CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No.

c CHAPTER 9

ASPHALT
OVERVIEW

Asphalt is one of the oldest materials in construction. Asphalt binders were used in 3000 B.C., preceding
the use of the wheel by 1000yrs. Before the mid 1850s asphalt came from natural pools found in various
locations throughout the world, such as the Trinidad Lake asphalt that is still mined. However, with the
discovery and refining of petroleum in Pennsylvania, use of asphalt cement became wide-spread. By
1907, more asphalt cement came from refineries than came from natural deposits. Today practically
all asphalt cement is from refined petroleum.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you will be able to;

1. Learn the usual production of Asphalt and Tars

2. Know different types of Asphalt products
3. Understand the Classification of Asphalt.
4. Learn about Asphalt Concrete and its mix design methods
5. Know some Classifications of Asphalt Concrete.
6. Classify the common additives being used in Asphalt concrete mix design

DEFINITION

Bituminous materials are classified as asphalts and tars as shown in figure below. Several asphalt
products are used; asphalt is used mostly in pavement construction, but is used as sealing and
waterproofing agents, as well. Tars are produced by the destructive distillation of bituminous coal or
by cracking petroleum vapors. Tar may also be used for pavement treatments, particularly where fuel
spills may dissolve asphalt cement, such as on airport aprons.

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

The fractional distillation process of crude petroleum is illustrated in figure below. Different products
are separated at different temperatures. It shows the main products such as gasoline, kerosene, diesel
oil, and asphalt residue (asphalt cement).

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

TYPES OF ASPHALT PRODUCTS

Asphalt used in pavements is produces in three forms: asphalt cement, asphalt cutback, and asphalt
emulsion. Asphalt cement is a blend of hydrocarbons of different molecular weighs. At room
temperatures, asphalt cement is a semisolid material that can be applied readily as a binder without
heating it. Liquid asphalt products, cutbacks and emulsions have been developed and can be used
without heating.

Although the liquid asphalts are convenient, they cannot produce a quality of asphalt
concrete comparable to what can be produced by heating neat asphalt cement and mixing with
carefully selected aggregates. Asphalt cement has excellent adhesive characteristic, which make it
a superior binder for pavement applications. In fact, it is the most common binder material used in
pavements.

A cutback is produced by dissolving asphalt cement in lighter molecular weight hydrocarbon

solvent. When the cutback is sprayed on a pavement or mixed with aggregates, the solvent
evaporates, leaving the asphalt residue as the binder. In the past, cutbacks were widely used in
highway construction. However, three disadvantages have severely limited the use of cutbacks. First,
as petroleum costs have escalated, the use of the expensive solvents as a carrying agent for the
asphalt cement is no longer cost effective. Second, cutbacks are hazardous materials due to the
volatility of the solvents. Lastly, application of cutback releases environmentally unacceptable
hydrocarbons into the atmosphere.

An alternative to dissolving the asphalt in a solvent is dispersing the asphalt in water as

emulsion. The asphalt cement is physically broken down into micron-sized globules that are mixed into
water containing an emulsifying agent. Emulsified asphalts typically consist of about 60% to 70%
asphalt residue, 30% to 40% water and a fraction of a percent of emulsifying agent.

USES OF ASPHALT

The main use of asphalt is in pavement construction and maintenance. In addition, asphalt is used in
sealing and waterproofing various structural components, such as roofs and underground
foundations.

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

Superpave

In 1987, the strategic highway research program (SHRP) began developing a new system for
specifying asphalt materials and deigning asphalt mixes. The final product of the SHRP is a new system
referred to as Superpave (Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements). The objectives of this research
were to extend the life or reduce the life-cycle costs of asphalt pavements, to reduce maintenance
costs, and to minimize premature failures. Note that the Superpave specifications use the term asphalt
binder, which refers to the asphalt cement with or without the addition of modifiers.

CLASSIFICATION OF ASPHALT

Several methods are used to characterize asphalt binders, asphalt cutbacks, and asphalt emulsions.

Asphalt Binders

Asphalt binder is produced in several grades or classes. There are four methods for classifying asphalt
binders:

1. Performance grading (Superpave)

2. Penetration grading
3. Viscosity grading
4. Viscosity of aged residue grading

Superpave Binder Specifications and Selection. Several grades of binder are available based on
their performance in the field. Names of grade start with PG (Performance Graded) followed by two
numbers representing the maximum and minimum pavement design temperatures in Celsius,

Other Asphalt Binder Grading Methods. Table below shows various asphalt cement grades based
on penetration and on their properties. The grades correspond to the allowable penetration range,
that is, the penetration of a 40-50 grade must be in the range of 40-50.

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

Various grades based on viscosity and their properties are shown in table below. High viscosity asphalt
cements have a high designation number.

