
R V
C R φ
VR I
I VR
VC VR φ
V = V0 sin ωt
V
VC
VC Phasor diagram for L-C-R
V = V0 sin ωt series circuit for XL>XC
278 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY TWENTY FOUR
For X L > X C , current lags voltage. It is known as resonance frequency.

X L < X C , current leads voltage. At resonance frequency admittance is minimum of the
X L = X C , current and voltage are in phase. impedance is maximum. Thus, the parallel circuit does not
1 allow this frequency from the source to pass in the circuit.
If X L = X C ⇒ ω 0 = , i.e. the natural frequency of the Due to this reason, the circuit with such a frequency is known
LC as rejector circuit.
circuit is equal to the applied frequency, then the circuit is
1 L
said to be in resonance. l
Dynamic resistance, Z max = =
Ymax CR
At resonance, the current in the circuit is maximum and
the impedance is minimum and equal to R. V0 V CR
l
Peak current through the supply = = 0
1 L/CR L
Resonance frequency, ν =
2 π LC V0
l
The peak current through capacitor = = V0ωC
1/ωC
Quality Factor V0ωC ωL
l
Q-factor = =
V0CR/ L R
The Q-factor or quality factor of a resonant L-C-R circuit is
defined as ratio of the voltage drop across inductor This is basically the measure of current magnification.
(or capacitor) to applied voltage. Thus,
voltage across L (or C)
Q= L-C Oscillations
applied voltage
1 L An L-C circuit also called a resonant circuit, tank circuit or
Q= tuned circuit. When connected together, they can act as an
R C
electrical resonator, storing energy oscillating at the circuits
resonant frequency.
Parallel Resonant Circuit I
In this combination, a capacitor is connected in parallel with a

series combination of inductor and resistor. L C
R L
IL
IC The energy oscillates back and forth between the capacitor
C
and inductor until internal resistance makes the oscillations
I
die out. The oscillation frequency is determined by the
capacitance and inductance values,
ω 1
V = V 0 sin ωt f = 0 =
2 π 2 π LC
From the figure,
I = I L + IC Power in an AC Circuit
V V V
or = + Let a voltage V = V0 sin ωt be applied across an AC and
Z R + jωL − j/ωC consequently a current I = I 0 sin(ωt − φ) flows through the
1 1 circuit. Then,
∴ = + jωC
Z R + jωL l
Instantaneous power = V I = V0I 0 sin ωt sin(ωt − φ)
1
is known as admittance (Y ). and its value varies with time. Here, φ is known as phase
Z difference between V and I.
1 R − jωL
Thus, Y = = 2 + jωC l
Average power over a full cycle of AC is
Z R + ω2 L2 1
Pav = Vrms I rms cos φ = V0I 0 cos φ
R2 + (ωCR2 + ω3 L2C − ωL)2 2
∴ Y = The term Vrms I rms is known as the apparent or virtual
R2 + ω2 L2
power, but Vrms I rms cos φ is called the true power.
The admittance will be minimum, when
l
The term cos φ is known as the power factor of the given
1 R2
ωCR + ω L C − ωL = 0 or ω =
2 3 2
− 2 circuit. Thus,
LC L R true power
cos φ = = power factor =
ω 1 1 R2 Z apparent power
∴ f = = − 2
2π 2π LC L
DAY TWENTY FOUR ALTERNATING CURRENT 279
For a pure resistive circuit, V and I are in phase

AC Generator
l
(φ = 0 °), hence cos φ = 1 and average power = Vrms I rms

For a pure inductive or a pure capacitive circuit, current An electric generator or dynamo is a device used to produce
π π electrical energy at the expense of mechanical/thermal energy.
and voltage differ in phase by  i.e. φ =  . It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction, when
2 2
a coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, an induced emf
∴ Pavg = 0 is set up between its ends. The induced emf is given by
V2 e = e 0 sin ωt = NBAω sin ωt .
l
Power loss = I 2 R =
R The direction of the induced emf is alternating in nature.
Wattless Current
Average power is given by Pav = E rms I rms cos φ Transformer
The phase difference between E rms and I rms is φ. We can It is a device which works in AC circuits only and is based on
resolve I rms into two components the principle of mutual induction.
I rms cos φ and I rms sin φ Transformer is used to suitably increase or decrease the voltage
Here, the component I rms cos φ contributes towards power in an AC circuit. Transformer which transforms strong AC at
low voltage into a weaker current at high alternating voltage is
dissipation and the component I rms sin φ does not contribute
called a step-up transformer. A step-down transformer
towards power dissipation. Therefore, it is called wattless
transforms weak current at a higher alternating voltage into a
current. strong current at a lower alternating voltage.
e V N Ip
Choke Coil For an ideal transformer s = s = s = =k
ep Vp Np Is
A low resistance inductor coil used to suppress or limit the
where, k is known as the transformation ratio.
flow of alternating current without affecting the flow of direct
current is called choke coil. For a step-up transformer, k > 1 but for a step-down
transformer, k < 1.
Let us consider a choke coil (used in tube lights) of large
inductance L and low resistance R. The power factor for such In a transformer, the input emf and the output emf differ in
a coil is given by phase by π radians.
R R The efficiency of a transformer is given by
cos φ = ≈ [as, R << ωL] output power Vs I s
R +ω L
2 2 2 ω L η= =
input power V p I p
As R << ωL, cos φ is very small. Thus, the power absorbed by
the coil V rms I rms cos φ is very small. On account of its large For an ideal transformer, η = 100% or 1. However, for practical
transformers, η ≈ 85 - 90%.
impedance Z = R2 + ω2 L2 , the current passing through the
Possible causes of energy loss in transformer are
coil is very small. Such a coil is used in AC circuits for the l
Heating due to winding resistance
purpose of adjusting current to any required value without
wastage of energy. l
Eddy current losses
The only loss of energy is due to hysteresis in the iron core, l
Magnetic flux leakage and
which is much less than the loss of energy in the resistance l
Hysteresis loss. To minimise these losses, the transformer
that can also reduce the current, if placed instead of the core is made up of a laminated soft iron strips.
choke coil.
DAY TWENTY FIVE
Electromagnetic
Waves
u Electromagnetic Waves and u Maxwell’s Equations u Spectrum of Electromagnetic
their Characteristics u Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves Radiation
Electromagnetic Waves and

their Characteristics
Electromagnetic waves are those waves, in which electric and magnetic fields vary
sinusoidally in space with time. The electric and magnetic fields are mutually
perpendicular to each other and each field is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
l
Maxwell’s theory predicted that electromagnetic waves of all frequencies (and hence
all wavelengths) propagate in vacuum, with a speed given by
1
c= .
µ 0ε 0
where, µ 0 is the magnetic permeability and ε 0 is the electric permittivity of vacuum.
Now, for the vacuum, µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 TmA −1 and ε 0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 C2 N −1m−2 .
Substituting these values in the above relation, we have PREP
c=
1
~ 3.0 × 10 8 ms −1 MIRROR
[(4π × 10 −7 )(8.85 × 10 −12 )]1/ 2 Your Personal Preparation Indicator
l
All the electromagnetic waves are of the transverse nature whose speed depends u No. of Questions in Exercises (x)—
upon the medium, but their frequency does not depend on the medium. u No. of Questions Attempted (y)—
l
Transverse waves can be polarised. u No. of Correct Questions (z)—
l
Energy is being transported with the electromagnetic waves. (Without referring Explanations)
u Accuracy Level (z / y × 100)—

Conduction Current u Prep Level (z / x × 100)—
It is a current in the electric circuit, which arises due to the flow of electrons in the
connecting wires of the circuit, in a definite closed path. In order to expect good rank in JEE,
DAY TWENTY FIVE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 289
In this, E 0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the fields.