Asphalt Cutbacks

Three types of cutbacks are produced, depending on the hardiness of the residue and the type of
solvent used. Rapid-curing cutbacks are produced by dissolving hard residue in a highly volatile
solvent, such as gasoline. Medium-curing cutbacks use medium hardness residue and a less volatile
solvent, such as kerosene. Slow-curing cutbacks are produced by either diluting soft residue in
nonvolatile or low-volatile fuel oil or by simply stopping the refining process before all of the fuel oil is
removed from the stock.

Asphalt Emulsions

Asphalt emulsions can be ither anionic or cationic, depending on the electric charge. Also, emulsions
set (break) at different rates. Three types of emulsion are produced: rapid setting (RS), medium-setting
(MS), and slow-setting (SS). Rapid setting emulsion sets in about 5-10minutes, medium setting in several
hours and slow-setting in a few months.

Other emulsion types are also produced, such as the high float residue emulsion and the quick
set emulsion. Different types and grades of emulsions are used for different pavement applications.

ASPHALT CONCRETE

Asphalt concrete, also known as hot mix asphalt (HMA), consists of asphalt cement, and aggregates
mixed together at a high temperature and placed and compacted on the road while still hot. The
performance of asphalt pavements is largely a function of the asphalt concrete surface material.

Desired Properties
The objective of the asphalt concrete mix design process is to provide:

1. Stability or resistance to permanent deformation under action of traffic loads, especially at

high temperature.
2. Fatigue resistance to prevent fatigue cracking under repeated loadings.
3. Resistance to thermal cracking that might occur due to contraction at low temperatures.
4. Resistance to hardening or aging during production in the mixing plant and in service.
5. Resistance to moisture induced damage that might result in stripping of asphalt from
aggregate particles;
6. Skid resistance by providing enough texture at the pavement surface.
7. Workability to reduce the effort needed during mixing, placing and compaction.

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

Asphalt concrete is produced in either a batch plant or a continuous (drum) plant. In continuous
plants, aggregates of different gradations are placed in cold bins. The gradation proportions needed
are taken from the cold bins by a cold feed elevator. Aggregates are transferred to the first part of
the drum where they are dried and heated.

Hot asphalt cement is introduced in the last one-third of the drum; then aggregates and asphalt are
mixed. Since asphalt concrete is produced continuously in this type of plant, it its transferred to a
storage silo until placed in a truck and transported to the job site.

ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

The purpose of asphalt concrete mix design is to determine the design asphalt content using the
available asphalt and aggregates. The design asphalt content varies for different material types,
material properties, loading levels, ad environmental conditions.

Before Superpave, there were two common methods of designing the asphalt concrete
mixture: the Marshal (ASTM D1559) and the Hveem (ASTM D1560) methods.

Superpave Mix Design

The Superpave asphalt concrete mix design system guides the selection of aggregates. The following
main four aggregate properties must be achieved:

 Coarse aggregate angularity measured by the percentage of fractured faces,

 Fine aggregates angularity
 Flat and elongated particles
 Clay content

The Superpave asphalt concrete mixture design system varies depending on the design traffic level.
Three levels of mix design are available: volumetric, intermediate and complete.

Volumetric Mix Design. The volumetric mix design plays a central role in Superpave mix design. After
selection the appropriate aggregate, binder and modifiers (if any), trial specimens are prepared with
different aggregate gradations and asphalt contents. Specimens are compacted using the
Superpave gyratory compactor with a gyration angle of 1.25 degrees and a constant vertical pressure
of 600kPa. This mix design is for the lowest traffic volumes, based on the results of the gyratory
compactor and the associated void analysis.

Intermediate Mix Design. In this design, some performance-based properties are used. After satisfying
the volumetric requirements, more specimens are compacted using the Superpave gyratory
compactor. Typically, a total of 23 specimens are required for intermediate design. The laboratory
tests to be performed and the types of potential pavement distress are:

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

Complete Mix Design. The complete mix design uses fundamental material models to predict the
amount of distress and in what time frame it occurs. This level is similar to the intermediate design
except that more tests are required to obtain better prediction for pavement performance. Typically,
a total of 59 specimens are required for the complete design. The laboratory tests to be performed
and types of potential pavements distress are:

Marshall Method of Mix Design

The basic steps required for performing Marshall mix design are:

1. Aggregate evaluation
2. Asphalt cement evaluation
3. Prepare specimens
4. Measure Marshall stability and
flow
5. Density and voids analysis
6. Determine design asphalt
content.

The design asphalt content is usually

the most economical one that will
also satisfactorily meet all of the
established criteria.