Maxwell’s Displacement Current E 1
Further, c = 0 = = speed of light in vacuum
It is that current which comes into play in the region, B0 ε0 µ 0
whenever the electric field and hence the electric flux is
changing with time.
l
The rate of flow of energy in an electromagnetic wave, is
dφ E described by the vector S called the Poynting vector, which
id = ε 0 is defined by the expression,
dt
1
The generalised form of the Ampere’s law is S= E×B
µ0
 dφ E 
∫ B ⋅ d l = µ 0(ic + id ) = µ 0  i c + ε 0 dt 
 l
The time average of S over one cycle is known as the wave
intensity. When the average is taken, we obtain an
where, ic is conduction current. expression involving the time average of cos2 (kx − ωt )
1
which equals .
2
Maxwell’s Equations E B E2 c B02
Maxwell in 1862, gave the basic laws of electricity and Thus, I = Sav = 0 0 = 0 = Wm −2
2 µ 0 2 µ 0c 2 µ 0
magnetism in the form of four fundamental equations, which
are known as Maxwell’s equations. l
The total average energy per unit volume is,
ε E2 B2
l
Gauss’s law for electrostatics This law states that the total u = uE + uB = 0 0 =
electric flux through any closed surface is always equal to 2 2µ0
1 The radiation pressure p exerted on a perfectly absorbing
times the net charged enclosed by that surface. l
ε0 S
surface, p = .
q c
Mathematically, ∫ E ⋅ dS =
S ε0 l
If the surface is a perfect reflector and incidence is normal,
l
Gauss’s law for magnetism This law also predicts that the then the momentum transported to the surface in a time t is
isolated magnetic monopole does not exist. 2u 2S
given by, p = and the radiation pressure will be, p = .
i.e. net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always c c
zero. l
Energy density of electromagnetic wave,
Mathematically, ∫ B ⋅ dS = 0 1 1 B2
S ue = ε 0Eu2B =
2 2 µ0
l
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction It states that
u
the induced e.m.f. produced in a circuit is numerically l
Momentum delivered, p = (absorbing surface)
equal to time rate of change of magnetic flux through it. c
dφ 2u
Mathematically, ∫ E ⋅ dl = − B p= (reflecting surface)
dt c
hc
l
Ampere-Maxwell’s law At an instant in a circuit, the l
Energy of wave = = hν
conduction current is equal to displacement current. λ
 dφ 
Mathematically, ∫ E ⋅ dl = µ 0  I c + ε 0 E 
 dt  Transverse Nature of
These equations are collectively called Maxwell’s
equations.
Electromagnetic Waves
According to Maxwell, electromagnetic waves consist of time
varying electric and magnetic fields, which are perpendicular
Properties of to each other, as well as direction of wave propagation.
Electromagnetic Waves Y Wave propagation
E B
l
If the electromagnetic wave is travelling along the positive
direction of the X -axis, the electric field is oscillating
parallel to the Y-axis and the magnetic field is oscillating X
parallel to the Z-axis.
E = E 0 sin(ωt − kx) ⇒ B = B0 sin(ωt − kx) Z B E
290 40 DAYS ~ JEE MAIN PHYSICS DAY TWENTY FIVE
detecting the fracture of bones, hidden bullet, needle,

Spectrum of Electromagnetic costly material etc. inside the body, and also used in the
Radiation study of crystal structure.
The array obtained on arranging all the electromagnetic l
Ultraviolet Rays The major part of the radiations received
waves in an order on the basis of their wavelength is called from sun consists of the ultraviolet radiation. Its other
the electromagnetic spectrum. sources are the electric discharge tube, carbon arc, etc.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum These radiations are mainly used in excitation of
photoelectric effect and to kill the bacteria of many diseases.
Frequency Wavelength l
Visible Light Visible light is obtained from the glowing
Name Source
Range (Hz) Range (m) bodies, while they are white hot. The light obtained from
Radio 104 to 108 0.1 to 600 Oscillating electric the electric bulbs, sodium lamp, fluorescent tube is the
waves circuits visible light.
Microwaves 109 to 1012 10−3 to 0.3 Oscillating current in l
Thermal or Infrared Waves A body on being heated, emits
special vacuum tubes out the infrared waves. These radiations have the
Infrared 1011 to 10−6 to Outer electrons in atoms maximum heating effect. The glass absorbs these
5 × 1014 5 × 10−3 and molecules radiations, therefore for the study of these radiations, rock
salt prism is used instead of a glass prism. These waves are
Visible 4 × 1014 to 4 × 10−7 to Outer electrons in atoms mainly used for therapeutic purpose by the doctors because
light 7 × 1014
8 × 10−7 of their heating effect.
Ultraviolet 1015 to 1017 1.5 × 10−7 to Outer electrons in atoms
l
Microwaves These waves are produced by the spark
discharge or magnetron valve. They are detected by the
3.5 × 10−7
crystal or semiconductor detector. These waves are used
X-rays 1018 to 1020 10−11 to 10−8 Inner electrons in atoms mainly in radar and long distance communication.
and sudden l
Radio waves They can be obtained by the flow of high
deacceleration of high
frequency alternating current in an electric conductor.
energy free electrons
These waves are detected by the tank circuit in a radio
Gamma 1019 to 1024 10−16 to 10−13 Nuclei of atoms and
receiver or transmitter.
rays sudden deacceleration of
high energy free electrons
Applications of
Various Electromagnetic Radiations Electromagnetic Spectrum
l
Gamma rays The main sources of gamma rays are the l
Radio waves are used in radar and radio broadcasting.
natural and artificial radioactive substances. These rays l
Microwaves are used in long distance wireless
affect the photographic plate and mainly used in the communications via satellites.
treatment of cancer disease. l
Infrared, visible and ultraviolet radiations are used to know
l
X-rays X-rays are produced, when highly energetic the structure of molecules.
cathode rays are stopped by a metal target of high melting l
Diffraction of X-rays by crystals, gives the details of the
point. They affect the photographic plate and can penetrate structure of crystals.
through the transparent materials. They are mainly used in

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DAY EIGHTEEN

Quantisation of Charge PREP

Electric field intensity (E) is a vector quantity.

Forces between Multiple Charges Motion of a Charged Particle in

Electric Field due to 4. Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged

Electric Field due to a Dipole Work Done in Rotating a Dipole

2. Electric Potential Due to a System of Charges Electric Potential Energy

In general, for a system of n charges, the electric potential

4. Electric Potential due to Some Common Relation between E and V

3Q 3  Q  (i) Equipotential surface may be planar, solid etc. But

Conductors and Insulators C1 C2 C3

Dielectrics and Polarisation V

2. Capacitor with Dielectric Medium between Energy Stored in a Capacitor

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

arranged in a bcc configuration as shown below. The ++++

Cs+ Cs+ 4 A positively charged particle P enters the region between

Current Density PREP

(Without referring Explanations)

Drift velocity per unit electric field is called the mobility of

the electrons. Thus, mobility,

Ohm’s Law V-I Characteristics of Ohmic and

Series Combination Electric Cell

This is because current in the circuit,

Short circuited 1. Series Grouping

Kirchhoff’s Laws and their Wheatstone’s Bridge

Potentiometer Applications of Potentiometer

where, E 0 = emf of battery, E l1

Concept of Magnetic Field

Biot-Savart’s Law and its Applications

In order to expect good rank in JEE,

For a wire of infinite length φ1 = φ2 = 90 ° and hence

4πr end effect.

If the direction of a v is parallel or anti-parallel to B, θ = 0

or θ = 180 ° and therefore F = 0. Hence, the trajectory of the

u Current Loop as a Magnetic u Magnetic Field Lines u Hysteresis Curve

Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole

Bar Magnet PREP

Magnetic Field due to a Bar Magnet Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid

P Torque on a Magnetic Dipole in a

Magnetic Field Lines

The effect is the multiplication of the magnetic field by

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

Induced emf, |e | = (Without referring Explanations)

If the given electric circuit is a closed circuit having a total

resistance R, then the induced current,

Lenz’s Law Self-Induction

are along the East-West direction, an induced emf is set up dt dt

Motional Emf in a Loop Magnetic Potential Energy of an Inductor

Peak and RMS Values of

Mean Value or Average Value u

Similarly, mean or average value of alternating emf

Peak Value V = V0 sin wt

In pure capacitive circuit, current increases with an ∴ V = VR2 + VC2

where, VR = voltage across resistor R ω ω

2. Series R-C Circuit

For X L > X C , current lags voltage. It is known as resonance frequency.

In this combination, a capacitor is connected in parallel with a