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

Hveem Method of Mix Design

The basic steps required for performing Hveem mix design are:

1. Aggregate evaluation
2. Asphalt cement evaluation
3. Evaluation of centrifuge kerosene equivalent of fine aggregate
4. Evaluation of surface capacity of coarse aggregate
5. Estimation of optimum asphalt content
6. Specimen preparation
7. Measurement of the Hveem stability
8. Density and voids analysis
9. Determination of design asphalt content

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

The evaluation of aggregate and asphalt

cement is performed same as with the
Marshall method of mix design. The Hveem
method requires measuring aggregate
properties and using a series of charts to
estimate the design asphalt content.

CHARACTERIZATION OF ASPHALT CONCRETE

The following tests are used to characterize asphalt concrete:

Indirect Tensile Strength

When traffic loads are applied on the pavement surface, tension is developed at the bottom of the
asphalt concrete layer. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the tensile strength of the asphalt
concrete for the design of the layer thickness.

𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟗𝑷
𝛔t =
𝒕

𝛔t = tensile trength, MPa

P = load at failure, N
t = thickness of specimen, mm

Diametral Tensile Resilient

To evaluate the structural response of the asphalt pavement system, the modulus of asphalt concrete
material is needed. Since asphalt concrete is not a linear visco-elastic material, the modulus of
elasticity, young’s modulus is not applicable. The diametral tensile resilient modulus test provides an
analogous modulus, known as resilient modulus.

𝑷(𝟎.𝟐𝟕 𝒗)
MR =
𝒕 𝒙 𝜟𝑯

MR = indirect tensile resilient modulus, MPa

P = repeated load, N
𝒗 = Poisson’s ratio
t = thickness of specimen, mm
ΔH = sum of recoverable horizontal deformations on both sides of specimen, mm

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

Freeze and Thaw Test

This test is performed to evaluate the effect of freeze and thaw cycles on the stiffness properties of
asphalt concrete. Three specimens are subjected to cycles of freeze and thaw, after which the
resilient modulus is determined. The tensile strength ratio is computed by dividing the average resilient
modulus of conditioned specimens by the average resilient modulus of unconditioned specimens,
express in percent. A minimum tensile strength ratio is usually required to identify mixes that are not
severely affected by freeze and thaw cycles.

Creep Compliance
The creep test on asphalt concrete provides good indication of the rutting potential that might occur
due to the compressibility of asphalt concrete layer. Currently there is no ASTM or AASHTO test for
asphalt concrete creep. The figure shows load and deformation versus time during the creep test. This
also shows that when the load is applied, an instantaneous deformation occurs after which the
material creeps in a nonlinear form under constant load.

The creep compliance is computed at different

times during the loading portion as follows:

∈(𝐭)
J(t) = 𝛔

𝐉(𝐭) = creep compliance at different times,

mm2N
∈ (𝐭) = strain at different times, mm/mm
𝛔 = applied constant stress, MPa

ADDITIVES

Many types of additives (modifiers) are used to improve the properties of asphalt or to add special
properties to the asphalt concrete mixtures. Laboratory tests are usually performed and field
performance is observed in order to evaluate the effect of the additives and to justify their cost. The
effects of using additives should be carefully evaluated, otherwise premature pavement failure might
result.

Fillers
Several types of fillers, such as crushed fines, Portland cement, lime, fly ash, and carbon black can be
added to asphalt concrete. Fillers are used to satisfy gradation requirements of materials passing the
0.075mm sieve, to increase stability to improve bond between aggregates and asphalt, or to fill the
voids and thus reduce the required asphalt.

Extenders
Extenders such as sulfur and lignin are used to reduce the asphalt requirements, thus reducing the
cost.

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CE 106 Construction Materials and Testing Module No. 9

Rubber
Rubber has been used in asphalt concrete mixture in the form of natural rubber or recycled tire rubber.
Rubber increases elasticity and stiffness of the mix and increases the bond between asphalt and
aggregates. Scrap rubber tires can be added to the asphalt cement (wet method) or added as
crumb rubber to the aggregates (dry method)

Plastics
Plastics have been used to improve certain properties of asphalt. Plastics used include polyethylene,
polypropylene, ethyl-vinyl acetate (EVA), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). They increase the stiffness of
the mix, thus reducing the rutting potential. Plastics also may reduce the temperature susceptibility of
asphalt and improve its performance at low temperature.

Antistripping Agents
Antistripping agents are used to improve the bond between asphalt cement and aggregates
especially for water susceptible mixtures. Lime, is the most commonly used stripping agent and ca be
added as filler also or a lime slurry and mixed with aggregates. Portland cement can be used an
alternative to lime.

Others
Other additives such as fibers, oxidants, antioxidants and hydrocarbons have been used to modify
certain asphalt properties’ tensile strength and stiffness.

REFERENCES

Kenneth N. Derucher, et al. Materials for Civil and Highway Engineers, 1994, 3rd Edition,
Prentice Hall International

Moore & Moore, Materials for Engineering, International Edition

Michael S. Mamlouk, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers

Raymond Higgins, Materials for Engineers and Technicians

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